Física Contemporânea Cap 1

Capítulo 1
Do Atomismo à Física Moderna

1.1 O Método Científico
1.1. Scientific Method
1.2 Evolução do Conceito do Átomo e a Tabela Periódica

1.2.a Atom
1.2.b Periodic Table
1.3 Ligações Químicas e Moléculas: Compostos Inorgânicos, Orgânicos, Biomoléculas e Nano

1.3.a Chemical Bond
1.3.b Molecule
1.3.c Inorganic Chemistry
1.3.d Organic Chemistry
1.3.e Biomolecule
1.3.f Nanomaterials
1.3.g Nanotechnology
1.4 Física Clássica X Física Moderna

1.4.a Classical Physics
1.4.b Modern Physics
1.4.c List of Unsolved Problems in Physics
1.5 Mecânica Quântica, Relatividade e Física Nuclear

1.5.a Quantum Mechanics
1.5.b Theory of Relativity
1.5.c Nuclear Physics
1.6 Física Experimental X Física Teórica X Applied Physics

1.6.a Experimental Physics
1.6.b Theoretical Physics
1.6.c Applied Physics
1.7 Termodinâmica, Física Estatística, Física Matemática, Física do Estado Sólido, Acústica, Física
Computacional, Simulações
1.7.a Thermodynamics
1.7.b Statistical Physics
1.7.c Óptica
1.7.q Mathematical Physics
1.7.e Solid-State Physics
1.7.f Acoustics
1.7.g Computational Physics
1.7.h Simulation
1.8 Divulgação & Publicação em Física e Bases de Dados

1.8.a Science
1.8.b Scientific Literature, Scientific/Academic Journals & Academic Publishing
1.8.c Web of Science – Wikipedia & Others
7/24/2017 Scientific method - Wikipedia
Scientific method
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The scientific method is a body of

techniques for investigating
phenomena, acquiring new
knowledge, or correcting and
integrating previous knowledge.[2]
To be termed scientific, a method of
inquiry is commonly based on
empirical or measurable evidence
subject to specific principles of
reasoning.[3] The Oxford
Dictionaries Online define the
scientific method as "a method or
procedure that has characterized
natural science since the 17th
century, consisting in systematic
observation, measurement, and
experiment, and the formulation,
testing, and modification of
hypotheses".[4] Experiments need to
be designed to test hypotheses. The
most important part of the scientific The scientific method as a cyclic or iterative process[1]
method is the experiment.[5]
The scientific method is a continuous process, which usually begins with observations about the natural world.
Human beings are naturally inquisitive, so they often come up with questions about things they see or hear and
often develop ideas (hypotheses) about why things are the way they are. The best hypotheses lead to
predictions that can be tested in various ways, including making further observations about nature. In general,
the strongest tests of hypotheses come from carefully controlled and replicated experiments that gather
empirical data. Depending on how well the tests match the predictions, the original hypothesis may require
refinement, alteration, expansion or even rejection. If a particular hypothesis becomes very well supported a
general theory may be developed.[1]
Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, identifiable features are frequently shared in
common between them. The overall process of the scientific method involves making conjectures (hypotheses),
deriving predictions from them as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments based on those
predictions.[6][7] A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on knowledge obtained while formulating the question.
The hypothesis might be very specific or it might be broad. Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting
experiments. Under modern interpretations, a scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable, implying that it is
possible to identify a possible outcome of an experiment that conflicts with predictions deduced from the
hypothesis; otherwise, the hypothesis cannot be meaningfully tested.[8]
The purpose of an experiment is to determine whether observations agree with or conflict with the predictions
derived from a hypothesis.[9] Experiments can take place anywhere from a college lab to CERN's Large Hadron
Collider. There are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method, however. Though the scientific method is
often presented as a fixed sequence of steps, it represents rather a set of general principles.[10] Not all steps take
place in every scientific inquiry (or to the same degree), and are not always in the same order.[11] Some
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method 1/29
philosophers and scientists have argued that there is no scientific method, such as Lee Smolin[12] and Paul
Feyerabend (in his Against Method). Nola and Sankey remark that "For some, the whole idea of a theory of
scientific method is yester-year's debate".[13]
Contents
1 Overview
1.1 Process
1.2 DNA example
1.3 Other components
2 Scientific inquiry
2.1 Properties of scientific inquiry
2.2 Beliefs and biases
3 Elements of the scientific method
3.1 Characterizations
3.2 Hypothesis development
3.3 Predictions from the hypothesis
3.4 Experiments
3.5 Evaluation and improvement
3.6 Confirmation
4 Models of scientific inquiry
4.1 Classical model
4.2 Pragmatic model
5 Communication and community
5.1 Peer review evaluation
5.2 Documentation and replication
5.3 Dimensions of practice
6 Philosophy and sociology of science
6.1 Role of chance in discovery
7 History
8 Relationship with mathematics
9 Relationship with statistics
10 See also
10.1 Problems and issues
10.2 History, philosophy, sociology
11 Notes
12 References
13 Further reading
14 External links
Overview
The DNA example below is a synopsis of this method
The scientific method is the process by which science is carried out.[18] As in

other areas of inquiry, science (through the scientific method) can build on
previous knowledge and develop a more sophisticated understanding of its topics
of study over time.[19][20][21][22][23][24] This model can be seen to underlay the
scientific revolution.[25] One thousand years ago, Alhazen argued the importance
of forming questions and subsequently testing them,[26] an approach which was
advocated by Galileo in 1638 with the publication of Two New Sciences.[27] The
current method is based on a hypothetico-deductive model[28] formulated in the

20th century, although it has undergone significant revision since first proposed
(for a more formal discussion, see below).
Process
The overall process involves making conjectures (hypotheses), deriving

predictions from them as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments
based on those predictions to determine whether the original conjecture was
correct.[6] There are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method, however.
Though the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps, they Ibn al-Haytham
(Alhazen), 965–1039
are better considered as general principles.[29] Not all steps take place in every
Iraq. A polymath,
scientific inquiry (or to the same degree), and are not always in the same order. As
considered by some to be
noted by William Whewell (1794–1866), "invention, sagacity, [and] genius"[11] the father of modern
are required at every step. scientific methodology,
due to his emphasis on
Formulation of a question experimental data and
reproducibility of its
The question can refer to the explanation of a specific observation, as in "Why is results.[14][15]
the sky blue?", but can also be open-ended, as in "How can I design a drug to cure
this particular disease?" This stage frequently involves finding and evaluating
evidence from previous experiments, personal scientific observations or
assertions, and/or the work of other scientists. If the answer is already known, a
different question that builds on the previous evidence can be posed. When
applying the scientific method to scientific research, determining a good question
can be very difficult and affects the final outcome of the investigation.[30]
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on knowledge obtained while formulating the

question, that may explain the observed behavior of a part of our universe. The
hypothesis might be very specific, e.g., Einstein's equivalence principle or Francis
Crick's "DNA makes RNA makes protein",[31] or it might be broad, e.g., unknown Johannes Kepler (1571–
species of life dwell in the unexplored depths of the oceans. A statistical 1630). "Kepler shows his
hypothesis is a conjecture about some population. For example, the population keen logical sense in
might be people with a particular disease. The conjecture might be that a new drug detailing the whole
will cure the disease in some of those people. Terms commonly associated with process by which he
statistical hypotheses are null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis. A null finally arrived at the true
hypothesis is the conjecture that the statistical hypothesis is false, e.g., that the orbit. This is the greatest
new drug does nothing and that any cures are due to chance effects. Researchers piece of Retroductive
normally want to show that the null hypothesis is false. The alternative hypothesis reasoning ever
is the desired outcome, e.g., that the drug does better than chance. A final point: a performed." – C. S.
scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable, meaning that one can identify a possible Peirce, c. 1896, on
outcome of an experiment that conflicts with predictions deduced from the Kepler's reasoning
hypothesis; otherwise, it cannot be meaningfully tested. through explanatory
hypotheses[16]
Prediction
This step involves determining the logical consequences of the hypothesis. One or
more predictions are then selected for further testing. The more unlikely that a
prediction would be correct simply by coincidence, then the more convincing it
would be if the prediction were fulfilled; evidence is also stronger if the answer to
the prediction is not already known, due to the effects of hindsight bias (see also
postdiction). Ideally, the prediction must also distinguish the hypothesis from
likely alternatives; if two hypotheses make the same prediction, observing the
prediction to be correct is not evidence for either one over the other. (These
statements about the relative strength of evidence can be mathematically derived
using Bayes' Theorem).[32]
Testing
This is an investigation of whether the real world behaves as predicted by the

hypothesis. Scientists (and other people) test hypotheses by conducting
experiments. The purpose of an experiment is to determine whether observations Galileo Galilei (1564–
of the real world agree with or conflict with the predictions derived from a 1642). According to
hypothesis. If they agree, confidence in the hypothesis increases; otherwise, it Albert Einstein, "All
decreases. Agreement does not assure that the hypothesis is true; future knowledge of reality
experiments may reveal problems. Karl Popper advised scientists to try to falsify starts from experience
hypotheses, i.e., to search for and test those experiments that seem most doubtful. and ends in it.
Large numbers of successful confirmations are not convincing if they arise from Propositions arrived at by
experiments that avoid risk.[9] Experiments should be designed to minimize purely logical means are
possible errors, especially through the use of appropriate scientific controls. For completely empty as
example, tests of medical treatments are commonly run as double-blind tests. Test regards reality. Because
personnel, who might unwittingly reveal to test subjects which samples are the Galileo saw this, and
desired test drugs and which are placebos, are kept ignorant of which are which. particularly because he
Such hints can bias the responses of the test subjects. Furthermore, failure of an drummed it into the
experiment does not necessarily mean the hypothesis is false. Experiments always scientific world, he is the
depend on several hypotheses, e.g., that the test equipment is working properly, father of modern physics
and a failure may be a failure of one of the auxiliary hypotheses. (See the Duhem– — indeed, of modern
Quine thesis.) Experiments can be conducted in a college lab, on a kitchen table, at science altogether."[17]
CERN's Large Hadron Collider, at the bottom of an ocean, on Mars (using one of
the working rovers), and so on. Astronomers do experiments, searching for planets
around distant stars. Finally, most individual experiments address highly specific topics for reasons of
practicality. As a result, evidence about broader topics is usually accumulated gradually.
Analysis
This involves determining what the results of the experiment show and deciding on the next actions to take.
The predictions of the hypothesis are compared to those of the null hypothesis, to determine which is better
able to explain the data. In cases where an experiment is repeated many times, a statistical analysis such as a
chi-squared test may be required. If the evidence has falsified the hypothesis, a new hypothesis is required; if
the experiment supports the hypothesis but the evidence is not strong enough for high confidence, other
predictions from the hypothesis must be tested. Once a hypothesis is strongly supported by evidence, a new
question can be asked to provide further insight on the same topic. Evidence from other scientists and
experience are frequently incorporated at any stage in the process. Depending on the complexity of the
experiment, many iterations may be required to gather sufficient evidence to answer a question with
confidence, or to build up many answers to highly specific questions in order to answer a single broader
question.
DNA example
The basic elements of the scientific method are illustrated by the following example from the discovery of
the structure of DNA:
Question: Previous investigation of DNA had determined its chemical composition (the four
nucleotides), the structure of each individual nucleotide, and other properties. It had been identified
as the carrier of genetic information by the Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment in 1944,[33] but

the mechanism of how genetic information was stored in DNA was unclear.
Hypothesis: Linus Pauling, Francis Crick and James D. Watson hypothesized that DNA had a
helical structure.[34]
Prediction: If DNA had a helical structure, its X-ray diffraction pattern would be X-shaped.[35][36]
This prediction was determined using the mathematics of the helix transform, which had been
derived by Cochran, Crick and Vand[37] (and independently by Stokes). This prediction was a
mathematical construct, completely independent from the biological problem at hand.
Experiment: Rosalind Franklin crystallized pure DNA and performed X-ray diffraction to produce
photo 51. The results showed an X-shape.
Analysis: When Watson saw the detailed diffraction pattern, he immediately recognized it as a
helix.[38][39] He and Crick then produced their model, using this information along with the
previously known information about DNA's composition and about molecular interactions such as
hydrogen bonds.[40]
The discovery became the starting point for many further studies involving the genetic material, such as the
field of molecular genetics, and it was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1962. Each step of the example is examined
in more detail later in the article.
Other components
The scientific method also includes other components required even when all the iterations of the steps above
have been completed:[41]
Replication
If an experiment cannot be repeated to produce the same results, this implies that the original results might have
been in error. As a result, it is common for a single experiment to be performed multiple times, especially when
there are uncontrolled variables or other indications of experimental error. For significant or surprising results,
other scientists may also attempt to replicate the results for themselves, especially if those results would be
important to their own work.[42]
External review
The process of peer review involves evaluation of the experiment by experts, who typically give their opinions
anonymously. Some journals request that the experimenter provide lists of possible peer reviewers, especially if
the field is highly specialized. Peer review does not certify correctness of the results, only that, in the opinion of
the reviewer, the experiments themselves were sound (based on the description supplied by the experimenter).
If the work passes peer review, which occasionally may require new experiments requested by the reviewers, it
will be published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal. The specific journal that publishes the results indicates
the perceived quality of the work.[43]
Data recording and sharing
Scientists typically are careful in recording their data, a requirement promoted by Ludwik Fleck (1896–1961)
and others.[44] Though not typically required, they might be requested to supply this data to other scientists who
wish to replicate their original results (or parts of their original results), extending to the sharing of any
experimental samples that may be difficult to obtain.[45]
Scientific inquiry
Scientific inquiry generally aims to obtain knowledge in the form of testable explanations that scientists can use
to predict the results of future experiments. This allows scientists to gain a better understanding of the topic
under study, and later to use that understanding to intervene in its causal mechanisms (such as to cure disease).
The better an explanation is at making predictions, the more useful it frequently can be, and the more likely it
will continue to explain a body of evidence better than its alternatives. The most successful explanations –
those which explain and make accurate predictions in a wide range of circumstances – are often called
scientific theories.
Most experimental results do not produce large changes in human understanding; improvements in theoretical
scientific understanding typically result from a gradual process of development over time, sometimes across
different domains of science.[46] Scientific models vary in the extent to which they have been experimentally
tested and for how long, and in their acceptance in the scientific community. In general, explanations become
accepted over time as evidence accumulates on a given topic, and the explanation in question proves more
powerful than its alternatives at explaining the evidence. Often subsequent researchers re-formulate the
explanations over time, or combined explanations to produce new explanations.
Tow sees the scientific method in terms of an evolutionary algorithm applied to science and technology.[47]
Properties of scientific inquiry
Scientific knowledge is closely tied to empirical findings, and can remain subject to falsification if new
experimental observation incompatible with it is found. That is, no theory can ever be considered final, since
new problematic evidence might be discovered. If such evidence is found, a new theory may be proposed, or
(more commonly) it is found that modifications to the previous theory are sufficient to explain the new
evidence. The strength of a theory can be argued to relate to how long it has persisted without major alteration
to its core principles.
Theories can also become subsumed by other theories. For example, Newton's laws explained thousands of
years of scientific observations of the planets almost perfectly. However, these laws were then determined to be
special cases of a more general theory (relativity), which explained both the (previously unexplained)
exceptions to Newton's laws and predicted and explained other observations such as the deflection of light by
gravity. Thus, in certain cases independent, unconnected, scientific observations can be connected to each
other, unified by principles of increasing explanatory power.[48]
Since new theories might be more comprehensive than what preceded them, and thus be able to explain more
than previous ones, successor theories might be able to meet a higher standard by explaining a larger body of
observations than their predecessors.[48] For example, the theory of evolution explains the diversity of life on
Earth, how species adapt to their environments, and many other patterns observed in the natural world;[49][50]
its most recent major modification was unification with genetics to form the modern evolutionary synthesis. In
subsequent modifications, it has also subsumed aspects of many other fields such as biochemistry and
molecular biology.
Beliefs and biases
Scientific methodology often directs that hypotheses be tested in controlled conditions wherever possible. This
is frequently possible in certain areas, such as in the biological sciences, and more difficult in other areas, such
as in astronomy. The practice of experimental control and reproducibility can have the effect of diminishing the
potentially harmful effects of circumstance, and to a degree, personal bias. For example, pre-existing beliefs
can alter the interpretation of results, as in confirmation bias; this is a heuristic that leads a person with a
particular belief to see things as reinforcing their belief, even if another observer might disagree (in other
words, people tend to observe what they expect to observe).
A historical example is the belief that the legs of a galloping horse are
splayed at the point when none of the horse's legs touches the ground, to
the point of this image being included in paintings by its supporters.
However, the first stop-action pictures of a horse's gallop by Eadweard
Muybridge showed this to be false, and that the legs are instead
gathered together.[51] Another important human bias that plays a role is
a preference for new, surprising statements (see appeal to novelty),
which can result in a search for evidence that the new is true.[2] In
contrast to this standard in the scientific method, poorly attested beliefs
Flying gallop falsified; see image
can be believed and acted upon via a less rigorous heuristic,[52]
below
sometimes taking advantage of the narrative fallacy that when narrative
is constructed its elements become easier to believe.[53][54] Sometimes,
these have their elements assumed a priori, or contain some other
logical or methodological flaw in the process that ultimately produced
them.[55]
Elements of the scientific method

There are different ways of outlining the basic method used for
scientific inquiry. The scientific community and philosophers of science Muybridge's photographs of The
generally agree on the following classification of method components. Horse in Motion, 1878, were used to
These methodological elements and organization of procedures tend to answer the question whether all four
be more characteristic of natural sciences than social sciences. feet of a galloping horse are ever off
Nonetheless, the cycle of formulating hypotheses, testing and analyzing the ground at the same time. This
the results, and formulating new hypotheses, will resemble the cycle demonstrates a use of photography in
described below. science.
Four essential elements[56][57][58] of the scientific method[59] are iterations,[60][61] recursions,[62]

interleavings, or orderings of the following:
Characterizations (observations,[63] definitions, and measurements of the subject of inquiry)

Hypotheses[64][65] (theoretical, hypothetical explanations of observations and measurements of the
subject)[66]
Predictions (reasoning including deductive reasoning[67] from the hypothesis or theory)
Experiments[68] (tests of all of the above)
Each element of the scientific method is subject to peer review for possible mistakes. These activities do not
describe all that scientists do (see below) but apply mostly to experimental sciences (e.g., physics, chemistry,
and biology). The elements above are often taught in the educational system as "the scientific method".[69]
The scientific method is not a single recipe: it requires intelligence, imagination, and creativity.[70] In this
sense, it is not a mindless set of standards and procedures to follow, but is rather an ongoing cycle, constantly
developing more useful, accurate and comprehensive models and methods. For example, when Einstein
developed the Special and General Theories of Relativity, he did not in any way refute or discount Newton's
Principia. On the contrary, if the astronomically large, the vanishingly small, and the extremely fast are
removed from Einstein's theories – all phenomena Newton could not have observed – Newton's equations are
what remain. Einstein's theories are expansions and refinements of Newton's theories and, thus, increase
confidence in Newton's work.
A linearized, pragmatic scheme of the four points above is sometimes offered as a guideline for proceeding:[71]
1. Define a question
2. Gather information and resources (observe)
3. Form an explanatory hypothesis

4. Test the hypothesis by performing an experiment and collecting data in a reproducible manner
5. Analyze the data
6. Interpret the data and draw conclusions that serve as a starting point for new hypothesis
7. Publish results
8. Retest (frequently done by other scientists)
The iterative cycle inherent in this step-by-step method goes from point 3 to 6 back to 3 again.
While this schema outlines a typical hypothesis/testing method,[72] it should also be noted that a number of
philosophers, historians, and sociologists of science, including Paul Feyerabend, claim that such descriptions of
scientific method have little relation to the ways that science is actually practiced.
Characterizations
The scientific method depends upon increasingly sophisticated characterizations of the subjects of
investigation. (The subjects can also be called unsolved problems or the unknowns.) For example, Benjamin
Franklin conjectured, correctly, that St. Elmo's fire was electrical in nature, but it has taken a long series of
experiments and theoretical changes to establish this. While seeking the pertinent properties of the subjects,
careful thought may also entail some definitions and observations; the observations often demand careful
measurements and/or counting.
The systematic, careful collection of measurements or counts of relevant quantities is often the critical
difference between pseudo-sciences, such as alchemy, and science, such as chemistry or biology. Scientific
measurements are usually tabulated, graphed, or mapped, and statistical manipulations, such as correlation and
regression, performed on them. The measurements might be made in a controlled setting, such as a laboratory,
or made on more or less inaccessible or unmanipulatable objects such as stars or human populations. The
measurements often require specialized scientific instruments such as thermometers, spectroscopes, particle
accelerators, or voltmeters, and the progress of a scientific field is usually intimately tied to their invention and
improvement.
I am not accustomed to saying anything with certainty after only one or two observations.
— Andreas Vesalius, (1546)[73]
Uncertainty
Measurements in scientific work are also usually accompanied by estimates of their uncertainty. The
uncertainty is often estimated by making repeated measurements of the desired quantity. Uncertainties may also
be calculated by consideration of the uncertainties of the individual underlying quantities used. Counts of
things, such as the number of people in a nation at a particular time, may also have an uncertainty due to data
collection limitations. Or counts may represent a sample of desired quantities, with an uncertainty that depends
upon the sampling method used and the number of samples taken.
Definition
Measurements demand the use of operational definitions of relevant quantities. That is, a scientific quantity is
described or defined by how it is measured, as opposed to some more vague, inexact or "idealized" definition.
For example, electric current, measured in amperes, may be operationally defined in terms of the mass of silver
deposited in a certain time on an electrode in an electrochemical device that is described in some detail. The
operational definition of a thing often relies on comparisons with standards: the operational definition of
"mass" ultimately relies on the use of an artifact, such as a particular kilogram of platinum-iridium kept in a
laboratory in France.
The scientific definition of a term sometimes differs substantially from its natural language usage. For example,
mass and weight overlap in meaning in common discourse, but have distinct meanings in mechanics. Scientific
quantities are often characterized by their units of measure which can later be described in terms of
conventional physical units when communicating the work.
New theories are sometimes developed after realizing certain terms have not previously been sufficiently
clearly defined. For example, Albert Einstein's first paper on relativity begins by defining simultaneity and the
means for determining length. These ideas were skipped over by Isaac Newton with, "I do not define time,
space, place and motion, as being well known to all." Einstein's paper then demonstrates that they (viz.,
absolute time and length independent of motion) were approximations. Francis Crick cautions us that when
characterizing a subject, however, it can be premature to define something when it remains ill-understood.[74]
In Crick's study of consciousness, he actually found it easier to study awareness in the visual system, rather
than to study free will, for example. His cautionary example was the gene; the gene was much more poorly
understood before Watson and Crick's pioneering discovery of the structure of DNA; it would have been
counterproductive to spend much time on the definition of the gene, before them.
DNA-characterizations
The history of the discovery of the structure of DNA is a classic example of the elements of the
scientific method: in 1950 it was known that genetic inheritance had a mathematical description, starting
with the studies of Gregor Mendel, and that DNA contained genetic information (Oswald Avery's
transforming principle).[33] But the mechanism of storing genetic information (i.e., genes) in DNA was
unclear. Researchers in Bragg's laboratory at Cambridge University made X-ray diffraction pictures of various
molecules, starting with crystals of salt, and proceeding to more complicated substances. Using clues
painstakingly assembled over decades, beginning with its chemical composition, it was determined that it
should be possible to characterize the physical structure of DNA, and the X-ray images would be the
vehicle.[75] ..2. DNA-hypotheses
Another example: precession of Mercury
The characterization element can require extended and extensive study,

even centuries. It took thousands of years of measurements, from the
Chaldean, Indian, Persian, Greek, Arabic and European astronomers, to
fully record the motion of planet Earth. Newton was able to include
those measurements into consequences of his laws of motion. But the
perihelion of the planet Mercury's orbit exhibits a precession that cannot
be fully explained by Newton's laws of motion (see diagram to the
right), as Leverrier pointed out in 1859. The observed difference for
Mercury's precession between Newtonian theory and observation was
one of the things that occurred to Einstein as a possible early test of his Precession of the perihelion
theory of General Relativity. His relativistic calculations matched (exaggerated)
observation much more closely than did Newtonian theory. The
difference is approximately 43 arc-seconds per century.
Hypothesis development
A hypothesis is a suggested explanation of a phenomenon, or alternately a reasoned proposal suggesting a

possible correlation between or among a set of phenomena.
Normally hypotheses have the form of a mathematical model. Sometimes, but not always, they can also be
formulated as existential statements, stating that some particular instance of the phenomenon being studied has
some characteristic and causal explanations, which have the general form of universal statements, stating that
every instance of the phenomenon has a particular characteristic.
Scientists are free to use whatever resources they have – their own creativity, ideas from other fields, inductive
reasoning, Bayesian inference, and so on – to imagine possible explanations for a phenomenon under study.
Charles Sanders Peirce, borrowing a page from Aristotle (Prior Analytics, 2.25) described the incipient stages
of inquiry, instigated by the "irritation of doubt" to venture a plausible guess, as abductive reasoning. The
history of science is filled with stories of scientists claiming a "flash of inspiration", or a hunch, which then
motivated them to look for evidence to support or refute their idea. Michael Polanyi made such creativity the
centerpiece of his discussion of methodology.
William Glen observes that
the success of a hypothesis, or its service to science, lies not simply in its perceived "truth", or power to
displace, subsume or reduce a predecessor idea, but perhaps more in its ability to stimulate the research
that will illuminate ... bald suppositions and areas of vagueness.[76]
In general scientists tend to look for theories that are "elegant" or "beautiful". In contrast to the usual English
use of these terms, they here refer to a theory in accordance with the known facts, which is nevertheless
relatively simple and easy to handle. Occam's Razor serves as a rule of thumb for choosing the most desirable
amongst a group of equally explanatory hypotheses.
To minimize the confirmation bias which results from entertaining a single hypothesis, strong inference
emphasizes the need for entertaining multiple alternative hypotheses.[77]
DNA-hypotheses
Linus Pauling proposed that DNA might be a triple helix.[78] This hypothesis was also considered by
Francis Crick and James D. Watson but discarded. When Watson and Crick learned of Pauling's
hypothesis, they understood from existing data that Pauling was wrong[79] and that Pauling would soon
admit his difficulties with that structure. So, the race was on to figure out the correct structure (except
that Pauling did not realize at the time that he was in a race) ..3. DNA-predictions
Predictions from the hypothesis
Any useful hypothesis will enable predictions, by reasoning including deductive reasoning. It might predict the
outcome of an experiment in a laboratory setting or the observation of a phenomenon in nature. The prediction
can also be statistical and deal only with probabilities.
It is essential that the outcome of testing such a prediction be currently unknown. Only in this case does a
successful outcome increase the probability that the hypothesis is true. If the outcome is already known, it is
called a consequence and should have already been considered while formulating the hypothesis.
If the predictions are not accessible by observation or experience, the hypothesis is not yet testable and so will
remain to that extent unscientific in a strict sense. A new technology or theory might make the necessary
experiments feasible. Thus, much scientifically based speculation might convince one (or many) that the
hypothesis that other intelligent species exist is true. But since there no experiment now known which can test
this hypothesis, science itself can have little to say about the possibility. In future, some new technique might
lead to an experimental test and the speculation would then become part of accepted science.
DNA-predictions
James D. Watson, Francis Crick, and others hypothesized that DNA had a helical structure. This implied
that DNA's X-ray diffraction pattern would be 'x shaped'.[36][80] This prediction followed from the work
of Cochran, Crick and Vand[37] (and independently by Stokes). The Cochran-Crick-Vand-Stokes
theorem provided a mathematical explanation for the empirical observation that diffraction from helical
structures produces x shaped patterns.
In their first paper, Watson and Crick also noted that the double helix structure they proposed provided a simple
mechanism for DNA replication, writing, "It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have
postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material".[81] ..4. DNA-
experiments
Another example: general relativity
Einstein's theory of General Relativity makes several specific predictions

about the observable structure of space-time, such as that light bends in a
gravitational field, and that the amount of bending depends in a precise
way on the strength of that gravitational field. Arthur Eddington's
observations made during a 1919 solar eclipse supported General
Relativity rather than Newtonian gravitation.[82]
Experiments
Einstein's prediction (1907): Light
Once predictions are made, they can be sought by experiments. If the test
bends in a gravitational field
results contradict the predictions, the hypotheses which entailed them are
called into question and become less tenable. Sometimes the experiments
are conducted incorrectly or are not very well designed, when compared to a crucial experiment. If the
experimental results confirm the predictions, then the hypotheses are considered more likely to be correct, but
might still be wrong and continue to be subject to further testing. The experimental control is a technique for
dealing with observational error. This technique uses the contrast between multiple samples (or observations)
under differing conditions to see what varies or what remains the same. We vary the conditions for each
measurement, to help isolate what has changed. Mill's canons can then help us figure out what the important
factor is.[83] Factor analysis is one technique for discovering the important factor in an effect.
Depending on the predictions, the experiments can have different shapes. It could be a classical experiment in a
laboratory setting, a double-blind study or an archaeological excavation. Even taking a plane from New York to
Paris is an experiment which tests the aerodynamical hypotheses used for constructing the plane.
Scientists assume an attitude of openness and accountability on the part of those conducting an experiment.
Detailed record keeping is essential, to aid in recording and reporting on the experimental results, and supports
the effectiveness and integrity of the procedure. They will also assist in reproducing the experimental results,
likely by others. Traces of this approach can be seen in the work of Hipparchus (190–120 BCE), when
determining a value for the precession of the Earth, while controlled experiments can be seen in the works of
Jābir ibn Hayyān (721–815 CE), al-Battani (853–929) and Alhazen (965–1039).[84]
DNA-experiments
Watson and Crick showed an initial (and incorrect) proposal for the structure of DNA to a team from
Kings College – Rosalind Franklin, Maurice Wilkins, and Raymond Gosling. Franklin immediately
spotted the flaws which concerned the water content. Later Watson saw Franklin's detailed X-ray
diffraction images which showed an X-shape (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/photo51/) and was able to
confirm the structure was helical.[38][39] This rekindled Watson and Crick's model building and led to the
correct structure. ..1. DNA-characterizations
Evaluation and improvement
The scientific method is iterative. At any stage it is possible to refine its accuracy and precision, so that some
consideration will lead the scientist to repeat an earlier part of the process. Failure to develop an interesting
hypothesis may lead a scientist to re-define the subject under consideration. Failure of a hypothesis to produce
interesting and testable predictions may lead to reconsideration of the hypothesis or of the definition of the
subject. Failure of an experiment to produce interesting results may lead a scientist to reconsider the
experimental method, the hypothesis, or the definition of the subject.
Other scientists may start their own research and enter the process at any stage. They might adopt the
characterization and formulate their own hypothesis, or they might adopt the hypothesis and deduce their own
predictions. Often the experiment is not done by the person who made the prediction, and the characterization
is based on experiments done by someone else. Published results of experiments can also serve as a hypothesis
predicting their own reproducibility.
DNA-iterations
After considerable fruitless experimentation, being discouraged by their superior from continuing, and
numerous false starts,[85][86][87] Watson and Crick were able to infer the essential structure of DNA by
concrete modeling of the physical shapes of the nucleotides which comprise it.[40][88] They were guided
by the bond lengths which had been deduced by Linus Pauling and by Rosalind Franklin's X-ray
diffraction images. ..DNA Example
Confirmation
Science is a social enterprise, and scientific work tends to be accepted by the scientific community when it has
been confirmed. Crucially, experimental and theoretical results must be reproduced by others within the
scientific community. Researchers have given their lives for this vision; Georg Wilhelm Richmann was killed
by ball lightning (1753) when attempting to replicate the 1752 kite-flying experiment of Benjamin Franklin.[89]
To protect against bad science and fraudulent data, government research-granting agencies such as the National
Science Foundation, and science journals, including Nature and Science, have a policy that researchers must
archive their data and methods so that other researchers can test the data and methods and build on the research
that has gone before. Scientific data archiving can be done at a number of national archives in the U.S. or in the
World Data Center.
Models of scientific inquiry

