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LIBRARY
FOCUS ON:
AUTOMOTIVE A compendium of articles
from Electronic Design contributors
Sponsored by

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Discover innovative products and system

solutions from TI in Advanced Driver
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ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY FOCUS ON: AUTOMOTIVE

INTRODUCTION
Whereas the automobile used to be a mechanical-engineering wonder, the amount of electronics in
today’s automobiles is staggering. As the industry moves toward autonomous vehicles by incorporating
more features of advanced driver assistance systems (ADASs), multiple systems have to work together.
At the same time, carmakers are figuring out how to power electric and other alternative vehicles,
advance charging and battery technologies, and enable infotainment capabilities that bring the office
and living room to the car.

This e-book looks at the design challenges resulting from these trends and delves into how they are
being conquered, as well as the related tradeoffs. It also provides a baseline for how automakers like
Ford plan to incorporate technology and pave the way to autonomous vehicles. For those wondering
what place AI and machine learning will play in this process, we’ve provided a fundamental article
on the types of machine learning we can expect. Enjoy this first overview of the myriad technologies
revolutionizing the modern automobile and stay tuned for further offerings and coverage!

We hope you enjoy the read!

Nancy Friedrich, Content Director

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MACHINE LEARNING TECHNIQUES?....................2
CHAPTER 2: BMW AND AUDI WANT TO SEPARATE VEHICLE HARDWARE FROM SOFTWARE ...........7
CHAPTER 3: UNDER THE HOOD OF THE EVs IN THE FIA FORMULA E CHAMPIONSHIP.....................9
CHAPTER 4: DUAL-CORE SoC UTILIZES FD-SOI FOR LOW POWER AND HIGH PERFORMANCE........12
CHAPTER 5: LED DRIVERS EXPAND CONTROL OF AUTOMOTIVE LIGHTING...................................15
CHAPTER 6: SNEAK PEEK: FORD SHARES PLAN FOR THE AUTOMOTIVE TECHNOLOGY FUTURE.....17
MORE RESOURCES FROM ELECTRONIC DESIGN................................................. 19,20

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 ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY FOCUS ON: AUTOMOTIVE

WILLIAM WONG, Technology Editor

CHAPTER 1:

WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN

LEARNING
TECHNIQUES?
Machine learning is a hot topic, but what does this subset of artificial intelligence really mean?

A
rtificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML),
and robots are the sights and sounds of science fic-
tion books and movies. Isaac Asimov’s Three Laws
of Robotics, first introduced in the 1942 short story
“Runaround,” became the backbone for his novel I,
Robot and its film adaptation (Fig. 1). Although we
are still far away from achieving what movie producers and sci-fi
writers have envisioned, the state of AI and ML has progressed sig-
nificantly. AI software has also been in use for decades but advanc-
1. The movie I, Robot has robots that should be following
Asimov’s Three Laws of Robotics.

