15CH391L-INDUSTRIAL TRAINING- II

PLANT UTILITY STUDY:COOLING TOWERS AND BOILERS

AN INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

Submitted by

SIDDHARTH DEY
[Reg No: RA151100700089]
IV year B.Tech
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
SCHOOL OF BIOENGINEERING
SRM UNIVERSITY

Undergone training at

GALAXY SURFACTANTS LTD.

S.R.M. Nagar, Kattankulathur, Kancheepuram District

 SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
(Under Section 3 of UGC Act,1956)
SRM Nagar,KATTANKULATHUR – 603203
KANCHEEPURAM DISTRICT

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Register No: ________________

Certified to be the bonafide record of work done by___________________________ of

_________________________________ B.Tech Degree course in the practical
15CH391L Industrial Training – II in SRM University, Kattankulathur during the academic
year ____________________

Faculty Incharge

Date: Head of the Department

Submitted for University examination held in ________________________________

SRM University,at Kattankulathur.

Date Examiner I Examiner II

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am highly grateful to Galaxy Surfactants Ltd., Tarapur for allowing

me to do complete this Internship. I want to express my sincere thanks
and gratitude to Galaxy Surfactants Ltd. for supervision and
encouragement throughout this training period.I am highly obliged to
Mr. Seshu,Mr. Milind Patil ,Mr. Abhijit Pawar, Mr. Ajinkya and Mr.
Rohit Tandulwadkar for their guidance, kind concern and
encouragement throughout this training.

I also owe my deep regards for the supporting and kind staff
authorities who are helped me during this training period. I am grateful
to all the staff,operators and labours of this company.
 Table of Contents:-

S.No Title Pg.

No

1 Cooling Tower

1.1 Principle

1.1.2 How does a Cooling Tower Work?

1.2 Components of a Cooling Tower

1.3. Types of Cooling Towers

1.4 Comparison between counter flow cooling tower and

cross flow cooling tower

1.5. Comparison between natural draft cooling tower and

induced draft cooling tower

1.6 Performance parameters of cooling towers

1.7 Types of Losees in Cooling Towers

1.8 Cooling Towers in Galaxy Surfactants

1.9. Chemical Treatment in Cooling Towers

2. Boilers

2.1 Boiler Theory

2.2 Boiler Efficiency

2.3 Boiler Flue Gas Calculations

2.4 Boiler Efficiency

2.5 F&A Calculations

3. Process

3.1 Production of CAPBDC

3.2 Equipment Used

Why Glass lined Reactors(GLRs) are used over SSRs in some

processes?
3.3
 CHAPTER 1

COOLING TOWER

1.1 Introduction
Cooling towers are very important part of many chemical plants. The primary task of a cooling
tower is to reject heat into the atmosphere through the cooling of water to lower temperature.It
works on the principle of evaporative cooling. They represent a relatively inexpensive and
dependable means of removing low-grade heat from cooling water. The make-up water sources
used to replenish water lost to evaporation. Hot water from heat exchangers is sent to the cooling
tower. The water exits in the cooling tower and is sent back to the exchangers or to other units for
further cooling. The humidity is defined as water vapours present in air. The humidity is the major
factor in the atmosphere, it depends upon ambient temperature.

1
1.1.1 PRINCIPLE

Cooling tower works on the principle of evaporative cooling. Also, simultaneous heat and mass
transfer take place in Cooling towers. In this process the sensible heat of hot water is converted to
latent heat of Vaporization. Thus, reducing the temperature of the exposed surface area of water
to the air. More is the surface area of water exposes to air greater is the cooling, thus requires lesser
height of construction of cooling tower.

1.1.2. How Does a Cooling Tower Work?

Warm water from the heat source is pumped to the water distribution system at the top of the
cooling tower. The water is distributed over the wet deck fill by means of nozzles. Simultaneously,
air is drawn through air inlet louvers and through the wet deck surface causing a small portion of
the water to evaporate. The evaporative process removes heat from the water. The warm moist air
is drawn out of the top of the tower through a natural draft or mechanical cooling tower fans
controlled by gearboxes. The resulting cold water is then recirculated back through the heat source
in a continuous cycle.