Classical model
The classical model of scientific inquiry derives from Aristotle,[90] who distinguished the forms of approximate
and exact reasoning, set out the threefold scheme of abductive, deductive, and inductive inference, and also
treated the compound forms such as reasoning by analogy.
Pragmatic model
In 1877,[19] Charles Sanders Peirce (/ˈpɜːrs/ like "purse"; 1839–1914) characterized inquiry in general not as
the pursuit of truth per se but as the struggle to move from irritating, inhibitory doubts born of surprises,
disagreements, and the like, and to reach a secure belief, belief being that on which one is prepared to act. He
framed scientific inquiry as part of a broader spectrum and as spurred, like inquiry generally, by actual doubt,
not mere verbal or hyperbolic doubt, which he held to be fruitless.[91] He outlined four methods of settling
opinion, ordered from least to most successful:
1. The method of tenacity (policy of sticking to initial belief) – which brings comforts and decisiveness but
leads to trying to ignore contrary information and others' views as if truth were intrinsically private, not
public. It goes against the social impulse and easily falters since one may well notice when another's
opinion is as good as one's own initial opinion. Its successes can shine but tend to be transitory.[92]
2. The method of authority – which overcomes disagreements but sometimes brutally. Its successes can be
majestic and long-lived, but it cannot operate thoroughly enough to suppress doubts indefinitely,
especially when people learn of other societies present and past.
3. The method of the a priori – which promotes conformity less brutally but fosters opinions as something
like tastes, arising in conversation and comparisons of perspectives in terms of "what is agreeable to
reason." Thereby it depends on fashion in paradigms and goes in circles over time. It is more intellectual
and respectable but, like the first two methods, sustains accidental and capricious beliefs, destining some
minds to doubt it.
4. The scientific method – the method wherein inquiry regards itself as fallible and purposely tests itself and
criticizes, corrects, and improves itself.
Peirce held that slow, stumbling ratiocination can be dangerously inferior to instinct and traditional sentiment in
practical matters, and that the scientific method is best suited to theoretical research,[93] which in turn should
not be trammeled by the other methods and practical ends; reason's "first rule" is that, in order to learn, one
must desire to learn and, as a corollary, must not block the way of inquiry.[94] The scientific method excels the
others by being deliberately designed to arrive – eventually – at the most secure beliefs, upon which the most
successful practices can be based. Starting from the idea that people seek not truth per se but instead to subdue
irritating, inhibitory doubt, Peirce showed how, through the struggle, some can come to submit to truth for the
sake of belief's integrity, seek as truth the guidance of potential practice correctly to its given goal, and wed
themselves to the scientific method.[19][22]
For Peirce, rational inquiry implies presuppositions about truth and the real; to reason is to presuppose (and at
least to hope), as a principle of the reasoner's self-regulation, that the real is discoverable and independent of
our vagaries of opinion. In that vein he defined truth as the correspondence of a sign (in particular, a
proposition) to its object and, pragmatically, not as actual consensus of some definite, finite community (such
that to inquire would be to poll the experts), but instead as that final opinion which all investigators would
reach sooner or later but still inevitably, if they were to push investigation far enough, even when they start
from different points.[95] In tandem he defined the real as a true sign's object (be that object a possibility or
quality, or an actuality or brute fact, or a necessity or norm or law), which is what it is independently of any
finite community's opinion and, pragmatically, depends only on the final opinion destined in a sufficient
investigation. That is a destination as far, or near, as the truth itself to you or me or the given finite community.
Thus, his theory of inquiry boils down to "Do the science." Those conceptions of truth and the real involve the
idea of a community both without definite limits (and thus potentially self-correcting as far as needed) and
capable of definite increase of knowledge.[96] As inference, "logic is rooted in the social principle" since it
depends on a standpoint that is, in a sense, unlimited.[97]
Paying special attention to the generation of explanations, Peirce outlined the scientific method as a
coordination of three kinds of inference in a purposeful cycle aimed at settling doubts, as follows (in §III–IV in
"A Neglected Argument"[6] except as otherwise noted):
1. Abduction (or retroduction). Guessing, inference to explanatory hypotheses for selection of those best
worth trying. From abduction, Peirce distinguishes induction as inferring, on the basis of tests, the
proportion of truth in the hypothesis. Every inquiry, whether into ideas, brute facts, or norms and laws,
arises from surprising observations in one or more of those realms (and for example at any stage of an
inquiry already underway). All explanatory content of theories comes from abduction, which guesses a
new or outside idea so as to account in a simple, economical way for a surprising or complicative
phenomenon. Oftenest, even a well-prepared mind guesses wrong. But the modicum of success of our
guesses far exceeds that of sheer luck and seems born of attunement to nature by instincts developed or
inherent, especially insofar as best guesses are optimally plausible and simple in the sense, said Peirce, of
the "facile and natural", as by Galileo's natural light of reason and as distinct from "logical simplicity".
Abduction is the most fertile but least secure mode of inference. Its general rationale is inductive: it
succeeds often enough and, without it, there is no hope of sufficiently expediting inquiry (often multi-
generational) toward new truths.[98] Coordinative method leads from abducing a plausible hypothesis to
judging it for its testability[99] and for how its trial would economize inquiry itself.[100] Peirce calls his
pragmatism "the logic of abduction".[101] His pragmatic maxim is: "Consider what effects that might
conceivably have practical bearings you conceive the objects of your conception to have. Then, your
conception of those effects is the whole of your conception of the object".[95] His pragmatism is a
method of reducing conceptual confusions fruitfully by equating the meaning of any conception with the
conceivable practical implications of its object's conceived effects – a method of experimentational
mental reflection hospitable to forming hypotheses and conducive to testing them. It favors efficiency.
The hypothesis, being insecure, needs to have practical implications leading at least to mental tests and,
in science, lending themselves to scientific tests. A simple but unlikely guess, if uncostly to test for
falsity, may belong first in line for testing. A guess is intrinsically worth testing if it has instinctive
plausibility or reasoned objective probability, while subjective likelihood, though reasoned, can be
misleadingly seductive. Guesses can be chosen for trial strategically, for their caution (for which Peirce
gave as example the game of Twenty Questions), breadth, and incomplexity.[102] One can hope to
discover only that which time would reveal through a learner's sufficient experience anyway, so the point
is to expedite it; the economy of research is what demands the leap, so to speak, of abduction and
governs its art.[100]
2. Deduction. Two stages:
i. Explication. Unclearly premissed, but deductive, analysis of the hypothesis in order to render its
parts as clear as possible.
ii. Demonstration: Deductive Argumentation, Euclidean in procedure. Explicit deduction of
hypothesis's consequences as predictions, for induction to test, about evidence to be found.
Corollarial or, if needed, theorematic.
3. Induction. The long-run validity of the rule of induction is deducible from the principle
(presuppositional to reasoning in general[95]) that the real is only the object of the final opinion to which
adequate investigation would lead;[103] anything to which no such process would ever lead would not be
real. Induction involving ongoing tests or observations follows a method which, sufficiently persisted in,
will diminish its error below any predesignate degree. Three stages:
i. Classification. Unclearly premissed, but inductive, classing of objects of experience under general
ideas.
ii. Probation: direct inductive argumentation. Crude (the enumeration of instances) or gradual (new
estimate of proportion of truth in the hypothesis after each test). Gradual induction is qualitative or
quantitative; if qualitative, then dependent on weightings of qualities or characters;[104] if
quantitative, then dependent on measurements, or on statistics, or on countings.
iii. Sentential Induction. "...which, by inductive reasonings, appraises the different probations singly,
then their combinations, then makes self-appraisal of these very appraisals themselves, and passes
final judgment on the whole result".
Communication and community

Frequently the scientific method is employed not only by a single person, but also by several people
cooperating directly or indirectly. Such cooperation can be regarded as an important element of a scientific
community. Various standards of scientific methodology are used within such an environment.
Peer review evaluation
Scientific journals use a process of peer review, in which scientists' manuscripts are submitted by editors of
scientific journals to (usually one to three) fellow (usually anonymous) scientists familiar with the field for
evaluation. In certain journals, the journal itself selects the referees; while in others (especially journals that are
extremely specialized), the manuscript author might recommend referees. The referees may or may not
recommend publication, or they might recommend publication with suggested modifications, or sometimes,
publication in another journal. This standard is practiced to various degrees by different journals, and can have
the effect of keeping the literature free of obvious errors and to generally improve the quality of the material,
especially in the journals who use the standard most rigorously. The peer review process can have limitations
when considering research outside the conventional scientific paradigm: problems of "groupthink" can interfere
with open and fair deliberation of some new research.[105]
Documentation and replication
Sometimes experimenters may make systematic errors during their experiments, veer from standard methods
and practices (Pathological science) for various reasons, or, in rare cases, deliberately report false results.
Occasionally because of this then, other scientists might attempt to repeat the experiments in order to duplicate
the results.
Archiving
Researchers sometimes practice scientific data archiving, such as in compliance with the policies of
government funding agencies and scientific journals. In these cases, detailed records of their experimental
procedures, raw data, statistical analyses and source code can be preserved in order to provide evidence of the
methodology and practice of the procedure and assist in any potential future attempts to reproduce the result.
These procedural records may also assist in the conception of new experiments to test the hypothesis, and may
prove useful to engineers who might examine the potential practical applications of a discovery.
Data sharing
When additional information is needed before a study can be reproduced, the author of the study might be
asked to provide it. They might provide it, or if the author refuses to share data, appeals can be made to the
journal editors who published the study or to the institution which funded the research.
Limitations
Since it is impossible for a scientist to record everything that took place in an experiment, facts selected for
their apparent relevance are reported. This may lead, unavoidably, to problems later if some supposedly
irrelevant feature is questioned. For example, Heinrich Hertz did not report the size of the room used to test
Maxwell's equations, which later turned out to account for a small deviation in the results. The problem is that
parts of the theory itself need to be assumed in order to select and report the experimental conditions. The
observations are hence sometimes described as being 'theory-laden'.
Dimensions of practice
The primary constraints on contemporary science are:
Publication, i.e. Peer review

Resources (mostly funding)
It has not always been like this: in the old days of the "gentleman scientist" funding (and to a lesser extent
publication) were far weaker constraints.
Both of these constraints indirectly require scientific method – work that violates the constraints will be
difficult to publish and difficult to get funded. Journals require submitted papers to conform to "good scientific
practice" and to a degree this can be enforced by peer review. Originality, importance and interest are more
important – see for example the author guidelines (http://www.nature.com/nature/submit/get_published/index.h
tml) for Nature.
Smaldino and McElreath 2016 have noted that our need to reward scientific understanding is being nullified by
poor research design and poor data analysis, which is leading to false-positive findings.[106]
Philosophy and sociology of science
Philosophy of science looks at the underpinning logic of the scientific method, at what separates science from
non-science, and the ethic that is implicit in science. There are basic assumptions, derived from philosophy by
at least one prominent scientist, that form the base of the scientific method – namely, that reality is objective
and consistent, that humans have the capacity to perceive reality accurately, and that rational explanations exist
for elements of the real world.[107] These assumptions from methodological naturalism form a basis on which
science may be grounded. Logical Positivist, empiricist, falsificationist, and other theories have criticized these
assumptions and given alternative accounts of the logic of science, but each has also itself been criticized. More
generally, the scientific method can be recognized as an idealization.[108]
Thomas Kuhn examined the history of science in his The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, and found that the
actual method used by scientists differed dramatically from the then-espoused method. His observations of
science practice are essentially sociological and do not speak to how science is or can be practiced in other
times and other cultures.
Norwood Russell Hanson, Imre Lakatos and Thomas Kuhn have done extensive work on the "theory laden"
character of observation. Hanson (1958) first coined the term for the idea that all observation is dependent on
the conceptual framework of the observer, using the concept of gestalt to show how preconceptions can affect
both observation and description.[109] He opens Chapter 1 with a discussion of the Golgi bodies and their initial
rejection as an artefact of staining technique, and a discussion of Brahe and Kepler observing the dawn and
seeing a "different" sun rise despite the same physiological phenomenon. Kuhn[110] and Feyerabend[111]
acknowledge the pioneering significance of his work.
Kuhn (1961) said the scientist generally has a theory in mind before designing and undertaking experiments so
as to make empirical observations, and that the "route from theory to measurement can almost never be traveled
backward". This implies that the way in which theory is tested is dictated by the nature of the theory itself,
which led Kuhn (1961, p. 166) to argue that "once it has been adopted by a profession ... no theory is
recognized to be testable by any quantitative tests that it has not already passed".[112]
Paul Feyerabend similarly examined the history of science, and was led to deny that science is genuinely a
methodological process. In his book Against Method he argues that scientific progress is not the result of
applying any particular method. In essence, he says that for any specific method or norm of science, one can
find a historic episode where violating it has contributed to the progress of science. Thus, if believers in
scientific method wish to express a single universally valid rule, Feyerabend jokingly suggests, it should be
'anything goes'.[113] Criticisms such as his led to the strong programme, a radical approach to the sociology of
science.
The postmodernist critiques of science have themselves been the subject of intense controversy. This ongoing
debate, known as the science wars, is the result of conflicting values and assumptions between the
postmodernist and realist camps. Whereas postmodernists assert that scientific knowledge is simply another
discourse (note that this term has special meaning in this context) and not representative of any form of
fundamental truth, realists in the scientific community maintain that scientific knowledge does reveal real and
fundamental truths about reality. Many books have been written by scientists which take on this problem and
challenge the assertions of the postmodernists while defending science as a legitimate method of deriving
truth.[114]
Role of chance in discovery
Somewhere between 33% and 50% of all scientific discoveries are estimated to have been stumbled upon,
rather than sought out. This may explain why scientists so often express that they were lucky.[115] Louis Pasteur
is credited with the famous saying that "Luck favours the prepared mind", but some psychologists have begun
to study what it means to be 'prepared for luck' in the scientific context. Research is showing that scientists are
taught various heuristics that tend to harness chance and the unexpected.[115][116] This is what Nassim Nicholas
Taleb calls "Anti-fragility"; while some systems of investigation are fragile in the face of human error, human
bias, and randomness, the scientific method is more than resistant or tough – it actually benefits from such
randomness in many ways (it is anti-fragile). Taleb believes that the more anti-fragile the system, the more it
will flourish in the real world.[23]
Psychologist Kevin Dunbar says the process of discovery often starts with researchers finding bugs in their
experiments. These unexpected results lead researchers to try to fix what they think is an error in their method.
Eventually, the researcher decides the error is too persistent and systematic to be a coincidence. The highly
controlled, cautious and curious aspects of the scientific method are thus what make it well suited for
identifying such persistent systematic errors. At this point, the researcher will begin to think of theoretical
explanations for the error, often seeking the help of colleagues across different domains of expertise.[115][116]
History
The history of scientific method considers changes in the methodology of scientific
inquiry, as distinct from the history of science itself. The development of rules for
scientific reasoning has not been straightforward; scientific method has been the
subject of intense and recurring debate throughout the history of science, and
eminent natural philosophers and scientists have argued for the primacy of one or
another approach to establishing scientific knowledge. Despite the disagreements
about approaches, scientific method has advanced in definite steps. Rationalist
explanations of nature, including atomism, appeared both in ancient Greece in the
thought of Leucippus and Democritus, and in ancient India, in the Nyaya,
Vaisesika and Buddhist schools, while Charvaka materialism rejected inference as
a source of knowledge in favour of an empiricism that was always subject to
doubt. Aristotle pioneered scientific method in ancient Greece alongside his
Aristotle, 384–322 BCE.
empirical biology and his work on logic, rejecting a purely deductive framework in
"As regards his method,
favour of generalisations made from observations of nature. Important debates in
Aristotle is recognized as
the history of scientific method center on rationalism, especially as advocated by
the inventor of scientific
René Descartes, inductivism, which rose to particular prominence with Isaac
method because of his
Newton and his followers, and hypothetico-deductivism, which came to the fore in
refined analysis of
the early 19th century. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a debate over
logical implications
realism vs. antirealism was conducted as powerful scientific theories extended
contained in
beyond the realm of the observable, while in the mid-20th century, prominent
demonstrative discourse,
philosophers such as Paul Feyerabend argued against any universal rules of science
which goes well beyond
at all.[118] natural logic and does not
owe anything to the ones
Relationship with mathematics who philosophized
before him." – Riccardo
Science is the process of gathering, comparing, and evaluating proposed models Pozzo[117]
against observables. A model can be a simulation, mathematical or chemical
formula, or set of proposed steps. Science is like mathematics in that researchers in
both disciplines can clearly distinguish what is known from what is unknown at each stage of discovery.
Models, in both science and mathematics, need to be internally consistent and also ought to be falsifiable
(capable of disproof). In mathematics, a statement need not yet be proven; at such a stage, that statement would
be called a conjecture. But when a statement has attained mathematical proof, that statement gains a kind of
immortality which is highly prized by mathematicians, and for which some mathematicians devote their
lives.[119]
Mathematical work and scientific work can inspire each other.[120] For example, the technical concept of time
arose in science, and timelessness was a hallmark of a mathematical topic. But today, the Poincaré conjecture
has been proven using time as a mathematical concept in which objects can flow (see Ricci flow).
Nevertheless, the connection between mathematics and reality (and so science to the extent it describes reality)
remains obscure. Eugene Wigner's paper, The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural
Sciences, is a very well known account of the issue from a Nobel Prize-winning physicist. In fact, some
observers (including some well known mathematicians such as Gregory Chaitin, and others such as Lakoff and
Núñez) have suggested that mathematics is the result of practitioner bias and human limitation (including
cultural ones), somewhat like the post-modernist view of science.
George Pólya's work on problem solving,[121] the construction of mathematical proofs, and heuristic[122][123]
show that the mathematical method and the scientific method differ in detail, while nevertheless resembling
each other in using iterative or recursive steps.
Mathematical method Scientific method

1 Understanding Characterization from experience and observation
2 Analysis Hypothesis: a proposed explanation
3 Synthesis Deduction: prediction from the hypothesis
4 Review/Extend Test and experiment
In Pólya's view, understanding involves restating unfamiliar definitions in your own words, resorting to
geometrical figures, and questioning what we know and do not know already; analysis, which Pólya takes from
Pappus,[124] involves free and heuristic construction of plausible arguments, working backward from the goal,
and devising a plan for constructing the proof; synthesis is the strict Euclidean exposition of step-by-step
details[125] of the proof; review involves reconsidering and re-examining the result and the path taken to it.
Gauss, when asked how he came about his theorems, once replied "durch planmässiges Tattonieren" (through
systematic palpable experimentation).[126]
Imre Lakatos argued that mathematicians actually use contradiction, criticism and revision as principles for
improving their work.[127] In like manner to science, where truth is sought, but certainty is not found, in Proofs
and refutations (1976), what Lakatos tried to establish was that no theorem of informal mathematics is final or
perfect. This means that we should not think that a theorem is ultimately true, only that no counterexample has
yet been found. Once a counterexample, i.e. an entity contradicting/not explained by the theorem is found, we
adjust the theorem, possibly extending the domain of its validity. This is a continuous way our knowledge
accumulates, through the logic and process of proofs and refutations. (If axioms are given for a branch of
mathematics, however, Lakatos claimed that proofs from those axioms were tautological, i.e. logically true, by
rewriting them, as did Poincaré (Proofs and Refutations, 1976).)
Lakatos proposed an account of mathematical knowledge based on Polya's idea of heuristics. In Proofs and
Refutations, Lakatos gave several basic rules for finding proofs and counterexamples to conjectures. He
thought that mathematical 'thought experiments' are a valid way to discover mathematical conjectures and
proofs.[128]
Relationship with statistics

The scientific method has been extremely successful in bringing the world out of medieval thinking, especially
once it was combined with industrial processes.[129] However, when the scientific method employs statistics as
part of its arsenal, there are mathematical and practical issues that can have a deleterious effect on the reliability
of the output of scientific methods. This is described in a popular 2005 scientific paper "Why Most Published
Research Findings Are False" by John Ioannidis.[130]
The particular points raised are statistical ("The smaller the studies conducted in a scientific field, the less likely
the research findings are to be true" and "The greater the flexibility in designs, definitions, outcomes, and
analytical modes in a scientific field, the less likely the research findings are to be true.") and economical ("The
greater the financial and other interests and prejudices in a scientific field, the less likely the research findings
are to be true" and "The hotter a scientific field (with more scientific teams involved), the less likely the
research findings are to be true.") Hence: "Most research findings are false for most research designs and for
most fields" and "As shown, the majority of modern biomedical research is operating in areas with very low
pre- and poststudy probability for true findings." However: "Nevertheless, most new discoveries will continue
to stem from hypothesis-generating research with low or very low pre-study odds," which means that *new*
discoveries will come from research that, when that research started, had low or very low odds (a low or very
low chance) of succeeding. Hence, if the scientific method is used to expand the frontiers of knowledge,
research into areas that are outside the mainstream will yield most new discoveries.
See also
Armchair theorizing Logic Replication crisis
Contingency Historical method Social research
Empirical limits in science Philosophical Strong inference
Evidence-based medicine methodology Testability
Fuzzy logic Scholarly method Verificationism
Information theory Operationalization
Quantitative research
Logic Replication crisis
Problems and issues
Holism in science Philosophical skepticism Skeptical hypotheses
Junk science Poverty of the stimulus Underdetermination
List of cognitive biases Problem of induction
Normative science Reference class problem
History, philosophy, sociology
Epistemology Normal science Sociology of scientific

Epistemic truth Post-normal science knowledge
Mertonian norms Science studies
Normal science Sociology of scientific
Notes
1. Garland, Jr., Theodore. "The Scientific Method as an Ongoing Process" (http://idea.ucr.edu/documents/flash/scientifi
c_method/story.htm). U C Riverside. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160819164005/http://idea.ucr.edu/doc
uments/flash/scientific_method/story.htm) from the original on 19 Aug 2016.
2. Goldhaber & Nieto 2010, p. 940
3. "[4] Rules for the study of natural philosophy", Newton transl 1999, pp. 794–96, after Book 3, The System of the
World.
4. "scientific method", Oxford Dictionaries: British and World English (http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/e
nglish/scientific-method), 2016, retrieved 28 May 2016
5. The Scientific Method by Science Made Simple. (n.d.). Retrieved November 08, 2016, from
http://www.sciencemadesimple.com/scientific_method.html
6. Peirce, Charles Sanders (1908). A Neglected Argument for the Reality of God. 7. Wikisource. pp. 90–112. with
added notes. Reprinted with previously unpublished part, Collected Papers v. 6, paragraphs 452–85, The Essential
Peirce v. 2, pp. 434–50, and elsewhere.
7. See, for example, Galileo 1638. His thought experiments disprove Aristotle's physics of falling bodies, in Two New
Sciences.
8. Popper 1959:273
9. Karl R. Popper, Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge, Routledge, 2003 ISBN 0-415-
28594-1
10. Gauch, Hugh G. (2003). Scientific Method in Practice (https://books.google.com/?id=iVkugqNG9dAC) (Reprint

ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 3. ISBN 9780521017084. "The scientific method 'is often misrepresented as a
fixed sequence of steps,' rather than being seen for what it truly is, 'a highly variable and creative process' (AAAS
2000:18). The claim here is that science has general principles that must be mastered to increase productivity and
enhance perspective, not that these principles provide a simple and automated sequence of steps to follow."
11. History of Inductive Science (1837), and in Philosophy of Inductive Science (1840)
12. Smolin, Lee. "There is No Scientific Method" (http://bigthink.com/in-their-own-words/there-is-no-scientific-
method). Retrieved 2016-06-07.
13. Nola, Robert (2001). After Popper, Kuhn and Feyerabend. Recent Issues in Theories of Scientific Method. Springer
Science & Business Media. p. "Introduction". ISBN 1402002467.
14. Jim Al-Khalili (4 January 2009). "The 'first true scientist' " (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7810846.stm). BBC News.
15. Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa (2010). Mind, Brain, and Education Science: A Comprehensive Guide to the New Brain-
Based Teaching. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 39. ISBN 9780393706079. "Alhazen (or Al-Haytham; 965–1039 CE)
was perhaps one of the greatest physicists of all times and a product of the Islamic Golden Age or Islamic
Renaissance (7th–13th centuries). He made significant contributions to anatomy, astronomy, engineering,
mathematics, medicine, ophthalmology, philosophy, physics, psychology, and visual perception and is primarily
attributed as the inventor of the scientific method, for which author Bradley Steffens (2006) describes him as the
"first scientist"."
16. Peirce, C. S., Collected Papers v. 1, paragraph 74.
17. Albert Einstein, "On the Method of Theoretical Physics", in Essays in Science (Dover, 2009 [1934]), pp. 12-21.
18. " The thesis of this book, as set forth in Chapter One, is that there are general principles applicable to all the
sciences." __ Gauch 2003, p. xv
19. Peirce, Charles Sanders (1877). The Fixation of Belief. 12. Wikisource. pp. 1–15..
20. Gauch 2003, p. 1 The scientific method can function in the same way; This is the principle of noncontradiction.
21. Francis Bacon(1629) New Organon, lists 4 types of error: Idols of the tribe (error due to the entire human race), the
cave (errors due to an individual's own intellect), the marketplace (errors due to false words), and the theater (errors
due to incredulous acceptance).
22. Peirce, C. S., Collected Papers v. 5, in paragraph 582, from 1898:
... [rational] inquiry of every type, fully carried out, has the vital power of self-correction and of
growth. This is a property so deeply saturating its inmost nature that it may truly be said that there is
but one thing needful for learning the truth, and that is a hearty and active desire to learn what is true.
23. Taleb contributes a brief description of anti-fragility, http://www.edge.org/q2011/q11_3.html

24. For example, the concept of falsification (first proposed in 1934) formalizes the attempt to disprove hypotheses
rather than prove them. Karl R. Popper (1963), 'The Logic of Scientific Discovery'. The Logic of Scientific Discovery
(http://www.cosmopolitanuniversity.ac/library/LogicofScientificDiscoveryPopper1959.pdf) pp. 17–20, 249–52, 437–
38, and elsewhere.
Leon Lederman, for teaching physics first, illustrates how to avoid confirmation bias: Ian Shelton, in Chile,
was initially skeptical that supernova 1987a was real, but possibly an artifact of instrumentation (null
hypothesis), so he went outside and disproved his null hypothesis by observing SN 1987a with the naked eye.
The Kamiokande experiment, in Japan, independently observed neutrinos from SN 1987a at the same time.
25. Lindberg 2007, pp. 2–3: "There is a danger that must be avoided. ... If we wish to do justice to the historical
enterprise, we must take the past for what it was. And that means we must resist the temptation to scour the past for
examples or precursors of modern science. ...My concern will be with the beginnings of scientific theories, the
methods by which they were formulated, and the uses to which they were put; ... "
26. "How does light travel through transparent bodies? Light travels through transparent bodies in straight lines only....
We have explained this exhaustively in our Book of Optics. But let us now mention something to prove this
convincingly: the fact that light travels in straight lines is clearly observed in the lights which enter into dark rooms
through holes.... [T]he entering light will be clearly observable in the dust which fills the air. – Alhazen, Treatise on
Light (‫)رﺳﺎﻟﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻀﻮء‬, translated into English from German by M. Schwarz, from "Abhandlung über das Licht" (htt
p://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/dmg/periodical/pageview/30949), J. Baarmann (editor and translator from
Arabic to German, 1882) Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft Vol 36 as quoted in Sambursky
1974, p. 136.
He demonstrated his conjecture that "light travels through transparent bodies in straight lines only" by placing
a straight stick or a taut thread next to the light beam, as quoted in Sambursky 1974, p. 136 to prove that light
travels in a straight line.
David Hockney, (2001, 2006) in Secret Knowledge: rediscovering the lost techniques of the old masters ISBN
0-14-200512-6 (expanded edition) cites Alhazen several times as the likely source for the portraiture
technique using the camera obscura, which Hockney rediscovered with the aid of an optical suggestion from
Charles M. Falco. Kitab al-Manazir, which is Alhazen's Book of Optics, at that time denoted Opticae
Thesaurus, Alhazen Arabis, was translated from Arabic into Latin for European use as early as 1270. Hockney
cites Friedrich Risner's 1572 Basle edition of Opticae Thesaurus. Hockney quotes Alhazen as the first clear
description of the camera obscura in Hockney, p. 240.
"Truth is sought for its own sake. And those who are engaged upon the quest for anything for its own sake are not
interested in other things. Finding the truth is difficult, and the road to it is rough." – Alhazen (Ibn Al-Haytham 965 –
c. 1040) Critique of Ptolemy, translated by S. Pines, Actes X Congrès internationale d'histoire des sciences, Vol I
Ithaca 1962, as quoted in Sambursky 1974, p. 139. (This quotation is from Alhazen's critique of Ptolemy's books
Almagest, Planetary Hypotheses, and Optics as translated into English by A. Mark Smith (https://books.google.co
m/?id=mhLVHR5QAQkC&pg=PA59&dq=Opticae+thesaurus+alhazen).)
27. Galilei, Galileo (1638), Discorsi e Dimonstrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuoue scienze, Leida: Apresso gli
Elsevirri, ISBN 0-486-60099-8, Dover reprint of the 1914 Macmillan translation by Henry Crew and Alfonso de
Salvio of Two New Sciences, Galileo Galilei Linceo (1638). Additional publication information is from the collection
of first editions of the Library of Congress surveyed by Bruno 1989, pp. 261–64.
28. Godfrey-Smith 2003 p. 236.
29. Gauch 2003, p. 3
30. Schuster and Powers (2005), Translational and Experimental Clinical Research, Ch. 1. Link. (https://books.google.co
m/?id=C7pZftbI0ZMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Translational+and+Experimental+Clinical+Research) This chapter
also discusses the different types of research questions and how they are produced.
31. This phrasing is attributed to Marshall Nirenberg.
32. Note: for a discussion of multiple hypotheses, see Bayesian inference#Informal
33. McCarty1985
34. October 1951, as noted in McElheny 2004, p. 40:"That's what a helix should look like!" Crick exclaimed in delight
(This is the Cochran-Crick-Vand-Stokes theory of the transform of a helix).
35. June 1952, as noted in McElheny 2004, p. 43: Watson had succeeded in getting X-ray pictures of TMV showing a
diffraction pattern consistent with the transform of a helix.
36. Watson did enough work on Tobacco mosaic virus to produce the diffraction pattern for a helix, per Crick's work on
the transform of a helix. pp. 137–38, Horace Freeland Judson (1979) The Eighth Day of Creation ISBN 0-671-
22540-5
37. – Cochran W, Crick FHC and Vand V. (1952) "The Structure of Synthetic Polypeptides. I. The Transform of Atoms
on a Helix", Acta Crystallogr., 5, 581–86.
38. Friday, January 30, 1953. Tea time, as noted in McElheny 2004, p. 52: Franklin confronts Watson and his paper –
"Of course it [Pauling's pre-print] is wrong. DNA is not a helix." However, Watson then visits Wilkins' office, sees
photo 51, and immediately recognizes the diffraction pattern of a helical structure. But additional questions
remained, requiring additional iterations of their research. For example, the number of strands in the backbone of the
helix (Crick suspected 2 strands, but cautioned Watson to examine that more critically), the location of the base pairs
(inside the backbone or outside the backbone), etc. One key point was that they realized that the quickest way to
reach a result was not to continue a mathematical analysis, but to build a physical model.
39. "The instant I saw the picture my mouth fell open and my pulse began to race." – Watson 1968, p. 167 Page 168
shows the X-shaped pattern of the B-form of DNA, clearly indicating crucial details of its helical structure to Watson
and Crick.
McElheny 2004 p. 52 dates the Franklin-Watson confrontation as Friday, January 30, 1953. Later that
evening, Watson urges Wilkins to begin model-building immediately. But Wilkins agrees to do so only after
Franklin's departure.
40. Saturday, February 28, 1953, as noted in McElheny 2004, pp. 57–59: Watson found the base pairing mechanism
which explained Chargaff's rules using his cardboard models.
41. Galileo Galilei (1638) Two new sciences
42. Reconstruction of Galileo Galilei's experiment – the inclined plane (http://www.fyysika.ee/vorgustik/wp-content/uplo

