Maggie Dwyer

AGR*1110

Tuesday, November 27, 2018

Final CAFI Project -

The Production of Biofuels Via Halophytes Hydroponically Grown in Aquaponic Systems

Innovation Introduction

The new innovation I am nominating for the Canadian agri-food system that has the

potential to both stimulate Canadian jobs and make agriculture significantly more sustainable is

the production of biofuels via the burning of halophytes that are hydroponically grown in

aquaponic systems. Although I have envisioned this innovation being brought to life along the

eastern coasts of Canada, this is innovation would not just be new to this specific region, but to

the world.

This idea could be used anywhere there is access to saltwater, with the presence of

previously established aquaculture production systems utilizing this same source of water to be

considered as an added benefit. Having this pre-existing infrastructure in regard to aquaculture

would theoretically result in the implementation of this innovation going more smoothly, as

transitioning aquaculture systems to aquaponic systems is a much less costly process when

compared to having to introduce new facilities to accommodate the start-up of the hydroponic

production of halophytes.

Despite having gone very in-depth with my research concerning the outcomes of this

innovation in terms of its environmental and overall sustainability, you will see that this proposal

does not include any estimates of the costs that could be associated with bring this idea into

fruition. As there are not any tangible monetary numbers to be offered, there is no ‘Costs’ section

in this paper, with readers instead finding a thorough examination of the variations in multiple

inputs and kinds of equipment required, as these two factors are responsible for playing a major

role in affecting the overall cost of this innovation. I also believe that the cost would have to be a

quite substantial amount, which it is not predicted to be, in order to outweigh the all the

favorable aspects this innovation has to offer in this day and age.
The Basics of Halophytes

The term halophyte, refers to plants adapted to saline environments, encompassing 2,600

flowering plant species worldwide that drink seawater (Flowers et al., 2010). This allows them to

take advantage of the 97% of the Earth’s water that is saline, much of which is easily and readily

accessible for use on the east coast of Canada, being provided by the Atlantic Ocean. As the

amount of saline soil around the world is rising, halophytes have responded by developing a

number of qualities to allow them to survive under the conditions offered by habitats of high

salinity (Hameed & Khan, 2011). Salt tolerant plants have low rates of sodium cation (Na+) and

chlorine anion (Cl-) transport to leaves, as it is essential for their ion transport to be closely

regulated at all points between their roots and shoots (Flowers et al., 2010). This is

complimented by their intensified ability to prevent a build-up of the aforementioned ions in

their cytoplasm or cell walls via compartmentalizing into vacuoles, therefore avoiding the salt

toxicity that would ultimately be faced by plants that are not salt-tolerant (Munns, 2002). In

addition to the unlimited amounts of Na+ and Cl–, ocean water also contains substantial

concentrations of magnesium cations (Mg2+), sulfate anions (SO42−), potassium cations (K+), and

calcium cations (Ca2+), all of which are essential mineral nutrients for plants (Flowers & Colmer,

2015).

With notable amounts of new information being collected on the actual salinity tolerance

levels of various halophytes populations and the species within them, the range of productivity

and quality of plants produced on a large-scale using ocean water could soon be set up for

success (Aronson, 1985). An inclusive survey of halophytic vascular plants worldwide

determined that there at least 100 true halophyte families, containing more than 1250 species

between them, that are already naturally occurring in saline coastal environments (Aronson,
1985). This finding confirms that there are species of halophytes that would at least survive, if

not thrive, when grown hydroponically with water provided by the Atlantic Ocean.

The Biofuel Production Component

With the consumption of the world’s petroleum reserves taking place at a pace so rapid

they are predicted to be exhausted well before year 2100, demand for the biofuel alternatives will

only continue to increase (Abideen et al., 2011). While fuel supplemented with ethanol has been

the main type of biofuel used since its development, halophytes possess massive potential to

surpass this biofuel in terms of usage due to its much favorable production characteristics.

Ethanol is produced from corn, meaning land that is viable for food production is utilized in

large quantities to meet the substantial demand for it. Requiring saline sources of water and/or

soil to be used, halophytes are capable of producing a significant amount of biomass from

resources that are often considered waste, as a result of them not being able to be incorporated in

a vast majority of scenarios regarding vegetative growth (Abideen et al., 2011). The difference in

the resources used results in what can be considered the biggest advantage associated with

producing halophytes crops destined to become biofuel, as there is no competition with

agriculture for the use of high quality lands and water (Hameed & Khan, 2011).