1.2. Components of cooling Tower

The basic components of a cooling tower include basin,cell,fills,nozzle,louvers,Drift
Eliminators,Fan and Side Stream Filter. These are described below.

1.2.1. Frame and casing:

Most towers have structural frames that support the exterior enclosures (casings), motors, fans,
and other components. With some smaller designs, such as some glass fiber units, the casing may
essentially be the frame.

1.2.2.Fill
Most towers employ fills (made of plastic or wood) to facilitate heat transfer by maximizing
water and air contact.There are two types of fill:

2
1.2.2.1 Splash fill
Water falls over successive layers of horizontal splash bars, continuously breaking into smaller
droplets, while also wetting the fill surface. Plastic splash fills promote better heat transfer than
wood splash fills.

1.2.2.2.Film fill
It is consists of thin, closely spaced plastic surfaces over
which the water spreads, forming a thin film in contact with
the air. These surfaces may be flat, corrugated,
honeycombed, or other patterns. The film type of fill is the
more efficient in a smaller volume than the splash fill.

1.2.3.Cold-water basin
The cold-water basin is located at or near the bottom of the tower, and it receives the cooled water
that flows down through the tower and fill. The basin usually has a sump or low point for the
cold-water discharge connection. In many tower designs, the cold water basin is beneath the entire

3
fill. In some forced draft counter flow design, however, the water at the bottom of the fill is
channel to a B perimeter trough that functions as the cold water basin. Propeller fans are mounted
beneath the fill to blow the air up through the tower. With this design, the tower is mounted on
legs, providing easy access to the fans and their motors.

1.2.4 Drift eliminators

These capture water droplets entrapped in the air stream
that otherwise would be lost to the atmosphere.

Air inlet
This is the point of entry for the air entering a tower.
The inlet may take up an entire side of a tower (cross-
flow design) or be located low on the side or the bottom of the tower (counter-flow design).

1.2.6 Louvers
Generally, cross-flow towers have inlet louvers. The
purpose of louvers is to equalize air flow into the fill
and retain the water within the tower. Many counter
flow tower designs do not require louvers.

1.2.7.Nozzles
These spray water to wet the fill. Uniform water distribution at the top of the fill is essential to
achieve proper wetting of the entire fill surface. Nozzles can either be fixed and spray in a round
or square patterns, or they can be part of a rotating assembly as found in some circular cross-
section towers.

4
1.2.8.Fans
Both axial (propeller type) and centrifugal fans are used in towers. Generally, propeller fans are
used in induced draft towers and both propeller and centrifugal fans are found in forced draft
towers. Depending upon their size, the type of propeller fans used is either fixed or variable pitch.
A fan with non-automatic adjustable pitch blades can be used over a wide kW range because the
fan can be adjusted to deliver the desired air flow at the lowest power consumption. Automatic
variable pitch blades can vary air flow in response to changing load

1.3.Types of cooling tower:

5
 Cooling Tower

Natural Draft Mechanical Draft

Induced
Forced Draft
Draft

1.3.1. Natural draft cooling tower:

The natural draft or hyperbolic cooling tower makes use of the difference in
temperature between the ambient air and the hotter air inside the tower. As hot air
moves upwards through the tower (because hot air rises), fresh cool air is drawn into
the tower through an air inlet at the bottom. Due to the layout of the tower, no fan is
required and there is almost no circulation of hot air that could affect the
performance. Concrete is used for the tower shell with a height of up to 200 m. These
cooling towers are mostly only for large heat duties because large concrete structures
are expensive. There are two main types of natural draft towers:

1.3.2.Mechanical draft cooling tower:

6
 Mechanical draft towers have large fans to force or draw air through circulated
water. The water falls downwards over fill surfaces, which help increase the contact
time between the water and the air - this helps maximize heat transfer between the
two. Cooling rates of mechanical draft towers depend upon various parameters such
as fan diameter and speed of operation, fills for system resistance etc. there are two
types of mechanical draft cooling tower.
Mechanical draft towers are available in a large range of capacities. Towers can be
either factory built or field erected.