ads/2011/11/Reconstruction-of-Galileo-Galilei.pdf)
43. In Two new sciences, there are three 'reviewers': Simplicio, Sagredo, and Salviati, who serve as foil, antagonist, and
protagonist. Galileo speaks for himself only briefly. But note that Einstein's 1905 papers were not peer reviewed
before their publication.
44. Fleck 1979, pp. xxvii–xxviii
45. "NIH Data Sharing Policy (http://grants.nih.gov/grants/policy/data_sharing/index.htm)."
46. Stanovich, Keith E. (2007). How to Think Straight About Psychology. Boston: Pearson Education. p. 123
47. Tow, David Hunter (2010). The Future of Life: A Unified Theory of Evolution (https://books.google.com/books?id=c
0wecGHSpTQC). Future of Life Series. Future of Life Media. p. 262. Retrieved 2016-12-11. "On further
examination however, the scientific method bears a striking similarity to the larger process of evolution itself. [...] Of
great significance is the evolutionary algorithm, which uses a simplified subset of the process of natural evolution
applied to find the solution to problems that are too complex to solve by traditional analytic methods. In essence it is
a process of accelerated and rigorous trial and error building on previous knowledge to refine an existing hypothesis,
or discarding it altogether to find a better model. [...] The evolutionary algorithm is a technique derived from the
evolution of knowledge processing applied within the context of science and technology, itself an outcome of
evolution. The scientific method continues to evolve through adaptive reward, trial and error and application of the
method to itself."
48. Brody 1993, pp. 44–45
49. Hall, B. K.; Hallgrímsson, B., eds. (2008). Strickberger's Evolution (http://www.jblearning.com/catalog/9780763700
669/) (4th ed.). Jones & Bartlett. p. 762. ISBN 0-7637-0066-5.
50. Cracraft, J.; Donoghue, M. J., eds. (2005). Assembling the tree of life (https://books.google.com/books?id=6lXTP0Y
U6_kC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Assembling+the+tree+of+life#v=onepage&q&f=false). Oxford University Press.
p. 592. ISBN 0-19-517234-5.
51. Needham & Wang 1954 p. 166 shows how the 'flying gallop' image propagated from China to the West.
52. "A myth is a belief given uncritical acceptance by members of a group ..." – Weiss, Business Ethics p. 15, as cited by
Ronald R. Sims (2003) Ethics and corporate social responsibility: why giants fall p. 21
53. Imre Lakatos (1976), Proofs and Refutations. Taleb 2007, p. 72 lists ways to avoid the narrative fallacy and
confirmation bias.
54. For more on the narrative fallacy, see also Fleck 1979, p. 27: "Words and ideas are originally phonetic and mental
equivalences of the experiences coinciding with them. ... Such proto-ideas are at first always too broad and
insufficiently specialized. ... Once a structurally complete and closed system of opinions consisting of many details
and relations has been formed, it offers enduring resistance to anything that contradicts it."
55. The scientific method requires testing and validation a posteriori before ideas are accepted. "Invariably one came up
against fundamental physical limits to the accuracy of measurement. ... The art of physical measurement seemed to
be a matter of compromise, of choosing between reciprocally related uncertainties. ... Multiplying together the
conjugate pairs of uncertainty limits mentioned, however, I found that they formed invariant products of not one but
two distinct kinds. ... The first group of limits were calculable a priori from a specification of the instrument. The
second group could be calculated only a posteriori from a specification of what was done with the instrument. ... In
the first case each unit [of information] would add one additional dimension (conceptual category), whereas in the
second each unit would add one additional atomic fact.", pp. 1–4: MacKay, Donald M. (1969), Information,
Mechanism, and Meaning, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-63-032-X
56. See the hypothethico-deductive method, for example, Godfrey-Smith 2003, p. 236.
57. Jevons 1874, pp. 265–66.
58. pp. 65, 73, 92, 398 – Andrew J. Galambos, Sic Itur ad Astra ISBN 0-88078-004-5(AJG learned scientific method
from Felix Ehrenhaft
59. Galileo 1638, pp. v–xii, 1–300
60. Brody 1993, pp. 10–24 calls this the "epistemic cycle": "The epistemic cycle starts from an initial model; iterations
of the cycle then improve the model until an adequate fit is achieved."
61. Iteration example: Chaldean astronomers such as Kidinnu compiled astronomical data. Hipparchus was to use this
data to calculate the precession of the Earth's axis. Fifteen hundred years after Kidinnu, Al-Batani, born in what is
now Turkey, would use the collected data and improve Hipparchus' value for the precession of the Earth's axis. Al-
Batani's value, 54.5 arc-seconds per year, compares well to the current value of 49.8 arc-seconds per year (26,000
years for Earth's axis to complete a circle around the Ecliptic pole).
62. Recursion example: the Earth is itself a magnet, with its own North and South Poles William Gilbert (in Latin 1600)
De Magnete, or On Magnetism and Magnetic Bodies. Translated from Latin to English, selection by Moulton &
Schifferes 1960, pp. 113–17. Gilbert created a terrella, a lodestone ground into a spherical shape, which served as
Gilbert's model for the Earth itself, as noted in Bruno 1989, p. 277.
63. "The foundation of general physics ... is experience. These ... everyday experiences we do not discover without
deliberately directing our attention to them. Collecting information about these is observation." – Hans Christian
Ørsted("First Introduction to General Physics" ¶13, part of a series of public lectures at the University of
Copenhagen. Copenhagen 1811, in Danish, printed by Johan Frederik Schulz. In Kirstine Meyer's 1920 edition of
Ørsted's works, vol.III pp. 151–90. ) "First Introduction to Physics: the Spirit, Meaning, and Goal of Natural
Science". Reprinted in German in 1822, Schweigger's Journal für Chemie und Physik 36, pp. 458–88, as translated
in Ørsted 1997, p. 292
64. "When it is not clear under which law of nature an effect or class of effect belongs, we try to fill this gap by means of
a guess. Such guesses have been given the name conjectures or hypotheses." – Hans Christian Ørsted(1811) "First
Introduction to General Physics" as translated in Ørsted 1997, p. 297.
65. "In general we look for a new law by the following process. First we guess it. ...", – Feynman 1965, p. 156
66. "... the statement of a law – A depends on B – always transcends experience." – Born 1949, p. 6
67. "The student of nature ... regards as his property the experiences which the mathematician can only borrow. This is
why he deduces theorems directly from the nature of an effect while the mathematician only arrives at them
circuitously." – Hans Christian Ørsted(1811) "First Introduction to General Physics" ¶17. as translated in Ørsted
1997, p. 297.
68. Salviati speaks: "I greatly doubt that Aristotle ever tested by experiment whether it be true that two stones, one
weighing ten times as much as the other, if allowed to fall, at the same instant, from a height of, say, 100 cubits,
would so differ in speed that when the heavier had reached the ground, the other would not have fallen more than 10
cubits." Two New Sciences (1638) (http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/109N/tns61.htm) – Galileo 1638, pp. 61–
62. A more extended quotation is referenced by Moulton & Schifferes 1960, pp. 80–81.
69. In the inquiry-based education paradigm, the stage of "characterization, observation, definition, ..." is more briefly
summed up under the rubric of a Question
70. "To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old problems from a new angle, requires creative imagination
and marks real advance in science." – Einstein & Infeld 1938, p. 92.
71. Crawford S, Stucki L (1990), "Peer review and the changing research record", "J Am Soc Info Science", vol. 41, pp.
223–28
72. See, e.g., Gauch 2003, esp. chapters 5–8
73. Andreas Vesalius, Epistola, Rationem, Modumque Propinandi Radicis Chynae Decocti (1546), 141. Quoted and
translated in C.D. O'Malley, Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, (1964), 116. As quoted by Bynum & Porter 2005, p. 597:
Andreas Vesalius, 597#1.
74. Crick, Francis (1994), The Astonishing Hypothesis ISBN 0-684-19431-7 p. 20
75. McElheny 2004 p. 34
76. Glen 1994, pp. 37–38.
77. John R. Platt (16 October 1964) Strong Inference (http://science.sciencemag.org/content/146/3642/347) Science vol
146 (3642) p.347 doi:10.1126/science.146.3642.347 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.146.3642.347)
78. "The structure that we propose is a three-chain structure, each chain being a helix" – Linus Pauling, as quoted on p.
157 by Horace Freeland Judson (1979), The Eighth Day of Creation ISBN 0-671-22540-5
79. McElheny 2004, pp. 49–50: January 28, 1953 – Watson read Pauling's pre-print, and realized that in Pauling's model,
DNA's phosphate groups had to be un-ionized. But DNA is an acid, which contradicts Pauling's model.
80. June 1952. as noted in McElheny 2004, p. 43: Watson had succeeded in getting X-ray pictures of TMV showing a
diffraction pattern consistent with the transform of a helix.
81. McElheny 2004 p. 68: Nature April 25, 1953.
82. In March 1917, the Royal Astronomical Society announced that on May 29, 1919, the occasion of a total eclipse of
the sun would afford favorable conditions for testing Einstein's General theory of relativity. One expedition, to
Sobral, Ceará, Brazil, and Eddington's expedition to the island of Principe yielded a set of photographs, which, when
compared to photographs taken at Sobral and at Greenwich Observatory showed that the deviation of light was
measured to be 1.69 arc-seconds, as compared to Einstein's desk prediction of 1.75 arc-seconds. – Antonina Vallentin
(1954), Einstein, as quoted by Samuel Rapport and Helen Wright (1965), Physics, New York: Washington Square
Press, pp. 294–95.
83. Mill, John Stuart, "A System of Logic", University Press of the Pacific, Honolulu, 2002, ISBN 1-4102-0252-6.
84. al-Battani, De Motu Stellarum translation from Arabic to Latin in 1116, as cited by "Battani, al-" (c. 858–929)
Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th. ed. Al-Battani is known for his accurate observations at al-Raqqah in Syria,
beginning in 877. His work includes measurement of the annual precession of the equinoxes.
85. McElheny 2004 p. 53: The weekend (January 31 – February 1) after seeing photo 51, Watson informed Bragg of the
X-ray diffraction image of DNA in B form. Bragg gave them permission to restart their research on DNA (that is,
model building).
86. McElheny 2004 p. 54: On Sunday February 8, 1953, Maurice Wilkes gave Watson and Crick permission to work on
models, as Wilkes would not be building models until Franklin left DNA research.
87. McElheny 2004 p. 56: Jerry Donohue, on sabbatical from Pauling's lab and visiting Cambridge, advises Watson that
textbook form of the base pairs was incorrect for DNA base pairs; rather, the keto form of the base pairs should be
used instead. This form allowed the bases' hydrogen bonds to pair 'unlike' with 'unlike', rather than to pair 'like' with
'like', as Watson was inclined to model, on the basis of the textbook statements. On February 27, 1953, Watson was
convinced enough to make cardboard models of the nucleotides in their keto form.
88. "Suddenly I became aware that an adenine-thymine pair held together by two hydrogen bonds was identical in shape
to a guanine-cytosine pair held together by at least two hydrogen bonds. ..." – Watson 1968, pp. 194–97.
McElheny 2004 p. 57 Saturday, February 28, 1953, Watson tried 'like with like' and admitted these base pairs
didn't have hydrogen bonds that line up. But after trying 'unlike with unlike', and getting Jerry Donohue's
approval, the base pairs turned out to be identical in shape (as Watson stated above in his 1968 Double Helix
memoir quoted above). Watson now felt confident enough to inform Crick. (Of course, 'unlike with unlike'
increases the number of possible codons, if this scheme were a genetic code.)
89. See, e.g., Physics Today, 59(1), p. 42. Richmann electrocuted in St. Petersburg (1753) (http://ptonline.aip.org/journal
s/doc/PHTOAD-ft/vol_59/iss_1/42_1.shtml?bypassSSO=1)
90. Aristotle, "Prior Analytics", Hugh Tredennick (trans.), pp. 181–531 in Aristotle, Volume 1, Loeb Classical Library,
William Heinemann, London, UK, 1938.
91. "What one does not in the least doubt one should not pretend to doubt; but a man should train himself to doubt," said
Peirce in a brief intellectual autobiography; see Ketner, Kenneth Laine (2009) "Charles Sanders Peirce:
Interdisciplinary Scientist" in The Logic of Interdisciplinarity). Peirce held that actual, genuine doubt originates
externally, usually in surprise, but also that it is to be sought and cultivated, "provided only that it be the weighty and
noble metal itself, and no counterfeit nor paper substitute"; in "Issues of Pragmaticism", The Monist, v. XV, n. 4, pp.
481–99, see p. 484 (https://archive.org/stream/monistquart15hegeuoft#page/484/mode/1up), and p. 491 (https://archi
ve.org/stream/monistquart15hegeuoft#page/491/mode/1up). (Reprinted in Collected Papers v. 5, paragraphs 438–63,
see 443 and 451).
92. But see Scientific method and religion.
93. Peirce (1898), "Philosophy and the Conduct of Life", Lecture 1 of the Cambridge (MA) Conferences Lectures,
published in Collected Papers v. 1, paragraphs 616–48 in part and in Reasoning and the Logic of Things, Ketner (ed.,
intro.) and Putnam (intro., comm.), pp. 105–22, reprinted in Essential Peirce v. 2, pp. 27–41.
94. " ... in order to learn, one must desire to learn ..." – Peirce (1899), "F.R.L." [First Rule of Logic], Collected Papers v.
1, paragraphs 135–40, "Eprint" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120106071421/http://www.princeton.edu/~batke/peir
ce/frl_99.htm). Archived from the original (http://www.princeton.edu/~batke/peirce/frl_99.htm) on January 6, 2012.
Retrieved 2012-01-06.
95. Peirce, Charles Sanders (1877). How to Make Our Ideas Clear. 12. Wikisource. pp. 286–302 wslink==How to
Make Our Ideas Clear.
96. Peirce (1868), "Some Consequences of Four Incapacities", Journal of Speculative Philosophy v. 2, n. 3, pp. 140–57.
Reprinted Collected Papers v. 5, paragraphs 264–317, The Essential Peirce v. 1, pp. 28–55, and elsewhere. Arisbe
Eprint (http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/bycsp/conseq/cn-frame.htm)
97. Peirce (1878), "The Doctrine of Chances", Popular Science Monthly v. 12, pp. 604–15, see pp. 610 (https://archive.or
g/stream/popscimonthly12yoummiss#page/618/mode/1up)-11 via Internet Archive. Reprinted Collected Papers v. 2,
paragraphs 645–68, Essential Peirce v. 1, pp. 142–54. "...death makes the number of our risks, the number of our
inferences, finite, and so makes their mean result uncertain. The very idea of probability and of reasoning rests on the
assumption that this number is indefinitely great. .... ...logicality inexorably requires that our interests shall not be
limited. .... Logic is rooted in the social principle."
98. Peirce (c. 1906), "PAP (Prolegomena for an Apology to Pragmatism)" (Manuscript 293, not the like-named article),
The New Elements of Mathematics (NEM) 4:319–20, see first quote under "Abduction (http://www.helsinki.fi/scienc
e/commens/terms/abduction.html)" at Commens Dictionary of Peirce's Terms.
99. Peirce, Carnegie application (L75, 1902), New Elements of Mathematics v. 4, pp. 37–38:
For it is not sufficient that a hypothesis should be a justifiable one. Any hypothesis which explains the
facts is justified critically. But among justifiable hypotheses we have to select that one which is suitable
for being tested by experiment.
100. Peirce (1902), Carnegie application, see MS L75.329330, from Draft D (http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/bycs
p/l75/ver1/l75v1-08.htm#m27) of Memoir 27:
Consequently, to discover is simply to expedite an event that would occur sooner or later, if we had not
troubled ourselves to make the discovery. Consequently, the art of discovery is purely a question of
economics. The economics of research is, so far as logic is concerned, the leading doctrine with
reference to the art of discovery. Consequently, the conduct of abduction, which is chiefly a question of
heuretic and is the first question of heuretic, is to be governed by economical considerations.
101. Peirce (1903), "Pragmatism – The Logic of Abduction", Collected Papers v. 5, paragraphs 195–205, especially 196.
Eprint (http://www.textlog.de/7663.html).
102. Peirce, "On the Logic of Drawing Ancient History from Documents", Essential Peirce v. 2, see pp. 107–09. On
Twenty Questions, p. 109:
Thus, twenty skillful hypotheses will ascertain what 200,000 stupid ones might fail to do.
103. Peirce (1878), "The Probability of Induction", Popular Science Monthly, v. 12, pp. 705–18, see 718 (https://books.go
ogle.com/?id=ZKMVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA718) Google Books; 718 (https://archive.org/stream/popscimonthly12you
mmiss#page/728/mode/1up) via Internet Archive. Reprinted often, including (Collected Papers v. 2, paragraphs 669–
93), (The Essential Peirce v. 1, pp. 155–69).
104. Peirce (1905 draft "G" of "A Neglected Argument"), "Crude, Quantitative, and Qualitative Induction", Collected
Papers v. 2, paragraphs 755–60, see 759. Find under "Induction (http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/terms/indu
ction.html)" at Commens Dictionary of Peirce's Terms.
105. . Brown, C. (2005) Overcoming Barriers to Use of Promising Research Among Elite Middle East Policy Groups,
Journal of Social Behaviour and Personality, Select Press.
106. Smaldino, PE; McElreath, R. (2016-09-21). "The natural selection of bad science". R. Soc. open sci. 3: 160384. 3.
doi:10.1098/rsos.160384 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsos.160384).
107. Einstein, Albert (1936, 1956) One may say "the eternal mystery of the world is its comprehensibility." From the
article "Physics and Reality" (1936), reprinted in Out of My Later Years (1956). 'It is one of the great realizations of
Immanuel Kant that the setting up of a real external world would be senseless without this comprehensibility.'
108. Thurs, Daniel P. (2015), "That the scientific method accurately reflects what scientists actually do", in Numbers,
Ronald L.; Kampourakis, Kostas, Newton's Apple and Other Myths about Science (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=pWouCwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=newton's+apple+and+other+myths+about+science&hl=en&sa=X&
ved=0ahUKEwjSkdPPiPrKAhVINSYKHZ5nAj8Q6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=newton's%20apple%20and%20othe
r%20myths%20about%20science&f=false), Harvard University Press, pp. 210–18
109. Hanson, Norwood (1958), Patterns of Discovery, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-05197-5
110. Kuhn 1962, p. 113 ISBN 978-1-4432-5544-8
111. Feyerabend, Paul K (1960) "Patterns of Discovery" The Philosophical Review (1960) vol. 69 (2) pp. 247–52
112. Kuhn, Thomas S., "The Function of Measurement in Modern Physical Science", ISIS 52(2), 161–93, 1961.
113. Feyerabend, Paul K., Against Method, Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge, 1st published, 1975.
Reprinted, Verso, London, UK, 1978.
114. Higher Superstition: The Academic Left and Its Quarrels with Science, The Johns Hopkins University Press,
1997
Fashionable Nonsense: Postmodern Intellectuals' Abuse of Science, Picador; 1st Picador USA Pbk. Ed
edition, 1999
The Sokal Hoax: The Sham That Shook the Academy, University of Nebraska Press, 2000 ISBN 0-8032-7995-
7
A House Built on Sand: Exposing Postmodernist Myths About Science, Oxford University Press, 2000
Intellectual Impostures, Economist Books, 2003
115. Dunbar, K., & Fugelsang, J. (2005). Causal thinking in science: How scientists and students interpret the unexpected.
In M. E. Gorman, R. D. Tweney, D. Gooding & A. Kincannon (Eds.), Scientific and Technical Thinking (pp. 57–79).
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
116. Oliver, J.E. (1991) Ch2. of The incomplete guide to the art of discovery. New York:NY, Columbia University Press.
117. Riccardo Pozzo (2004) The impact of Aristotelianism on modern philosophy (https://books.google.com/?id=vayp8jxc
Pr0C&pg=PA41). CUA Press. p. 41. ISBN 0-8132-1347-9
118. Achinstein, Peter (2004). General Introduction. Science Rules: A Historical Introduction to Scientific Methods. Johns
Hopkins University Press. pp. 1–5. ISBN 0-8018-7943-4.
119. "When we are working intensively, we feel keenly the progress of our work; we are elated when our progress is
rapid, we are depressed when it is slow." – the mathematician Pólya 1957, p. 131 in the section on 'Modern heuristic'.
120. "Philosophy [i.e., physics] is written in this grand book – I mean the universe – which stands continually open to our
gaze, but it cannot be understood unless one first learns to comprehend the language and interpret the characters in
which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other
geometrical figures, without which it is humanly impossible to understand a single word of it; without these, one is
wandering around in a dark labyrinth." – Galileo Galilei, Il Saggiatore (The Assayer, 1623), as translated by Stillman
Drake (1957), Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo pp. 237–38, as quoted by di Francia 1981, p. 10.
121. Pólya 1957 2nd ed.
122. George Pólya (1954), Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume I: Induction and Analogy in Mathematics,
123. George Pólya (1954), Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume II: Patterns of Plausible Reasoning.
124. Pólya 1957, p. 142
125. Pólya 1957, p. 144
126. Mackay 1991 p. 100
127. See the development, by generations of mathematicians, of Euler's formula for polyhedra as documented by Lakatos,
Imre (1976), Proofs and refutations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-29038-4
128. Lakatos, Imre (Worrall & Zahar, eds. 1976) Proofs and Refutations, p. 55
129. Rosenberg, Nathan; Luther Earle Birdzell; Mitchell, Glenn William. How the West grew Rich. Popular Prakashan,
1986. [1] (http://vedpuriswar.org/Book_Review/Economics/How%20the%20West%20grew%20rich.pdf)
130. Ioannidis, John P. A. (2005-08-01). "Why Most Published Research Findings Are False" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.g
ov/pmc/articles/PMC1182327). PLoS Medicine. 2 (8). ISSN 1549-1277 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1549-1277).
PMC 1182327 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1182327) . PMID 16060722 (https://www.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/pubmed/16060722). doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124 (https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.002012
4).
References
Born, Max (1949), Natural Philosophy of Cause and Chance, Peter Smith, also published by Dover, 1964. From the
Waynflete Lectures, 1948. On the web. N.B.: the web version does not have the 3 addenda by Born, 1950, 1964, in
which he notes that all knowledge is subjective. Born then proposes a solution in Appendix 3 (1964) (https://archive.
org/stream/naturalphilosoph032159mbp/naturalphilosoph032159mbp_djvu.txt)
Brody, Thomas A. (1993), The Philosophy Behind Physics, Springer Verlag, ISBN 0-387-55914-0. (Luis de la Peña
and Peter E. Hodgson, eds.)
Bruno, Leonard C. (1989), The Landmarks of Science, ISBN 0-8160-2137-6
Bynum, W.F.; Porter, Roy (2005), Oxford Dictionary of Scientific Quotations, Oxford, ISBN 0-19-858409-1.
Dales, Richard C. (1973), The Scientific Achievement of the Middle Ages (The Middle Ages Series), University of
Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 9780812210576
di Francia, G. Toraldo (1981), The Investigation of the Physical World, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-
29925-X.
Einstein, Albert; Infeld, Leopold (1938), The Evolution of Physics: from early concepts to relativity and quanta, New
York: Simon and Schuster, ISBN 0-671-20156-5
Feynman, Richard (1965), The Character of Physical Law, Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, ISBN 0-262-56003-8.
Fleck, Ludwik (1979), Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact, Univ. of Chicago, ISBN 0-226-25325-2.
(written in German, 1935, Entstehung und Entwickelung einer wissenschaftlichen Tatsache: Einführung in die Lehre
vom Denkstil und Denkkollectiv) English translation, 1979 (https://books.google.com/?id=0KAGUpaUaGYC&prints
ec=frontcover&dq=Ludwik+Fleck)
Galileo (1638), Two New Sciences, Leiden: Lodewijk Elzevir, ISBN 0-486-60099-8 Translated from Italian to
English in 1914 by Henry Crew and Alfonso de Salvio. Introduction by Antonio Favaro. xxv+300 pages, index. New
York: Macmillan, with later reprintings by Dover.
Gauch, Hugh G., Jr. (2003), Scientific Method in Practice (https://books.google.com/?id=iVkugqNG9dAC),
Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-01708-4 435 pages
Glen, William (ed.) (1994), The Mass-Extinction Debates: How Science Works in a Crisis, Stanford, CA: Stanford
University Press, ISBN 0-8047-2285-4.
Godfrey-Smith, Peter (2003), Theory and Reality: An introduction to the philosophy of science, University of
Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-30063-3.
Goldhaber, Alfred Scharff; Nieto, Michael Martin (January–March 2010), "Photon and graviton mass limits", Rev.
Mod. Phys., American Physical Society, 82: 939, doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.82.939 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRev
ModPhys.82.939). pp. 939–79.
Jevons, William Stanley (1874), The Principles of Science: A Treatise on Logic and Scientific Method, Dover
Publications, ISBN 1-4304-8775-5. 1877, 1879. Reprinted with a foreword by Ernst Nagel, New York, NY, 1958.
Kuhn, Thomas S. (1962), The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. 2nd
edition 1970. 3rd edition 1996.
Lindberg, David C. (2007), The Beginnings of Western Science, University of Chicago Press 2nd edition 2007.
Mackay, Alan L. (ed.) (1991), Dictionary of Scientific Quotations, London: IOP Publishing Ltd, ISBN 0-7503-0106-
6
McElheny, Victor K. (2004), Watson & DNA: Making a scientific revolution, Basic Books, ISBN 0-7382-0866-3.
Moulton, Forest Ray; Schifferes, Justus J. (eds., Second Edition) (1960), The Autobiography of Science, Doubleday.
Needham, Joseph; Wang, Ling (王玲) (1954), Science and Civilisation in China, 1 Introductory Orientations,
Cambridge University Press
Newton, Isaac (1999) [1687, 1713, 1726], Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, University of California
Press, ISBN 0-520-08817-4, Third edition. From I. Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman's 1999 translation, 974 pages.
Ørsted, Hans Christian (1997), Selected Scientific Works of Hans Christian Ørsted, Princeton, ISBN 0-691-04334-5.
Translated to English by Karen Jelved, Andrew D. Jackson, and Ole Knudsen, (translators 1997).
Peirce, C. S. – see Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography.
Poincaré, Henri (1905), Science and Hypothesis Eprint (http://www.brocku.ca/MeadProject/Poincare/Poincare_1905
_toc.html)
Pólya, George (1957), How to Solve It, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-4871878302, OCLC 706968824 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/oclc/706968824) (reprinted 2009)
Popper, Karl R. (1959), The Logic of Scientific Discovery 1934, 1959.
Sambursky, Shmuel (ed.) (1974), Physical Thought from the Presocratics to the Quantum Physicists, Pica Press,
ISBN 0-87663-712-8.
Sanches, Francisco; Limbrick, Elaine. Introduction, Notes, and Bibliography; Thomson, Douglas F.S. Latin text
established, annotated, and translated. (1988), That Nothing is Known, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
ISBN 0-521-35077-8 Critical edition.
Taleb, Nassim Nicholas (2007), The Black Swan, Random House, ISBN 978-1-4000-6351-2
Watson, James D. (1968), The Double Helix, New York: Atheneum, Library of Congress card number 68-16217.
Further reading
Bauer, Henry H., Scientific Literacy and the Myth of the Scientific Method, University of Illinois Press, Champaign,
IL, 1992
Beveridge, William I. B., The Art of Scientific Investigation, Heinemann, Melbourne, Australia, 1950.
Bernstein, Richard J., Beyond Objectivism and Relativism: Science, Hermeneutics, and Praxis, University of
Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, PA, 1983.
Brody, Baruch A. and Capaldi, Nicholas, Science: Men, Methods, Goals: A Reader: Methods of Physical Science (htt
ps://books.google.com/?id=d1heAAAAIAAJ), W. A. Benjamin, 1968
Brody, Baruch A., and Grandy, Richard E., Readings in the Philosophy of Science, 2nd edition, Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1989.
Burks, Arthur W., Chance, Cause, Reason – An Inquiry into the Nature of Scientific Evidence, University of Chicago
Press, Chicago, IL, 1977.
Alan Chalmers. What is this thing called science?. Queensland University Press and Open University Press, 1976.
Crick, Francis (1988), What Mad Pursuit: A Personal View of Scientific Discovery, New York: Basic Books,
ISBN 0-465-09137-7.
Crombie, A. C. (1953), Robert Grosseteste and the Origins of Experimental Science 1100–1700, Oxford
Dewey, John, How We Think, D.C. Heath, Lexington, MA, 1910. Reprinted, Prometheus Books, Buffalo, NY, 1991.
Earman, John (ed.), Inference, Explanation, and Other Frustrations: Essays in the Philosophy of Science, University
of California Press, Berkeley & Los Angeles, CA, 1992.
Fraassen, Bas C. van, The Scientific Image, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 1980.
Franklin, James (2009), What Science Knows: And How It Knows It, New York: Encounter Books, ISBN 1-59403-
207-6.
Gadamer, Hans-Georg, Reason in the Age of Science, Frederick G. Lawrence (trans.), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA,
1981.
Giere, Ronald N. (ed.), Cognitive Models of Science, vol. 15 in 'Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science',
University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN, 1992.
Hacking, Ian, Representing and Intervening, Introductory Topics in the Philosophy of Natural Science, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1983.
Heisenberg, Werner, Physics and Beyond, Encounters and Conversations, A.J. Pomerans (trans.), Harper and Row,
New York, NY 1971, pp. 63–64.
Holton, Gerald, Thematic Origins of Scientific Thought, Kepler to Einstein, 1st edition 1973, revised edition,
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1988.
Kuhn, Thomas S., The Essential Tension, Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change, University of Chicago
Press, Chicago, IL, 1977.
Latour, Bruno, Science in Action, How to Follow Scientists and Engineers through Society, Harvard University
Press, Cambridge, MA, 1987.
Losee, John, A Historical Introduction to the Philosophy of Science, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 1972.
2nd edition, 1980.
Maxwell, Nicholas, The Comprehensibility of the Universe: A New Conception of Science, Oxford University Press,
Oxford, 1998. Paperback 2003.
McCarty, Maclyn (1985), The Transforming Principle: Discovering that genes are made of DNA, New York: W. W.
Norton, p. 252, ISBN 0-393-30450-7. Memoir of a researcher in the Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment.
McComas, William F., ed. "The Principal Elements of the Nature of Science: Dispelling the Myths" (http://coehp.uar
k.edu/pase/TheMythsOfScience.pdf) (PDF). (189 KB), from The Nature of Science in Science Education, pp. 53–70,
Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands 1998.
Misak, Cheryl J., Truth and the End of Inquiry, A Peircean Account of Truth, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK,
1991.
Piattelli-Palmarini, Massimo (ed.), Language and Learning, The Debate between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky,
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1980.
Popper, Karl R., Unended Quest, An Intellectual Autobiography, Open Court, La Salle, IL, 1982.
Putnam, Hilary, Renewing Philosophy, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1992.
Rorty, Richard, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1979.
Salmon, Wesley C., Four Decades of Scientific Explanation, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN, 1990.
Shimony, Abner, Search for a Naturalistic World View: Vol. 1, Scientific Method and Epistemology, Vol. 2, Natural
Science and Metaphysics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1993.
Thagard, Paul, Conceptual Revolutions, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1992.
Ziman, John (2000). Real Science: what it is, and what it means. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
External links
Andersen, Anne; Hepburn, Brian. "Scientific Method" (https://pla
Wikibooks has a book on
to.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-method/). Stanford Encyclopedia
the topic of: The Scientific
of Philosophy. Method
"Confirmation and Induction" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/conf-ind).
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Scientific method (https://philpapers.org/browse/scientific-method) at PhilPapers
Scientific method (https://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/idea/1916) at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
An Introduction to Science: Scientific Thinking and a scientific method (http://www.geo.sunysb.edu/esp/
files/scientific-method.html) by Steven D. Schafersman.
Introduction to the scientific method (http://teacher.nsrl.rochester.edu/phy_labs/AppendixE/AppendixE.ht
ml) at the University of Rochester
Theory-ladenness (http://www.galilean-library.org/theory.html) by Paul Newall at The Galilean Library
Lecture on Scientific Method by Greg Anderson (https://web.archive.org/web/20060428080832/http://pa
sadena.wr.usgs.gov/office/ganderson/es10/lectures/lecture01/lecture01.html)
Using the scientific method for designing science fair projects (http://www.sciencemadesimple.com/scien
tific_method.html)
Scientific Methods an online book by Richard D. Jarrard (http://emotionalcompetency.com/sci/booktoc.ht
ml)
Richard Feynman on the Key to Science (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b240PGCMwV0) (one
minute, three seconds), from the Cornell Lectures.
Lectures on the Scientific Method (http://www.dbskeptic.com/2010/03/14/what-it-means-to-be-scientific
ally-proven/) by Nick Josh Karean, Kevin Padian, Michael Shermer and Richard Dawkins
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&oldid=791869994"
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7/19/2017 Atom - Wikipedia
Atom
An atom is the smallest constituent unit of ordinary

matter that has the properties of a chemical element. Helium atom
Every solid, liquid, gas, and plasma is composed of
neutral or ionized atoms. Atoms are very small; typical
sizes are around 100 picometers (a ten-billionth of a
meter, in the short scale).
Atoms are small enough that attempting to predict their

behavior using classical physics – as if they were billiard
balls, for example – gives noticeably incorrect
predictions due to quantum effects. Through the
development of physics, atomic models have
incorporated quantum principles to better explain and
predict the behavior.
Every atom is composed of a nucleus and one or more

electrons bound to the nucleus. The nucleus is made of
one or more protons and typically a similar number of
neutrons. Protons and neutrons are called nucleons. More
than 99.94% of an atom's mass is in the nucleus. The
protons have a positive electric charge, the electrons have An illustration of the helium atom, depicting the nucleus
(pink) and the electron cloud distribution (black). The
a negative electric charge, and the neutrons have no
nucleus (upper right) in helium-4 is in reality spherically
electric charge. If the number of protons and electrons symmetric and closely resembles the electron cloud,
are equal, that atom is electrically neutral. If an atom has although for more complicated nuclei this is not always the
more or fewer electrons than protons, then it has an case. The black bar is one angstrom (10−10 m or 100 pm).
overall negative or positive charge, respectively, and it is Classification
called an ion.
Smallest recognized division of a chemical
The electrons of an atom are attracted to the protons in an element
atomic nucleus by this electromagnetic force. The Properties
protons and neutrons in the nucleus are attracted to each
other by a different force, the nuclear force, which is Mass range: 1.67 × 10−27 to 4.52 × 10−25 kg
usually stronger than the electromagnetic force repelling Electric
the positively charged protons from one another. Under zero (neutral), or ion charge
charge:
certain circumstances, the repelling electromagnetic force Diameter 62 pm (He) to 520 pm (Cs)
becomes stronger than the nuclear force, and nucleons range: (data page)
can be ejected from the nucleus, leaving behind a Electrons and a compact nucleus
different element: nuclear decay resulting in nuclear Components:
of protons and neutrons
transmutation.
The number of protons in the nucleus defines to what chemical element the atom belongs: for example, all
copper atoms contain 29 protons. The number of neutrons defines the isotope of the element. The number of
electrons influences the magnetic properties of an atom. Atoms can attach to one or more other atoms by
chemical bonds to form chemical compounds such as molecules. The ability of atoms to associate and
dissociate is responsible for most of the physical changes observed in nature and is the subject of the discipline
of chemistry.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom 1/24
Contents
1 History of atomic theory
1.1 Atoms in philosophy
1.2 First evidence-based theory
1.3 Brownian motion
1.4 Discovery of the electron
1.5 Discovery of the nucleus
1.6 Discovery of isotopes
1.7 Bohr model
1.8 Chemical bonding explained
1.9 Further developments in quantum physics
1.10 Discovery of the neutron
1.11 Fission, high-energy physics and condensed matter
2 Structure
2.1 Subatomic particles
2.2 Nucleus
2.3 Electron cloud
3 Properties
3.1 Nuclear properties
3.2 Mass
3.3 Shape and size
3.4 Radioactive decay
3.5 Magnetic moment
3.6 Energy levels
3.7 Valence and bonding behavior
3.8 States
4 Identification
5 Origin and current state
5.1 Formation
5.2 Earth
5.3 Rare and theoretical forms
5.3.1 Superheavy elements
5.3.2 Exotic matter
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Sources
10 Further reading
11 External links
History of atomic theory