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ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY
es in ML, including the use of deep neural networks (DNNs), are
making headlines in application areas like self-driving cars.
AI and ML research has been around since before computers even
existed. Of course, they made practical creation and applications
possible. The challenge has always been trying to keep up with the
hype. Usually the programmers were unable to do so—hence, the
many “failures” of AI.
In practical terms, AI essentially went underground, providing
everything from expert systems to behavior-based vacuum
cleaning robots like iRobot’s Roomba. The latter used an 8-bit
microprocessor running a behavior-based rule system. Likewise,
e-mail spam filters have been using Bayesian statistical techniques
for decades, with varying levels of success.
AI is a very large area of research of which machine learning is
only one part (Fig. 2). The three examined here will be rule-based
systems, Bayesian and statistical algorithms, and neural networks.
These are presented in more detail later. There are more machine
learning approaches not included in this list.
1. Learning Styles
In addition to machine learning algorithms, there is the style of
machine learning that can be employed. Some algorithms are more
amenable to certain styles that include:
• Supervised learning
• Unsupervised learning
• Semi-supervised learning
Supervised learning has labeled training data, such as an e-mail
that has been marked as spam. The training process usually
generates improved accuracy over time. It is used in algorithms
like back propagated neural networks.
Unsupervised learning does not have labeled data, and the result
of the training is often unknown. This approach can be used for
creating general rules.
Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Machine learning (ML)
Neural networks
Rule- and
behavior-based
Bayesian
and Deep
systems statistical algorithms neural
networks
(DNN)
2. Artificial intelligence is a very large area of research of which machine
learning is only one part. Three of the major areas of machine learning are
shown here, but there are literally dozens that can be grouped in various ways.
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CHAPTER 1: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LEARNING TECHNIQUES
Semi-supervised learning includes a mixture of labeled and
unlabeled data. This approach is often used when the structure
of the data needs to be understood and categorized in addition to
allowing predictions to be made.
2. Rule-based and Decision Tree Systems
Rule-based and decision tree algorithms are the easiest to
understand. Rule-based systems consist of a collection of logical
rules or conditions based on inputs. A rule is triggered when its
conditions are met. The triggered rules may change internal state
variables, as well as invoke actions.
For example, a robot may have a number of sensor inputs that
detect obstacles by touch, as well as inputs about its movement. A
rule might cause the robot to stop if it is moving and an obstacle
sensor is triggered.
Rules can generate conflicting actions in which case some
priority mechanism needs to be implemented. For example, one
rule action may stop a robot, while another wants to change its
direction.
A rule- or behavior-based system normally moves from one
state to the next, applying all the rules to each state. Not all rules
need to be examined depending upon the implementation. For
example, rules may be grouped by inputs, and some only need to
be examined if an input changes.
Decision trees are a structure rule-based system where each node
in a tree has conditions that allow classification by refinement as an
algorithm traverses the tree. There are many popular algorithms in
this space, including Classification and Regression Tree (CART)
and Chi-squared Automatic Interaction Detection (CHAID).
One advantage of these approaches is the ability to backtrack
the logic process used to perform an action or reach a conclusion.
This is very valuable for debugging, but it can also be useful in the
learning process. There is also the possibility of examining rules
for proofs.
Finally, a simplistic presentation of a rule-based
system where condition A and B invoke action C
overlooks the possibility, and often requirement, that
the logic involved is binary in nature. Probability
can be used in a rule system, as well.
3. Bayesian and Statistics
Bayes’ theorem describes the probability of a
test result based on prior knowledge of conditions
that might be related to the result. The theorem
relates the chance that an event A happened given
the indicator X, Pr(A|X), to the probability of
event X given A, Pr(X|A). It allows for correction
of measurement errors if the real probabilities
are known. Of course, test results come with test
probabilities.
There are a number of Bayesian algorithms based
ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY
Neural network Deep neural network
Input Hidden Output Input Hidden Hidden Hidden Output
3. A neural network consists of a set of inputs and outputs with
a hidden layer in between. A deep neural network has multiple
hidden layers.
on the theorem, including Naive Byes and Bayesian Belief Network
(BBN). Like differential equations, the theory can be hard to
understand, but the application is usually straightforward. As
noted earlier, Bayes algorithms have been utilized in applications
like e-mail spam filtering, but they are not limited to this narrow
application.
Bayes is only one method that employs probability and statistics.
There are also regression algorithms that have been used in machine
learning. Popular regression algorithms include Ordinary Least
Squares Regression (OLSR), Multivariate Adaptive Regression
Splines (MARS), and, of course, linear regression.
There are also variants on regression that are used in machine
learning, such as ridge regression. It is also known as weight decay.
It is also known as the Tikhonov-Miller method and the Phillips-
Twomey method. The variants look to simplify the models
to reduce system complexity that provide better generalization
support.
4. Neural Networks
Artificial neural networks (ANNs) have been around for a long
time, but their high computational requirements for complex
networks has limited the use and experimentation until recently
with multicore systems such as GPGPUs providing an economical
platform for a variant called deep neural networks (DNNs).
Initially neural networks were of interest as a way of copying
biological neural networks like the human brain. The brain is
made up of neurons that are connected via an axon to synapse
and dendrites on other neurons. The electrical signals from
incoming signals are summed by the neuron. A result that exceeds
a threshold sends a signal via the axon.
ANNs are built in a similar fashion, but using electronics or
software. It takes many neurons to perform useful functions;
the human brain has 100 billion. The trick to having something
useful is the way the neurons are connected as well, as the weights
associated with the neurons.
A basic neural network consists of a set of inputs and outputs
with a hidden layer in between (Fig. 3). A DNN has multiple
hidden layers. The networks may be the same logically, but the
number of inputs, outputs, and hidden layers varies as well as other
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CHAPTER 1: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LEARNING TECHNIQUES
configuration options. Of course, the key to a system’s operation is
the weights associated with the connections and nodes.
Neural networks require training to generate the weights used
in the system. Systems can learn dynamically, but these tend to be
more complex as training normally requires more computational
horsepower than inference. Training uses a feedback system where
an input is matched with outputs and the internal hidden layer
weights are adjusted. This process requires more than just a few
samples. A system with a large number of inputs like a photo image
and a large number of sample sizes will often require a cluster
or high end CPU and GPU to create a DNN configuration. On
the flip side, a microcontroller may often be sufficient for some
applications to utilize a DNN configuration to perform inferences
in real time.
FPGAs and specially designed hardware to address neural
networks are also available. There is even a hardware-based
network on Intel’s compact 32-bit, Quark-based Curie system-on-
chip (see “What Is Inside an IoT Chip?” on electronicdesign.com).
The advantages of this approach are lower power requirements and
higher performance operation.
Google’s Tensor Processing Unit (TPU) is designed to crunch
8-bit matrices that are common in DNN computations (Fig.
4). Unlike number-crunching applications that require double
precision floating point, DNN typically has weights that easily fit
into 8-bits. The number of nodes tends to be more important than
weight precision. The TPU will normally be used for training, but
it could be used in the cloud for running lots of inferences.
DNNs have been used for a wide range of applications, from
identifying items in an image to voice recognition. These can be
4. Google’s Tensor Processing Unit (TPU) has a large, 8-bit
matrix multiply system designed to accelerate DNN operations.
ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY CHAPTER 1: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LEARNING TECHNIQUES

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE USE Neural networks are making many applications practical and
there are a lot of platforms, hardware, and software being brought
Our embedded application(s)
currently incorporate AI - 6% into play (see “A Deeper Look at Deep-Learning Frameworks”
Investigating AI for our
on electronicdesign.com). Electronic Design’s recent Embedded
embedded applications - 32% Revolution survey and white paper highlighted the number of
embedded developers interested in AI (Fig. 5).
No Interest in AI for our
AI and ML have been used productively for decades, even
embedded applications - 62% though AI has been criticized for the hype associated with the
technology. DNNs and CNNs are currently being hyped, but
they too are delivering on the promise. The trick is to understand
that there are many techniques that can be used for a particular
application, and to do more research to find out which will work
VIEWS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE best. n

We are investigating AI 57%

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We are not sure if AI is applicable
to our application space 24%
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We are using other AI in our
application such as rule-based programming 10%

We are using deep neural networks in

our application 8%

5. More than half of the developers surveyed are looking into

artificial intelligence, especially deep neural networks.