In addition to their beneficial use of resources which otherwise considered to be waste,

halophytes also produce a much larger amount of biomass that is able to be burned more

efficiently than corn, with this ability being owed to halophytes’ lignin content being low

(<10%). This is also all provided at a faster growth rate than corn. With all of these factors

considered, halophytes seem to be viable option to provide a commercial biofuel that is more

efficient, as well as sustainable, than the fuel crop and cropping systems that have been seen

traditionally used for the production of biofuels (Panta et al., 2014).

Aquaponic Production Systems: An Emerging Field

The term aquaponics refers to the combination of the aquacultural production of fish and

the hydroponic production of plants (Tyson et al., 2011). The key component of aquaponic

production is to unite the nutrient flows of each system together in a manner that sees the

transformation of a flow that was once seen as nothing more than a stream of aquacultural waste

into an asset that is required to be provided for maximal plant production. Halophytes make a

strong choice of plant to use in this process, as they are already acclimated to making use of

nutrients contained within the wastes of salt-water aquaculture, as result of them already being

adapted to growing in saline habitats (Buhmann & Papenbrock, 2013).

Figure 1: The Fundamental Cycle of Aquaponics

Retrieved from http://aquaponicswork.com/page/20/

The composition of the nutrient flows can be determined by utilizing fish feed as the

initial input, facilitating crop growth by tailoring the fishes’ diet to result in waste products
composed of a crop’s desired nutrients, resulting from the cycle highlighted on the previous page

by Figure 1. This leads to a very sustainable system being created within the realm of agriculture,

allowing intensive production to take place as long as the requirements for maintenance of water

quality and biofilter nitrification management are assimilated successfully with the hydroponic

system, as these are critical controlling factors of any aquaculture system (Tyson et al., 2011).

When running either system in isolation, the amount of nutrients inputted to the system

are determined slightly differently than the calculations seen to define the inputs of an aquaponic

system. In concern to hydroponic systems, nutrient inputs are sourced from mining or industrial

origins, and then provided in solution to the plants, in quantities to meet their predetermined

requirements (Goddek et al., 2015). Whereas for aquaculture, the nutrient input is calculated

from the concentrations of nutrients in the feed to ensure the nutrients required to be

incorporated into the biomass of the fish are present in adequate amounts (Graber & Junge,

2009). For aquaponic systems, feed composition is important, as the nutrient requirements of the

fish must still be met, while the nutrient inputs for the plants are calculated using fertilizer

coefficients of the feed being fed to the fish of the system (Graber & Junge, 2009).

The successful integration of the systems of hydroponic plant production and aquaculture

production is reliant on the natural biological cycles of each other, subsequently reducing the use

of non-renewable resources, leading to positive environmental and economic effects that will

only accumulate with time (Tyson et al., 2011). Aquaponic systems generate the positive effects

mentioned above as a result of their utilization leading to the conservation of huge quantities of

water and various plant nutrients, increased production of fish protein, and reduced operating

costs compared to running either of these systems in isolation (Diver, 2006).

Inputs and Equipment Required

As previously highlighted, incorporating the hydroponic growing of halophytes into pre-

existing aquaculture systems would be keeping the start-up costs of this innovation significantly

lower than what it cost to truly be starting with nothing. This will hopefully be making the idea

of bringing this innovation to life more feasible to any investors, companies and/or producers

contemplating doing so.

Use of these newly integrated aquaponic systems would further reduce the costs of plant

production, specifically in regard to those associated with supplying nutrients, as there is no need

to provide any kind of fertilizer. This spares the use of a vast quantity of fossil fuels that would

be used to manufacture it, creating major savings for the producer, as fertilizer is often seen

accounting for somewhere between 5% and 10% of total production cost of crops

as it is possible for plants to survive using only nutrients provided by fish waste (Tyson et al.,

2011). When looking at aquaponic systems that utilize water from the Atlantic Ocean, they

provide an even more complete nutrient profile, allowing it to be up to a producer’s own

discretion if they wanted to provide any further supplementation to the plants (Okemwa, 2015).

There are multiple types of subsystems and materials that currently exist for the

production of the hydroponic crops of an aquaponic system (Rakocy et al., 2006). Presently,

media-filled bench beds and floating rafts are two of the most recognizable setups used for

housing the growing area of the plants in aquaponic systems, as they both easily accommodate

connections to the recirculating tank systems used in aquaculture (Tyson et al., 2011). For this

innovation, I believe that incorporating floating rafts into the pre-existing aquaculture cage

systems out on the ocean would be the way to go. However, this is dependent on some sort of

covering or housing is provided to protect the plants from the weather on the east coast. This
variability in design subsequently makes it hard to state an estimation of the potential cost. This

figure is dependent on many factors, like what style was in commission for the aquaculture

system, what style the producer wants to implement for the switch to aquaponics, and the prices

of materials required for the system at the time of construction. Below, Figure 2 and Figure 3 are

general schematics for an aquaponics system and a conventional hydroponic system,

respectively, to visually highlight the changes that would be required for a system conversion.