Atoms in philosophy
The idea that matter is made up of discrete units is a very old idea, appearing in many ancient cultures such as
Greece and India. The word "atom" was coined by ancient Greek philosophers. However, these ideas were
founded in philosophical and theological reasoning rather than evidence and experimentation. As a result, their
views on what atoms look like and how they behave were incorrect. They also could not convince everybody,
so atomism was but one of a number of competing theories on the nature of matter. It was not until the 19th
century that the idea was embraced and refined by scientists, when the blossoming science of chemistry
produced discoveries that only the concept of atoms could explain.
First evidence-based theory

In the early 1800s, John Dalton used the concept of atoms to explain
why elements always react in ratios of small whole numbers (the law of
multiple proportions). For instance, there are two types of tin oxide: one
is 88.1% tin and 11.9% oxygen and the other is 78.7% tin and 21.3%
oxygen (tin(II) oxide and tin dioxide respectively). This means that
100g of tin will combine either with 13.5g or 27g of oxygen. 13.5 and
27 form a ratio of 1:2, a ratio of small whole numbers. This common
pattern in chemistry suggested to Dalton that elements react in whole
number multiples of discrete units—in other words, atoms. In the case
of tin oxides, one tin atom will combine with either one or two oxygen
atoms.[1]
Various atoms and molecules as
Dalton also believed atomic theory could explain why water absorbs depicted in John Dalton's A New
different gases in different proportions. For example, he found that System of Chemical Philosophy
water absorbs carbon dioxide far better than it absorbs nitrogen.[2] (1808).
Dalton hypothesized this was due to the differences between the masses
and configurations of the gases' respective particles, and carbon dioxide
molecules (CO2) are heavier and larger than nitrogen molecules (N2).
Brownian motion
In 1827, botanist Robert Brown used a microscope to look at dust grains floating in water and discovered that
they moved about erratically, a phenomenon that became known as "Brownian motion". This was thought to be
caused by water molecules knocking the grains about. In 1905, Albert Einstein proved the reality of these
molecules and their motions by producing the first Statistical physics analysis of Brownian motion.[3][4][5]
French physicist Jean Perrin used Einstein's work to experimentally determine the mass and dimensions of
atoms, thereby conclusively verifying Dalton's atomic theory.[6]
Discovery of the electron
The physicist J. J. Thomson measured the mass of cathode rays, showing they were made of particles, but were
around 1800 times lighter than the lightest atom, hydrogen. Therefore, they were not atoms, but a new particle,
the first subatomic particle to be discovered, which he originally called "corpuscle" but was later named
electron, after particles postulated by George Johnstone Stoney in 1874. He also showed they were identical to
particles given off by photoelectric and radioactive materials.[7] It was quickly recognized that they are the
particles that carry electric currents in metal wires, and carry the negative electric charge within atoms.
Thomson was given the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for this work. Thus he overturned the belief that atoms are
the indivisible, ultimate particles of matter.[8] Thomson also incorrectly postulated that the low mass,
negatively charged electrons were distributed throughout the atom in a uniform sea of positive charge. This
became known as the plum pudding model.
Discovery of the nucleus
In 1909, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, under the direction of Ernest Rutherford, bombarded a metal foil
with alpha particles to observe how they scattered. They expected all the alpha particles to pass straight through
with little deflection, because Thomson's model said that the charges in the atom are so diffuse that their
electric fields could not affect the alpha particles much. However, Geiger and Marsden spotted alpha particles
being deflected by angles greater than 90°, which was supposed to be impossible according to Thomson's
model. To explain this, Rutherford proposed that the positive charge of the atom is concentrated in a tiny
nucleus at the center of the atom.[9] Rutherford compared his findings to one firing a 15-inch shell and it
coming back to hit the person who fired it.[10]
Discovery of isotopes
While experimenting with the products of radioactive decay, in 1913

radiochemist Frederick Soddy discovered that there appeared to be
more than one type of atom at each position on the periodic table.[11]
The term isotope was coined by Margaret Todd as a suitable name for
different atoms that belong to the same element. J.J. Thomson created a
technique for separating atom types through his work on ionized gases,
which subsequently led to the discovery of stable isotopes.[12]
Bohr model
In 1913 the physicist Niels Bohr proposed a model in which the

electrons of an atom were assumed to orbit the nucleus but could only
do so in a finite set of orbits, and could jump between these orbits only
in discrete changes of energy corresponding to absorption or radiation
of a photon.[13] This quantization was used to explain why the electrons
orbits are stable (given that normally, charges in acceleration, including
circular motion, lose kinetic energy which is emitted as electromagnetic
radiation, see synchrotron radiation) and why elements absorb and emit
electromagnetic radiation in discrete spectra.[14] The Geiger–Marsden experiment
Top: Expected results: alpha particles
Later in the same year Henry Moseley provided additional experimental
passing through the plum pudding
evidence in favor of Niels Bohr's theory. These results refined Ernest
model of the atom with negligible
Rutherford's and Antonius Van den Broek's model, which proposed that
deflection.
the atom contains in its nucleus a number of positive nuclear charges
Bottom: Observed results: a small
that is equal to its (atomic) number in the periodic table. Until these
portion of the particles were deflected
experiments, atomic number was not known to be a physical and
by the concentrated positive charge of
experimental quantity. That it is equal to the atomic nuclear charge
the nucleus.
remains the accepted atomic model today.[15]
Chemical bonding explained
Chemical bonds between atoms were now explained, by Gilbert Newton

Lewis in 1916, as the interactions between their constituent
electrons.[16] As the chemical properties of the elements were known to
largely repeat themselves according to the periodic law,[17] in 1919 the
American chemist Irving Langmuir suggested that this could be
explained if the electrons in an atom were connected or clustered in
some manner. Groups of electrons were thought to occupy a set of The Bohr model of the atom, with an
electron shells about the nucleus.[18] electron making instantaneous
"quantum leaps" from one orbit to
Further developments in quantum physics another. This model is obsolete.
The Stern–Gerlach experiment of 1922 provided further evidence of the quantum nature of the atom. When a
beam of silver atoms was passed through a specially shaped magnetic field, the beam was split based on the
direction of an atom's angular momentum, or spin. As this direction is random, the beam could be expected to
spread into a line. Instead, the beam was split into two parts, depending on whether the atomic spin was
oriented up or down.[19]
In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that all particles behave to an extent like waves. In 1926, Erwin
Schrödinger used this idea to develop a mathematical model of the atom that described the electrons as three-
dimensional waveforms rather than point particles. A consequence of using waveforms to describe particles is
that it is mathematically impossible to obtain precise values for both the position and momentum of a particle at
a given point in time; this became known as the uncertainty principle, formulated by Werner Heisenberg in
1926. In this concept, for a given accuracy in measuring a position one could only obtain a range of probable
values for momentum, and vice versa.[20] This model was able to explain observations of atomic behavior that
previous models could not, such as certain structural and spectral patterns of atoms larger than hydrogen. Thus,
the planetary model of the atom was discarded in favor of one that described atomic orbital zones around the
nucleus where a given electron is most likely to be observed.[21][22]
Discovery of the neutron
The development of the mass spectrometer allowed the mass of atoms to be measured with increased accuracy.
The device uses a magnet to bend the trajectory of a beam of ions, and the amount of deflection is determined
by the ratio of an atom's mass to its charge. The chemist Francis William Aston used this instrument to show
that isotopes had different masses. The atomic mass of these isotopes varied by integer amounts, called the
whole number rule.[23] The explanation for these different isotopes awaited the discovery of the neutron, an
uncharged particle with a mass similar to the proton, by the physicist James Chadwick in 1932. Isotopes were
then explained as elements with the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons within the
nucleus.[24]
Fission, high-energy physics and condensed matter
In 1938, the German chemist Otto Hahn, a student of Rutherford, directed neutrons onto uranium atoms
expecting to get transuranium elements. Instead, his chemical experiments showed barium as a product.[25][26]
A year later, Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch verified that Hahn's result were the first experimental
nuclear fission.[27][28] In 1944, Hahn received the Nobel prize in chemistry. Despite Hahn's efforts, the
contributions of Meitner and Frisch were not recognized.[29]
In the 1950s, the development of improved particle accelerators and particle detectors allowed scientists to
study the impacts of atoms moving at high energies.[30] Neutrons and protons were found to be hadrons, or
composites of smaller particles called quarks. The standard model of particle physics was developed that so far
has successfully explained the properties of the nucleus in terms of these sub-atomic particles and the forces
that govern their interactions.[31]
Structure
Subatomic particles
Though the word atom originally denoted a particle that cannot be cut into smaller particles, in modern
scientific usage the atom is composed of various subatomic particles. The constituent particles of an atom are
the electron, the proton and the neutron; all three are fermions. However, the hydrogen-1 atom has no neutrons
and the hydron ion has no electrons.
The electron is by far the least massive of these particles at 9.11 × 10−31 kg, with a negative electrical charge
and a size that is too small to be measured using available techniques.[32] It is the lightest particle with a
positive rest mass measured. Under ordinary conditions, electrons are bound to the positively charged nucleus
by the attraction created from opposite electric charges. If an atom has more or fewer electrons than its atomic
number, then it becomes respectively negatively or positively charged as a whole; a charged atom is called an
ion. Electrons have been known since the late 19th century, mostly thanks to J.J. Thomson; see history of
subatomic physics for details.
Protons have a positive charge and a mass 1,836 times that of the electron, at 1.6726 × 10−27 kg. The number of
protons in an atom is called its atomic number. Ernest Rutherford (1919) observed that nitrogen under alpha-
particle bombardment ejects what appeared to be hydrogen nuclei. By 1920 he had accepted that the hydrogen
nucleus is a distinct particle within the atom and named it proton.
Neutrons have no electrical charge and have a free mass of 1,839 times the mass of the electron,[33] or
1.6929 × 10−27 kg, the heaviest of the three constituent particles, but it can be reduced by the nuclear binding
energy. Neutrons and protons (collectively known as nucleons) have comparable dimensions—on the order of
2.5 × 10−15 m—although the 'surface' of these particles is not sharply defined.[34] The neutron was discovered
in 1932 by the English physicist James Chadwick.
In the Standard Model of physics, electrons are truly elementary particles with no internal structure. However,
both protons and neutrons are composite particles composed of elementary particles called quarks. There are
two types of quarks in atoms, each having a fractional electric charge. Protons are composed of two up quarks
(each with charge + 23 ) and one down quark (with a charge of − 13 ). Neutrons consist of one up quark and two
down quarks. This distinction accounts for the difference in mass and charge between the two particles.[35][36]
The quarks are held together by the strong interaction (or strong force), which is mediated by gluons. The
protons and neutrons, in turn, are held to each other in the nucleus by the nuclear force, which is a residuum of
the strong force that has somewhat different range-properties (see the article on the nuclear force for more). The
gluon is a member of the family of gauge bosons, which are elementary particles that mediate physical
forces.[35][36]
Nucleus
All the bound protons and neutrons in an atom

make up a tiny atomic nucleus, and are collectively
called nucleons. The radius of a nucleus is
3
approximately equal to 1.07 √A fm, where A is the
total number of nucleons.[37] This is much smaller
than the radius of the atom, which is on the order of
105 fm. The nucleons are bound together by a
short-ranged attractive potential called the residual
strong force. At distances smaller than 2.5 fm this
force is much more powerful than the electrostatic
force that causes positively charged protons to repel
each other.[38]
The binding energy needed for a nucleon to escape the
Atoms of the same element have the same number nucleus, for various isotopes
of protons, called the atomic number. Within a
single element, the number of neutrons may vary,
determining the isotope of that element. The total number of protons and neutrons determine the nuclide. The
number of neutrons relative to the protons determines the stability of the nucleus, with certain isotopes
undergoing radioactive decay.[39]
The proton, the electron, and the neutron are classified as fermions. Fermions obey the Pauli exclusion
principle which prohibits identical fermions, such as multiple protons, from occupying the same quantum state
at the same time. Thus, every proton in the nucleus must occupy a quantum state different from all other
protons, and the same applies to all neutrons of the nucleus and to all electrons of the electron cloud. However,
a proton and a neutron are allowed to occupy the same quantum state.[40]
For atoms with low atomic numbers, a nucleus that has more neutrons than protons tends to drop to a lower
energy state through radioactive decay so that the neutron–proton ratio is closer to one. However, as the atomic
number increases, a higher proportion of neutrons is required to offset the mutual repulsion of the protons.
Thus, there are no stable nuclei with equal proton and neutron numbers above atomic number Z = 20 (calcium)
and as Z increases, the neutron–proton ratio of stable isotopes increases.[40] The stable isotope with the highest
proton–neutron ratio is lead-208 (about 1.5).
The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus can be

modified, although this can require very high energies because of the
strong force. Nuclear fusion occurs when multiple atomic particles join
to form a heavier nucleus, such as through the energetic collision of two
nuclei. For example, at the core of the Sun protons require energies of
3–10 keV to overcome their mutual repulsion—the coulomb barrier—
and fuse together into a single nucleus.[41] Nuclear fission is the
opposite process, causing a nucleus to split into two smaller nuclei—
usually through radioactive decay. The nucleus can also be modified
through bombardment by high energy subatomic particles or photons. If
this modifies the number of protons in a nucleus, the atom changes to a
different chemical element.[42][43]
If the mass of the nucleus following a fusion reaction is less than the
sum of the masses of the separate particles, then the difference between Illustration of a nuclear fusion
these two values can be emitted as a type of usable energy (such as a process that forms a deuterium
gamma ray, or the kinetic energy of a beta particle), as described by nucleus, consisting of a proton and a
Albert Einstein's mass–energy equivalence formula, E = mc2, where m neutron, from two protons. A positron
is the mass loss and c is the speed of light. This deficit is part of the (e+)—an antimatter electron—is
binding energy of the new nucleus, and it is the non-recoverable loss of emitted along with an electron
the energy that causes the fused particles to remain together in a state neutrino.
that requires this energy to separate.[44]
The fusion of two nuclei that create larger nuclei with lower atomic numbers than iron and nickel—a total
nucleon number of about 60—is usually an exothermic process that releases more energy than is required to
bring them together.[45] It is this energy-releasing process that makes nuclear fusion in stars a self-sustaining
reaction. For heavier nuclei, the binding energy per nucleon in the nucleus begins to decrease. That means
fusion processes producing nuclei that have atomic numbers higher than about 26, and atomic masses higher
than about 60, is an endothermic process. These more massive nuclei can not undergo an energy-producing
fusion reaction that can sustain the hydrostatic equilibrium of a star.[40]
Electron cloud
The electrons in an atom are attracted to the protons in the nucleus by the electromagnetic force. This force
binds the electrons inside an electrostatic potential well surrounding the smaller nucleus, which means that an
external source of energy is needed for the electron to escape. The closer an electron is to the nucleus, the
greater the attractive force. Hence electrons bound near the center of the potential well require more energy to
escape than those at greater separations.
Electrons, like other particles, have properties of both a particle and a wave. The electron cloud is a region
inside the potential well where each electron forms a type of three-dimensional standing wave—a wave form
that does not move relative to the nucleus. This behavior is defined by an atomic orbital, a mathematical
function that characterises the probability that an electron appears to be at a particular location when its
position is measured.[46] Only a discrete (or quantized) set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus, as other
possible wave patterns rapidly decay into a more stable form.[47] Orbitals can have one or more ring or node
structures, and differ from each other in size, shape and orientation.[48]
Each atomic orbital corresponds

to a particular energy level of
the electron. The electron can
change its state to a higher
energy level by absorbing a
Wave functions of the first five photon with sufficient energy to
atomic orbitals. The three 2p orbitals boost it into the new quantum
each display a single angular node state. Likewise, through
that has an orientation and a spontaneous emission, an
A potential well, showing, according
minimum at the center. electron in a higher energy state
to classical mechanics, the minimum
can drop to a lower energy state
energy V(x) needed to reach each
while radiating the excess
position x. Classically, a particle with
energy as a photon. These
energy E is constrained to a range of
characteristic energy values,
positions between x1 and x2.
defined by the differences in the
energies of the quantum states,
are responsible for atomic spectral lines.[47]
The amount of energy needed to remove or add an electron—the

How atoms are constructed from
electron binding energy—is far less than the binding energy of
electron orbitals and link to the
nucleons. For example, it requires only 13.6 eV to strip a ground-state
periodic table
electron from a hydrogen atom,[49] compared to 2.23 million eV for
splitting a deuterium nucleus.[50] Atoms are electrically neutral if they
have an equal number of protons and electrons. Atoms that have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are
called ions. Electrons that are farthest from the nucleus may be transferred to other nearby atoms or shared
between atoms. By this mechanism, atoms are able to bond into molecules and other types of chemical
compounds like ionic and covalent network crystals.[51]
Properties
Nuclear properties
By definition, any two atoms with an identical number of protons in their nuclei belong to the same chemical
element. Atoms with equal numbers of protons but a different number of neutrons are different isotopes of the
same element. For example, all hydrogen atoms admit exactly one proton, but isotopes exist with no neutrons
(hydrogen-1, by far the most common form,[52] also called protium), one neutron (deuterium), two neutrons
(tritium) and more than two neutrons. The known elements form a set of atomic numbers, from the single
proton element hydrogen up to the 118-proton element oganesson.[53] All known isotopes of elements with
atomic numbers greater than 82 are radioactive, although the radioactivity of element 83 (bismuth) is so slight
as to be practically negligible.[54][55]
About 339 nuclides occur naturally on Earth,[56] of which 254 (about 75%) have not been observed to decay,
and are referred to as "stable isotopes". However, only 90 of these nuclides are stable to all decay, even in
theory. Another 164 (bringing the total to 254) have not been observed to decay, even though in theory it is
energetically possible. These are also formally classified as "stable". An additional 34 radioactive nuclides have
half-lives longer than 80 million years, and are long-lived enough to be present from the birth of the solar
system. This collection of 288 nuclides are known as primordial nuclides. Finally, an additional 51 short-lived
nuclides are known to occur naturally, as daughter products of primordial nuclide decay (such as radium from
uranium), or else as products of natural energetic processes on Earth, such as cosmic ray bombardment (for
example, carbon-14).[57][note 1]
For 80 of the chemical elements, at least one stable isotope exists. As a rule, there is only a handful of stable
isotopes for each of these elements, the average being 3.2 stable isotopes per element. Twenty-six elements
have only a single stable isotope, while the largest number of stable isotopes observed for any element is ten,
for the element tin. Elements 43, 61, and all elements numbered 83 or higher have no stable isotopes.[58]
Stability of isotopes is affected by the ratio of protons to neutrons, and also by the presence of certain "magic
numbers" of neutrons or protons that represent closed and filled quantum shells. These quantum shells
correspond to a set of energy levels within the shell model of the nucleus; filled shells, such as the filled shell of
50 protons for tin, confers unusual stability on the nuclide. Of the 254 known stable nuclides, only four have
both an odd number of protons and odd number of neutrons: hydrogen-2 (deuterium), lithium-6, boron-10 and
nitrogen-14. Also, only four naturally occurring, radioactive odd–odd nuclides have a half-life over a billion
years: potassium-40, vanadium-50, lanthanum-138 and tantalum-180m. Most odd–odd nuclei are highly
unstable with respect to beta decay, because the decay products are even–even, and are therefore more strongly
bound, due to nuclear pairing effects.[58]
Mass
The large majority of an atom's mass comes from the protons and neutrons that make it up. The total number of
these particles (called "nucleons") in a given atom is called the mass number. It is a positive integer and
dimensionless (instead of having dimension of mass), because it expresses a count. An example of use of a
mass number is "carbon-12," which has 12 nucleons (six protons and six neutrons).
The actual mass of an atom at rest is often expressed using the unified atomic mass unit (u), also called dalton
(Da). This unit is defined as a twelfth of the mass of a free neutral atom of carbon-12, which is approximately
1.66 × 10−27 kg.[59] Hydrogen-1 (the lightest isotope of hydrogen which is also the nuclide with the lowest
mass) has an atomic weight of 1.007825 u.[60] The value of this number is called the atomic mass. A given
atom has an atomic mass approximately equal (within 1%) to its mass number times the atomic mass unit (for
example the mass of a nitrogen-14 is roughly 14 u). However, this number will not be exactly an integer except
in the case of carbon-12 (see below).[61] The heaviest stable atom is lead-208,[54] with a mass of
207.976 6521 u.[62]
As even the most massive atoms are far too light to work with directly, chemists instead use the unit of moles.
One mole of atoms of any element always has the same number of atoms (about 6.022 × 1023). This number
was chosen so that if an element has an atomic mass of 1 u, a mole of atoms of that element has a mass close to
one gram. Because of the definition of the unified atomic mass unit, each carbon-12 atom has an atomic mass
of exactly 12 u, and so a mole of carbon-12 atoms weighs exactly 0.012 kg.[59]
Shape and size
Atoms lack a well-defined outer boundary, so their dimensions are usually described in terms of an atomic
radius. This is a measure of the distance out to which the electron cloud extends from the nucleus.[63] However,
this assumes the atom to exhibit a spherical shape, which is only obeyed for atoms in vacuum or free space.
Atomic radii may be derived from the distances between two nuclei when the two atoms are joined in a
chemical bond. The radius varies with the location of an atom on the atomic chart, the type of chemical bond,
the number of neighboring atoms (coordination number) and a quantum mechanical property known as spin.[64]
On the periodic table of the elements, atom size tends to increase when moving down columns, but decrease
when moving across rows (left to right).[65] Consequently, the smallest atom is helium with a radius of 32 pm,
while one of the largest is caesium at 225 pm.[66]
When subjected to external forces, like electrical fields, the shape of an atom may deviate from spherical
symmetry. The deformation depends on the field magnitude and the orbital type of outer shell electrons, as
shown by group-theoretical considerations. Aspherical deviations might be elicited for instance in crystals,
where large crystal-electrical fields may occur at low-symmetry lattice sites.[67][68] Significant ellipsoidal
deformations have been shown to occur for sulfur ions[69] and chalcogen ions[70] in pyrite-type compounds.
Atomic dimensions are thousands of times smaller than the wavelengths of light (400–700 nm) so they cannot
be viewed using an optical microscope. However, individual atoms can be observed using a scanning tunneling
microscope. To visualize the minuteness of the atom, consider that a typical human hair is about 1 million
carbon atoms in width.[71] A single drop of water contains about 2 sextillion (2 × 1021) atoms of oxygen, and
twice the number of hydrogen atoms.[72] A single carat diamond with a mass of 2 × 10−4 kg contains about
10 sextillion (1022) atoms of carbon.[note 2] If an apple were magnified to the size of the Earth, then the atoms in
the apple would be approximately the size of the original apple.[73]
Radioactive decay
Every element has one or more isotopes that have unstable

nuclei that are subject to radioactive decay, causing the
nucleus to emit particles or electromagnetic radiation.
Radioactivity can occur when the radius of a nucleus is
large compared with the radius of the strong force, which
only acts over distances on the order of 1 fm.[74]
The most common forms of radioactive decay are:[75][76]
Alpha decay: this process is caused when the nucleus

emits an alpha particle, which is a helium nucleus
consisting of two protons and two neutrons. The
result of the emission is a new element with a lower
atomic number.
Beta decay (and electron capture): these processes
are regulated by the weak force, and result from a
transformation of a neutron into a proton, or a proton
into a neutron. The neutron to proton transition is
accompanied by the emission of an electron and an
antineutrino, while proton to neutron transition
(except in electron capture) causes the emission of a This diagram shows the half-life (T½) of various
positron and a neutrino. The electron or positron
emissions are called beta particles. Beta decay either isotopes with Z protons and N neutrons.
increases or decreases the atomic number of the
nucleus by one. Electron capture is more common than positron emission, because it requires less energy.
In this type of decay, an electron is absorbed by the nucleus, rather than a positron emitted from the
nucleus. A neutrino is still emitted in this process, and a proton changes to a neutron.
Gamma decay: this process results from a change in the energy level of the nucleus to a lower state,
resulting in the emission of electromagnetic radiation. The excited state of a nucleus which results in
gamma emission usually occurs following the emission of an alpha or a beta particle. Thus, gamma
decay usually follows alpha or beta decay.
Other more rare types of radioactive decay include ejection of neutrons or protons or clusters of nucleons from
a nucleus, or more than one beta particle. An analog of gamma emission which allows excited nuclei to lose
energy in a different way, is internal conversion— a process that produces high-speed electrons that are not beta
rays, followed by production of high-energy photons that are not gamma rays. A few large nuclei explode into
two or more charged fragments of varying masses plus several neutrons, in a decay called spontaneous nuclear
fission.
Each radioactive isotope has a characteristic decay time period—the half-life—that is determined by the
amount of time needed for half of a sample to decay. This is an exponential decay process that steadily
decreases the proportion of the remaining isotope by 50% every half-life. Hence after two half-lives have
passed only 25% of the isotope is present, and so forth.[74]
Magnetic moment
Elementary particles possess an intrinsic quantum mechanical property known as spin. This is analogous to the
angular momentum of an object that is spinning around its center of mass, although strictly speaking these
particles are believed to be point-like and cannot be said to be rotating. Spin is measured in units of the reduced
Planck constant (ħ), with electrons, protons and neutrons all having spin ½ ħ, or "spin-½". In an atom, electrons
in motion around the nucleus possess orbital angular momentum in addition to their spin, while the nucleus
itself possesses angular momentum due to its nuclear spin.[77]
The magnetic field produced by an atom—its magnetic moment—is determined by these various forms of
angular momentum, just as a rotating charged object classically produces a magnetic field. However, the most
dominant contribution comes from electron spin. Due to the nature of electrons to obey the Pauli exclusion
principle, in which no two electrons may be found in the same quantum state, bound electrons pair up with each
other, with one member of each pair in a spin up state and the other in the opposite, spin down state. Thus these
spins cancel each other out, reducing the total magnetic dipole moment to zero in some atoms with even
number of electrons.[78]
In ferromagnetic elements such as iron, cobalt and nickel, an odd number of electrons leads to an unpaired
electron and a net overall magnetic moment. The orbitals of neighboring atoms overlap and a lower energy
state is achieved when the spins of unpaired electrons are aligned with each other, a spontaneous process
known as an exchange interaction. When the magnetic moments of ferromagnetic atoms are lined up, the
material can produce a measurable macroscopic field. Paramagnetic materials have atoms with magnetic
moments that line up in random directions when no magnetic field is present, but the magnetic moments of the
individual atoms line up in the presence of a field.[78][79]
The nucleus of an atom will have no spin when it has even numbers of both neutrons and protons, but for other
cases of odd numbers, the nucleus may have a spin. Normally nuclei with spin are aligned in random directions
because of thermal equilibrium. However, for certain elements (such as xenon-129) it is possible to polarize a
significant proportion of the nuclear spin states so that they are aligned in the same direction—a condition
called hyperpolarization. This has important applications in magnetic resonance imaging.[80][81]
Energy levels
The potential energy of an electron in an atom is negative, its

dependence of its position reaches the minimum (the most absolute
value) inside the nucleus, and vanishes when the distance from the
nucleus goes to infinity, roughly in an inverse proportion to the
distance. In the quantum-mechanical model, a bound electron can only
occupy a set of states centered on the nucleus, and each state
corresponds to a specific energy level; see time-independent
Schrödinger equation for theoretical explanation. An energy level can
be measured by the amount of energy needed to unbind the electron These electron's energy levels (not to
from the atom, and is usually given in units of electronvolts (eV). The scale) are sufficient for ground states
lowest energy state of a bound electron is called the ground state, i.e. of atoms up to cadmium (5s2 4d10)
stationary state, while an electron transition to a higher level results in inclusively. Do not forget that even
an excited state.[82] The electron's energy raises when n increases the top of the diagram is lower than
because the (average) distance to the nucleus increases. Dependence of an unbound electron state.
the energy on ℓ is caused not by electrostatic potential of the nucleus,
but by interaction between electrons.
For an electron to transition between two different states, e.g. grounded state to first excited level (ionization),
it must absorb or emit a photon at an energy matching the difference in the potential energy of those levels,
according to Niels Bohr model, what can be precisely calculated by the Schrödinger equation. Electrons jump
between orbitals in a particle-like fashion. For example, if a single photon strikes the electrons, only a single
electron changes states in response to the photon; see Electron properties.
The energy of an emitted photon is proportional to its frequency, so these specific energy levels appear as
distinct bands in the electromagnetic spectrum.[83] Each element has a characteristic spectrum that can depend
on the nuclear charge, subshells filled by electrons, the electromagnetic interactions between the electrons and
other factors.[84]
When a continuous spectrum of energy is passed through a