done with conventional DNNs, but there are other configurations

that provide additional functionality. One of these configurations
is convolutional neural networks (CNN).
Convolutional neural networks are feed forward ANNs that
may constrain the nodes in three dimensions. CNNs consist of a
stack of layers that include a convolutional, a pooling, and a fully-
connected layer.
The actual design and configuration of neural networks is a bit
more complex than presented here, although training and using
the results on an existing system are much simpler. This typically
entails providing training input and then deploying the results
where a system might be used to identify dogs in photos.
Part of the challenge of using neural networks is that they are
essentially black boxes. This can be an advantage, but it essentially
hides what is going on inside the system. Properly preprocessing
input can also be critical to the success of using neural networks.
Likewise, neural networks are not applicable to every application,
but they do work very well for many applications.
Finally, it is possible to have a neural network provide feedback
on part of the reasoning behind their results, but in general they
do not provide this information. That may not be a problem if the
accuracy of the inference is sufficient for the application, like being
able to identify a dog within a picture at least 95% of the time. On
the other hand, a financial advisor might want to know what the
credit risk model looks like for recommendations coming out of a
neural network.

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 ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY
PAUL HANSEN, Publisher,
The Hansen Report on Automotive Electronics
CHAPTER 2:
BMW AND AUDI
WANT TO SEPARATE VEHICLE
HARDWARE FROM SOFTWARE
Two leading carmakers are leading the charge to develop new electronics architectures.
B
MW and Audi, who often pioneer much that is new
in automotive electronics globally, are in the process
of developing radically new electronics architec-
tures for future vehicles. The carmakers are taking
a similar approach: high-performance central com-
puting units replacing today’s outmoded distributed
computing architecture.
The auto industry is facing profound disruption, with new
competitors from the IT and consumer electronics worlds
making inroads. Google, Apple, Tencent, Uber, Alibaba, and
Baidu are developing revolutionary new mobility solutions.
Tesla is already here. Automated driving is coming faster than
initially thought. The vehicle’s interior is quickly going digital.
A revolutionary new architecture is needed that can take advantage
of what has become the state of the art in consumer electronics:
internet connectivity, cloud computing, swarm intelligence, and
over-the-air feature updates.
Today carmakers purchase infotainment systems and vehicle
control systems from tier-one suppliers who tightly embed
software components within electronic control units. If a carmaker
wants to change suppliers, it must validate and test a completely
different software stack—an enormously time-consuming and
expensive endeavor.
Thomas Mueller, Audi’s new top electrical and electronics
engineer, wants automotive systems to be as mature in terms of
hardware decoupling as IT systems have been for decades. In
a conversation earlier this year, Mueller outlined his vision for
a new vehicle architecture, which he expects to realize major
elements of by the start of the next decade. “There might be one,
or a few, central computers,” he said. “We haven’t decided yet. In
order to decouple hardware from software we need a standard
operating system like Linux, standard Ethernet connections,
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FOCUS ON: AUTOMOTIVE
standard I/O ports and so on.”
Mueller noted that the introduction of Unix more than 40 years
ago in the IT industry allowed data center operators to source
their application software from different suppliers. “They were
no longer stuck with a monolithic supplier responsible for both
the software and the hardware,” he explained. “Software from
suppliers A and B could run on hardware from suppliers X and
Y…So in my vision you could think of the car of the future as a
data center on wheels.”
BMW and Audi are developing end-to-end architectures that
connect wirelessly from the vehicle’s onboard electronics to the
carmaker’s back end, and from there to HERE’s back end in the
cloud, via the internet (see the Audi block diagram at the top of page
8). HERE, the digital map company jointly purchased by BMW,
Audi and Mercedes-Benz, will use crowdsourced data to provide
precision maps suitable for autonomous driving and location-
based services.
Benefits to Carmakers of Separating Software and
Hardware Development
• Flexibility: OEs can more easily switch suppliers and update
vehicles with new features after sale.
• Far easier to develop software on known, standard operating
systems/hardware platforms
• Faster deployment by eliminating redundant validation and
testing of reused software
• Quicker deployment of diverse implementations of
functionalities—e.g., fault-tolerant versions
• Improved engineering productivity
• Minimized risk of bringing updated features to market
• Proven application software can be reused
 ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY CHAPTER 2: BMW AND AUDI

But according to Ricky Hudi,

HERE back end
who preceded Mueller as
Audi’s top E/E, “scalability
OEN back end was a major requirement for
the architecture. The entire
(( (( (( ((
VW Group should be able to
Central computing unit Central computing unit benefit from it.”

Gigabit Ethernet Audi’s End-2-End

Domain
Drive Security Driver assist Cockpit Energy Comfort
Architechure
Lateral/vertical
level One motivation for this
Sensors and radical architectural departure
actuators is complexity reduction.
Today, much of the vehicle’s
functionality comes from the
Obstacles exchange of signals between ECUs. “Already at BMW we must
• Suppliers fear losing business deal with 12,000 signals that are sent and received to build
• Lack of standard interfaces for hardware these connected functions,” said Kai Barbehön, BMW’s vice
• Added cost of computing headroom president of product offering, E/E software architecture, and
• Need to better understand hardware virtualization platform management. “But we are moving to highly automated
• Carmakers’ typical domain-oriented engineering organizations systems. The back end comes into the system providing dynamic
• Most supplier roadmaps don’t yet comprehend hardware- information. And we need more sensors for doing highly
software separation automated driving functions. We will not manage the complexity
• Standard operating system for central computers is needed that arises from these new functions if we do not change our
electronic architecture.”
Similar End-to-End Architectures At the top of BMW’s forthcoming hierarchical software
What’s most distinguishing about the new vehicle architecture architecture will be the central computing platforms for vehicle
is what Audi refers to as its central computing cluster and what domains such as infotainment, autonomous driving, and body
BMW calls its central computing platform. Both consist of control, including a communications server that links the central
one or more general-purpose, high performance computers platform with electronic control units, sensors, and actuators (see
powered by extremely capable processors from suppliers such as figure below).
Nvidia, Qualcomm
(Snapdragon), or
POWERFUL INTEGRATION PLATFORMS ENABLE A HIERARCHICAL E/E ARCHITECTURE
Mobileye. The
car’s functions will So far: Future:
increasingly depend Non-hierarchical partitioning of functions Requirements-based classification of ECUs
on broadband data Project specific/heterogeneous development methods Adapted, unified development methods depending on ECU classes
communic ations
Similar system requirements for all ECUs System requirements adapted to ECU class
within the vehicle
and with the cloud. Focused on local ECU optimization Optimization on the overall system level