1.3.2.1. Forced draft

A mechanical draft tower with a blower type fan at the intake. The fan forces air into
the tower, creating high entering and low exiting air velocities. The low exiting velocity is
much more susceptible to recirculation. With the fan on the air intake, the fan is more
susceptible to complications due to freezing conditions. Another disadvantage is that a
forced draft design typically requires more motor horsepower than an equivalent induced
draft design. The benefit of the forced draft design is its ability to work with high static
pressure.

7
1.3.2.2 Induced draft

A mechanical draft tower with a fan at the discharge (at the top) which pulls air up through
the tower. The fan induces hot moist air out the discharge. This produces low entering and
high exiting air velocities, reducing the possibility of recirculation in which discharged air
flows back into the air intake. This fan/fin arrangement is also known as draw-through.

1.4.Comparison between Counter Flow Cooling Tower and Cross

Flow Cooling Tower:

Sr.no Criteria Counter flow Cross flow

1. Principle The air is vertically upwards,
counter Current with the hot
water falling downwards.The
coldest water comes in contact
with the coolest and most dry
air, optimizing the heat
transfer and obtaining the
maximum performance
The air flows horizontally and the
water falling downwards meets the
air at different temperatures.
Therefore the heat transfer is not
always optimized.

8
2. Area The tower area required is
comparatively much smaller.
The air water contact is more
due to the efficiency and
arrangement of the fill pack.
Plenum chamber is small.
3. Flow Area Since the air-water contact
time is higher, the quantity of
air required is lesser
4. Distribution The distribution is done
system through channel with lateral
pipes, fitted with splash cum
spray nozzles.Growth of algae
is highly restricted as the
lateral pipes are a closed unit
and not located in direct
Sunlight.
5. Circulation The problem of recirculation
system is much less in this case as the
air intake is at the bottom of
the tower and the discharge is
at a much higher level. Further
the side walls of the tower are
closed till the top of the air
intake area
6. Fill pack The fill pack can be splash
type plastic fill for very bad
quality of water and film fill
for better quality of water
The area required is larger due to its
Constructional features like larger
plenum chamber. Also the
arrangement and material of the
pack is different and requires a
higher area
Since the air-water contact time is
lesser, more air is required to effect
heat transfer
The distribution is done through
open trough systems on the fan
deck, fitted with nozzles.
Distribution may not be as uniform
as the counter flow type and is
easily attacked by algae, causing
problems like scaling and clogging
of openings
Since the air intake area extends
from the bottom to the deck level,
the flume discharge is very close to
the air intake area at the top. This
creates the effect of recirculation
wherein the discharged air re-enters
the tower through the air intake at
the top. This creates significant
reduction in performance
Only splash type fill used in cross
flow cooling towers. Usually splash
fill will be V bar or timber laths
9
 7. Power The fan Power consumption is
consumption, low as the required air
pumping quantities comparatively
head lower. The pumping head is
also lower as the inlet header
is located below the fan deck
area
8. Maintenance Maintenance for counter flow
towers is much easier than
cross flow towers. The
simplicity of structure and
comfortable sizing allow for
quick and exhaustive
maintenance
The fan power consumption is
higher as the airflow required is
higher. The
pumping head is also higher since
the distribution is located at the fan
deck level
Maintenance for cross flow towers
is time consuming and usually
requires more skilled technicians on
the job as the movement of material
is more difficult

1.5.Comparison between Natural Draft Cooling Tower and Induced

Draft Cooling Tower
S.no. Natural draft Mechanical draft
1. Works on the principle of chimney Cooling is accomplished by draught of air
effect.Air flow is natural and based on created by a fan.
exit and inlet conditions of air.
2. No power required apart from pumping of Power for fan operation is additional
water to the tower requirement.
3. Maintenance free as far as rotary Regular maintenance of rotary equipment
equipment are concerned required.
4. Low operating fill velocities Higher operating fill velocities.