gas or plasma, some of the photons are absorbed by atoms,
causing electrons to change their energy level. Those
excited electrons that remain bound to their atom
spontaneously emit this energy as a photon, traveling in a
random direction, and so drop back to lower energy levels.
An example of absorption lines in a spectrum
Thus the atoms behave like a filter that forms a series of
dark absorption bands in the energy output. (An observer
viewing the atoms from a view that does not include the continuous spectrum in the background, instead sees a
series of emission lines from the photons emitted by the atoms.) Spectroscopic measurements of the strength
and width of atomic spectral lines allow the composition and physical properties of a substance to be
determined.[85]
Close examination of the spectral lines reveals that some display a fine structure splitting. This occurs because
of spin–orbit coupling, which is an interaction between the spin and motion of the outermost electron.[86] When
an atom is in an external magnetic field, spectral lines become split into three or more components; a
phenomenon called the Zeeman effect. This is caused by the interaction of the magnetic field with the magnetic
moment of the atom and its electrons. Some atoms can have multiple electron configurations with the same
energy level, which thus appear as a single spectral line. The interaction of the magnetic field with the atom
shifts these electron configurations to slightly different energy levels, resulting in multiple spectral lines.[87]
The presence of an external electric field can cause a comparable splitting and shifting of spectral lines by
modifying the electron energy levels, a phenomenon called the Stark effect.[88]
If a bound electron is in an excited state, an interacting photon with the proper energy can cause stimulated
emission of a photon with a matching energy level. For this to occur, the electron must drop to a lower energy
state that has an energy difference matching the energy of the interacting photon. The emitted photon and the
interacting photon then move off in parallel and with matching phases. That is, the wave patterns of the two
photons are synchronized. This physical property is used to make lasers, which can emit a coherent beam of
light energy in a narrow frequency band.[89]
Valence and bonding behavior
Valency is the combining power of an element. It is equal to number of hydrogen atoms that atom can combine
or displace in forming compounds.[90] The outermost electron shell of an atom in its uncombined state is
known as the valence shell, and the electrons in that shell are called valence electrons. The number of valence
electrons determines the bonding behavior with other atoms. Atoms tend to chemically react with each other in
a manner that fills (or empties) their outer valence shells.[91] For example, a transfer of a single electron
between atoms is a useful approximation for bonds that form between atoms with one-electron more than a
filled shell, and others that are one-electron short of a full shell, such as occurs in the compound sodium
chloride and other chemical ionic salts. However, many elements display multiple valences, or tendencies to
share differing numbers of electrons in different compounds. Thus, chemical bonding between these elements
takes many forms of electron-sharing that are more than simple electron transfers. Examples include the
element carbon and the organic compounds.[92]
The chemical elements are often displayed in a periodic table that is laid out to display recurring chemical
properties, and elements with the same number of valence electrons form a group that is aligned in the same
column of the table. (The horizontal rows correspond to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons.) The
elements at the far right of the table have their outer shell completely filled with electrons, which results in
chemically inert elements known as the noble gases.[93][94]
States
Quantities of atoms are found in different states of matter that depend

on the physical conditions, such as temperature and pressure. By
varying the conditions, materials can transition between solids, liquids,
gases and plasmas.[95] Within a state, a material can also exist in
different allotropes. An example of this is solid carbon, which can exist
as graphite or diamond.[96] Gaseous allotropes exist as well, such as
dioxygen and ozone.
Snapshots illustrating the formationAt temperatures close to absolute zero, atoms can form a Bose–Einstein
of a Bose–Einstein condensate condensate, at which point quantum mechanical effects, which are
normally only observed at the atomic scale, become apparent on a
macroscopic scale.[97][98] This super-cooled collection of atoms then
behaves as a single super atom, which may allow fundamental checks of quantum mechanical behavior.[99]
Identification
The scanning tunneling microscope is a device for viewing surfaces at
the atomic level. It uses the quantum tunneling phenomenon, which
allows particles to pass through a barrier that would normally be
insurmountable. Electrons tunnel through the vacuum between two
planar metal electrodes, on each of which is an adsorbed atom,
providing a tunneling-current density that can be measured. Scanning
one atom (taken as the tip) as it moves past the other (the sample)
permits plotting of tip displacement versus lateral separation for a
constant current. The calculation shows the extent to which scanning-
tunneling-microscope images of an individual atom are visible. It
confirms that for low bias, the microscope images the space-averaged
dimensions of the electron orbitals across closely packed energy levels
—the Fermi level local density of states.[100][101] Scanning tunneling microscope
image showing the individual atoms
An atom can be ionized by removing one of its electrons. The electric making up this gold (100) surface.
charge causes the trajectory of an atom to bend when it passes through a The surface atoms deviate from the
magnetic field. The radius by which the trajectory of a moving ion is bulk crystal structure and arrange in
turned by the magnetic field is determined by the mass of the atom. The columns several atoms wide with pits
mass spectrometer uses this principle to measure the mass-to-charge between them (See surface
ratio of ions. If a sample contains multiple isotopes, the mass reconstruction).
spectrometer can determine the proportion of each isotope in the sample
by measuring the intensity of the different beams of ions. Techniques to
vaporize atoms include inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy and inductively coupled
plasma mass spectrometry, both of which use a plasma to vaporize samples for analysis.[102]
A more area-selective method is electron energy loss spectroscopy, which measures the energy loss of an
electron beam within a transmission electron microscope when it interacts with a portion of a sample. The
atom-probe tomograph has sub-nanometer resolution in 3-D and can chemically identify individual atoms using
time-of-flight mass spectrometry.[103]
Spectra of excited states can be used to analyze the atomic composition of distant stars. Specific light
wavelengths contained in the observed light from stars can be separated out and related to the quantized
transitions in free gas atoms. These colors can be replicated using a gas-discharge lamp containing the same
element.[104] Helium was discovered in this way in the spectrum of the Sun 23 years before it was found on
Earth.[105]
Origin and current state

Atoms form about 4% of the total energy density of the observable Universe, with an average density of about
0.25 atoms/m3.[106] Within a galaxy such as the Milky Way, atoms have a much higher concentration, with the
density of matter in the interstellar medium (ISM) ranging from 105 to 109 atoms/m3.[107] The Sun is believed
to be inside the Local Bubble, a region of highly ionized gas, so the density in the solar neighborhood is only
about 103 atoms/m3.[108] Stars form from dense clouds in the ISM, and the evolutionary processes of stars
result in the steady enrichment of the ISM with elements more massive than hydrogen and helium. Up to 95%
of the Milky Way's atoms are concentrated inside stars and the total mass of atoms forms about 10% of the
mass of the galaxy.[109] (The remainder of the mass is an unknown dark matter.)[110]
Formation
Electrons are thought to exist in the Universe since early stages of the Big Bang. Atomic nuclei forms in
nucleosynthesis reactions. In about three minutes Big Bang nucleosynthesis produced most of the helium,
lithium, and deuterium in the Universe, and perhaps some of the beryllium and boron.[111][112][113]
Ubiquitousness and stability of atoms relies on their binding energy, which means that an atom has a lower
energy than an unbound system of the nucleus and electrons. Where the temperature is much higher than
ionization potential, the matter exists in the form of plasma—a gas of positively charged ions (possibly, bare
nuclei) and electrons. When the temperature drops below the ionization potential, atoms become statistically
favorable. Atoms (complete with bound electrons) became to dominate over charged particles 380,000 years
after the Big Bang—an epoch called recombination, when the expanding Universe cooled enough to allow
electrons to become attached to nuclei.[114]
Since the Big Bang, which produced no carbon or heavier elements, atomic nuclei have been combined in stars
through the process of nuclear fusion to produce more of the element helium, and (via the triple alpha process)
the sequence of elements from carbon up to iron;[115] see stellar nucleosynthesis for details.
Isotopes such as lithium-6, as well as some beryllium and boron are generated in space through cosmic ray
spallation.[116] This occurs when a high-energy proton strikes an atomic nucleus, causing large numbers of
nucleons to be ejected.
Elements heavier than iron were produced in supernovae through the r-process and in AGB stars through the s-
process, both of which involve the capture of neutrons by atomic nuclei.[117] Elements such as lead formed
largely through the radioactive decay of heavier elements.[118]
Earth
Most of the atoms that make up the Earth and its inhabitants were present in their current form in the nebula
that collapsed out of a molecular cloud to form the Solar System. The rest are the result of radioactive decay,
and their relative proportion can be used to determine the age of the Earth through radiometric dating.[119][120]
Most of the helium in the crust of the Earth (about 99% of the helium from gas wells, as shown by its lower
abundance of helium-3) is a product of alpha decay.[121]
There are a few trace atoms on Earth that were not present at the beginning (i.e., not "primordial"), nor are
results of radioactive decay. Carbon-14 is continuously generated by cosmic rays in the atmosphere.[122] Some
atoms on Earth have been artificially generated either deliberately or as by-products of nuclear reactors or
explosions.[123][124] Of the transuranic elements—those with atomic numbers greater than 92—only plutonium
and neptunium occur naturally on Earth.[125][126] Transuranic elements have radioactive lifetimes shorter than
the current age of the Earth[127] and thus identifiable quantities of these elements have long since decayed, with
the exception of traces of plutonium-244 possibly deposited by cosmic dust.[128] Natural deposits of plutonium
and neptunium are produced by neutron capture in uranium ore.[129]
The Earth contains approximately 1.33 × 1050 atoms.[130] Although small numbers of independent atoms of
noble gases exist, such as argon, neon, and helium, 99% of the atmosphere is bound in the form of molecules,
including carbon dioxide and diatomic oxygen and nitrogen. At the surface of the Earth, an overwhelming
majority of atoms combine to form various compounds, including water, salt, silicates and oxides. Atoms can
also combine to create materials that do not consist of discrete molecules, including crystals and liquid or solid
metals.[131][132] This atomic matter forms networked arrangements that lack the particular type of small-scale
interrupted order associated with molecular matter.[133]
Rare and theoretical forms
Superheavy elements
While isotopes with atomic numbers higher than lead (82) are known to be radioactive, an "island of stability"
has been proposed for some elements with atomic numbers above 103. These superheavy elements may have a
nucleus that is relatively stable against radioactive decay.[134] The most likely candidate for a stable superheavy
atom, unbihexium, has 126 protons and 184 neutrons.[135]
Exotic matter
Each particle of matter has a corresponding antimatter particle with the opposite electrical charge. Thus, the
positron is a positively charged antielectron and the antiproton is a negatively charged equivalent of a proton.
When a matter and corresponding antimatter particle meet, they annihilate each other. Because of this, along
with an imbalance between the number of matter and antimatter particles, the latter are rare in the universe. The
first causes of this imbalance are not yet fully understood, although theories of baryogenesis may offer an
explanation. As a result, no antimatter atoms have been discovered in nature.[136][137] However, in 1996 the
antimatter counterpart of the hydrogen atom (antihydrogen) was synthesized at the CERN laboratory in
Geneva.[138][139]
Other exotic atoms have been created by replacing one of the protons, neutrons or electrons with other particles
that have the same charge. For example, an electron can be replaced by a more massive muon, forming a
muonic atom. These types of atoms can be used to test the fundamental predictions of physics.[140][141][142]
See also
History of quantum mechanics List of basic chemistry topics
Infinite divisibility Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics
Vector model of the atom Radioactive isotope

Nuclear model
Notes
1. For more recent updates see Interactive Chart of Nuclides (Brookhaven National Laboratory) (http://www.nndc.bnl.g
ov/chart).
2. A carat is 200 milligrams. By definition, carbon-12 has 0.012 kg per mole. The Avogadro constant defines 6 × 1023
atoms per mole.
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Gangopadhyaya, Mrinalkanti (1981). Indian Atomism: History and Sources. Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey:
Humanities Press. ISBN 0-391-02177-X. OCLC 10916778 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/10916778).
Harrison, Edward Robert (2003). Masks of the Universe: Changing Ideas on the Nature of the Cosmos. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-77351-2. OCLC 50441595 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50441595).
Iannone, A. Pablo (2001). Dictionary of World Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-17995-5. OCLC 44541769 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/oclc/44541769).
King, Richard (1999). Indian philosophy: an introduction to Hindu and Buddhist thought. Edinburgh University
Press. ISBN 0-7486-0954-7.
Levere, Trevor, H. (2001). Transforming Matter – A History of Chemistry for Alchemy to the Buckyball. The Johns
Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6610-3.
Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. "A Greek-English Lexicon" (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Pe
rseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dte%2Fmnw1). Perseus Digital Library.
Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. "ἄτομος" (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3
A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29%2Ftomos). A Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved
21 June 2010.
McEvilley, Thomas (2002). The shape of ancient thought: comparative studies in Greek and Indian philosophies.
Allworth Press. ISBN 1-58115-203-5.
Moran, Bruce T. (2005). Distilling Knowledge: Alchemy, Chemistry, and the Scientific Revolution. Harvard
University Press. ISBN 0-674-01495-2.
Ponomarev, Leonid Ivanovich (1993). The Quantum Dice. CRC Press. ISBN 0-7503-0251-8. OCLC 26853108 (http
Roscoe, Henry Enfield (1895). John Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry (https://books.google.com/books?id=
FJMEAAAAYAAJ). Century science series. New York: Macmillan. Retrieved 3 April 2011.
Siegfried, Robert (2002). From Elements to Atoms: A History of Chemical Composition. DIANE. ISBN 0-87169-
Teresi, Dick (2003). Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science (https://books.google.com/?id=pheL_ub
bXD0C&dq). Simon & Schuster. pp. 213–214. ISBN 0-7432-4379-X.
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23 May 2008.
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External links
"Quantum Mechanics and the Structure of Atoms" (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s_HEUHyoZWI)
on YouTube The actual physics lesson begins 2:20 into the video.
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3). BBC. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070102114833/http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A667
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ex.pl?Type=TOC). University of Colorado. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080114002007/htt
p://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/index.pl?Type=TOC) from the original on 14 January 2008.
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ML/einleitung_hauptseite_uk.html). University of Karlsruhe. Retrieved 12 May 2008.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atom&oldid=790532289"
Categories: Atoms Chemistry


7/19/2017 Periodic table - Wikipedia
Periodic table
The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of the chemical

elements, ordered by their atomic number (number of protons),
electron configurations, and recurring chemical properties. This
ordering shows periodic trends, such as elements with similar
behaviour in the same column. It also shows four rectangular
blocks with some approximately similar chemical properties. In
general, within one row (period) the elements are metals on the
left, and non-metals on the right.
The rows of the table are called periods; the columns are called
groups. Six groups have names as well as numbers: for example,
group 17 elements are the halogens; and group 18, the noble gases.
Periodic table (colour legend below)
The periodic table can be used to derive relationships between the
properties of the elements, and predict the properties of new
elements yet to be discovered or synthesized. The periodic table provides a useful framework for analyzing chemical behaviour,
and is widely used in chemistry and other sciences.
The Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev published the first widely recognized periodic table in 1869. He developed his table to
illustrate periodic trends in the properties of the then-known elements. Mendeleev also predicted some properties of then-
unknown elements that would be expected to fill gaps in this table. Most of his predictions were proved correct when the elements
in question were subsequently discovered. Mendeleev's periodic table has since been expanded and refined with the discovery or
synthesis of further new elements and the development of new theoretical models to explain chemical behaviour.
All elements from atomic numbers 1 (hydrogen) to 118 (oganesson) have been discovered or synthesized, with the most recent
additions (nihonium, moscovium, tennessine, and oganesson) being confirmed by the International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) in 2015 and officially named in 2016: they complete the first seven rows of the periodic table.[1][2] The first
94 elements exist naturally, although some are found only in trace amounts and were synthesized in laboratories before being
found in nature.[n 1] Elements with atomic numbers from 95 to 118 have only been synthesized in laboratories or nuclear
reactors.[3] Synthesis of elements having higher atomic numbers is being pursued. Numerous synthetic radionuclides of naturally
occurring elements have also been produced in laboratories.
Contents
1 Overview
2 Grouping methods
2.1 Groups
2.2 Periods
2.3 Blocks
2.4 Metals, metalloids and nonmetals
3 Periodic trends and patterns
3.1 Electron configuration
3.2 Atomic radii
3.3 Ionization energy
3.4 Electronegativity
3.5 Electron affinity
3.6 Metallic character
3.7 Linking or bridging groups
4 History
4.1 First systemization attempts
4.2 Mendeleev's table
4.3 Second version and further development
5 Different periodic tables
5.1 The long- or 32-column table
5.2 Tables with different structures
6 Open questions and controversies
6.1 Placement of hydrogen and helium
6.2 Group 3 and its elements in periods 6 and 7
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_table 1/21
6.2.1 Lanthanum and actinium

6.2.2 Lutetium and lawrencium
6.2.3 Lanthanides and actinides
6.3 Groups included in the transition metals
6.4 Elements with unknown chemical properties
6.5 Further periodic table extensions
6.6 Element with the highest possible atomic number
6.7 Optimal form
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 External links
Overview
Periodic table
Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Alkali Alkaline Pnicto‐ Chalco‐ Halo‐ Noble
metals earth gens gens gens gases
metals
Period Hydro‐ He‐
gen lium
1 1 2
H He
Lith‐ Beryl‐ Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
ium lium
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
So‐ Magne‐ Alumin‐ Silicon Phos‐ Sulfur Chlorine Argon
dium sium ium phorus
3 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Potas‐ Calcium Scan‐ Tita‐ Vana‐ Chrom‐ Manga‐ Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germa‐ Arsenic Sele‐ Bromine Kryp‐
sium dium nium dium ium nese nium nium ton
4 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rubid‐ Stront‐ Yttrium Zirco‐ Nio‐ Molyb‐ Tech‐ Ruthe‐ Rho‐ Pallad‐ Silver Cad‐ Indium Tin Anti‐ Tellur‐ Iodine Xenon
ium ium nium bium denum netium nium dium ium mium mony ium
5 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cae‐ Barium Lan‐ Haf‐ Tanta‐ Tung‐ Rhe‐ Os‐ Iridium Plat‐ Gold Mer‐ Thallium Lead Bismuth Polo‐ Astatine Radon
sium thanum nium lum sten nium mium inum cury nium
6 55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fran‐ Radium Actin‐ Ruther‐ Dub‐ Sea‐ Bohr‐ Has‐ Meit‐ Darm‐ Roent‐ Coper‐ Nihon‐ Flerov‐ Moscov‐ Liver‐ Tenness‐ Oga‐
cium ium fordium nium borgium ium sium nerium stadtium genium nicium ium ium ium morium ine nesson
7 87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
Cerium Praseo‐ Neo‐ Prome‐ Sama‐ Europ‐ Gadolin‐ Ter‐ Dyspro‐ Hol‐ Erbium Thulium Ytter‐ Lute‐
dymium dymium thium rium ium ium bium sium mium bium tium
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Thor‐ Protac‐ Ura‐ Neptu‐ Pluto‐ Ameri‐ Curium Berkel‐ Califor‐ Einstei‐ Fer‐ Mende‐ Nobel‐ Lawren‐
ium tinium nium nium nium cium ium nium nium mium levium ium cium
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
black=solid green=liquid red=gas gray=unknown Color of the atomic number shows state of matter (at 0 °C and 1 atm)
Primordial From decay Synthetic Border shows natural occurrence of the element
Background color shows subcategory in the metal–metalloid–nonmetal trend:

Metal Nonmetal
Unknown
Post- Metalloid Polyatomic Diatomic chemical
Alkali Alkaline Transition
Lanthanide Actinide transition Noble gas properties
metal earth metal metal nonmetal nonmetal
metal
Each chemical element has a unique atomic number (Z) representing the number of protons in its nucleus.[n 2] Most elements have
differing numbers of neutrons among different atoms, with these variants being referred to as isotopes. For example, carbon has
three naturally occurring isotopes: all of its atoms have six protons and most have six neutrons as well, but about one per cent
have seven neutrons, and a very small fraction have eight neutrons. Isotopes are never separated in the periodic table; they are
always grouped together under a single element. Elements with no stable isotopes have the atomic masses of their most stable
isotopes, where such masses are shown, listed in parentheses.[4]
In the standard periodic table, the elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number (the number of protons in the nucleus
of an atom). A new row (period) is started when a new electron shell has its first electron. Columns (groups) are determined by
the electron configuration of the atom; elements with the same number of electrons in a particular subshell fall into the same
columns (e.g. oxygen and selenium are in the same column because they both have four electrons in the outermost p-subshell).
Elements with similar chemical properties generally fall into the same group in the periodic table, although in the f-block, and to
some respect in the d-block, the elements in the same period tend to have similar properties, as well. Thus, it is relatively easy to
predict the chemical properties of an element if one knows the properties of the elements around it.[5]
As of 2016, the periodic table has 118 confirmed elements, from element 1 (hydrogen) to 118 (oganesson). Elements 113, 115,
117 and 118 were officially confirmed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) in December 2015.
Their proposed names, nihonium (Nh), moscovium (Mc), tennessine (Ts) and oganesson (Og) respectively, were announced by
the IUPAC in June 2016 and made official in November 2016.[6][7][8][9]
The first 94 elements occur naturally; the remaining 24, americium to oganesson (95–118) occur only when synthesized in
laboratories. Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, 83 are primordial and 11 occur only in decay chains of primordial
elements.[3] No element heavier than einsteinium (element 99) has ever been observed in macroscopic quantities in its pure form,
nor has astatine (element 85); francium (element 87) has been only photographed in the form of light emitted from microscopic
quantities (300,000 atoms).[10]
Grouping methods
Groups
A group or family is a vertical column in the periodic table. Groups usually have more significant periodic trends than periods and
blocks, explained below. Modern quantum mechanical theories of atomic structure explain group trends by proposing that
elements within the same group generally have the same electron configurations in their valence shell.[11] Consequently, elements
in the same group tend to have a shared chemistry and exhibit a clear trend in properties with increasing atomic number.[12]
However, in some parts of the periodic table, such as the d-block and the f-block, horizontal similarities can be as important as, or
more pronounced than, vertical similarities.[13][14][15]
Under an international naming convention, the groups are numbered numerically from 1 to 18 from the leftmost column (the
alkali metals) to the rightmost column (the noble gases).[16] Previously, they were known by roman numerals. In America, the
roman numerals were followed by either an "A" if the group was in the s- or p-block, or a "B" if the group was in the d-block. The
roman numerals used correspond to the last digit of today's naming convention (e.g. the group 4 elements were group IVB, and
the group 14 elements were group IVA). In Europe, the lettering was similar, except that "A" was used if the group was before
group 10, and "B" was used for groups including and after group 10. In addition, groups 8, 9 and 10 used to be treated as one
triple-sized group, known collectively in both notations as group VIII. In 1988, the new IUPAC naming system was put into use,
and the old group names were deprecated.[17]
Some of these groups have been given trivial (unsystematic) names, as seen in the table below, although some are rarely used.
Groups 3–10 have no trivial names and are referred to simply by their group numbers or by the name of the first member of their
group (such as "the scandium group" for Group 3), since they display fewer similarities and/or vertical trends.[16]
Elements in the same group tend to show patterns in atomic radius, ionization energy, and electronegativity. From top to bottom
in a group, the atomic radii of the elements increase. Since there are more filled energy levels, valence electrons are found farther
from the nucleus. From the top, each successive element has a lower ionization energy because it is easier to remove an electron
since the atoms are less tightly bound. Similarly, a group has a top to bottom decrease in electronegativity due to an increasing
distance between valence electrons and the nucleus.[18] There are exceptions to these trends, however, an example of which
occurs in group 11 where electronegativity increases farther down the group.[19]
Groups in the periodic table

IUPAC 1 2 3d 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
groupa
Mendeleev I II III IV V VI VII VIII I II III IV V VI VII b
(I–VIII)
CAS IA IIA IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIA
(US, A-B-A)
old IUPAC IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIII IB IIB IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB Group 0
(Europe, A-B)
Trivial Alkali Alkaline Coin‐ Vola‐ Icosa‐ Crys‐ Pnicto‐ Chal‐ Halo‐ Noble
name metals earth age tile gense tallo‐ gens co‐ gens gases
metals metals metalse
e gense gens
Name by Lith‐ Beryl‐ Scan‐ Titan‐ Vana‐ Chro‐ Man‐ Iron Co‐ Nickel Copper Zinc Boron Car‐ Nitro‐ Oxy‐ Fluor‐ Helium
element ium lium dium ium dium mium ganese group balt group group group group bon gen gen ine or
group group group group group group group group group group group group Neon
group
Period 1 Hc He
Period 2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
Period 3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Period 4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Period 5 Rb Sr Y d Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Period 6 Cs Ba La d Ce–Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Period 7 Fr Ra Ac d Th–Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
a Current, modern IUPAC group number.
bThe noble gases were not discovered at the time of Mendeleev's original table. Later (1902), Mendeleev accepted the evidence for their existence,
and placed them in a separate "group 0".
c Hydrogen (H), while placed in column 1, is not considered to be in the group alkali metals.
dGroup 3 begins with scandium (Sc) and yttrium (Y) but different sources define the rest of the group as either (1) lutetium (Lu) and lawrencium (Lr),
or (2) lanthanum (La) and actinium (Ac), or (3) the whole set of 15 lanthanides and 15 actinides. IUPAC has initiated a project to standardize the
definition as either (1) Sc, Y, Lu and Lr, or (2) Sc, Y, La and Ac.[20]
e This group name is not recommended by IUPAC.
Periods
A period is a horizontal row in the periodic table. Although groups generally have more significant periodic trends, there are
regions where horizontal trends are more significant than vertical group trends, such as the f-block, where the lanthanides and
actinides form two substantial horizontal series of elements.[21]
Elements in the same period show trends in atomic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity. Moving left
to right across a period, atomic radius usually decreases. This occurs because each successive element has an added proton and
electron, which causes the electron to be drawn closer to the nucleus.[22] This decrease in atomic radius also causes the ionization
energy to increase when moving from left to right across a period. The more tightly bound an element is, the more energy is
required to remove an electron. Electronegativity increases in the same manner as ionization energy because of the pull exerted on
the electrons by the nucleus.[18] Electron affinity also shows a slight trend across a period. Metals (left side of a period) generally
have a lower electron affinity than nonmetals (right side of a period), with the exception of the noble gases.[23]
Blocks
Specific regions of the periodic table can be referred to as blocks in

recognition of the sequence in which the electron shells of the
elements are filled. Each block is named according to the subshell in
which the "last" electron notionally resides.[24][n 3] The s-block
comprises the first two groups (alkali metals and alkaline earth
metals) as well as hydrogen and helium. The p-block comprises the
Left to right: s-, f-, d-, p-block in the periodic table
last six groups, which are groups 13 to 18 in IUPAC group numbering
(3A to 8A in American group numbering) and contains, among other
elements, all of the metalloids. The d-block comprises groups 3 to 12 (or 3B to 2B in American group numbering) and contains
all of the transition metals. The f-block, often offset below the rest of the periodic table, has no group numbers and comprises
lanthanides and actinides.[25]
Metals, metalloids and nonmetals
According to their shared physical and chemical properties, the elements can
be classified into the major categories of metals, metalloids and nonmetals.
Metals are generally shiny, highly conducting solids that form alloys with one
another and salt-like ionic compounds with nonmetals (other than the noble
gases). The majority of nonmetals are coloured or colourless insulating gases;
nonmetals that form compounds with other nonmetals feature covalent Metals, metalloids, nonmetals, and
bonding. In between metals and nonmetals are metalloids, which have elements with unknown chemical properties in
intermediate or mixed properties.[26] the periodic table. Sources disagree on the
classification of some of these elements.
Metal and nonmetals can be further classified into subcategories that show a
gradation from metallic to non-metallic properties, when going left to right in
the rows. The metals are subdivided into the highly reactive alkali metals, through the less reactive alkaline earth metals,
lanthanides and actinides, via the archetypal transition metals, and ending in the physically and chemically weak post-transition
metals. The nonmetals are simply subdivided into the polyatomic nonmetals, which, being nearest to the metalloids, show some
incipient metallic character; the diatomic nonmetals, which are essentially nonmetallic; and the monatomic noble gases, which are
nonmetallic and almost completely inert. Specialized groupings such as the refractory metals and the noble metals, which are
subsets (in this example) of the transition metals, are also known[27] and occasionally denoted.[28]
Placing the elements into categories and subcategories based on shared properties is imperfect. There is a spectrum of properties
within each category and it is not hard to find overlaps at the boundaries, as is the case with most classification schemes.[29]
Beryllium, for example, is classified as an alkaline earth metal although its amphoteric chemistry and tendency to mostly form
covalent compounds are both attributes of a chemically weak or post transition metal. Radon is classified as a nonmetal and a
noble gas yet has some cationic chemistry that is more characteristic of a metal. Other classification schemes are possible such as
the division of the elements into mineralogical occurrence categories, or crystalline structures. Categorizing the elements in this
fashion dates back to at least 1869 when Hinrichs[30] wrote that simple boundary lines could be drawn on the periodic table to
show elements having like properties, such as the metals and the nonmetals, or the gaseous elements.
Periodic trends and patterns

Electron configuration
The electron configuration or organisation of electrons orbiting neutral atoms shows a

recurring pattern or periodicity. The electrons occupy a series of electron shells (numbered
shell 1, shell 2, and so on). Each shell consists of one or more subshells (named s, p, d, f and
g). As atomic number increases, electrons progressively fill these shells and subshells more
or less according to the Madelung rule or energy ordering rule, as shown in the diagram. The
electron configuration for neon, for example, is 1s2 2s2 2p6. With an atomic number of ten,
neon has two electrons in the first shell, and eight electrons in the second shell—two in the s
subshell and six in the p subshell. In periodic table terms, the first time an electron occupies a
new shell corresponds to the start of each new period, these positions being occupied by
Approximate order in which hydrogen and the alkali metals.[31][32]
shells and subshells are arranged
by increasing energy according to Since the properties of an element are
the Madelung rule mostly determined by its electron
configuration, the properties of the
elements likewise show recurring
patterns or periodic behaviour, some examples of which are shown in the
diagrams below for atomic radii, ionization energy and electron affinity. It is
this periodicity of properties, manifestations of which were noticed well
before the underlying theory was developed, that led to the establishment of
the periodic law (the properties of the elements recur at varying intervals) and
the formulation of the first periodic tables.[31][32] Periodic table trends (arrows show an increase)
Atomic radii
Atomic radii vary in a predictable and explainable manner across the periodic table. For instance, the radii generally decrease
along each period of the table, from the alkali metals to the noble gases; and increase down each group. The radius increases
sharply between the noble gas at the end of each period and the alkali metal at the beginning of the next period. These trends of
the atomic radii (and of various other chemical and physical properties of the elements) can be explained by the electron shell
theory of the atom; they provided important evidence for the development and confirmation of quantum theory.[33]
The electrons in the 4f-subshell, which is progressively filled from cerium