Figure 2: Basic Aquaponic System

Retrieved from http://dnr.alaska.gov/ag/FactSheets/2015FactSheet_Aquaponics.pdf

Figure 3: Deep Water Hydroponic System

Retrieved from http://offgridgorilla.com.off-grid-systems/food/hydroculture-hydroponics/

 With all of this being said, the above reductions in cost can all be linked to ensuring there

will always be one cost continually guaranteed to the producer – fish feed! There was no sure

way to determine this cost as there is so much variation to be found in terms of this input, similar

to the extent seen in terms of the physical structure of the system, be it from the components

used to formulate the feed to the numbers and/or species of fish produced in the system.

While on the topic of the fish within the system, it is important to quickly touch on what

species are eligible to use within the aquaponic system envisioned to be used for this innovation.

The majority of aquaponic systems seen today are currently based on the practice of using fresh-

water systems, meaning there will be a slight difference in the selection of species available to be

utilized in a system making use of salt-water. In North America, tilapia is the most commonly

used species in commercial aquaponic systems, however it is also both a warm-water and

freshwater species, therefore requiring conditions the system of this innovation is not able to

provide (Diver, 2006). Nonetheless, there are fish out there that have adapted to aquaponic

systems that are cold-water, saltwater species, like cod, arctic char, and trout, to name a few

(Diver, 2006).

Environmental Sustainability and Environmental Benefits

In addition to being an innovation that is new and beneficial to the Canadian agri-food

system, this idea also holds the possibility to provide a plethora of positive effects on the

environment with the function of its system being incredibly sustainable. Both the aquacultural

and hydroponic components of this innovation provide various solutions to and/or preventions of

major environmental issues that are seen globally today. Table 1 below provides a brief

description of a few of the major environmental factors faced globally, with the mitigating

factors contributed towards each by the components of this innovation also listed.
 Table 1: Benefits to the Environment Provided by the Innovation
Major Global Solutions or Preventions by This Innovation
Environmental Issues
Aquaponic Component
Water Scarcity - promotes the production of food at sea, with the fish of
the biggest barrier faced as system being able to also not requiring the freshwater
the world tries to increase its input of livestock
production of food - reduces the amount of agricultural water consumption
(Radulovich, 2011) Hydroponic Production of Halophytic Biofuels
- requires no use of freshwater to grow this fuel crop
Soil Erosion Aquaponic Component
the salinization of soils is - produces a source of animal protein without the use of
continuously spreading, with any high quality land that could be used for agricultural
the rise in salt content production
eventually creating conditions - prevents any further salinization
that reach the point of being Production of Halophytic Biofuels
unsuitable for agricultural - requires no use of any high quality land to grow this fuel
cultivation crop of halophytes, again further preventing any further
(Munns, 2002) salinization
Aquaponic Component
Production of Greenhouse - system does not require fertilizer, sparing the use of fossil
Gases fuels need to produce this (Tyson et al., 2011).
one of the greatest Hydroponic Production of Halophytic Biofuels
contributors to global - produces a less environmentally harmful source of fuel,
warming as it would emit the same levels of CO2 seen released
during photosynthesis (Gallagher, 1985).
Loss of Non-Renewable
Resources Aquaponic Component
as previously mentioned, the - no petroleum is required to be used by the system
world is rapidly depleted its Hydroponic Production of Halophytic Biofuels
petroleum reserves, but will - produces massive amounts of biomass that is capable of
still require sources of fuel to producing an extremely sustainable source of biofuel
power much of its technology
Aquaponic Component
Mineral Extraction
- the plants of the system readily uptake the inorganic
as non-renewable resources,
forms of nitrogen and a few other minerals produced and
their environmental levels are
excreted by the fish, making nutritional use of them
maintained by cycles that
(Tyson et al., 2011).
have been increasing
Hydroponic Production of Halophytic Biofuels
disrupted
- spares the use of minerals found in soils
Regional and Global Competition

While aquaculture production systems are alive and thriving on the coasts of Canada,

commercial aquaponic production is still a relatively new field. We do not see large amounts of

crops destined for the production of biofuels produced here in Canada, but as a whole North

America does produce a decent amount of corn-based fuel crops destined to become ethanol,

however the growing of halophytes as a source of biofuel is currently unheard. As a result of

this, I can confidently say there would not be any regional competition, allowing whoever

decides to pursue this innovation to have total monopoly, of course this is reliant on them acting

fast enough that things remaining similar to how they are today.