5. Larger pumping head is required to cater Requires smaller pumping head for the
to large diameters at the bottom to enable same application

10
 proper air flow through the system
6. Generally suitable for large water flows Suitable for all water flows
7. Longer construction period Much shorter construction period
especially since work can be carried out
simultaneously on 2 or more towers.
8. Mainly built of concrete FRP Pultruded, Timber, Steel and
Concrete
can be used as construction material
9. Natural draught towers performance are Effect of wind is far less than that of
affected greatly by wind both at discharge NDCT
and inlet.
10. Difficult to dismantle due to the large size Easier to dismantle than an NDCT
of the tower and affect on the nearest
structures.
11. Difficult to repair concrete at great Easier to repair concrete due to lower
heights due access related issues and Heights.
safety aspects.
12. Cleaning and Maintenance of water Comparatively easier especially if
distribution system is quite difficult due envisaged properly during engineering
to the size of the structure stage.

1.6. Performance Parameters of Cooling Towers:-

The measured parameters are used to determine the cooling tower performance in several ways.
These are:

1.Range
This is the difference between the cooling tower water inlet and outlet temperature. A High CT
Range means that the cooling tower has been able to reduce the water Temperature effectively,
and is thus performing well. The formula is:

11
 CT Range (°C) = [CW inlet temp (°C) –CW outlet temp (°C)]

2. Approach
This is the difference between the cooling tower outlet cold water temperature and
Ambient wet bulb temperature. The lower the approach the better the cooling tower
Performance. Although, both range and approach should be monitored, the `Approach’ is a
better indicator of cooling tower performance.

CT Approach (°C) = [CW outlet temp (°C) –Wet bulb temp (°C)]

3. Effectiveness
This is the ratio between the range and the ideal range (in percentage), i.e.
Difference between cooling water inlet temperature and ambient wet bulb Temperature, or in other
words it is = Range / (Range + Approach).The higher this ratio, The higher the cooling tower
effectiveness.

CT Effectiveness (%) = 100 x (CW temp –CW out temp) / (CW in temp –WB temp)

4. Cooling capacity

12
This is the heat rejected in kcal/hour or TR, given as product of mass flow
Rate of water, specific heat and temperature difference.

Conversions of TR:
1 Refrigeration Ton (TR) = 1 TON = 12000 Btu/h

= 3025.9 k Calories/h
= 12661 kJ/h
= 3.517 kW.
1 kW = 0.2843 Refrigeration Ton (TR)
A ton is the amount of heat removed by an air conditioning system that would melt 1 ton of ice
in 24 hours.

5. Evaporation loss
This is the water quantity evaporated for cooling duty. Theoretically the
Evaporation quantity works out to 1.8 m3 for every 1,000,000 kcal heat rejected.
The following formula can be used (Perry):

Evaporation loss (m3/hour) = 0.00085 x 1.8 x circulation rate(m3/hour) x (T1-T2)

(T1-T2)=temperature difference between inlet and outlet water.

6. Cycles of concentration (C.O.C)

This is the ratio of dissolved solids in circulating water to the dissolved solids in make up water.
As the cycles of concentration increase, the water may not be able to hold the minerals in solution.
When the solubility of these minerals have been exceeded they can precipitate out as mineral solids
and cause fouling and heat exchange problems in the cooling tower or the heat exchangers. The
temperatures of the recirculating water, piping and heat exchange surfaces determine if and where
minerals will precipitate from the recirculating water.The use of water treatment chemicals,
pretreatment such as water softening, pH adjustment, and other techniques can affect the acceptable
range of cycles of concentration.