Carmakers who Central computing

serve high-volume, platforms Communications
ECU ECU Actuator
non-premium server
Differentiation
vehicle segments ECU ECU ECU potential Integrated
might think the control units
central computing Sensor Sensor ECU
architecture is not Commodity control units
for them, or at least Sensor ECU Sensor
something that Sensors, actuators
can be deferred Actuator Actuator ECU
until much later.

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ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY CHAPTER 2: BMW AND AUDI

Next down in the hierarchy are the integrated electronics

control units, standard ECUs similar to those used today for
electronic stability control or engine control, in which OEM-
specific functions are integrated.
Further down the hierarchy are commodity control units, off-
the-shelf parts with a range of standard functionalities (such as
window lift or other body control functions). These standard
ECUs will be free of any carmaker-specific functions or software
code.
Barbehön wants a single software platform that is common
to all the central computers. He envisions, possibly by 2025, a
single Linux-based platform that melds a safety-critical Autosar
Adaptive autonomous driving platform with BMW’s Genivi
infotainment platform. “Autonomous driving comes with
demanding requirements for safety and security,” Barbehön
said. “Infotainment is not very demanding on safety, but very
demanding on security. If you list all the requirements, there is a
chance that they can be met with a single software platform that
can be configured for both domains.”
The architecture’s main benefit, said Barbehön, is a significant
reduction in the amount of software that must be developed and
validated. “With a stable platform that is owned, managed and
maintained by us,” he noted, “we get to reuse the basic platform
software, and we know that the applications we have already tested
are going to work in the next ECU, even if it is from a different
supplier. Of course we will still have to conduct final tests.”
Software-hardware decoupling is already happening in the
infotainment domain. Some head units are able to accommodate
software such as navigation from best-in-class, third-party
suppliers, who offer the application as a part. “This approach
must now move into other domains,” suggested Mueller. “The big
question is, can we find suppliers who will be ready to supply what
we need when the time comes?” n

AUTHOR BIO:
PAUL HANSEN writes and publishes  The
Hansen Report on Automotive Electronics,
a newsletter dedicated to researching and
identifying technology and business trends
in the global automotive electronics industry.
Hansen began writing the newsletter in 1988 as
an outgrowth of his strategy and market research
consulting business, Paul Hansen Associates.

Like this article? For more deep analysis of electronics technology

and business trends in the global auto industry, subscribe to the
Hansen Report.
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 ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY FOCUS ON: AUTOMOTIVE

MARIA GUERRA, Technology Editor

CHAPTER 3:

UNDER THE HOOD

OF THE EVS IN THE FIA
FORMULA E CHAMPIONSHIP
The electric race series is a test bed for electric-vehicle innovation and engineers working with
future technologies. Here, we detail the technology powering this year’s competitors.

I
n case you haven’t heard of it, there is an electric-vehicle street
racing series called Formula E. The racing season runs from the
fall through summer with a third, season-ending race in New
York (this past July 15). The goal of Formula E is to promote
the concept of sustainability to reduce our footprint as much as
possible while having a positive impact on both people and the
planet. The race features 10 teams with 20 drivers and 40 electric
racing cars, which are powered by lithium-ion batteries. They race
at speeds up to 220 km/h.
Here are some of the most important technologies behind the
Formula E race cars:
Generators: The generators that are used to charge the racing
cars run on glycerine. This carbon-neutral fuel is safe, odorless,
non-toxic, and water soluble. It also is an abundant byproduct
of biodiesel production. A British company called Aquafuel
Research Ltd. was commissioned to build the mobile generators
that could be packed inside a shipping container and freighted
to each race (Fig. 1). The generators are based on standard
production diesel engines—a Cummins KTA50 to be precise—
that have been adapted with Aquafuel’s patented technology to
run on glycerine. The Aquafuel generators on site provide 42 kW
of electricity per car.
Battery: The battery is a sealed black box, meaning that no
access or maintenance by the teams is allowed. For safety reasons,
rather than changing batteries halfway through the race, the
drivers change cars instead.
Williams Advanced Engineering has supplied the batteries (Fig.
2) since the race’s first season. It also was the first company to
complete FIA (Federation International De L’Automobile) crash
testing and has met UN transportation testing regulation 38.3 1. The glycerine base that powers the generators can be made
for the safe air transportation of lithium ion batteries. For Season by salt-water algae where food crops won’t grow.