(element 58) to ytterbium (element 70), are not particularly effective at
shielding the increasing nuclear charge from the sub-shells further out. The
elements immediately following the lanthanides have atomic radii that are
smaller than would be expected and that are almost identical to the atomic
radii of the elements immediately above them.[34] Hence hafnium has
virtually the same atomic radius (and chemistry) as zirconium, and tantalum
has an atomic radius similar to niobium, and so forth. This is known as the
lanthanide contraction. The effect of the lanthanide contraction is noticeable
up to platinum (element 78), after which it is masked by a relativistic effect
known as the inert pair effect.[35] The d-block contraction, which is a similar
effect between the d-block and p-block, is less pronounced than the lanthanide
Atomic number plotted against atomic radius[n 4] contraction but arises from a similar cause.[34]
Ionization energy
The first ionization energy is the energy it

takes to remove one electron from an atom, the
second ionization energy is the energy it takes
to remove a second electron from the atom,
and so on. For a given atom, successive
ionization energies increase with the degree of
ionization. For magnesium as an example, the
first ionization energy is 738 kJ/mol and the
second is 1450 kJ/mol. Electrons in the closer
orbitals experience greater forces of
electrostatic attraction; thus, their removal
requires increasingly more energy. Ionization
Ionization energy: each period begins at a minimum for the alkali metals, and ends at a
energy becomes greater up and to the right of
maximum for the noble gases
the periodic table.[35]
Large jumps in the successive molar ionization energies occur when removing an electron from a noble gas (complete electron
shell) configuration. For magnesium again, the first two molar ionization energies of magnesium given above correspond to
removing the two 3s electrons, and the third ionization energy is a much larger 7730 kJ/mol, for the removal of a 2p electron from
the very stable neon-like configuration of Mg2+. Similar jumps occur in the ionization energies of other third-row atoms.[35]
Electronegativity
Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract electrons.[36] An atom's

electronegativity is affected by both its atomic number and the distance
between the valence electrons and the nucleus. The higher its
electronegativity, the more an element attracts electrons. It was first proposed
by Linus Pauling in 1932.[37] In general, electronegativity increases on
passing from left to right along a period, and decreases on descending a
group. Hence, fluorine is the most electronegative of the elements,[n 5] while
caesium is the least, at least of those elements for which substantial data is
available.[19]
There are some exceptions to this general rule. Gallium and germanium have
higher electronegativities than aluminium and silicon respectively because of Graph showing increasing electronegativity with
the d-block contraction. Elements of the fourth period immediately after the growing number of selected groups
first row of the transition metals have unusually small atomic radii because
the 3d-electrons are not effective at shielding the increased nuclear charge,
and smaller atomic size correlates with higher electronegativity.[19] The anomalously high electronegativity of lead, particularly
when compared to thallium and bismuth, appears to be an artifact of data selection (and data availability)—methods of calculation
other than the Pauling method show the normal periodic trends for these elements.[38]
Electron affinity
The electron affinity of an atom is the amount of energy

released when an electron is added to a neutral atom to form a
negative ion. Although electron affinity varies greatly, some
patterns emerge. Generally, nonmetals have more positive
electron affinity values than metals. Chlorine most strongly
attracts an extra electron. The electron affinities of the noble
gases have not been measured conclusively, so they may or
may not have slightly negative values.[41]
Electron affinity generally increases across a period. This is

caused by the filling of the valence shell of the atom; a group
17 atom releases more energy than a group 1 atom on gaining
an electron because it obtains a filled valence shell and is Dependence of electron affinity on atomic number.[39] Values
therefore more stable.[41] generally increase across each period, culminating with the halogens
before decreasing precipitously with the noble gases. Examples of
A trend of decreasing electron affinity going down groups localized peaks seen in hydrogen, the alkali metals and the group 11
would be expected. The additional electron will be entering an elements are caused by a tendency to complete the s-shell (with the
orbital farther away from the nucleus. As such this electron 6s shell of gold being further stabilized by relativistic effects and the
would be less attracted to the nucleus and would release less presence of a filled 4f sub shell). Examples of localized troughs seen
energy when added. However, in going down a group, around in the alkaline earth metals, and nitrogen, phosphorus, manganese
one-third of elements are anomalous, with heavier elements and rhenium are caused by filled s-shells, or half-filled p- or d-
having higher electron affinities than their next lighter shells.[40]
congenors. Largely, this is due to the poor shielding by d and f
electrons. A uniform decrease in electron affinity only applies
to group 1 atoms.[42]
Metallic character
The lower the values of ionization energy, electronegativity and electron affinity, the more metallic character the element has.
Conversely, nonmetallic character increases with higher values of these properties.[43] Given the periodic trends of these three
properties, metallic character tends to decrease going across a period (or row) and, with some irregularities (mostly) due to poor
screening of the nucleus by d and f electrons, and relativistic effects,[44] tends to increase going down a group (or column or
family). Thus, the most metallic elements (such as caesium and francium) are found at the bottom left of traditional periodic
tables and the most nonmetallic elements (oxygen, fluorine, chlorine) at the top right. The combination of horizontal and vertical
trends in metallic character explains the stair-shaped dividing line between metals and nonmetals found on some periodic tables,
and the practice of sometimes categorizing several elements adjacent to that line, or elements adjacent to those elements, as
metalloids.[45][46]
Linking or bridging groups
From left to right across the four blocks of the long- or 32-column form of the
periodic table are a series of linking or bridging groups of elements, located
approximately between each block.[47] These groups, like the metalloids, show
properties in between, or that are a mixture of, groups to either side. Chemically, the 32-column periodic table showing, from left to right,
group 3 elements, scandium, yttrium, lanthanum and actinium behave largely like the location of group 3; lutetium and lawrencium;
groups 11–12; and the noble gases
the alkaline earth metals [48] or, more generally, s block metals[49][50] but have some
of the physical properties of d block transition metals.[51] Lutetium and lawrencium, at the end of the end of the f block, may
constitute another linking or bridging group. Lutetium behaves chemically as a lanthanide but shows a mix of lanthanide and
transition metal physical properties.[52][53] Lawrencium, as an analogue of lutetium, would presumable display like
characteristics.[n 6] The coinage metals in group 11 (copper, silver, and gold) are chemically capable of acting as either transition
metals or main group metals.[56] The volatile group 12 metals, zinc, cadmium and mercury are sometimes regarded as linking the
d block to the p block. Notionally they are d block elements but they have few transition metal properties and are more like their p
block neighbors in group 13.[57][58] The relatively inert noble gases, in group 18, bridge the most reactive groups of elements in
the periodic table—the halogens in group 17 and the alkali metals in group 1.[47]
History
First systemization attempts
In 1789, Antoine Lavoisier published a list of

33 chemical elements, grouping them into
gases, metals, nonmetals, and earths.[59]
Chemists spent the following century
searching for a more precise classification
scheme. In 1829, Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner
observed that many of the elements could be
grouped into triads based on their chemical
properties. Lithium, sodium, and potassium,
for example, were grouped together in a triad
as soft, reactive metals. Döbereiner also
observed that, when arranged by atomic
weight, the second member of each triad was
roughly the average of the first and the
third;[60] this became known as the Law of
Triads.[61] German chemist Leopold Gmelin
worked with this system, and by 1843 he had
identified ten triads, three groups of four, and
one group of five. Jean-Baptiste Dumas The discovery of the elements mapped to significant periodic table development dates
published work in 1857 describing (pre-, per- and post-)
relationships between various groups of
metals. Although various chemists were able
to identify relationships between small groups of elements, they had yet to build one scheme that encompassed them all.[60]
In 1857, German chemist August Kekulé observed that carbon often has four other atoms bonded to it. Methane, for example, has
one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms.[62] This concept eventually became known as valency; different elements bond with
different numbers of atoms.[63]
In 1862, Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois, a French geologist, published an early form of periodic table, which he
called the telluric helix or screw. He was the first person to notice the periodicity of the elements. With the elements arranged in a
spiral on a cylinder by order of increasing atomic weight, de Chancourtois showed that elements with similar properties seemed to
occur at regular intervals. His chart included some ions and compounds in addition to elements. His paper also used geological
rather than chemical terms and did not include a diagram; as a result, it received little attention until the work of Dmitri
Mendeleev.[64]
In 1864, Julius Lothar Meyer, a German chemist, published a table with 44 elements arranged by valency. The table showed that
elements with similar properties often shared the same valency.[65] Concurrently, William Odling (an English chemist) published
an arrangement of 57 elements, ordered on the basis of their atomic weights. With some irregularities and gaps, he noticed what
appeared to be a periodicity of atomic weights among the elements and that this accorded with "their usually received
groupings".[66] Odling alluded to the idea of a periodic law but did not pursue it.[67] He subsequently proposed (in 1870) a
valence-based classification of the elements.[68]
English chemist John Newlands produced a series of papers from 1863 to

1866 noting that when the elements were listed in order of increasing atomic
weight, similar physical and chemical properties recurred at intervals of eight;
he likened such periodicity to the octaves of music.[69][70] This so termed
Law of Octaves, however, was ridiculed by Newlands' contemporaries, and
the Chemical Society refused to publish his work.[71] Newlands was Newlands' periodic table, as presented to the
nonetheless able to draft a table of the elements and used it to predict the Chemical Society in 1866, and based on the law of
existence of missing elements, such as germanium.[72] The Chemical Society octaves
only acknowledged the significance of his discoveries five years after they
credited Mendeleev.[73]
In 1867, Gustavus Hinrichs, a Danish born academic chemist based in America, published a spiral periodic system based on
atomic spectra and weights, and chemical similarities. His work was regarded as idiosyncratic, ostentatious and labyrinthine and
this may have militated against its recognition and acceptance.[74][75]
Mendeleev's table
Russian chemistry professor Dmitri Mendeleev and

German chemist Julius Lothar Meyer independently
published their periodic tables in 1869 and 1870,
respectively.[76] Mendeleev's table was his first published
version; that of Meyer was an expanded version of his
(Meyer's) table of 1864.[77] They both constructed their
tables by listing the elements in rows or columns in order
of atomic weight and starting a new row or column when
the characteristics of the elements began to repeat.[78]
Dmitri Mendeleev, The recognition and acceptance afforded to Mendeleev's

watercolour by Ilya table came from two decisions he made. The first was to
Repin leave gaps in the table when it seemed that the
corresponding element had not yet been discovered.[79]
Mendeleev was not the first chemist to do so, but he was
the first to be recognized as using the trends in his A version of Mendeleev's 1869 periodic
periodic table to predict the properties of those missing table: An experiment on a system of
elements, such as gallium and germanium. [80] The elements based on their atomic weights
second decision was to occasionally ignore the order and chemical similarities. This early
Mendeleev's periodic arrangement presents the periods vertically,
table from his book An suggested by the atomic weights and switch adjacent
elements, such as tellurium and iodine, to better classify and the groups horizontally.
Attempt Towards a
Chemical Conception of them into chemical families. Later in 1913, Henry
the Ether Moseley determined experimental values of the nuclear charge or atomic number of each element,
and showed that Mendeleev's ordering actually corresponds to the order of increasing atomic
number.[81]
The significance of atomic numbers to the organization of the periodic table was not appreciated until the existence and properties
of protons and neutrons became understood. Mendeleev's periodic tables used atomic weight instead of atomic number to
organize the elements, information determinable to fair precision in his time. Atomic weight worked well enough in most cases to
(as noted) give a presentation that was able to predict the properties of missing elements more accurately than any other method
then known. Substitution of atomic numbers, once understood, gave a definitive, integer-based sequence for the elements, and
Moseley predicted (in 1913) that the only elements still missing between aluminium (Z=13) and gold (Z=79) were Z = 43, 61, 72
and 75, all of which were later discovered. The sequence of atomic numbers is still used today even as new synthetic elements are
being produced and studied.[82]
Second version and further development
In 1871, Mendeleev published his periodic

table in a new form, with groups of similar
elements arranged in columns rather than in
rows, and those columns numbered I to VIII
corresponding with the element's oxidation
state. He also gave detailed predictions for the
properties of elements he had earlier noted
were missing, but should exist.[83] These gaps
were subsequently filled as chemists
discovered additional naturally occurring
elements.[84] It is often stated that the last
naturally occurring element to be discovered
was francium (referred to by Mendeleev as
eka-caesium) in 1939.[85] However,
plutonium, produced synthetically in 1940,
Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table with eight groups of elements. Dashes represented
was identified in trace quantities as a naturally
elements unknown in 1871.
occurring element in 1971.[86]
The popular[87] periodic table layout, also known as the common or standard form (as shown at various other points in this
article), is attributable to Horace Groves Deming. In 1923, Deming, an American chemist, published short (Mendeleev style (htt
p://www.meta-synthesis.com/webbook/35_pt/pt_database.php?PT_id=456)) and medium (18-column (http://www.meta-synthesis.
com/webbook/35_pt/pt_database.php?PT_id=360)) form periodic tables.[88][n 7] Merck and Company prepared a handout form of
Deming's 18-column medium table, in 1928,

which was widely circulated in American
schools. By the 1930s Deming's table was
appearing in handbooks and encyclopaedias of
chemistry. It was also distributed for many
years by the Sargent-Welch Scientific
Company.[89][90][91]
With the development of modern quantum

mechanical theories of electron configurations
within atoms, it became apparent that each
period (row) in the table corresponded to the
filling of a quantum shell of electrons. Larger
atoms have more electron sub-shells, so later
tables have required progressively longer
periods.[92]
In 1945, Glenn
Seaborg, an
American
scientist, made the
Eight-column form of periodic table, updated with all elements discovered to 2016 suggestion that
the actinide
elements, like the
lanthanides, were filling an f sub-level. Before this time the actinides were thought to be forming a
fourth d-block row. Seaborg's colleagues advised him not to publish such a radical suggestion as it
would most likely ruin his career. As Seaborg considered he did not then have a career to bring into
disrepute, he published anyway. Seaborg's suggestion was found to be correct and he subsequently
went on to win the 1951 Nobel Prize in chemistry for his work in synthesizing actinide Glenn T. Seaborg who, in
1945, suggested a new
elements.[93][94][n 8]
periodic table showing
the actinides as
Although minute quantities of some transuranic elements occur naturally,[3] they were all first belonging to a second f-
discovered in laboratories. Their production has expanded the periodic table significantly, the first of block series
these being neptunium, synthesized in 1939.[95] Because many of the transuranic elements are highly
unstable and decay quickly, they are challenging to detect and characterize when produced. There
have been controversies concerning the acceptance of competing discovery claims for some elements, requiring independent
review to determine which party has priority, and hence naming rights.[96] In 2010, a joint Russia–US collaboration at Dubna,
Moscow Oblast, Russia, claimed to have synthesized six atoms of tennessine (element 117), making it the most recently claimed
discovery. It, along with nihonium (element 113), moscovium (element 115), and oganesson (element 118), are the four most
recently named elements, whose names all became official on 28 November 2016.[97]
Different periodic tables

The long- or 32-column table
The modern periodic

table is sometimes
expanded into its long
or 32-column form by
reinstating the
footnoted f-block
elements into their
natural position
between the s- and d-
blocks. Unlike the 18-
column form this
arrangement results in
The periodic table in 32-column format
"no interruptions in the
sequence of increasing
atomic numbers".[98] The relationship of the f-block to the other blocks of the periodic table also becomes easier to see.[99] Jensen
advocates a form of table with 32 columns on the grounds that the lanthanides and actinides are otherwise relegated in the minds
of students as dull, unimportant elements that can be quarantined and ignored.[100] Despite these advantages the 32-column form
is generally avoided by editors on account of its undue rectangular ratio (compared to a book page ratio),[101] and the familiarity
of chemists with the modern form (as introduced by Seaborg).[102]
Tables with different structures
Within 100 years of the appearance of Mendeleev's table in 1869 it has been estimated that around 700 different periodic table
versions were published.[103] As well as numerous rectangular variations, other periodic table formats have been shaped, for
example,[n 9] like a circle, cube, cylinder, building, spiral, lemniscate,[104] octagonal prism, pyramid, sphere, or triangle. Such
alternatives are often developed to highlight or emphasize chemical or physical properties of the elements that are not as apparent
in traditional periodic tables.[103]
A popular[105] alternative structure is that of Theodor Benfey (1960). The elements are
arranged in a continuous spiral, with hydrogen at the centre and the transition metals,
lanthanides, and actinides occupying peninsulas.[106]
Most periodic tables are two-dimensional;[3] however, three-dimensional tables are known
to as far back as at least 1862 (pre-dating Mendeleev's two-dimensional table of 1869).
More recent examples include Courtines' Periodic Classification (1925),[107] Wringley's
Lamina System (1949),[108] Giguère's Periodic helix (1965)[109] and Dufour's Periodic
Tree (1996).[110] Going one further, Stowe's Physicist's Periodic Table (1989)[111] has
been described as being four-dimensional (having three spatial dimensions and one colour
Theodor Benfey's spiral periodic table
dimension).[112]
The various forms of periodic tables can be thought of as lying on a chemistry–physics continuum.[113] Towards the chemistry
end of the continuum can be found, as an example, Rayner-Canham's "unruly"[114] Inorganic Chemist's Periodic Table
(2002),[115] which emphasizes trends and patterns, and unusual chemical relationships and properties. Near the physics end of the
continuum is Janet's Left-Step Periodic Table (1928). This has a structure that shows a closer connection to the order of electron-
shell filling and, by association, quantum mechanics.[116] A somewhat similar approach has been taken by Alper,[117] albeit
criticized by Eric Scerri as disregarding the need to display chemical and physical periodicity.[118] Somewhere in the middle of
the continuum is the ubiquitous common or standard form of periodic table. This is regarded as better expressing empirical trends
in physical state, electrical and thermal conductivity, and oxidation numbers, and other properties easily inferred from traditional
techniques of the chemical laboratory.[119] Its popularity is thought to be a result of this layout having a good balance of features
in terms of ease of construction and size, and its depiction of atomic order and periodic trends.[67][120]
Left-step periodic table (by Charles Janet)

f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 f8
f9 f10 f11 f12 f13 f14 d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6 d7 d8 d9 d10 p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6 s1 s2
1s H He
2s Li Be
2p 3s B C N O F Ne Na Mg
3p 4s Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca
3d 4p 5s Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Rb Sr
4d 5p 6s Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Cs Ba
4f 5d 6p 7s La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Fr Ra
5f 6d 7p 8s Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og 119 120
f-block d-block p-block s-block
This form of periodic table is more congruent with the order in which electron shells are ideally filled according to Madelung's rule, as shown
in the accompanying sequence in the left margin (read from top to bottom, left to right). In reality, the filling of electron shells is characterized
by a number of irregularities.
Open questions and controversies

Placement of hydrogen and helium
Simply following electron configurations, hydrogen (electronic configuration 1s1) and helium (1s2) should be placed in groups 1
and 2, above lithium ([He]2s1) and beryllium ([He]2s2).[24] However, such placing is rarely used outside of the context of electron
configurations: When the noble gases (then called "inert gases") were first discovered around 1900, they were known as "group
0", reflecting no chemical reactivity of these elements known at that point, and helium was placed on the top that group, as it did
share the extreme chemical inertness seen throughout the group. As the group changed its formal number, many authors continued
to assign helium directly above neon, in group 18; one of the examples of such placing is the current IUPAC table.[121]
Hydrogen's chemical properties are not very close to those of the alkali metals, which occupy group 1, and on that basis hydrogen
is sometimes placed elsewhere: one of the most common alternatives is in group 17;[118] one of the factors behind it is the strictly
univalent predominantly non-metallic chemistry of hydrogen, and that of fluorine (the element placed on the top of group 17) is
strictly univalent and non-metallic. Sometimes, to show how hydrogen has properties both corresponding to those of the alkali
metals and the halogens, it may be shown in two columns simultaneously.[122] Another suggestion is above carbon in group 14:
placed that way, it fits well into the trend of increasing trends of ionization potential values and electron affinity values, and is not
too far from the electronegativity trend, even though hydrogen cannot show the tetravalence characteristic of the heavier group 14
elements.[123] Finally, hydrogen is sometimes placed separately from any group; this is based on how general properties of
hydrogen differ from that of any group: unlike hydrogen, the other group 1 elements show extremely metallic behaviour; the
group 17 elements commonly form salts (hence the term "halogen"); elements of any other group show some multivalent
chemistry. The other period 1 element, helium, is sometimes placed separately from any group as well.[124] The property that
distinguishes helium from the rest of the noble gases (even though the extraordinary inertness of helium is extremely close to that
of neon and argon[125]) is that in its closed electron shell, helium has only two electrons in the outermost electron orbital, while
the rest of the noble gases have eight.
Group 3 and its elements in periods 6 and 7
Although scandium and yttrium are always the first two elements in group 3 the identity of the next two elements is not
completely settled. They are commonly lanthanum and actinium, and less often lutetium and lawrencium. The two variants
originate from historical difficulties in placing the lanthanides in the periodic table, and arguments as to where the f block
elements start and end.[126][n 10][n 11] It has been claimed that such arguments are proof that, "it is a mistake to break the
[periodic] system into sharply delimited blocks".[128] A third variant shows the two positions below yttrium as being occupied by
the lanthanides and the actinides.
Chemical and physical arguments have been made in support of lutetium and lawrencium[129][130] but the majority of authors
seem unconvinced.[131] Most working chemists are not aware there is any controversy.[132] In December 2015 an IUPAC project
was established to make a recommendation on the matter.[133]
Lanthanum and actinium
La and Ac below Y
Lanthanum and actinium are commonly depicted as the remaining group 3 members.[134][n 12] It has been suggested that this
layout originated in the 1940s, with the appearance of periodic tables relying on the electron configurations of the elements and
the notion of the differentiating electron. The configurations of caesium, barium and lanthanum are [Xe]6s1, [Xe]6s2 and
[Xe]5d16s2. Lanthanum thus has a 5d differentiating electron and this establishes "it in group 3 as the first member of the d-block
for period 6".[135] A consistent set of electron configurations is then seen in group 3: scandium [Ar]3d14s2, yttrium [Kr]4d15s2
and lanthanum [Xe]5d16s2. Still in period 6, ytterbium was assigned an electron configuration of [Xe]4f135d16s2 and lutetium
[Xe]4f145d16s2, "resulting in a 4f differentiating electron for lutetium and firmly establishing it as the last member of the f-block
for period 6".[135] Later spectroscopic work found that the electron configuration of ytterbium was in fact [Xe]4f146s2. This meant
that ytterbium and lutetium—the latter with [Xe]4f145d16s2—both had 14 f-electrons, "resulting in a d- rather than an f-
differentiating electron" for lutetium and making it an "equally valid candidate" with [Xe]5d16s2 lanthanum, for the group 3
periodic table position below yttrium.[135] Lanthanum, however, has the advantage of incumbency since the 5d1 electron appears
for the first time in its structure whereas it appears for the third time in lutetium, having also made a brief second appearance in
gadolinium.[136]
In terms of chemical behaviour,[137] and trends going down group 3 for properties such as melting point, electronegativity and
ionic radius,[138][139] scandium, yttrium, lanthanum and actinium are similar to their group 1–2 counterparts. In this variant, the
number of f electrons in the most common (trivalent) ions of the f-block elements consistently matches their position in the f-
block.[140] For example, the f-electron counts for the trivalent ions of the first three f-block elements are Ce 1, Pr 2 and Nd 3.[141]
Lutetium and lawrencium
Lu and Lr below Y
In other tables, lutetium and lawrencium are the remaining group 3 members.[n 13] Early techniques for chemically separating
scandium, yttrium and lutetium relied on the fact that these elements occurred together in the so-called "yttrium group" whereas
La and Ac occurred together in the "cerium group".[135] Accordingly, lutetium rather than lanthanum was assigned to group 3 by
some chemists in the 1920s and 30s.[n 14] Several physicists in the 1950s and 60s favoured lutetium, in light of a comparison of
several of its physical properties with those of lanthanum.[135] This arrangement, in which lanthanum is the first member of the f-
block, is disputed by some authors since lanthanum lacks any f-electrons. However, it has been argued that this is not valid
concern given other periodic table anomalies—thorium, for example, has no f-electrons yet is part of the f-block.[142] As for
lawrencium, its gas phase atomic electron configuration was confirmed in 2015 as [Rn]5f147s27p1. Such a configuration
represents another periodic table anomaly, regardless of whether lawrencium is located in the f-block or the d-block, as the only
potentially applicable p-block position has been reserved for nihonium with its predicted configuration of
[Rn]5f146d107s27p1.[143][n 15]
Chemically, scandium, yttrium and lutetium (and presumably lawrencium) behave like trivalent versions of the group 1–2
metals.[145] On the other hand, trends going down the group for properties such as melting point, electronegativity and ionic
radius, are similar to those found among their group 4–8 counterparts.[135] In this variant, the number of f electrons in the gaseous
forms of the f-block atoms usually matches their position in the f-block. For example, the f-electron counts for the first five f-
block elements are La 0, Ce 1, Pr 3, Nd 4 and Pm 5.[135]
Lanthanides and actinides
Markers below Y
A few authors position all thirty lanthanides and actinides in the two positions below yttrium (usually via footnote markers). This
variant emphasizes similarities in the chemistry of the 15 lanthanide elements (La–Lu), possibly at the expense of ambiguity as to
which elements occupy the two group 3 positions below yttrium, and a 15-column wide f block (there can only be 14 elements in
any row of the f block).[n 16]
Groups included in the transition metals
The definition of a transition metal, as given by IUPAC, is an element whose atom has an incomplete d sub-shell, or which can
give rise to cations with an incomplete d sub-shell.[146] By this definition all of the elements in groups 3–11 are transition metals.
The IUPAC definition therefore excludes group 12, comprising zinc, cadmium and mercury, from the transition metals category.
Some chemists treat the categories "d-block elements" and "transition metals" interchangeably, thereby including groups 3–12
among the transition metals. In this instance the group 12 elements are treated as a special case of transition metal in which the d
electrons are not ordinarily involved in chemical bonding. The 2007 report of mercury(IV) fluoride (HgF4), a compound in which
mercury would use its d electrons for bonding, has prompted some commentators to suggest that mercury can be regarded as a
transition metal.[147] Other commentators, such as Jensen,[148] have argued that the formation of a compound like HgF4 can occur
only under highly abnormal conditions; indeed, its existence is currently disputed. As such, mercury could not be regarded as a
transition metal by any reasonable interpretation of the ordinary meaning of the term.[148]
Still other chemists further exclude the group 3 elements from the definition of a transition metal. They do so on the basis that the
group 3 elements do not form any ions having a partially occupied d shell and do not therefore exhibit any properties
characteristic of transition metal chemistry.[149] In this case, only groups 4–11 are regarded as transition metals. However, though
the group 3 elements show few of the characteristic chemical properties of the transition metals, they do show some of their
characteristic physical properties (on account of the presence in each atom of a single d electron).[51]
Elements with unknown chemical properties
Although all elements up to oganesson have been discovered, of the elements above hassium (element 108), only copernicium
(element 112) and flerovium (element 114) have known chemical properties. The other elements may behave differently from
what would be predicted by extrapolation, due to relativistic effects; for example, flerovium has been predicted to possibly exhibit
some noble-gas-like properties, even though it is currently placed in the carbon group.[150] More recent experiments have
suggested, however, that flerovium behaves chemically like lead, as expected from its periodic table position.[151]
Further periodic table extensions
It is unclear whether new elements will continue the pattern of the current
periodic table as period 8, or require further adaptations or adjustments. Seaborg
expected the eighth period to follow the previously established pattern exactly,
so that it would include a two-element s-block for elements 119 and 120, a new
g-block for the next 18 elements, and 30 additional elements continuing the
current f-, d-, and p-blocks, culminating in element 168, the next noble gas.[153] Periodic table with eight rows, extended to element 172[152]
More recently, physicists such as Pekka Pyykkö have theorized that these
additional elements do not follow the Madelung rule, which predicts how electron shells are filled and thus affects the appearance
of the present periodic table. There are currently several competing theoretical models for the placement of the elements of atomic
number less than or equal to 172.[154]
Element with the highest possible atomic number
The number of possible elements is not known. A very early suggestion made by Elliot Adams in 1911, and based on the
arrangement of elements in each horizontal periodic table row, was that elements of atomic weight greater than 256± (which
would equate to between elements 99 and 100 in modern-day terms) did not exist.[155] A higher—more recent—estimate is that
the periodic table may end soon after the island of stability,[156] which is expected to centre around element 126, as the extension
of the periodic and nuclides tables is restricted by proton and neutron drip lines.[157] Other predictions of an end to the periodic
table include at element 128 by John Emsley,[3] at element 137 by Richard Feynman,[158] and at element 155 by Albert
Khazan.[3][n 17]
Bohr model
The Bohr model exhibits difficulty for atoms with atomic number greater than 137, as any element with an atomic number greater
than 137 would require 1s electrons to be travelling faster than c, the speed of light.[159] Hence the non-relativistic Bohr model is
inaccurate when applied to such an element.
Relativistic Dirac equation
The relativistic Dirac equation has problems for elements with more than 137 protons. For such elements, the wave function of
the Dirac ground state is oscillatory rather than bound, and there is no gap between the positive and negative energy spectra, as in
the Klein paradox.[160] More accurate calculations taking into account the effects of the finite size of the nucleus indicate that the
binding energy first exceeds the limit for elements with more than 173 protons. For heavier elements, if the innermost orbital (1s)
is not filled, the electric field of the nucleus will pull an electron out of the vacuum, resulting in the spontaneous emission of a
positron;[161] however, this does not happen if the innermost orbital is filled, so that element 173 is not necessarily the end of the
periodic table.[158]
Optimal form
The many different forms of periodic table have prompted the question of whether there is an optimal or definitive form of
periodic table. The answer to this question is thought to depend on whether the chemical periodicity seen to occur among the
elements has an underlying truth, effectively hard-wired into the universe, or if any such periodicity is instead the product of
subjective human interpretation, contingent upon the circumstances, beliefs and predilections of human observers. An objective
basis for chemical periodicity would settle the questions about the location of hydrogen and helium, and the composition of group
3. Such an underlying truth, if it exists, is thought to have not yet been discovered. In its absence, the many different forms of
periodic table can be regarded as variations on the theme of chemical periodicity, each of which explores and emphasizes different
aspects, properties, perspectives and relationships of and among the elements.[n 18]
See also
Abundance of the chemical elements Table of nuclides
Atomic electron configuration table The Mystery of Matter: Search for the Elements (PBS
Element collecting film)
List of chemical elements Timeline of chemical element discoveries
List of periodic table-related articles
Names for sets of chemical elements
Table of nuclides
Notes
1. The elements discovered initially by synthesis and later in nature are technetium (Z=43), promethium (61), astatine (85), neptunium (93),
and plutonium (94).
2. An element zero (i.e. a substance composed purely of neutrons), is included in a few alternate presentations, for example, in the Chemical
Galaxy.
3. There is an inconsistency and some irregularities in this convention. Thus, helium is shown in the p-block but is actually an s-block
element, and (for example) the d-subshell in the d-block is actually filled by the time group 11 is reached, rather than group 12.
4. The noble gases, astatine, francium, and all elements heavier than americium were left out as there is no data for them.
5. While fluorine is the most electronegative of the elements under the Pauling scale, neon is the most electronegative element under other
scales, such as the Allen scale.
6. While Lr is thought to have p rather than d electron in its ground-state electron configuration, and would therefore be expected to be
volatile metal capable of forming a +1 cation in solution, no evidence of either of these properties has been able to be obtained despite
experimental attempts to do so.[54] It was originally expected to have a d electron in its electron configuration[54] and this may still be the
case for metallic lawrencium, whereas gas phase atomic lawrencium is very likely thought to have a p electron.[55]
7. An antecedent of Deming's 18-column table may be seen in Adams' 16-column Periodic Table of 1911 (http://www.meta-synthesis.com/
webbook/35_pt/pt_database.php?PT_id=67). Adams omits the rare earths and the "radioactive elements" (i.e. the actinides) from the
main body of his table and instead shows them as being "careted in only to save space" (rare earths between Ba and eka-Yt; radioactive
elements between eka-Te and eka-I). See: Elliot Q. A. (1911). "A modification of the periodic table". Journal of the American Chemical
Society. 33(5): 684–688 (687).
8. A second extra-long periodic table row, to accommodate known and undiscovered elements with an atomic weight greater than bismuth
(thorium, protactinium and uranium, for example), had been postulated as far back as 1892. Most investigators, however, considered that
these elements were analogues of the third series transition elements, hafnium, tantalum and tungsten. The existence of a second inner
transition series, in the form of the actinides, was not accepted until similarities with the electron structures of the lanthanides had been
established. See: van Spronsen, J. W. (1969). The periodic system of chemical elements. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 315–316, ISBN 0-444-
40776-6.
9. See The Internet database of periodic tables (http://www.meta-synthesis.com/webbook//35_pt/pt_database.php) for depictions of these
kinds of variants.
10. But for the existence of the lanthanides the composition of group 3 would not have been a source of any special interest, since scandium,
yttrium, lanthanum and actinium exhibit the same gradual change in properties as do calcium, strontium, barium and radium in group
2.[127]
11. The detachment of the lanthanides from the main body of the periodic table has been attributed to the Czech chemist Bohuslav Brauner
who, in 1902, allocated all of them ("Ce etc.") to one position in group 4, below zirconium. This arrangement was referred to as the
"asteroid hypothesis", in analogy to asteroids occupying a single orbit in the solar system. Before this time the lanthanides were generally
(and unsuccessfully) placed throughout groups I to VIII of the older 8-column form of periodic table. Although predecessors of Brauner's
1902 arrangement are recorded from as early as 1895, he is known to have referred to the "chemistry of asteroids" in an 1881 letter to
Mendeleev. Other authors assigned all of the lanthanides to either group 3, groups 3 and 4, or groups 2, 3 and 4. In 1922 Niels Bohr
continued the detachment process by locating the lanthanides between the s- and d-blocks. In 1949 Glenn T. Seaborg (re)introduced the
form of periodic table that is popular today, in which the lanthanides and actinides appear as footnotes. Seaborg first published his table
in a classified report dated 1944. It was published again by him in 1945 in Chemical and Engineering News, and in the years up to 1949
several authors commented on, and generally agreed with, Seaborg's proposal. In that year he noted that the best method for presenting
the actinides seemed to be by positioning them below, and as analogues of, the lanthanides. See: Thyssen P. and Binnemans K. (2011).
"Accommodation of the Rare Earths in the Periodic Table: A Historical Analysis". In K. A. Gschneider Jr. (ed). Handbook on the Physics
and Chemistry of the Rare Earths. 41. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 1–94; Seaborg G. T. (1994). Origin of the Actinide Concept'. In K. A.
Gschneider Jr. (ed). Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of the Rare Earths. 18. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 1–27.
12. For examples of this table see Atkins et al. (2006). Shriver & Atkins Inorganic Chemistry (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press •
Myers et al. (2004). Holt Chemistry. Orlando: Holt, Rinehart & Winston • Chang R. (2000). Essential Chemistry (2nd ed.). Boston:
McGraw-Hill
13. For examples of the group 3 = Sc-Y-Lu-Lr table see Rayner-Canham G. & Overton T. (2013). Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry (6th ed.).
New York: W. H. Freeman and Company • Brown et al. (2009). Chemistry: The Central Science (11th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey: Pearson Education • Moore et al. (1978). Chemistry. Tokyo: McGraw-Hill Kogakusha
14. The phenomenon of different separation groups is caused by increasing basicity with increasing radius, and does not constitute a
fundamental reason to show Lu, rather than La, below Y. Thus, among the Group 2 alkaline earth metals, Mg (less basic) belongs in the
"soluble group" and Ca, Sr and Ba (more basic) occur in the "ammonium carbonate group". Nevertheless, Mg, Ca, Sr and Ba are
routinely collocated in Group 2 of the periodic table. See: Moeller et al. (1989). Chemistry with Inorganic Qualitative Analysis (3rd ed.).
SanDiego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, pp. 955–956, 958.
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Bibliography
Ball, P. (2002). The Ingredients: A Guided Tour of the Elements. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-284100-9.
Chang, R. (2002). Chemistry (7th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 978-0-19-284100-1.
Gray, T. (2009). The Elements: A Visual Exploration of Every Known Atom in the Universe. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal
Publishers. ISBN 978-1-57912-814-2.
Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. (1984). Chemistry of the Elements. Oxford: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-022057-6.
Huheey, J. E.; Keiter, E. A.; Keiter, R. L. Principles of structure and reactivity (4th ed.). New York: Harper Collins College Publishers.
ISBN 0-06-042995-X.
Moore, J. T. (2003). Chemistry For Dummies. For Dummies (1st ed.). New York: Wiley Publications. ISBN 978-0-7645-5430-8.
Scerri, E. (2007). The periodic table: Its story and its significance. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-530573-6.
Scerri, E. (2011). The periodic table: A very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-958249-5.
Venable, F. P. (1896). The Development of the Periodic Law (https://books.google.com/books?id=tF0vAQAAMAAJ). Easton,
Pennsylvania: Chemical Publishing Company.
External links
IUPAC. "Periodic Table of the Elements" (http://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements). Retrieved 24 May
2016. Note: There is no IUPAC ruling on the composition of Group 3.
M. Dayah. "Dynamic Periodic Table" (http://www.ptable.com). Retrieved 14 May 2012.
Brady Haran. "The Periodic Table of Videos" (http://www.periodicvideos.com). University of Nottingham. Retrieved
14 May 2012.
Mark Winter. "WebElements: the periodic table on the web" (http://www.webelements.com). University of Sheffield.
Retrieved 14 May 2012.
Mark R. Leach. "The INTERNET Database of Periodic Tables" (http://www.meta-synthesis.com/webbook//35_pt/pt_databa
se.php). Retrieved 14 May 2012.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Periodic_table&oldid=789040966"
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7/24/2017 Chemical bond - Wikipedia
Chemical bond
A chemical bond is a lasting attraction between atoms that enables the formation of chemical compounds. The
bond may result from the electrostatic force of attraction between atoms with opposite charges, or through the
sharing of electrons as in the covalent bonds. The strength of chemical bonds varies considerably; there are
"strong bonds" or "primary bond" such as metallic, covalent or ionic bonds and "weak bonds" or "secondary
bond" such as Dipole-dipole interaction, the London dispersion force and hydrogen bonding.
Since opposite charges attract via a simple electromagnetic force, the negatively charged electrons that are
orbiting the nucleus and the positively charged protons in the nucleus attract each other. An electron positioned
between two nuclei will be attracted to both of them, and the nuclei will be attracted toward electrons in this
position. This attraction constitutes the chemical bond. Due to the matter wave nature of electrons and their
smaller mass, they must occupy a much larger amount of volume compared with the nuclei, and this volume
occupied by the electrons keeps the atomic nuclei in a bond relatively far apart, as compared with the size of
the nuclei themselves.
In general, strong chemical bonding is associated with the sharing or transfer of electrons between the
participating atoms. The atoms in molecules, crystals, metals and diatomic gases—indeed most of the physical
environment around us—are held together by chemical bonds, which dictate the structure and the bulk
properties of matter.
All bonds can be explained by quantum theory, but, in