13
C.O.C =Dissoloved Solids in Circulating Water/Dissolved Solids in Make-up water

7. Blow down
As a result of evaporation mineral concentration of cooling tower increases.In order to minimize
the scaling,concentrated water is discharged.Blow down losses depend upon cycles of
concentration and the evaporation losses and is given by formula:

Blow down = Evaporation loss / (C.O.C. –1)

1.7. Types of Losses in cooling tower

1. Evaporation loss
Droplets of water entrained in the air leaving the top of the tower, or blown from the side
of the tower by crosswinds
Evaporation = 0.00085*1.8*circulation rate*(T1-T2)

2. Blowdown loss
Water discharged to remove high mineral content system water, impurities, and sediment.
Blow down = Evaporation / (Cycles of Concentration -1)

3. Drift losses
Drift loss of the cooling tower is normally provided by the cooling tower manufacturer
based on the
Process design. If it is not available it may be assumed as
1. For Natural Draft Cooling Tower
D = 0.3 to 1.0 * C /100
2. For Induced Draft Cooling Tower
D = 0.1 to 0.3 * C /100
3. For Cooling Tower with Drift Eliminator

14
 D = 0.01* C /100

1.8. COOLING TOWERS IN GALAXY SURFACTANTS

1.8.1 Types
1.8.1.1 Mechanical Draft Cooling tower
1.8.1.1.1 Forced draft (cross flow type)
1.8.1.1.2 Induced draft(counter flow type)

Cooling Tower-I Cooling Tower-II

Properties Units (Forced)
(Induced)

Capacity TR 150 75

Flow rate (m3/hr) 90 45

Head m 48 30

Power HP 15 7.5

Speed - 2900 2900

Flow - Counter flow Cross flow

Fill type - Film Splash

Fill material - PVC Wood

15
 CHAPTER 2.
BOILER:-

2.1.Boiler Theory

Both gas and oil fired boilers use controlled combustion of the fuel to heat water. The key boiler
components involved in this process are the burner, combustion chamber, heat exchanger, and
controls.

The burner mixes the fuel and oxygen together and, with the assistance of an ignition device,
provides a platform for combustion. This combustion takes place in the combustion chamber,
and the heat that it generates is transferred to the water through the heat exchanger. Controls
regulate the ignition, burner firing rate, fuel supply, air supply, exhaust draft, water temperature,
steam pressure, and boiler pressure.

Hot water produced by a boiler is pumped through pipes and delivered to equipment throughout
the building, which can include hot water coils in air handling units, service hot water heating

16
equipment, and terminal units. Steam boilers produce steam that flows through pipes from areas
of high pressure to areas of low pressure, unaided by an external energy source such as a pump.
Steam utilized for heating can be directly utilized by steam using equipment or can provide heat
through a heat exchanger that supplies hot water to the equipment.

A boiler is an enclosed vessel that provides a means for combustion heat to be transferred to
water until it becomes heated water or steam. The hot water or steam under pressure is then
usable for transferring the heat to a process. Water is a useful and inexpensive medium for
transferring heat to a process.

The boiler system comprises of: a feed water system, steam system and fuel system. The feed
water system provides water to the boiler and regulates it automatically to meet the steam
demand. Various valves provide access for maintenance and repair. The steam system collects
and controls the steam produced in the boiler. Steam is directed through a piping system to the
point of use. Throughout the system, steam pressure is regulated using valves and checked with
steam pressure gauges. The fuel system includes all equipment used to provide fuel to generate
the necessary heat. The equipment required in the fuel system depends on the type of fuel used in
the system.

The water supplied to the boiler that is converted into steam is called feed water.

The two sources of feed water are:

1. Condensate or condensed steam returned from the processes and

2. Makeup water (treated raw water) which must come from outside the boiler room and
plant processes. For higher boiler efficiencies, an economizer preheats the feed water
using the waste heat in the flue gas.

2.2.Boiler Efficiency:-

17
The thermal efficiency of a boiler specifies the effectiveness of the heat exchanger of the boiler
which actually transfers the heat energy from fireside to water side. Thermal efficiency is badly
affected by scale formation/soot formation on the boiler tubes.