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 ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY
2. The Formula E batteries built by Williams for Formula E use
lithium-ion cells made by XALT Energy.
3, Williams Advanced Engineering has introduced an updated
version of its 28kW.
According to Paul McNamara, technical director at Williams
Advanced Engineering, “We have made quite a range of small
changes in three areas: the first one is the cooling system - with
changes to make that more robust and make it easier for us
to assemble and disassemble. We’ve also done a few things to
improve the performance of the thermal interface materials and
the details of how the cooling tubes link up with the cells and the
bus bars.”
“The second area is the bus bars themselves,” he continues. “In
the battery, we’ve got proper bus bars dealing with the quite high
currents. In terms of building up the battery, those bus bars all
have to be interconnected. They’ve got special joints in them so
that we can disarm it and bring it down to beneath 50 V and allow
us to disassemble it. Those joints have improved so they’re more
resilient to vibration and the thermal displacement going into
them has improved in the battery as well.” McNamara states, “And
3. Rohm’s SiC Schottky diodes reduce the inverter weight by
2 kg and cooling components by 30% for this season of the
Formula E.
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CHAPTER 3: UNDER THE HOOD OF THE EVS
the final area has been in the detail design around supporting the
cells, because the pack cells of the battery have to be supported and
insulated from vibration and then connected into the bus bars. So,
we’ve made quite a lot of detail changes to do that throughout. All
of those things help us with making the batteries more reliable for
the teams, but they also help us in extracting more power and help
us to put in more power.”
Starting in the 2018 season, however, the battery packs will come
from a new supplier. Actually, McLaren Applied Technologies,
Lucid, and Sony will partner on the battery packs for Formula E
with a contract of two seasons. The new battery technology will
double the current capacity, enabling the drivers to complete a full
race in a single car instead of changing or changing their vehicle
mid-race.
The original FIA battery specifications included a 200-kg (441-
lb.) cell-weight limit, a 200-kW peak power limit, and a maximum
usable energy of 28 kWh. In revised specifications starting with
Season 5, cell weight has been nudged to 250 kg (551 lbs.) and
peak power rises to 250 kW (with usable energy very nearly
doubled at 54 kWh).
Inverters: For the first season, an inverter was supplied by
McLaren Applied Technologies. It was mounted above the battery
behind the chassis’ roll hoop. This placement was due to a lack
of space inside the casing around the eMotor. In this position,
however, the inverter also was accessible and easy to cool.
As part of the Formula E roadmap, which allows manufacturers
to develop new technologies, Season 2 opened the regulations to
allow manufacturers to design and build their own powertrains.
In season 3, silicon-carbide (SiC) technology is now being
used in inverters. For example, Rohm Semiconductor partnered
with the Venturi Formula E team to incorporate SiC Schottky
Barrier Diodes (SBDs) in the inverter. Their goal was to enhance
powertrain performance while increasing switching speeds and
improving thermal efficiency (Fig. 3).
With the Formula E’s success as a technology incubator, it’s
clear that the transportation industry is already benefiting from
technology adoption and development as well as new jobs.
Upcoming seasons will increasingly highlight the potential for
sustainability in EVs. Expect continuous efforts to reduce the
energy footprint while removing barriers to EV adoption, such
as EV infrastructure and the high costs and limited range of
batteries. n
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 ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY FOCUS ON: AUTOMOTIVE

WILLIAM WONG, Technology Editor

CHAPTER 4:

DUAL-CORE SoC
UTILIZES FD-SOI FOR LOW POWER
AND HIGH PERFORMANCE
NXP is employing 28-nm FD-SOI technology with its new i.MX 7ULP family, delivering a high-
performance, low-power application processor.

D
esigners are employing a range of techniques, also makes the gates immune to latch up. The approach provides
like Ambiq Micro’s subthreshold designs (see a 10× to 100× improvement in soft error rate (SER) performance.
“Subthreshold Cortex-M4F Design Sips Less FD-SOI also helps in reducing device parasitics, and the
Power Than Cortex-M3” on electronicdesign. use of device back bias allows performance to be maintained
com) to reduce power consumption while while lowering VDD. There is improved analog peripheral
delivering high-performance devices. NXP is performance with higher gain, better matching, and lower 1/f
employing 28-nm FD-SOI (28FDS) technology with its new i.MX noise enhancements. The gate-first integration removes density
7ULP family, targeting applications ranging from wearables to rules for precision analog. Device tuning with back biasing is
automotive. The i.MX 7ULP family is the low power migration employed to compensate for process variation.
path (Fig. 1) from the popular i.MX6 family. NXP developers used domain and subsystem optimizations to
FD-SOI utilizes an ultra-thin buried oxide layer (Fig. 2) to design the chips, along with a custom standard cell library with
improve electrostatics, thereby enabling shorter gate lengths. It mixed voltages. They employed a large dynamic gate and body
biasing voltage (VBB) range to address speed and
power requirement tradeoffs and to deliver an
i.MX Processor Roadmap
extreme low leakage implementation.
The system actually use a dual-core, asymmetric
i.MX 6QuadPlus i.MX 8 family
ARM v8-A design with an ARM Cortex-A7 paired with an
i.MX 6Quad (32-bit/64-bit) Advanced graphics and performance
ARM Cortex-M4 (Fig. 3). The cores can operate
i.MX 8M family
i.MX 6DualPlus
Advanced audio and video
independently when it comes to operation and
i.MX 6Dual sleep mode. Versions of the i.MX 7ULP are
i.MX 8X family
i.MX 6DualLite Safety-certifiable and efficient performance
available with the 3D Vivante GC7000 NanoUltra
3D GPU with a low-power single shader, or the
i.MX 6Solo
GC320 Composition Processing Core (CPC) for
i.MX 6SoloX 2D graphics support.
i.MX 7 family
i.MX 6SoloLite Flexible efficient connectivity The chip has secure boot support for both
i.MX 6UltraLite
ARM v7-A
i.MX 7ULP family
cores and the QPSI interface supports on-the-fly
(32-bit) encryption and eXecute-in-place (XIP) support.
Ultra-low power with graphics
i.MX 6ULL
The Cortex-M4 has access to the typical serial and
ARM v7-A digital peripherals as well as a set of dual-channel
1. NXP’s 28-nm FD-SOI technology is used to build the i.MX 7ULP family that 12-bit ADCs and DACs. The Cortex-A7 sports
replaces the low end of the popular i.MX6 family. USB 2.0 host and OTG interfaces. The TrustZone

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ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY CHAPTER 4: POWER SUPPLY FUNDAMENTALS

hardware support includes a true random number generator (RTC).