The producers actively interested in exploring the utilization of halophytes are currently

primarily based in the Middle East, due to the prevalence of their previously fertile soils

becoming salinized, as a result of the use of inadequate irrigation practices, which has been

reducing the ability to use them, which has therefore drastically decreased the economic value of

them as well, leading them to rightly believe that much of that value could be restored if

halophytic crops could be sowed on this soil (Gallagher, 1985). The possibility of halophytes

providing a practical commercial solution to relive the current the expectations of good quality

land and water being required for conventional cropping systems has gotten producers thinking

about exploring this sector of agriculture. However, the potential this crop holds has still yet to

be tapped, meaning introducing the burning of halophytes to create biofuels would not only be a

novel idea within Eastern Canada, but to the world (Panta et al., 2014).

Market Opportunity and Benefits to Canada

As stated above, halophytes not yet produced in Canada on any scale at all, let alone a

large, but the aquaculture market is very well established. This would allow any current
aquaculture to seize the opportunity this innovation provides to convert their production systems

in order to participate in this new sector. Being one of the first to do so would come with the

advantage of less competition and the prospect of securing deals for the international export of

the halophyte biomass, deals with processors with the capabilities to turn the crop into fuel

and/or form any partnerships with parties of their choice, prior to the field being flooded with

both global and regional competition.

This innovation will also make more jobs available to Canadians based on the coasts, as

the innovation would create many positions of various natures and availabilities, be it

temporarily, permanently, or on a seasonal basis. People will be needed for the initial conversion

and construction of the systems, and then for keeping the systems up running, whether they are

primary producers or labours, with potential of seasonal positions also being presented when the

production has an opportunity to be maximized or in times of harvest.

At the end of the day, a vast majority, if not all, of the profit would be coming directly to

Canadian producers and the Canadian economy. This would benefit the agricultural industry

significantly, allowing for the government to use taxes to increase grants and subsidies provided

to producers nationwide. The only way Canada would not receive all of the potential business

this innovation has to offer would be if any components of the aquaponic systems where

purchased internationally and imported by the producers, be it the seeds, fish or materials used to

construct the systems.

Potential Issues

While halophytes are plants that have shown the ability to adapt to the conditions when

faced with challenging habitats, the proper species needs to be carefully selected for use with this

innovation to guarantee prolific success on the eastern coast of Canada. With the majority of
research on halophytes stemming from the Middle East or more temperate regions like the

southern parts of the United States, I do have one fear that the plants may require some extra

support to be able to face the winters coastal Canada sees. This would have to be provided in a

manner that is cost effective and sure to guarantee crop survival in order for producer to want to

attempt trying their hand at this style of production.

Future Studies Required to Determine the Unknowns

As a result of not finding enough consistency among values throughout my research, nor

feeling like I possessed enough knowledge of the specific markets to be able to determine

estimates that could be an accurately informed reflection of the numbers that could actually be

seen when commencing the process of introducing this idea, no estimations of the costs for this

innovation were provided. I am sure these numbers can be easily determined if people with the

right resources conduct further studies on this.

Another study that would be helpful in terms of ensuring the success of this innovation

would be taking a closer look into the potential options for providing shelter to the halophytes

once they are incorporated in raft systems out on the cages systems of the ocean. Of course,

running trials would make it possible for the most effective design and cost effective materials to

be determined.

Regarding the biofuel produced by this innovation, research into what parts of today’s

fuel consuming technologies need to be converted or changed in order to make allow the

replacement of conventional fuels with biofuel would be highly recommended. This would

hopefully result in the eventual use of biofuels by the commercial market. The biofuel produced

by this innovation can be considered a resource for the future, as it has so much to offer with its
sustainable characteristics. Consequently, investment into this field by the government and

private sector is not only recommended but is highly encouraged!

All in all, introducing the hydroponic production of halophytes destined to be burned to

produce biofuels would open up a whole new sector of agriculture to producers on coastal

regions of the Atlantic provinces. Providing a much more sustainable source of biofuel and the

introduction of a new market that will soon take off globally initially in Canada are both very

favorable ideas in themselves, however if engineers and biologists are able to cooperate to

optimize biofiltering systems equipped to introduce ocean production into the world of

aquaponics, the benefits of the introduction of hydroponic production of halophytes would be

seen across various agricultural and consumer sectors (Buhmann & Papenbrock, 2013).
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