2.2.1.Direct Method efficiency-

This method calculates boiler efficiency by using the basic efficiency formula-
η=(Energy output)/(Energy input) X 100
In order to calculate boiler efficiency by this method, we divide the total energy output of a
boiler by total energy input given to the boiler, multiplied by hundred.

Calculation of direct efficiency-

E= [Q (H-h)/q*GCV]*100

Where,
Q= Quantity of steam generated (kg/hr)
H= Enthalpy of steam (Kcal/kg)
h= Enthalpy of water (kcal/kg)
GCV= Gross calorific value of the fuel(kcal/kg).
2.2.2.Indirect Method Efficiency-
The efficiency can be measured easily by measuring all the losses occurring in the boilers using
the principles to be described. The disadvantages of the direct method can be overcome by this
method, which calculates the various heat losses associated with boiler. The efficiency can be
arrived at, by subtracting the heat loss fractions from 100.An important advantage of this
method is that the errors in measurement do not make significant change in efficiency
The various heat losses occurring in the boiler are:

18
L1-Loss due to dry flue gas (sensible heat)
L2-Loss due to hydrogen in fuel (H2)
L3-Loss due to moisture in fuel (H2O)
L4-Loss due to moisture in air (H2O)
L5-Loss due to carbon monoxide (CO)
L6-Loss due to surface radiation, convection and other unaccounted.
L7-Unburnt losses in fly ash (Carbon).
L8-Unburnt losses in bottom ash (Carbon)

Boiler Efficiency by indirect method = 100 - (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 + L5 + L6 + L7 + L8)

19
 2.3.BOILER FLUE GAS CALCULATIONS
Qty Unit Qty Unit
C+O2 →CO2 H2+1/2O2 →H2O
Fuel Flowrate 95 kg of LDO/hr Fraction of H 0.115
Fraction of C 0.855 Mass Flowrate of H 10.925 kg of H/hr
kmol of H in
Mass Flowrate of C IN LDO 81.225 kg of C in LDO/hr Molar flowrate of H20 5.4625 LDO/hr
Molar flowrate of Co2 6.76875 kmol of C/hr Theo O2 required 2.73125 kmol of O2/hr
Mass Flowrate of SO3 in Flue gas
Theo O2 required 6.76875 kmol of O2/hr Stream 98.325 Kg of H20/hr
Mass Flowrate of CO2 in flue gas
stream 297.825 kg CO2/h
Total theo O2 required 9.5890625 kmol of O2/hr
S+3/2O2→SO3 Excess air supplied(fraction) 0.08
Fraction of S 0.02 Molar Flowrate of air fed 49.32 kmol/hr
Mass Flowrate of S in LDO 1.9 kg of O2/hr Mass flowrate of air Fed 1422.7 kg/hr
kmol of S in
Molar Flowrate of S 0.059375 LDO/hr Mass flowrate of fuel Fed 95 kg/hr
Theo. O2 required for SO3 0.089063 kmol of S/hr Molar flowrate of flue gas stream 57.90 kmol/hr
Total Theo. O2 required 9.589063 kmol of O2/hr Fuel Flowrate 8.59 kmol/hr
Mass Flowrate of SO3 in flue Gas
Stream 4.75 kg of SO3/hr Average molecular weight of LDO 11.06 kg/Kmol

Carbon BALANCE Hydrogen BALANCE

Carbon content in fuel(fraction) 0.855 H2 in fuel(fraction) 0.115
Composition in Flue Gas(fraction) 0.12683 Composition in Flue Gas(fraction) 0.017058961
% Composition of Co2 12.68297 mol% % Composition of H2O 1.705896096 mol%

20
 Nitrogen Balance Sulphur Balance
N2 in Air 0.79 Sulphur content in fuel 0.02
Composition in Flue Gas(fraction) 0.672812 Composition in Flue Gas(Fraction) 0.003483516
% Composition of N2 67.28124 mol% % Composition of SO3 0.348351644 mol%

O2 Balance Ash Balance

O2 in air 0.21 Ash in Fuel 0.0002
Composition of O2 in Flue Gas 0.178849 Composition of Ash 0.000170332
% Composition of O2 17.88489 mol% %Ash 0.017033224 mol%

Total Composition 99.92036849 mol%

Other gases 0.079631505 mol%

21
 2.4. BOILER MATERIAL BALANCE:-

Based on the Boiler Calculations made above the following mole balance was made and tabulated above.