(RNG), as well as crypto hardware with AES-128/256 support and
secure fuses for unique identification, plus secure storage. The
system has tamper detection support and a secure real-time clock
Bulk
The chips are available in 14-mm by 14-mm or 10-mm by
10-mm BGAs with a 0.5mm pitch. They are supported by NXP’s
CodeWarrior development tools, along with a Linux or Android
ecosystem for the Cortex-A7 and FreeRTOS
for the Cortex-M4’s real-time capability.n
FD-SOI

Gate Gate
to view this article online, ☞click here
Source
e Drain Source e Drain ☞ BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
Ultra-thin buried oxide

Body biasing: Faster when required and more

energy-efficient when performance isn’t as critical.

Gate 0 ’ 1.3V
Source Drain
Ultra-thin buried oxide

2. FD-SOI utilizes an ultra-thin buried oxide layer.

Timers Application domain A7 connectivity

32-bit timer × 4 UART × 4
ARM Cortex-A7
System timers I2C × 4
32 KB I-cache 32 KB D-cache
SPI x 2
Watch dog 256 KB L2 cache 3.3 V/1.8 V GPIO
DMA NEON FPU USB2.0 OTG (w/PHY)
Internal memory Trust Zone ETM USB2.0 HOST (w/HSIC)
256K RAM FlexIO
Graphics
Security 3D GPU 2D GPU External memory
Crypto/TRNG Low-power single shader composition engine 16/32 B LPDDR (2/3)
HAB-secure boot Display Camera MMC5.0/SDIO × 2
Secure fuse MIPI DSI-2 lane Parallel I/F FlexBUS

Security- battery domain Clock and power management

Tamper Secure RTC Secure storage Power manager CLK/RST PLL/OSC
detection

Timers Real-time domain M4 connectivity

32-bit timer × 4 UART × 4
ARM Cortex-M4
System timers I2C × 4
DSP extensions
Watch dog
8 KB cache SPI × 2
Access and IP
DAP MPU FPU 3.3 V/1.8 V GPIO
Resource domain ctl
Secure JTG I2S × 2
256 KB RAM (TCM)
SEMA4/msg. unit FlexIO
Security Analog External memory
uHAB – secure boot 2 × 12-bit ADC 2 × 12-bit DAC QSPI (OTFAD/XIP)
eFuses/OTP
Analog comparators
Crypto/TRNG

3. The i.MX 7ULP uses a dual-core, asymmetric design with an ARM Cortex-A7
paired with an ARM Cortex-M4.

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 ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY FOCUS ON: AUTOMOTIVE

MAURIZIO DI PAOLO EMILIO, Contributing Editor

CHAPTER 5:

LED DRIVERS
EXPAND CONTROL OF
AUTOMOTIVE LIGHTING
LEDs in automotive interior and exterior lighting devices that implement a simplified driver IC
design can have their brightness intensity adjusted depending on the scenario.

T
he automotive industry makes extensive use of are the fundamental design parameters for the correct driver.
light-emitting diodes (LEDs) in high-beam head- Fluctuations that occur with the vehicle’s power supply must
lights, brake and position lights, and side and rear therefore be strongly considered. Moreover, other requirements,
direction lights. In an LED driver design, the bright- which are reflected in the design phase, include temperature
ness intensity of the various illuminating devices is and humidity, voltage range, electromagnetic interference (EMI)
not equal; rather, it depends on their specific func- and compatibility (EMC), as well as the reliability requirements
tion. Needless to say, then, that LEDs operate at different bright- dictated by the qualification tests.
ness levels—for example, at full brightness for braking and from High-reliability demands in automotive applications indicates
10% to 25% for the rear lights. LED dimming circuits are used to that protection circuitry is essential within the IC driver, which
differentiate the brightness level through a
pulse-width-modulation (PWM) driving T T T
technique, which modulates the width of
the current pulses applied to the LEDs. LED
driver solutions integrate a PWM system to V
DIM
control the brightness by providing a ramp
generator, thus simplifying the driver design. D DMIN DMAX
PWM has been adopted as the preferred
dimming technique for high-quality LED tD tSU tSD tD tSU tSD tD tSU tSD
lighting. An essential aspect of the lighting
control system is the power management IF
provided by integrated-circuit (IC) drivers
in several configurations, such as buck
and buck-boost topologies. The ease of
1 tD + tSU T – tSD
controlling LEDs makes them an intelligent T= DMIN = DMAX =
fDIM T T
lighting system.
1. The delay exhibited by the LED driver is in response to its PWM signal. These
LED Driver Features delays result in the contrast ratio (CR) factor of the system. Here, tD represents
LED solutions require a constant current the propagation delay from when VDIM (PWM signal) goes high to when there’s
in order to produce uniform brightness. The a response from the If (forward current) driving the LED (tSU and tSD are the LED
accuracy of the source and the fluctuations forward-current slew-up time and slew-down time, respectively). DMIN and DMAX are
in terms of voltage and other parameters the minimum and maximum duty cycle, respectively.