22
BOILER OVERALL MATERIAL BALANCE:

Overall Material Balance in a Boiler:

Fuel+Inlet Air supply = Exhaust Flue Gas+ Steam(used in plant)
Fuel Used In Boiler = LDO(Light Diesel Oil)
Technical Data from Boiler Room from Boiler Operator:-
Name Data
Stroke Temperature 175oC
Steam Temperature 80oC
Feed Water Temperature 44.3oC
Ambient Temperature 35oC
O2 Supplied 8%
Conductivity of feedwater 1800 ppm

Max. Design Pressure 10.54 Kg/cm2

Evaporation Rate 2000 kg/hr
Output Power 1.26 MW
Feedwater Hardness <5 ppm
pH 8.3-9.5

23
 TDS 105-120 ppm
Company name/Model Thermax/SM-20 DH/10.54/100
Boiler Water Hardness 1200-1500 ppm
pH of boiler water 10.5-11

2.5.F&A Calculations in Boiler:-

Boiler is rated as 2 tons/hr output but does not operate at 2 tons/hr.This is due to evaporation
losses incorporated in F&A. The ‘from and at’ rating is widely used as a datum by shell
boiler manufacturers to give a boiler a rating which shows the amount of steam in kg/h which
the boiler can create ‘from and at 100°C’,at atmospheric pressure. Each kilogram of steam
would then have received 2260 kJ of heat from the boiler.
Shell boilers are often operated with feedwater temperatures lower than 100°C. Consequently
the boiler is required to supply enthalpy to bring the water up to boiling point.
Most boilers operate at pressures higher than atmospheric, because steam at an elevated
pressure carries more heat energy than does steam at 100°C. This calls for additional enthalpy
of saturation of water. As the boiler pressure rises, the saturation temperature is increased,
needing even more enthalpy before the feedwater is brought up to boiling temperature.
Both these effects reduce the actual steam output of the boiler, for the same consumption of
fuel.

Heat Load Calculation Qty Unit

Mass flowrate of water 2000 kg/hr
Latent heat of vapourisation 2260 KJ/kg
Heat required 4520000 KJ/hr
KJ/(Kg
Cp of Water 4.18 K)
Temp difference 55 oC

Heat Load(Q) mCP∆T

402190.684 KJ/hr
Enthalpy of Steam at operating pressure 2776.16 KJ/Kg
Enthalpy of water at F.W Temp 191.84 kj/kg
Operating Pressure 10 kg/cm2
9.8 bar
Enthalpy of evaporation at operating pressure 2257 KJ/Kg
Evaporation rate A/(B-C)
0.87334386
% From & At 87.33 %
Rated Output 2000 Kg/hr
Actual Output 1746.68772 Kg/hr

24
 CHAPTER-3:
PROCESS IN M-3 PLANT:
The following process was observed by me-Production of CAPBDC in SSR VI,VII.
3.1.PRODUCTION OF CAPBDC:-
INLET:-
1. Cooling water
2. Circulation Pump
3. Steam
4. Process Water
5. Compresor.

Equipment Used:-
 SSRVI/SSR VII Reactors (Capacity- 15KL)
 Circulation Pump(10m3/hr)