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ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY
IOUT
L the integration of the MOSFET for the LED driver reduces the
VIN D C Load
IDIODE
2. Energy is stored through the inductor in this buck-converter
design, with the production of an output voltage always lower
than input.
provides protection from overvoltage, undervoltage, reverse
polarity, overcurrent, short circuits, and higher and lower
temperatures that don’t belong in the working range. Harsh
automotive environments require protection circuits to prevent
problems in case of failures. The devices also should demonstrate
reliable operation over an extended temperature and humidity
range, and the ability to withstand continuous vibration.
The ability to adjust light intensity in interior lighting systems
is a normal requirement. For outdoor lighting applications,
however, the same LED must have different levels of brightness.
For example, the stop and position lights or low-beam and high-
beam headlights are defined at two brightness levels. In some
cases, integrating a suitable driver into the design can satisfy both
situations with the same LED.
The main drivers have generally been designed with integrated
PWM dimming. Many chips incorporate a PWM generator to
determine the driver’s ON and OFF cycle. A key factor in the
PWM technique is the frequency fDIM—the minimum value of
this frequency is determined by the eye’s sensitivity to flicker.
Lowering fDIM generally facilitates a higher contrast ratio (CR),
expressed as the inverse of the minimum on-time (Fig. 1).
Driver Topologies
LEDs typically require constant current to produce a uniform
light output. Therefore, an LED driver must be able to vary the
output voltage to maintain a constant current. The output voltage
is related to many parameters, such as the temperature of the LED
matrix and the number of LEDs in series. The designer must be
able to predict with great accuracy the maximum output voltage in
order to select the optimal regulator topology and, therefore, the
driver IC and associated components.
The right power supply enables high-quality lighting with
maximum conversion efficiency (in terms of lumens per watt),
thereby prolonging the life of LEDs. The quality of the light
produced is determined primarily by the light-intensity stability,
which requires a precise regulation of the current with constant
working points in all voltage and temperature conditions. It
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CHAPTER 5: LED DRIVERS
may be useful to employ drivers with integrated or external
transistors, depending on the power of the given LEDs. However,
number of external components, thus saving space on the board
and simplifying the circuit.
The LED driver can be divided into three categories: linear
regulators; charge pumps characterized by a capacitor; and the
switching driver characterized by an inductor (reactive electronic
component). The latter have found a wide range of applications,
thanks to their flexibility and ever-increasing efficiency. Moreover,
they allow wide ranges of input voltage to be accepted, and have
the potential to be electrically insulated for operation in high
temperatures.
Linear regulators provide a simple control and don’t require
filters for EMI. However, their power dissipation can become
excessive for high-power applications. Switching drivers come in
four flavors: buck, boost, buck/boost, and single-ended primary
inductor converter (SEPIC).
As in a typical switched-mode device, a switch controls the
transfer of energy. The output voltage of an ideal buck converter
(Fig. 2) depends on the product of the switching cycle time and
its supply voltage. The boost converter, instead, consists of four
main elements: inductor, power switch (MOSFET, IGBT), diode,
and capacitor.
The buck-boost configuration (Fig. 3), which employs an
inductor in parallel to the input voltage, provides an advantage
in terms of flexibility. The SEPIC converter (Fig. 4) topology is
a buck/boost converter without the inverted voltage. It requires
an additional inductor and a blocking capacitor, which is the
disadvantage to this design.
IS S D
–
+
VS L Load V
– C O
+
3. The inductor, which is discharged through the diode,
provides current to the load in this buck-boost converter.
L1 CS S2
+
+
+
VIN S1 L2 C R VOUT
–
–
4. A SEPIC is similar to a traditional buck-boost converter, but
has the advantage of a non-inverted output (the output voltage
has the same polarity of the input voltage) and isolation
between input and output (provided by a capacitor in series).
ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY
Depending on whether the LED application is automotive
or general lighting, use of a multi-topology LED driver with
maximum flexibility of input- and output-voltage range makes
it easier to select the correct driver. The voltage range for the
automotive sector extends from 9 to 16 V (nominal 14 V) and
includes extreme conditions, such as reversal of the battery
polarity (‒12 V), fault conditions like load dump (which occurs
when the battery is disconnected from the alternator), and other
transient voltages.
Among their other benefits, the buck-boost SEPIC configurations
ensure constant brightness in all battery-voltage variations. When
the need arises to control several LEDs in series, a buck-boost
topology can address a variety of application requirements,
including the ability to manage extreme voltage values.
In some automotive exterior-lighting applications, the LED array
or matrix may be located at a distance from the driver/controller.
In these cases, a boost converter can be a more appropriate
topology choice. Carefully choosing the buck regulator can allow
for PWM dimming frequencies in the kilohertz range. While this
feature perhaps isn’t necessary for traditional lighting, it can be
effective in applications such as high-speed stroboscopic effect for
recognition activities (imaging) in the industrial and automotive
sectors.
LEDs Create a Better Driving Experience
LED lighting and other secondary optics solutions significantly
boost road safety simply due to well-lighted vision and overall
improved efficiency of night driving. The characteristics of longer-
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CHAPTER 5: LED DRIVERS
duration LEDs—high performance, high brightness efficiency,
and low-heat-dissipation energy consumption—are the main
features of an ideal automotive lighting solution.
As more lighting technologies come onto the scene, new LED
driver technologies for internal and external lighting help produce
an added level comfort in a wide range of vehicles. The goal is
to provide linear LED dimming with a large contrast ratio. The
correct procedure is to operate the LEDs at the manufacturer-
recommended forward current/forward voltage.
Conclusion
LEDs are becoming a significant force in the lighting market
due to their long lifetime and the ability to control specific lighting
requirements. More integration of systems-on-a-chip (SoCs) will
continue to reduce the size of driver ICs, leading to faster product
development cycles and accurate management of high-level
lighting features.
The LED driver market for lighting is estimated to have a
compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of about 27% in the near
future. The key driving factors responsible for the upswing in the
LED driver market includes the greater efficiency exhibited by
power-management circuits and the strong demand for LEDs in
commercial and industrial applications. n
to view this article online, ☞click here
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 ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY FOCUS ON: AUTOMOTIVE

NANCY FRIEDRICH, Content Director

CHAPTER 6:

SNEAK PEEK:
FORD SHARES PLAN
FOR THE AUTOMOTIVE
TECHNOLOGY FUTURE
At the recent Manufacturing & Technology Expo, Ford’s VP of Research & Advanced Engineering
provided an inside look into how the company plans to leverage the avalanche of technology
advances.

C
armakers have a host of new technologies avail- as the company’s inspiration today, saying “Henry Ford put the
able now, and a seemingly limitless amount of world on wheels.” Indeed, Ford was the first to provide a $5/
options are evolving to provide future options. day wage in the United States, creating a class of workers who
Most people assume that these options will be could afford to buy the product they made. The company plans
limited to the high-end luxury-vehicle market or to continue to be a company of “firsts” that are needed by society
cutting-edge vehicles like the Tesla line. However, and in the car industry by focusing its efforts on the following
Ford’s SYNC—now in at least its
third iteration—has already high-
lighted the company’s efforts to
provide ease of use with technol-
ogy applications and tools early
on, ranging from running a linked
cellular device through the cen-
ter-console display to voice-rec-
ognition systems for maps, etc. In
a keynote address at the Manu-
facturing & Technology Expo, Ken
Washington, vice president, Re-
search and Advanced Engineering
at Ford Motor Co., touched on
how Ford plans to similarly make
available better vehicles and a ve-
hicle experience via data analytics,
the Internet of Things, virtual re-
ality, robotics, and additive manu- 1. Talking about Ford’s aggressive work on autonomous vehicles, Ken Washington, vice
facturing (Fig. 1). president, Research and Advanced Engineering at Ford Motor Co., notes that most people
Washington credited the are surprised to learn that Navigant Research named Ford the No. 1 car manufacturer in
original innovative Henry Ford automated driving systems.

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ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY CHAPTER 6: FORD SHARES PLAN

can ease the strain of rapidly expanding urban

environments, noted Washington. He believes that
autonomous vehicles will first become popular not
for individual consumers owning vehicles, but in the
market for transportation as a service (taxis, Uber,
etc.). An autonomous vehicle could handle deliveries
and other goods handling beyond helping people
travel. With the acquisition of Chariot, which has
smart vans, Ford is already enabling ride-sharing in
San Francisco and Austin, Texas. It will roll out in
eight more cities this year.
5. Software: Combine this capability together with
increasing data analytics from vehicles and vehicle-
to-vehicle networking, and it’s no surprise that
Washington says, “Building software capability is
2. This all-new, race-winning Ford GT supercar serves as a test bed for new critical.” Ford has brought on more than 400 software
technologies and advanced lightweight materials. For example, carbon fiber engineers this year and plans to grow that number.
helps the GT achieve weight savings and sleek body shapes in ways that They are helping to develop and support the latest
are not possible with steel or aluminum. Ford software innovations, such as SYNC Connect
and the free FordPass app, which allows users to lock
areas while working nimbly to leverage “the power of the startup their car, find it in a parking lot, etc. using their smartphone.
economy” around automotive right now: 6. Electrification: Washington revealed Ford’s plans to release
1. Material/manufacturing innovations: Ford is looking to 13 new global electrified vehicles in the next five years. Among
apply additive manufacturing/3D printing by partnering with these are an F-150 hybrid, Mustang, police pursuit vehicles,
Stratasys to apply this technology on a large scale via a very a small utility battery electric vehicles (with a range of at
large-scale 3D printer. In doing so, Washington noted that Ford is least 300 miles), and a new fully autonomous hybrid vehicle
exploring a future where a car will be customized to the individual built in the USA. Noting the need to improve ease of charge,
driver and passenger. They are also looking to light-weight their Washington mentioned that Ford is teaming with BMW, Daimler,
vehicles via additive manufacturing. In terms of light-weighting, and Volkswagen to deliver 350-kW charging power at charging
Ford already is using a high-strength aluminum body on some stations throughout Europe. Their goal is to make battery-
vehicles (Fig. 2). For example, the Ford GT350 high-performance powered EVs attractive to everyone.
vehicle uses carbon fiber wheel, reducing weight to improve When it comes to people’s concerns over autonomous vehicles,
performance and acceleration. Washington pointed out that we shouldn’t think of autonomous
2. Sustainability: Taking an Earth-friendly approach, Ford’s vehicles as people-driven vehicles, because most accidents are
EcoBoost translates into direct gas savings. The firm also caused by people making bad judgments. Instead, we should
has a team investigating natural materials and their potential think of those vehicles as removing the human element and the
application in its vehicles, such as soybeans, agave, nectar, and problems that humans are very bad at solving. As a result, the
recycled bottles. By combining bamboo and plastic, for example, autonomous vehicles will only have to deal with challenges like
the researchers have discovered that they can create extra-strong mechanical failures, acts of God, and natural disasters. In closing,
parts. The company also recycles aluminum on a large scale. however, he noted that the industry is working to standardize
3. Urban Megatrends: Ford is looking ahead to address the four this, realizing that autonomous cars at some point will have this
major megatrends it sees in the future: urbanization, which will dilemma: How do you make a decision when there is no good
lead to crowded mega-cities; expansion of middle class globally; decision to be made? n
air-quality concerns; and changing consumer attitudes due to
everyone being connected. Ford sees these aspects disrupting not
only the design and manufacturing of cars, SUVs, and trucks, but
to view this article online,☞ click here

also leading to emerging mobility services and solutions. ☞ BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
4. Autonomous vehicles: Washington sees vehicle autonomy
as “as important a shift in the automotive industry as the moving
assembly line.” At Level 4 autonomy, no driver is required within
a defined geographic area. The deployment of such vehicles

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