Raw Materials Required:-

IPRA(In process Refined Amide),Process Water,EDTA Na2,SMCA solution,caustic lye.
Final Product-CAPBDC
Product use-Used in the manufacture of toothpaste,it is a surfactant(foaming agent).
Reaction Involved:-
IPRA + SMCA CAPBDC
Process-
1. Reactors to be used is properly cleaned.
2. IPRA is charged by applying vacuum pressure using water ring vacuum pump.
3. Process water is charged to the reactor.
4. EDTA Na2 is added to the reactor.
5. SMCA solution is charged by using a charging pump.
6. After charging pass water.
7. Heat up to 80-85oC for Quaternization process to complete.This will roughly take 6-8
hrs to Complete and also maintain a pH of around 7.8-8.5 by adding caustic lye
solution after every half hour.
8. Second stage is Digestion process where product is heated up to 95oC to kill SMCA
solution and this process is known as Digestion.
9. Here pH maintained is 10.5-11.5,alkalinity of 0.1-0.15 and FAA is around 0.1
10. Third Stage is Cooling where product is cooled up to 50oC and following parameters
were maintained.pH-4.5-5.5 by using citric Acid and Solid/C% of 36-37% is
maintained by process water.
11. Also Sodium Benzoate(preservative) is added after this and product is sent for
packing.

3.2.SSRVI Equpiment Details:-

Parameter Unit Qty

Equipment Capacity KL 15

25
 Design Pressure Kg/cm2 5

o
Design Temperature C 200

Type - Stainless Steel Batch Reactor

Inlet Lines - Caustic lye,H2O2,IPRA Line,Prcoess

Water,Cooling Water,Steam Inlet
,DMLA,SMCA from GLR
Outlet Lines - Circulation Line,Vacuum Line,Watering
Vacuum Pump

Others - Safety Relief Valve(1

Nos),Agitator(Blender),Inlet Openings for
cleaning

3.3.Why Glass lined Reactors(GLRs) are used over SSRs in some processes?
Glass-lined steel process equipment is used in virtually all of the world’s pharmaceutical
manufacturing facilities and is also widely employed by the chemical, petrochemical,
pesticide, metallurgical and food industries. There are several advantages in the unique
characteristics of glass lining that make this material of construction a top selection of design
engineers. Here are 5 key reasons why glass-lined steel can benefit your process:

1. Corrosion Resistance
Glass-lined steel provides superior corrosion resistance to acids, alkalis, water and other
chemical solutions (with the exception for hydrofluoric acid and hot concentrated
phosphoric acid). As a result of this chemical resistance, glass lining can serve for many
years in environments that would quickly render most metal vessels unserviceable.

1. Flexibility
The chemical, mechanical, and thermal properties of glass are proof that this material can
handle a diverse range of operating conditions. Users of glass-lined equipment are
therefore able to make drastic changes to their process with no added investment for new
equipment needed. This versatility makes glass-lined steel the equipment of choice for
research and development projects, batches that require frequent change out, and other
multifaceted applications.

2. Purity
Aggressive reaction environments tend to dissolve metals from unlined mild steel or alloy
reactors. Extractable metals, such as chromium, nickel, molybdenum, and copper, can
leach into and contaminate the product, producing undesired catalytic effects that can
cause harmful fluctuations in the process reactions. These metals can compromise
product quality, negatively affect product yield, and in some cases even cause runaway
reactions. Glass-lined steel is inert so it is impervious to contamination. Additionally,

26
 it does not adversely affect flavor or color, which is of extreme importance to food and
drug applications where purity is essential.

3. Ease of Cleaning
Especially in the case of pharmaceutical processes, cleanability is critical. Between
batches, each reactor and its associated process equipment must be thoroughly cleaned in
order to assure product quality and minimize heat transfer resistance caused by product
buildup. Glass-lined steel has been adapted to cGMP requirements for cleaning,
cleanliness, and sterilization. Its high degree of surface smoothness makes it easy to
clean using non-corrosive, low pressure cleaning systems. The smooth surface of glass-
lined steel also resists the buildup of viscous or sticky products, which means less
frequent cleaning.

4. Economy
When properly handled and maintained, glass-lined steel reactors can be a cost-efficient
solution compared to steel and alloy vessels, whose service life can be drastically
shortened due to their inability to resist corrosion the way glass lining can. The
combination of glass and steel provides the best of both materials of construction; fusing
glass to steel produces a composite material with an inside that offers product protection
and an outside that provides structural strength and durability.

27