practice, simplification rules allow chemists to predict the
strength, directionality, and polarity of bonds. The octet
rule and VSEPR theory are two examples. More
sophisticated theories are valence bond theory which
includes orbital hybridization and resonance, and molecular
orbital theory which includes linear combination of atomic
orbitals and ligand field theory. Electrostatics are used to
describe bond polarities and the effects they have on
chemical substances.
Contents
Examples of Lewis dot-style representations of
1 Overview of main types of chemical bonds chemical bonds between carbon (C), hydrogen (H),
2 History and oxygen (O). Lewis dot diagrams were an early
3 Bonds in chemical formulas attempt to describe chemical bonding and are still
4 Strong chemical bonds widely used today.
4.1 Ionic bonding
4.2 Covalent bond
4.2.1 Single and multiple bonds
4.3 Coordinate covalent bond (Dipolar
bond)
4.4 Metallic bonding
5 Intermolecular bonding
6 Theories of chemical bonding
7 References
8 External links
Overview of main types of chemical bonds

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_bond 1/7
A chemical bond is an attraction between atoms. This attraction may be seen as the result of different behaviors
of the outermost or valence electrons of atoms. These behaviors merge into each other seamlessly in various
circumstances, so that there is no clear line to be drawn between them. However it remains useful and
customary to differentiate between different types of bond, which result in different properties of condensed
matter.
In the simplest view of a covalent bond, one or more electrons (often a pair of electrons) are drawn into the
space between the two atomic nuclei. Energy is released by bond formation. This is not as a reduction in
potential energy, because the attraction of the two electrons to the two protons is offset by the electron-electron
and proton-proton repulsions. Instead, the release of energy (and hence stability of the bond) arises from the
reduction in kinetic energy due to the electrons being in a more spatially distributed (i.e. longer de Broglie
wavelength) orbital compared with each electron being confined closer to its respective nucleus.[1] These bonds
exist between two particular identifiable atoms and have a direction in space, allowing them to be shown as
single connecting lines between atoms in drawings, or modeled as sticks between spheres in models.
In a polar covalent bond, one or more electrons are unequally shared between two nuclei. Covalent bonds often
result in the formation of small collections of better-connected atoms called molecules, which in solids and
liquids are bound to other molecules by forces that are often much weaker than the covalent bonds that hold the
molecules internally together. Such weak intermolecular bonds give organic molecular substances, such as
waxes and oils, their soft bulk character, and their low melting points (in liquids, molecules must cease most
structured or oriented contact with each other). When covalent bonds link long chains of atoms in large
molecules, however (as in polymers such as nylon), or when covalent bonds extend in networks through solids
that are not composed of discrete molecules (such as diamond or quartz or the silicate minerals in many types
of rock) then the structures that result may be both strong and tough, at least in the direction oriented correctly
with networks of covalent bonds. Also, the melting points of such covalent polymers and networks increase
greatly.
In a simplified view of an ionic bond, the bonding electron is not shared at all, but transferred. In this type of
bond, the outer atomic orbital of one atom has a vacancy which allows the addition of one or more electrons.
These newly added electrons potentially occupy a lower energy-state (effectively closer to more nuclear charge)
than they experience in a different atom. Thus, one nucleus offers a more tightly bound position to an electron
than does another nucleus, with the result that one atom may transfer an electron to the other. This transfer
causes one atom to assume a net positive charge, and the other to assume a net negative charge. The bond then
results from electrostatic attraction between atoms and the atoms become positive or negatively charged ions.
Ionic bonds may be seen as extreme examples of polarization in covalent bonds. Often, such bonds have no
particular orientation in space, since they result from equal electrostatic attraction of each ion to all ions around
them. Ionic bonds are strong (and thus ionic substances require high temperatures to melt) but also brittle, since
the forces between ions are short-range and do not easily bridge cracks and fractures. This type of bond gives
rise to the physical characteristics of crystals of classic mineral salts, such as table salt.
A less often mentioned type of bonding is metallic bonding. In this type of bonding, each atom in a metal
donates one or more electrons to a "sea" of electrons that reside between many metal atoms. In this sea, each
electron is free (by virtue of its wave nature) to be associated with a great many atoms at once. The bond results
because the metal atoms become somewhat positively charged due to loss of their electrons while the electrons
remain attracted to many atoms, without being part of any given atom. Metallic bonding may be seen as an
extreme example of delocalization of electrons over a large system of covalent bonds, in which every atom
participates. This type of bonding is often very strong (resulting in the tensile strength of metals). However,
metallic bonding is more collective in nature than other types, and so they allow metal crystals to more easily
deform, because they are composed of atoms attracted to each other, but not in any particularly-oriented ways.
This results in the malleability of metals. The sea of electrons in metallic bonding causes the characteristically
good electrical and thermal conductivity of metals, and also their "shiny" reflection of most frequencies of
white light.
History
Early speculations about the nature of the chemical bond, from as early as the 12th century, supposed that
certain types of chemical species were joined by a type of chemical affinity. In 1704, Sir Isaac Newton
famously outlined his atomic bonding theory, in "Query 31" of his Opticks, whereby atoms attach to each other
by some "force". Specifically, after acknowledging the various popular theories in vogue at the time, of how
atoms were reasoned to attach to each other, i.e. "hooked atoms", "glued together by rest", or "stuck together by
conspiring motions", Newton states that he would rather infer from their cohesion, that "particles attract one
another by some force, which in immediate contact is exceedingly strong, at small distances performs the
chemical operations, and reaches not far from the particles with any sensible effect."
In 1819, on the heels of the invention of the voltaic pile, Jöns Jakob Berzelius developed a theory of chemical
combination stressing the electronegative and electropositive characters of the combining atoms. By the mid
19th century, Edward Frankland, F.A. Kekulé, A.S. Couper, Alexander Butlerov, and Hermann Kolbe, building
on the theory of radicals, developed the theory of valency, originally called "combining power", in which
compounds were joined owing to an attraction of positive and negative poles. In 1916, chemist Gilbert N.
Lewis developed the concept of the electron-pair bond, in which two atoms may share one to six electrons, thus
forming the single electron bond, a single bond, a double bond, or a triple bond; in Lewis's own words, "An
electron may form a part of the shell of two different atoms and cannot be said to belong to either one
exclusively."[2]
That same year, Walther Kossel put forward a theory similar to Lewis' only his model assumed complete
transfers of electrons between atoms, and was thus a model of ionic bonding. Both Lewis and Kossel structured
their bonding models on that of Abegg's rule (1904).
In 1927, the first mathematically complete quantum description of a simple chemical bond, i.e. that produced
by one electron in the hydrogen molecular ion, H2+, was derived by the Danish physicist Oyvind Burrau.[3]
This work showed that the quantum approach to chemical bonds could be fundamentally and quantitatively
correct, but the mathematical methods used could not be extended to molecules containing more than one
electron. A more practical, albeit less quantitative, approach was put forward in the same year by Walter Heitler
and Fritz London. The Heitler-London method forms the basis of what is now called valence bond theory. In
1929, the linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method (LCAO) approximation was
introduced by Sir John Lennard-Jones, who also suggested methods to derive electronic structures of molecules
of F2 (fluorine) and O2 (oxygen) molecules, from basic quantum principles. This molecular orbital theory
represented a covalent bond as an orbital formed by combining the quantum mechanical Schrödinger atomic
orbitals which had been hypothesized for electrons in single atoms. The equations for bonding electrons in
multi-electron atoms could not be solved to mathematical perfection (i.e., analytically), but approximations for
them still gave many good qualitative predictions and results. Most quantitative calculations in modern
quantum chemistry use either valence bond or molecular orbital theory as a starting point, although a third
approach, density functional theory, has become increasingly popular in recent years.
In 1933, H. H. James and A. S. Coolidge carried out a calculation on the dihydrogen molecule that, unlike all
previous calculation which used functions only of the distance of the electron from the atomic nucleus, used
functions which also explicitly added the distance between the two electrons.[4] With up to 13 adjustable
parameters they obtained a result very close to the experimental result for the dissociation energy. Later
extensions have used up to 54 parameters and gave excellent agreement with experiments. This calculation
convinced the scientific community that quantum theory could give agreement with experiment. However this
approach has none of the physical pictures of the valence bond and molecular orbital theories and is difficult to
extend to larger molecules.
Bonds in chemical formulas

Because atoms and molecules are three-dimensional, it is difficult to use a single method to indicate orbitals
and bonds. In molecular formulas the chemical bonds (binding orbitals) between atoms are indicated in
different ways depending on the type of discussion. Sometimes, some details are neglected. For example, in
organic chemistry one is sometimes concerned only with the functional group of the molecule. Thus, the
molecular formula of ethanol may be written in conformational form, three-dimensional form, full two-
dimensional form (indicating every bond with no three-dimensional directions), compressed two-dimensional
form (CH3–CH2–OH), by separating the functional group from another part of the molecule (C2H5OH), or by
its atomic constituents (C2H6O), according to what is discussed. Sometimes, even the non-bonding valence
shell electrons (with the two-dimensional approximate directions) are marked, e.g. for elemental carbon .'C'.
Some chemists may also mark the respective orbitals, e.g. the hypothetical ethene−4 anion (\/C=C/\ −4)
indicating the possibility of bond formation.
Strong chemical bonds

Strong chemical bonds are the intramolecular forces which hold atoms together in molecules. A strong
chemical bond is formed from the transfer or sharing of electrons between atomic centers and relies on the
electrostatic attraction between the protons in nuclei and the electrons in the orbitals.
The types of strong bond differ due to the difference in electronegativity of the constituent elements. A large
difference in electronegativity leads to more polar (ionic) character in the bond.
Ionic bonding
Ionic bonding is a type of electrostatic interaction between atoms which have a large electronegativity
difference. There is no precise value that distinguishes ionic from covalent bonding, but a difference of
electronegativity of over 1.7 is likely to be ionic, and a difference of less than 1.7 is likely to be covalent.[6]
Ionic bonding leads to separate positive and negative ions. Ionic charges are commonly between −3e to +3e.
Ionic bonding commonly occurs in metal salts such as sodium chloride (table salt). A typical feature of ionic
bonds is that the species form into ionic crystals, in which no ion is specifically paired with any single other
ion, in a specific directional bond. Rather, each species of ion is surrounded by ions of the opposite charge, and
the spacing between it and each of the oppositely charged ions near it, is the same for all surrounding atoms of
the same type. It is thus no longer possible to associate an ion with any specific other single ionized atom near
it. This is a situation unlike that in covalent crystals, where covalent bonds between specific atoms are still
discernible from the shorter distances between them, as measured via such techniques as X-ray diffraction.
Ionic crystals may contain a mixture of covalent and ionic species, as for example salts of complex acids, such
as sodium cyanide, NaCN. X-ray diffraction shows that in NaCN, for example, the bonds between sodium
cations (Na+) and the cyanide anions (CN−) are ionic, with no sodium ion associated with any particular
cyanide. However, the bonds between C and N atoms in cyanide are of the covalent type, making each of the
carbon and nitrogen associated with just one of its opposite type, to which it is physically much closer than it is
to other carbons or nitrogens in a sodium cyanide crystal.
When such crystals are melted into liquids, the ionic bonds are broken first because they are non-directional
and allow the charged species to move freely. Similarly, when such salts dissolve into water, the ionic bonds are
typically broken by the interaction with water, but the covalent bonds continue to hold. For example, in
solution, the cyanide ions, still bound together as single CN− ions, move independently through the solution, as
do sodium ions, as Na+. In water, charged ions move apart because each of them are more strongly attracted to
a number of water molecules, than to each other. The attraction between ions and water molecules in such
solutions is due to a type of weak dipole-dipole type chemical bond. In melted ionic compounds, the ions
continue to be attracted to each other, but not in any ordered or crystalline way.
Covalent bond
Covalent bonding is a common type of bonding, in which two atoms Typical bond lengths in pm
share two valence electrons, one from each of the atoms. In nonpolar and bond energies in kJ/mol.
covalent bonds, the electronegativity difference between the bonded Bond lengths can be converted to Å
atoms is small, typically 0 to 0.3. Bonds within most organic by division by 100 (1 Å = 100 pm).
compounds are described as covalent. The figure shows methane Data taken from University of Waterloo.[5]
(CH4), in which each hydrogen forms a covalent bond with the carbon. Length Energy
Bond
See sigma bonds and pi bonds for LCAO-description of such bonding. (pm) (kJ/mol)
H — Hydrogen
Molecules which are formed primarily from non-polar covalent bonds
are often immiscible in water or other polar solvents, but much more H–H 74 436
soluble in non-polar solvents such as hexane. H–O 96 366
H–F 92 568
A polar covalent bond is a covalent bond with a significant ionic
character. This means that the two shared electrons are closer to one of H–Cl 127 432
the atoms than the other, creating an imbalance of charge. Such bonds C — Carbon
occur between two atoms with moderately different electronegativities
C–H 109 413
and give rise to dipole-dipole interactions. The electronegativity
difference between the two atoms in these bonds is 0.3 to 1.7. C–C 154 348
C–C= 151
Single and multiple bonds =C–C≡ 147
=C–C= 148
A single bond between two atoms corresponds to the sharing of one
pair of electrons. The electron density of these two bonding electrons is C=C 134 614
concentrated in the region between the two atoms, which is the C≡C 120 839
defining quality of a sigma bond.
C–N 147 308
A double bond between two atoms is formed by the sharing of two C–O 143 360
pairs of electrons, one in a sigma bond and one in a pi bond, with C–F 134 488
electron density concentrated on two opposite sides of the internuclear
C–Cl 177 330
axis. A triple bond consists of three shared electron pairs, forming one
sigma and two pi bonds. N — Nitrogen
N–H 101 391
Quadruple and higher bonds are very rare and occur only between
certain transition metal atoms. N–N 145 170
N≡N 110 945
Coordinate covalent bond (Dipolar bond) O — Oxygen
O–O 148 145
A coordinate covalent bond is a covalent bond in which the two shared
bonding electrons are from the same one of the atoms involved in the O=O 121 498
bond. For example, boron trifluoride (BF3) and ammonia (NH3) from F, Cl, Br, I — Halogens
an adduct or coordination complex F3B←NH3 with a B–N bond in F–F 142 158
which a lone pair of electrons on N is shared with an empty atomic Cl–Cl 199 243
orbital on B. BF3 with an empty orbital is described as an electron pair
Br–H 141 366
acceptor or Lewis acid, while NH3 with a lone pair which can be
Br–Br 228 193
shared is described as an electron-pair donor or Lewis base. The
I–H 161 298
electrons are shared roughly equally between the atoms in contrast to
ionic bonding. Such bonding is shown by an arrow pointing to the I–I 267 151
Lewis acid.
Transition metal complexes are generally bound by coordinate covalent bonds. For example, the ion Ag+ reacts
as a Lewis acid with two molecules of the Lewis base NH3 to form the complex ion Ag(NH3)2+, which has two
Ag←N coordinate covalent bonds.
Metallic bonding
In metallic bonding, bonding electrons are delocalized over a lattice of atoms. By

contrast, in ionic compounds, the locations of the binding electrons and their
charges are static. The freely-moving or delocalization of bonding electrons leads
to classical metallic properties such as luster (surface light reflectivity), electrical
and thermal conductivity, ductility, and high tensile strength.
Intermolecular bonding
There are four basic types of bonds that can be formed between two or more Nonpolar covalent bonds
(otherwise non-associated) molecules, ions or atoms. Intermolecular forces cause in methane (CH4). The
molecules to be attracted or repulsed by each other. Often, these define some of
Lewis structure shows
the physical characteristics (such as the melting point) of a substance.
electrons shared between C
A large difference in electronegativity between two bonded atoms will and H atoms.
cause a permanent charge separation, or dipole, in a molecule or
ion. Two or more molecules or ions with permanent dipoles can
interact within dipole-dipole interactions. The bonding electrons
in a molecule or ion will, on average, be closer to the more
electronegative atom more frequently than the less
electronegative one, giving rise to partial charges on each atom,
and causing electrostatic forces between molecules or ions.
A hydrogen bond is effectively a strong example of an interaction
between two permanent dipoles. The large difference in
electronegativities between hydrogen and any of fluorine, Two p-orbitals forming a pi-bond.
nitrogen and oxygen, coupled with their lone pairs of electrons
cause strong electrostatic forces between molecules. Hydrogen
bonds are responsible for the high boiling points of water and
ammonia with respect to their heavier analogues.
The London dispersion force arises due to instantaneous dipoles
in neighbouring atoms. As the negative charge of the electron is
not uniform around the whole atom, there is always a charge
imbalance. This small charge will induce a corresponding dipole
in a nearby molecule; causing an attraction between the two. The Adduct of ammonia and boron
electron then moves to another part of the electron cloud and the trifluoride
attraction is broken.
A cation–pi interaction occurs between a pi bond and a cation.
Theories of chemical bonding

In the (unrealistic) limit of "pure" ionic bonding, electrons are perfectly localized on one of the two atoms in
the bond. Such bonds can be understood by classical physics. The forces between the atoms are characterized
by isotropic continuum electrostatic potentials. Their magnitude is in simple proportion to the charge
difference.
Covalent bonds are better understood by valence bond theory or molecular orbital theory. The properties of the
atoms involved can be understood using concepts such as oxidation number. The electron density within a bond
is not assigned to individual atoms, but is instead delocalized between atoms. In valence bond theory, the two
electrons on the two atoms are coupled together with the bond strength depending on the overlap between
them. In molecular orbital theory, the linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) helps describe the
delocalized molecular orbital structures and energies based on the atomic orbitals of the atoms they came from.
Unlike pure ionic bonds, covalent bonds may have directed anisotropic properties. These may have their own
names, such as sigma bond and pi bond.
In the general case, atoms form bonds that are intermediate between ionic and covalent, depending on the
relative electronegativity of the atoms involved. This type of bond is sometimes called polar covalent.
References
1. Rioux, F. (2001). "The Covalent Bond in H2". The Chemical Educator. 6 (5): 288. doi:10.1007/s00897010509a (http
s://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00897010509a).
2. Lewis, Gilbert N. (1916). "The Atom and the Molecule" (http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pau
ling/bond/papers/corr216.3-lewispub-19160400.html). Journal of the American Chemical Society. 38 (4): 772.
doi:10.1021/ja02261a002 (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja02261a002). a copy (http://www.itis.arezzo.it/index.php?opti
on=com_content&view=article&id=221%3Athe-atom-and-the-molecule-&catid=106%3Apagine-html&Itemid=98)
3. Laidler, K. J. (1993). The World of Physical Chemistry. Oxford University Press. p. 346. ISBN 0-19-855919-4.
4. James, H. H.; Coolidge, A. S. (1933). "The Ground State of the Hydrogen Molecule". Journal of Chemical Physics.
American Institute of Physics. 1 (12): 825–835. doi:10.1063/1.1749252 (https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1749252).
5. "Bond Lengths and Energies" (http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/c120/bondel.html).
Science.uwaterloo.ca. Retrieved 2013-10-15.
6. Atkins, Peter; Loretta Jones (1997). Chemistry: Molecules, Matter and Change. New York: W. H. Freeman & Co.
pp. 294–295. ISBN 0-7167-3107-X.
External links
W. Locke (1997). Introduction to Molecular Orbital Theory (htt
p://www.ch.ic.ac.uk/vchemlib/course/mo_theory/main.html). Wikiquote has quotations
related to: Chemical bond
Retrieved May 18, 2005.
Carl R. Nave (2005). HyperPhysics (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.
gsu.edu/hbase/chemical/bond.html). Retrieved May 18, 2005.
Linus Pauling and the Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History (http://osulibrary.oregonsta
te.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/index.html). Retrieved February 29, 2008.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chemical_bond&oldid=789915382"
Categories: Chemical bonding Quantum chemistry

7/24/2017 Molecule - Wikipedia
Molecule
A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held

together by chemical bonds.[4][5][6][7][8] Molecules are distinguished
from ions by their lack of electrical charge. However, in quantum
physics, organic chemistry, and biochemistry, the term molecule is often
used less strictly, also being applied to polyatomic ions.
In the kinetic theory of gases, the term molecule is often used for any
gaseous particle regardless of its composition. According to this
definition, noble gas atoms are considered molecules as they are in fact
monoatomic molecules.[9]
A molecule may be homonuclear, that is, it consists of atoms of one

chemical element, as with oxygen (O2); or it may be heteronuclear, a Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
chemical compound composed of more than one element, as with water image of a PTCDA molecule, which
(H2O). Atoms and complexes connected by non-covalent interactions, contains clusters of five carbon
such as hydrogen bonds or ionic bonds, are generally not considered rings.[1]
single molecules.[10]
Molecules as components of matter are common in organic substances

(and therefore biochemistry). They also make up most of the oceans and
atmosphere. However, the majority of familiar solid substances on
Earth, including most of the minerals that make up the crust, mantle,
and core of the Earth, contain many chemical bonds, but are not made
of identifiable molecules. Also, no typical molecule can be defined for
ionic crystals (salts) and covalent crystals (network solids), although
these are often composed of repeating unit cells that extend either in a
plane (such as in graphene) or three-dimensionally (such as in diamond,
quartz, or sodium chloride). The theme of repeated unit-cellular-
structure also holds for most condensed phases with metallic bonding,
which means that solid metals are also not made of molecules. In
A scanning tunneling microscopy
glasses (solids that exist in a vitreous disordered state), atoms may also
image of pentacene molecules, which
be held together by chemical bonds with no presence of any definable
consist of linear chains of five carbon
molecule, nor any of the regularity of repeating units that characterizes
crystals. rings.[2]
Contents
1 Molecular science
2 History and etymology
3 Bonding
3.1 Covalent AFM image of 1,5,9-trioxo-13-
3.2 Ionic azatriangulene and its chemical
4 Molecular size structure.[3]
5 Molecular formulas
5.1 Chemical formula types
5.2 Structural formula
6 Molecular geometry
7 Molecular spectroscopy
8 Theoretical aspects
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule 1/7
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Molecular science
The science of molecules is called molecular chemistry or molecular physics, depending on whether the focus
is on chemistry or physics. Molecular chemistry deals with the laws governing the interaction between
molecules that results in the formation and breakage of chemical bonds, while molecular physics deals with the
laws governing their structure and properties. In practice, however, this distinction is vague. In molecular
sciences, a molecule consists of a stable system (bound state) composed of two or more atoms. Polyatomic ions
may sometimes be usefully thought of as electrically charged molecules. The term unstable molecule is used
for very reactive species, i.e., short-lived assemblies (resonances) of electrons and nuclei, such as radicals,
molecular ions, Rydberg molecules, transition states, van der Waals complexes, or systems of colliding atoms
as in Bose–Einstein condensate.
History and etymology

According to Merriam-Webster and the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word "molecule" derives from the
Latin "moles" or small unit of mass.
Molecule (1794) – "extremely minute particle", from French molécule (1678), from New Latin molecula,
diminutive of Latin moles "mass, barrier". A vague meaning at first; the vogue for the word (used until
the late 18th century only in Latin form) can be traced to the philosophy of Descartes.[11][12]
The definition of the molecule has evolved as knowledge of the structure of molecules has increased. Earlier
definitions were less precise, defining molecules as the smallest particles of pure chemical substances that still
retain their composition and chemical properties.[13] This definition often breaks down since many substances
in ordinary experience, such as rocks, salts, and metals, are composed of large crystalline networks of
chemically bonded atoms or ions, but are not made of discrete molecules.
Bonding
Molecules are held together by either covalent bonding or ionic bonding. Several types of non-metal elements
exist only as molecules in the environment. For example, hydrogen only exists as hydrogen molecule. A
molecule of a compound is made out of two or more elements.[14]
Covalent
A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron

pairs between atoms. These electron pairs are termed shared pairs or
bonding pairs, and the stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces
between atoms, when they share electrons, is termed covalent
bonding.[15]
A covalent bond forming H2 (right)
where two hydrogen atoms share the
two electrons
Ionic
Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bond that involves the electrostatic

attraction between oppositely charged ions, and is the primary
interaction occurring in ionic compounds. The ions are atoms that have
lost one or more electrons (termed cations) and atoms that have gained
one or more electrons (termed anions).[16] This transfer of electrons is
termed electrovalence in contrast to covalence. In the simplest case, the
Sodium and fluorine undergoing a cation is a metal atom and the anion is a nonmetal atom, but these ions
redox reaction to form sodium
can be of a more complicated nature, e.g. molecular ions like NH4+ or
fluoride. Sodium loses its outer
electron to give it a stable electron SO42−. In simpler words, an ionic bond is the transfer of electrons from
configuration, and this electron enters a metal to a non-metal for both atoms to obtain a full valence shell.
the fluorine atom exothermically.
Molecular size
Most molecules are far too small to be seen with the naked eye, but
there are exceptions. DNA, a macromolecule, can reach macroscopic
sizes, as can molecules of many polymers. Molecules commonly used
as building blocks for organic synthesis have a dimension of a few
angstroms (Å) to several dozen Å, or around one billionth of a meter.
Single molecules cannot usually be observed by light (as noted above),
but small molecules and even the outlines of individual atoms may be
traced in some circumstances by use of an atomic force microscope.
Some of the largest molecules are macromolecules or supermolecules.
The smallest molecule is the diatomic hydrogen (H2), with a bond

length of 0.74 Å.[18]
Effective molecular radius is the size a molecule displays in

solution.[19][20] The table of permselectivity for different substances
contains examples.
Molecular formulas
Chemical formula types Arrangement of polyvinylidene
fluoride molecules in a nanofiber –
The chemical formula for a molecule uses one line of chemical element transmission electron microscopy
symbols, numbers, and sometimes also other symbols, such as image.[17]
parentheses, dashes, brackets, and plus (+) and minus (−) signs. These
are limited to one typographic line of symbols, which may include
subscripts and superscripts.
A compound's empirical formula is a very simple type of chemical formula.[21] It is the simplest integer ratio of
the chemical elements that constitute it.[22] For example, water is always composed of a 2:1 ratio of hydrogen
to oxygen atoms, and ethyl alcohol or ethanol is always composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 2:6:1
ratio. However, this does not determine the kind of molecule uniquely – dimethyl ether has the same ratios as
ethanol, for instance. Molecules with the same atoms in different arrangements are called isomers. Also
carbohydrates, for example, have the same ratio (carbon:hydrogen:oxygen= 1:2:1) (and thus the same empirical
formula) but different total numbers of atoms in the molecule.
The molecular formula reflects the exact number of atoms that compose the molecule and so characterizes
different molecules. However different isomers can have the same atomic composition while being different
molecules.
The empirical formula is often the same as the molecular formula but not always. For example, the molecule
acetylene has molecular formula C2H2, but the simplest integer ratio of elements is CH.
The molecular mass can be calculated from the chemical formula and is expressed in conventional atomic mass
units equal to 1/12 of the mass of a neutral carbon-12 (12C isotope) atom. For network solids, the term formula
unit is used in stoichiometric calculations.
Structural formula
For molecules with a complicated 3-

dimensional structure, especially involving
atoms bonded to four different substituents,
a simple molecular formula or even semi-
structural chemical formula may not be
enough to completely specify the molecule.
In this case, a graphical type of formula
called a structural formula may be needed. 3D (left and center) and 2D (right) representations of the terpenoid
Structural formulas may in turn be molecule atisane
represented with a one-dimensional
chemical name, but such chemical
nomenclature requires many words and terms which are not part of chemical formulas.
Molecular geometry
Molecules have fixed equilibrium geometries—bond lengths and angles—
about which they continuously oscillate through vibrational and rotational
motions. A pure substance is composed of molecules with the same average
geometrical structure. The chemical formula and the structure of a molecule are
the two important factors that determine its properties, particularly its reactivity.
Isomers share a chemical formula but normally have very different properties
because of their different structures. Stereoisomers, a particular type of isomer,
may have very similar physico-chemical properties and at the same time
different biochemical activities.
Molecular spectroscopy
Molecular spectroscopy deals with the response (spectrum) of molecules
interacting with probing signals of known energy (or frequency, according to
Planck's formula). Molecules have quantized energy levels that can be analyzed
by detecting the molecule's energy exchange through absorbance or
emission.[25] Spectroscopy does not generally refer to diffraction studies where
particles such as neutrons, electrons, or high energy X-rays interact with a
Structure and STM image of regular arrangement of molecules (as in a crystal).
a "cyanostar" dendrimer
molecule.[23] Microwave spectroscopy commonly measures changes in the rotation of
molecules, and can be used to identify molecules in outer space. Infrared
spectroscopy measures changes in vibration of molecules, including stretching,
bending or twisting motions. It is commonly used to identify the kinds of bonds or functional groups in
molecules. Changes in the arrangements of electrons yield absorption or emission lines in ultraviolet, visible or
near infrared light, and result in colour. Nuclear resonance

spectroscopy actually measures the environment of particular
nuclei in the molecule, and can be used to characterise the
numbers of atoms in different positions in a molecule.
Theoretical aspects
The study of molecules by molecular physics and theoretical
chemistry is largely based on quantum mechanics and is
essential for the understanding of the chemical bond. The
simplest of molecules is the hydrogen molecule-ion, H2+,
and the simplest of all the chemical bonds is the one-electron Hydrogen can be removed from individual H2TPP
bond. H2+ is composed of two positively charged protons molecules by applying excess voltage to the tip of
a scanning tunneling microscope (STM, a); this
and one negatively charged electron, which means that the
removal alters the current-voltage (I-V) curves of
Schrödinger equation for the system can be solved more
TPP molecules, measured using the same STM
easily due to the lack of electron–electron repulsion. With the
tip, from diode like (red curve in b) to resistor like
development of fast digital computers, approximate solutions
(green curve). Image (c) shows a row of TPP,
for more complicated molecules became possible and are one
H2TPP and TPP molecules. While scanning
of the main aspects of computational chemistry.
image (d), excess voltage was applied to H2TPP
When trying to define rigorously whether an arrangement of at the black dot, which instantly removed
atoms is sufficiently stable to be considered a molecule, hydrogen, as shown in the bottom part of (d) and
IUPAC suggests that it "must correspond to a depression on in the rescan image (e). Such manipulations can
the potential energy surface that is deep enough to confine at be used in single-molecule electronics.[24]
[4]
least one vibrational state". This definition does not
depend on the nature of the interaction between the atoms,
but only on the strength of the interaction. In fact, it includes weakly bound species that would not traditionally
be considered molecules, such as the helium dimer, He2, which has one vibrational bound state[26] and is so
loosely bound that it is only likely to be observed at very low temperatures.
Whether or not an arrangement of atoms is sufficiently stable to be considered a molecule is inherently an

operational definition. Philosophically, therefore, a molecule is not a fundamental entity (in contrast, for
instance, to an elementary particle); rather, the concept of a molecule is the chemist's way of making a useful
statement about the strengths of atomic-scale interactions in the world that we observe.
See also
Atom
Chemical polarity
Covalent bond
Diatomic molecule
List of compounds
List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules
Molecular design software
Molecular engineering
Molecular geometry
Molecular Hamiltonian
Molecular ion
Molecular modelling
Molecular orbital
Non-covalent bonding
Periodic systems of small molecules
Small molecule
Comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling

Van der Waals molecule
World Wide Molecular Matrix
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Yoshiaki (2015). "Chemical structure imaging of a single molecule by atomic force microscopy at room temperature"
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Joost; Mutombo, Pingo; Swart, Ingmar; Jelínek, Pavel (2016). "Mapping the electrostatic force field of single
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Darrell H. (2015). "Polyvinylidene fluoride molecules in nanofibers, imaged at atomic scale by aberration corrected
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capillary wall to macromolecules. II. Experimental studies in rats using neutral dextran" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.g
ov/pmc/articles/PMC1334749). Biophys J. 15 (9): 887–906. Bibcode:1975BpJ....15..887C (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/
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(2014). "Anion-induced dimerization of 5-fold symmetric cyanostars in 3D crystalline solids and 2D self-assembled
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External links
Molecule of the Month – School of Chemistry, University of Bristol (http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/m
otm.htm)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Molecule&oldid=791784168"
Categories: Molecular physics Molecules Chemistry Matter

7/24/2017 Inorganic chemistry - Wikipedia
Inorganic chemistry
Inorganic chemistry deals with the synthesis and behavior of inorganic and organometallic compounds. This
field covers all chemical compounds except the myriad organic compounds (carbon based compounds, usually
containing C-H bonds), which are the subjects of organic chemistry. The distinction between the two
disciplines is far from absolute, as there is much overlap in the subdiscipline of organometallic chemistry. It has
applications in every aspect of the chemical industry, including catalysis, materials science, pigments,
surfactants, coatings, medications, fuels, and agriculture.[1]
Contents
1 Key concepts
1.1 Industrial inorganic chemistry
2 Descriptive inorganic chemistry
2.1 Coordination compounds
2.2 Main group compounds
2.3 Transition metal compounds
2.4 Organometallic compounds
2.5 Cluster compounds
2.6 Bioinorganic compounds
2.7 Solid state compounds
3 Theoretical inorganic chemistry
3.1 Qualitative theories
3.2 Molecular symmetry group theory
4 Thermodynamics and inorganic chemistry
5 Mechanistic inorganic chemistry
5.1 Main group elements and lanthanides
5.2 Transition metal complexes
5.2.1 Redox reactions
5.2.2 Reactions at ligands
6 Characterization of inorganic compounds
7 Synthetic inorganic chemistry
8 See also
9 References
Key concepts
Many inorganic compounds are ionic compounds, consisting of cations and anions joined by ionic bonding.
Examples of salts (which are ionic compounds) are magnesium chloride MgCl2, which consists of magnesium
cations Mg2+ and chloride anions Cl−; or sodium oxide Na2O, which consists of sodium cations Na+ and oxide
anions O2−. In any salt, the proportions of the ions are such that the electric charges cancel out, so that the bulk
compound is electrically neutral. The ions are described by their oxidation state and their ease of formation can
be inferred from the ionization potential (for cations) or from the electron affinity (anions) of the parent
elements.
Important classes of inorganic compounds are the oxides, the carbonates, the sulfates, and the halides. Many
inorganic compounds are characterized by high melting points. Inorganic salts typically are poor conductors in
the solid state. Other important features include their high meilting point and ease of crystallization. Where
some salts (e.g., NaCl) are very soluble in water, others (e.g., SiO2) are not.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry 1/9
The simplest inorganic reaction

is double displacement when in
mixing of two salts the ions are
swapped without a change in
oxidation state. In redox
reactions one reactant, the
oxidant, lowers its oxidation
state and another reactant, the
reductant, has its oxidation state
increased. The net result is an
exchange of electrons. Electron
exchange can occur indirectly as
The structure of the ionic framework well, e.g., in batteries, a key
in potassium oxide, K2O concept in electrochemistry.
When one reactant contains

hydrogen atoms, a reaction can take place by exchanging protons in
acid-base chemistry. In a more general definition, any chemical species
capable of binding to electron pairs is called a Lewis acid; conversely
any molecule that tends to donate an electron pair is referred to as a
Lewis base. As a refinement of acid-base interactions, the HSAB theory
takes into account polarizability and size of ions.
Inorganic compounds are found in nature as minerals. Soil may contain

iron sulfide as pyrite or calcium sulfate as gypsum. Inorganic
compounds are also found multitasking as biomolecules: as electrolytes
(sodium chloride), in energy storage (ATP) or in construction (the
polyphosphate backbone in DNA).
The first important man-made inorganic compound was ammonium

nitrate for soil fertilization through the Haber process. Inorganic
compounds are synthesized for use as catalysts such as vanadium(V)
oxide and titanium(III) chloride, or as reagents in organic chemistry
such as lithium aluminium hydride.
Subdivisions of inorganic chemistry are organometallic chemistry,

cluster chemistry and bioinorganic chemistry. These fields are active
areas of research in inorganic chemistry, aimed toward new catalysts,
superconductors, and therapies.
Industrial inorganic chemistry
Inorganic chemistry is a highly practical area of science. Traditionally,

the scale of a nation's economy could be evaluated by their productivity
of sulfuric acid. The top 20 inorganic chemicals manufactured in
Canada, China, Europe, India, Japan, and the US (2005 data):[2]
Aluminium sulfate, Ammonia, Ammonium nitrate, Ammonium sulfate,
Carbon black, Chlorine, hydrochloric acid, hydrogen, hydrogen
peroxide, nitric acid, nitrogen, oxygen,phosphoric acid, sodium
carbonate, sodium chlorate, sodium hydroxide, sodium silicate, sodium
sulfate, sulfuric acid, and titanium dioxide.
The manufacturing of fertilizers is another practical application of

industrial inorganic chemistry.
Descriptive inorganic chemistry

Descriptive inorganic chemistry focuses on the classification of
compounds based on their properties. Partly the classification focuses
on the position in the periodic table of the heaviest element (the element Inorganic compounds show rich
with the highest atomic weight) in the compound, partly by grouping variety:
compounds by their structural similarities. When studying inorganic A: Diborane features unusual
compounds, one often encounters parts of the different classes of bonding
inorganic chemistry (an organometallic compound is characterized by B: Caesium chloride has an
its coordination chemistry, and may show interesting solid state archetypal crystal structure
properties). C: Fp2 is an organometallic complex
D: Silicone's uses range from breast
Different classifications are: implants to Silly Putty
E: Grubbs' catalyst won the 2005
Coordination compounds Nobel Prize for its discoverer
F: Zeolites find extensive use as
Classical coordination compounds feature metals bound to "lone pairs" molecular sieves
of electrons residing on the main group atoms of ligands such as H2O, G: Copper(II) acetate surprised
theoreticians with its diamagnetism
NH3, Cl−, and CN−. In modern coordination compounds almost all
organic and inorganic compounds can be used as ligands. The "metal"
usually is a metal from the groups 3-13, as well as the trans-lanthanides
and trans-actinides, but from a certain perspective, all chemical
compounds can be described as coordination complexes.
The stereochemistry of coordination complexes can be quite rich, as hinted

at by Werner's separation of two enantiomers of [Co((OH)2Co(NH3)4)3]6+,
an early demonstration that chirality is not inherent to organic compounds.
A topical theme within this specialization is supramolecular coordination
chemistry.[3]
Examples: [Co(EDTA)]−, [Co(NH3)6]3+, TiCl4(THF)2. EDTA chelates an octahedrally

coordinated Co3+ ion in
Main group compounds [Co(EDTA)]−
These species feature elements from groups 1, 2 and 13-18 (excluding

hydrogen) of the periodic table. Due to their often similar reactivity, the
elements in group 3 (Sc, Y, and La) and group 12 (Zn, Cd, and Hg) are
also generally included, and the lanthanides and actinides are sometimes
included as well.[4]
Main group compounds have been known since the beginnings of

chemistry, e.g., elemental sulfur and the distillable white phosphorus.
Experiments on oxygen, O2, by Lavoisier and Priestley not only identified
an important diatomic gas, but opened the way for describing compounds
and reactions according to stoichiometric ratios. The discovery of a
Tetrasulfur tetranitride, S4N4, is a
practical synthesis of ammonia using iron catalysts by Carl Bosch and Fritz
Haber in the early 1900s deeply impacted mankind, demonstrating the main group compound that
significance of inorganic chemical synthesis. Typical main group continues to intrigue chemists
compounds are SiO2, SnCl4, and N2O. Many main group compounds can
also be classed as “organometallic”, as they contain organic groups, e.g., B(CH3)3). Main group compounds
also occur in nature, e.g., phosphate in DNA, and therefore may be classed as bioinorganic. Conversely, organic
compounds lacking (many) hydrogen ligands can be classed as “inorganic”, such as the fullerenes, buckytubes
and binary carbon oxides.
Examples: tetrasulfur tetranitride S4N4, diborane B2H6, silicones, buckminsterfullerene C60.
Transition metal compounds
Compounds containing metals from group 4 to 11 are considered transition metal compounds. Compounds with
a metal from group 3 or 12 are sometimes also incorporated into this group, but also often classified as main
group compounds.
Transition metal compounds show a rich coordination chemistry, varying from tetrahedral for titanium (e.g.,
TiCl4) to square planar for some nickel complexes to octahedral for coordination complexes of cobalt. A range
of transition metals can be found in biologically important compounds, such as iron in hemoglobin.
Examples: iron pentacarbonyl, titanium tetrachloride, cisplatin
Organometallic compounds
Usually, organometallic compounds are considered to contain the M-C-H

group.[5] The metal (M) in these species can either be a main group
element or a transition metal. Operationally, the definition of an
organometallic compound is more relaxed to include also highly lipophilic
complexes such as metal carbonyls and even metal alkoxides.
Organometallic compounds are mainly considered a special category

because organic ligands are often sensitive to hydrolysis or oxidation,
necessitating that organometallic chemistry employs more specialized
preparative methods than was traditional in Werner-type complexes.
Synthetic methodology, especially the ability to manipulate complexes in
solvents of low coordinating power, enabled the exploration of very
weakly coordinating ligands such as hydrocarbons, H2, and N2. Because
Organolithium reagents are most
the ligands are petrochemicals in some sense, the area of organometallic often found in polymeric form,
chemistry has greatly benefited from its relevance to industry. such as n-butyllithium shown here
Examples: Cyclopentadienyliron dicarbonyl dimer

(C5H5)Fe(CO)2CH3, Ferrocene Fe(C5H5)2, Molybdenum hexacarbonyl Mo(CO)6, Diborane B2H6,
Tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0) Pd[P(C6H5)3]4
Cluster compounds
Clusters can be found in all classes of chemical compounds. According to the commonly accepted definition, a
cluster consists minimally of a triangular set of atoms that are directly bonded to each other. But metal-metal
bonded dimetallic complexes are highly relevant to the area. Clusters occur in "pure" inorganic systems,
organometallic chemistry, main group chemistry, and bioinorganic chemistry. The distinction between very
large clusters and bulk solids is increasingly blurred. This interface is the chemical basis of nanoscience or
nanotechnology and specifically arise from the study of quantum size effects in cadmium selenide clusters.
Thus, large clusters can be described as an array of bound atoms intermediate in character between a molecule
and a solid.
Examples: Fe3(CO)12, B10H14, [Mo6Cl14]2−, 4Fe-4S
Bioinorganic compounds
By definition, these compounds occur

in nature, but the subfield includes
anthropogenic species, such as
pollutants (e.g., methylmercury) and
drugs (e.g., Cisplatin).[6] The field,
which incorporates many aspects of
Iron-sulfur clusters are central
biochemistry, includes many kinds of
Decaborane is a powerfully toxic components of iron-sulfur
compounds, e.g., the phosphates in
cluster compound of boron proteins, essential for human
DNA, and also metal complexes metabolism
containing ligands that range from
biological macromolecules, commonly peptides, to ill-defined species such
as humic acid, and to water (e.g., coordinated to gadolinium complexes
employed for MRI). Traditionally bioinorganic chemistry focuses on
electron- and energy-transfer in proteins relevant to respiration. Medicinal
inorganic chemistry includes the study of both non-essential and essential
elements with applications to diagnosis and therapies.
Examples: hemoglobin, methylmercury, carboxypeptidase

The octahedral cobalt centre of
Solid state compounds Vitamin B12
This important area focuses on structure,[7] bonding, and the physical

properties of materials. In practice, solid state inorganic chemistry uses techniques
such as crystallography to gain an understanding of the properties that result from
collective interactions between the subunits of the solid. Included in solid state
chemistry are metals and their alloys or intermetallic derivatives. Related fields are
condensed matter physics, mineralogy, and materials science.
Examples: silicon chips, zeolites, YBa2Cu3O7
Theoretical inorganic chemistry

YBa2Cu3O7, or YBCO,
An alternative perspective on the area of inorganic chemistry begins with the Bohr is a high temperature
model of the atom and, using the tools and models of theoretical chemistry and superconductor able to
computational chemistry, expands into bonding in simple and then more complex levitate above a magnet
molecules. Precise quantum mechanical descriptions for multielectron species, the when colder than its
province of inorganic chemistry, is difficult. This challenge has spawned many critical temperature of
semi-quantitative or semi-empirical approaches including molecular orbital theory about 90 K (−183 °C)
and ligand field theory, In parallel with these theoretical descriptions, approximate
methodologies are employed, including density functional theory.
Exceptions to theories, qualitative and quantitative, are extremely important in the development of the field.
For example, CuII2(OAc)4(H2O)2 is almost diamagnetic below room temperature whereas Crystal Field Theory
predicts that the molecule would have two unpaired electrons. The disagreement between qualitative theory
(paramagnetic) and observation (diamagnetic) led to the development of models for "magnetic coupling."
These improved models led to the development of new magnetic materials and new technologies.
Qualitative theories
Inorganic chemistry has greatly benefited from qualitative theories. Such

theories are easier to learn as they require little background in quantum
theory. Within main group compounds, VSEPR theory powerfully predicts,
or at least rationalizes, the structures of main group compounds, such as an
explanation for why NH3 is pyramidal whereas ClF3 is T-shaped. For the
transition metals, crystal field theory allows one to understand the
magnetism of many simple complexes, such as why [FeIII(CN)6]3− has
Crystal field theory explains why
only one unpaired electron, whereas [FeIII(H2O)6]3+ has five. A
[FeIII(CN)6]3− has only one
particularly powerful qualitative approach to assessing the structure and
unpaired electron
reactivity begins with classifying molecules according to electron counting,
focusing on the numbers of valence electrons, usually at the central atom in
a molecule.
Molecular symmetry group theory
A central construct in inorganic chemistry is the theory of molecular

symmetry.[8] Mathematical group theory provides the language to describe
the shapes of molecules according to their point group symmetry. Group
theory also enables factoring and simplification of theoretical calculations.
Spectroscopic features are analyzed and described with respect to the

symmetry properties of the, inter alia, vibrational or electronic states.
Knowledge of the symmetry properties of the ground and excited states
allows one to predict the numbers and intensities of absorptions in
vibrational and electronic spectra. A classic application of group theory is Nitrogen dioxide, NO2, exhibits
the prediction of the number of C-O vibrations in substituted metal C2v symmetry
carbonyl complexes. The most common applications of symmetry to
spectroscopy involve vibrational and electronic spectra.
As an instructional tool, group theory highlights commonalities and differences in the bonding of otherwise
disparate species, such as WF6 and Mo(CO)6 or CO2 and NO2.
Thermodynamics and inorganic chemistry

An alternative quantitative approach to inorganic chemistry focuses on energies of reactions. This approach is
highly traditional and empirical, but it is also useful. Broad concepts that are couched in thermodynamic terms
include redox potential, acidity, phase changes. A classic concept in inorganic thermodynamics is the Born-
Haber cycle, which is used for assessing the energies of elementary processes such as electron affinity, some of
which cannot be observed directly.
Mechanistic inorganic chemistry

An important and increasingly popular aspect of inorganic chemistry focuses on reaction pathways. The
mechanisms of reactions are discussed differently for different classes of compounds.
Main group elements and lanthanides
The mechanisms of main group compounds of groups 13-18 are usually discussed in the context of organic
chemistry (organic compounds are main group compounds, after all). Elements heavier than C, N, O, and F
often form compounds with more electrons than predicted by the octet rule, as explained in the article on
hypervalent molecules. The mechanisms of their reactions differ from organic compounds for this reason.
Elements lighter than carbon (B, Be, Li) as well as Al and Mg often form electron-deficient structures that are
electronically akin to carbocations. Such electron-deficient species tend to react via associative pathways. The
chemistry of the lanthanides mirrors many aspects of chemistry seen for aluminium.
Transition metal complexes
Mechanisms for the reactions of transition metals are discussed differently from main group compounds.[9] The
important role of d-orbitals in bonding strongly influences the pathways and rates of ligand substitution and
dissociation. These themes are covered in articles on coordination chemistry and ligand. Both associative and
dissociative pathways are observed.
An overarching aspect of mechanistic transition metal chemistry is the kinetic lability of the complex illustrated
by the exchange of free and bound water in the prototypical complexes [M(H2O)6]n+:
[M(H2O)6]n+ + 6 H2O* → [M(H2O*)6]n+ + 6 H2O

where H2O* denotes isotopically enriched water, e.g., H217O
The rates of water exchange varies by 20 orders of magnitude across the periodic table, with lanthanide
complexes at one extreme and Ir(III) species being the slowest.
Redox reactions
Redox reactions are prevalent for the transition elements. Two classes of redox reaction are considered: atom-
transfer reactions, such as oxidative addition/reductive elimination, and electron-transfer. A fundamental redox
reaction is "self-exchange", which involves the degenerate reaction between an oxidant and a reductant. For
example, permanganate and its one-electron reduced relative manganate exchange one electron:
[MnO4]− + [Mn*O4]2− → [MnO4]2− + [Mn*O4]−
Reactions at ligands
Coordinated ligands display reactivity distinct from the free ligands. For example, the acidity of the ammonia
ligands in [Co(NH3)6]3+ is elevated relative to NH3 itself. Alkenes bound to metal cations are reactive toward
nucleophiles whereas alkenes normally are not. The large and industrially important area of catalysis hinges on
the ability of metals to modify the reactivity of organic ligands. Homogeneous catalysis occurs in solution and
heterogeneous catalysis occurs when gaseous or dissolved substrates interact with surfaces of solids.
Traditionally homogeneous catalysis is considered part of organometallic chemistry and heterogeneous
catalysis is discussed in the context of surface science, a subfield of solid state chemistry. But the basic
inorganic chemical principles are the same. Transition metals, almost uniquely, react with small molecules such
as CO, H2, O2, and C2H4. The industrial significance of these feedstocks drives the active area of catalysis.
Ligands can also undergo ligand transfer reactions such as transmetalation.
Characterization of inorganic compounds

Because of the diverse range of elements and the correspondingly diverse properties of the resulting
derivatives, inorganic chemistry is closely associated with many methods of analysis. Older methods tended to
examine bulk properties such as the electrical conductivity of solutions, melting points, solubility, and acidity.
With the advent of quantum theory and the corresponding expansion of electronic apparatus, new tools have
been introduced to probe the electronic properties of inorganic molecules and solids. Often these measurements
provide insights relevant to theoretical models. For example, measurements on the photoelectron spectrum of
methane demonstrated that describing the bonding by the two-center, two-electron bonds predicted between the
carbon and hydrogen using Valence Bond Theory is not appropriate for describing ionisation processes in a
simple way. Such insights led to the popularization of molecular orbital theory as fully delocalised orbitals are a
more appropriate simple description of electron removal and electron excitation.
Commonly encountered techniques are:
X-ray crystallography: This technique allows for the 3D determination of molecular structures.
Dual polarisation interferometer: This technique measures the conformation and conformational change
of molecules.
Various forms of spectroscopy
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy: Historically, this has been an important tool, since many
inorganic compounds are strongly colored
NMR spectroscopy: Besides 1H and 13C many other "good" NMR nuclei (e.g., 11B, 19F, 31P, and
195Pt) give important information on compound properties and structure. Also the NMR of
paramagnetic species can result in important structural information. Proton NMR is also important
because the light hydrogen nucleus is not easily detected by X-ray crystallography.
Infrared spectroscopy: Mostly for absorptions from carbonyl ligands
Electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) spectroscopy
Mössbauer spectroscopy
Electron-spin resonance: ESR (or EPR) allows for the measurement of the environment of
paramagnetic metal centres.
Electrochemistry: Cyclic voltammetry and related techniques probe the redox characteristics of
compounds.
Synthetic inorganic chemistry

Although some inorganic species can be obtained in pure form from nature, most are synthesized in chemical
plants and in the laboratory.
Inorganic synthetic methods can be classified roughly according to the volatility or solubility of the component
reactants.[10] Soluble inorganic compounds are prepared using methods of organic synthesis. For metal-
containing compounds that are reactive toward air, Schlenk line and glove box techniques are followed. Volatile
compounds and gases are manipulated in “vacuum manifolds” consisting of glass piping interconnected
through valves, the entirety of which can be evacuated to 0.001 mm Hg or less. Compounds are condensed
using liquid nitrogen (b.p. 78K) or other cryogens. Solids are typically prepared using tube furnaces, the
reactants and products being sealed in containers, often made of fused silica (amorphous SiO2) but sometimes
more specialized materials such as welded Ta tubes or Pt “boats”. Products and reactants are transported
between temperature zones to drive reactions.
See also
Important publications in inorganic chemistry
References
1. "Careers in Chemistry: Inorganic Chemistry" (http://portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/content?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=
PP_ARTICLEMAIN&node_id=1188&content_id=CTP_003393&use_sec=true&sec_url_var=region1&__uuid=2fe2
3bbd-4dcd-4087-b35c-3a886576a618). American Chemical Society.
2. "Facts & Figures Of The Chemical Industry” Chemical and Engineering News, July 10, 2006.
3. Lehn, J. M. (1995). Supramolecular Chemistry: Concepts and Perspectives. Weinheim: VCH. ISBN 3-527-29311-6.
4. Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann.
ISBN 0-08-037941-9.
5. Elschenbroich, C.; Salzer, A. (1992). Organometallics: A Concise Introduction (2nd ed.). Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
ISBN 3527281649.
6. S. J. Lippard; J. M. Berg (1994). Principles of Bioinorganic Chemistry. Mill Valley, CA: University Science Books.
ISBN 0-935702-73-3.
7. Wells, A.F. (1984). Structural Inorganic Chemistry. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
8. Cotton, F. A. (1990). Chemical Applications of Group Theory (3rd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-
0471510949.
9. R. G. Wilkins (1991). Kinetics and Mechanism of Reactions of Transition Metal Complexes (2nd ed.). Wiley-VCH.
ISBN 3-527-28389-7.
10. Girolami, G. S.; Rauchfuss, T. B.; Angelici, R. J. (1999). Synthesis and Technique in Inorganic Chemistry (3rd ed.).
Mill Valley, CA: University Science Books. ISBN 978-0935702484.
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7/24/2017 Organic chemistry - Wikipedia
Organic chemistry
Organic chemistry is a chemistry subdiscipline involving the scientific study of the

structure, properties, and reactions of organic compounds and organic materials, i.e.,
matter in its various forms that contain carbon atoms.[1] Study of structure includes
many physical and chemical methods to determine the chemical composition and the
chemical constitution of organic compounds and materials. Study of properties includes
both physical properties and chemical properties, and uses similar methods as well as
methods to evaluate chemical reactivity, with the aim to understand the behavior of the
organic matter in its pure form (when possible), but also in solutions, mixtures, and
fabricated forms. The study of organic reactions includes probing their scope through
use in preparation of target compounds (e.g., natural products, drugs, polymers, etc.) by
chemical synthesis, as well as the focused study of the reactivities of individual organic Methane, CH4; the line-angle
molecules, both in the laboratory and via theoretical (in silico) study. structural formula shows four
carbon-hydrogen single
The range of chemicals studied in organic chemistry include hydrocarbons (compounds
bonds (σ, in black), and the
containing only carbon and hydrogen), as well as myriad compositions based always on
typical 3D shape of
carbon, but also containing other elements,[1][2][3] especially oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, tetrahedral molecules, with
phosphorus (these included in many organic chemicals in biology) and the radiostable ~109° interior bond angles
elements of the halogens. (in dashed-green).
In the modern era, the range extends further into the periodic table, with main group
elements, including:
Group 1 and 2 organometallic compounds, i.e., involving alkali (e.g., lithium, sodium, and potassium) or alkaline
earth metals (e.g., magnesium)
Metalloids (e.g., boron and silicon) or other metals (e.g., aluminium and tin)
In addition, much modern research focuses on organic chemistry involving further organometallics, including the
lanthanides, but especially the transition metals; (e.g., zinc, copper, palladium, nickel, cobalt, titanium and chromium)
Finally, organic compounds form

the basis of all earthly life and
constitute a significant part of
human endeavors in chemistry. The
bonding patterns open to carbon,
with its valence of four—formal
single, double, and triple bonds, as
well as various structures with Ball-and-stick
Line-angle representation Space-filling representation
delocalized electrons—make the representation
array of organic compounds Three representations of an organic compound, 5α-Dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP), a
structurally diverse, and their range steroid hormone. For molecules showing color, the carbon atoms are in black,
of applications enormous. They hydrogens in gray, and oxygens in red. In the line angle representation, carbon atoms
either form the basis of, or are are implied at every terminus of a line and vertex of multiple lines, and hydrogen atoms
important constituents of, many are implied to fill the remaining needed valences (up to 4).
commercial products including
pharmaceuticals; petrochemicals
and products made from them (including lubricants, solvents, etc.); plastics; fuels and explosives; etc. As indicated, the
study of organic chemistry overlaps with organometallic chemistry and biochemistry, but also with medicinal
chemistry, polymer chemistry, as well as many aspects of materials science.[1]
Contents
1 History
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_chemistry 1/9
2 Characterization
3 Properties
3.1 Melting and boiling properties
3.2 Solubility
3.3 Solid state properties
4 Nomenclature
4.1 Structural drawings
5 Classification of organic compounds
5.1 Functional groups
5.2 Aliphatic compounds
5.3 Aromatic compounds
5.4 Heterocyclic compounds
5.5 Polymers
5.6 Biomolecules
5.7 Small molecules
5.8 Fullerenes
5.9 Others
6 Organic reactions Periodic table of elements of interest in organic chemistry. The table illustrates all
7 Organic synthesis elements of current interest in modern organic and organometallic chemistry, indicating
8 See also
main group elements in orange, and transition metals and lanthanides (Lan) in grey.
9 References
10 External links
History
Before the nineteenth century, chemists generally believed that compounds
obtained from living organisms were endowed with a vital force that
distinguished them from inorganic compounds. According to the concept of
vitalism (vital force theory), organic matter was endowed with a "vital force".[4]
During the first half of the nineteenth century, some of the first systematic
studies of organic compounds were reported. Around 1816 Michel Chevreul
started a study of soaps made from various fats and alkalis. He separated the
different acids that, in combination with the alkali, produced the soap. Since
these were all individual compounds, he demonstrated that it was possible to
make a chemical change in various fats (which traditionally come from organic
sources), producing new compounds, without "vital force". In 1828 Friedrich
Wöhler produced the organic chemical urea (carbamide), a constituent of urine,
from inorganic starting materials (the salts potassium cyanate and ammonium
sulfate), in what is now called the Wöhler synthesis. Although Wöhler himself
was cautious about claiming he had disproved vitalism, this was the first time a
substance thought to be organic was synthesized in the laboratory without
biological (organic) starting materials. The event is now generally accepted as
Friedrich Wöhler
indeed disproving the doctrine of vitalism.[5]
In 1856 William Henry Perkin, while trying to manufacture quinine accidentally produced the organic dye now known
as Perkin's mauve. His discovery, made widely known through its financial success, greatly increased interest in organic
chemistry.[6]
A crucial breakthrough for organic chemistry was the concept of chemical structure, developed independently in 1858
by both Friedrich August Kekulé and Archibald Scott Couper.[7] Both researchers suggested that tetravalent carbon
atoms could link to each other to form a carbon lattice, and that the detailed patterns of atomic bonding could be
discerned by skillful interpretations of appropriate chemical reactions.
The era of the pharmaceutical industry began in the last decade of the 19th century when the manufacturing of
acetylsalicylic acid—more commonly referred to as aspirin—in Germany was started by Bayer.[8] By 1910 Paul Ehrlich
and his laboratory group began developing arsenic-based arsphenamine, (Salvarsan), as the first effective medicinal
treatment of syphilis, and thereby initiated the medical practice of chemotherapy. Ehrlich popularized the concepts of
"magic bullet" drugs and of systematically improving drug therapies.[9][10] His laboratory made decisive contributions
to developing antiserum for diphtheria and standardizing therapeutic serums.[11]
Early examples of organic reactions and applications were often found because
of a combination of luck and preparation for unexpected observations. The latter
half of the 19th century however witnessed systematic studies of organic
compounds. The development of synthetic indigo is illustrative. The production
of indigo from plant sources dropped from 19,000 tons in 1897 to 1,000 tons by
1914 thanks to the synthetic methods developed by Adolf von Baeyer. In 2002,
17,000 tons of synthetic indigo were produced from petrochemicals.[13]
In the early part of the 20th century, polymers and enzymes were shown to be
large organic molecules, and petroleum was shown to be of biological origin.
The multiple-step synthesis of complex organic compounds is called total

synthesis. Total synthesis of complex natural compounds increased in
complexity to glucose and terpineol. For example, cholesterol-related
compounds have opened ways to synthesize complex human hormones and their An example of an organometallic
modified derivatives. Since the start of the 20th century, complexity of total molecule, a catalyst called Grubbs'
syntheses has been increased to include molecules of high complexity such as catalyst. Its formula is often given as
RuCl2(PCy3)2(=CHPh), where the
lysergic acid and vitamin B12.[14]
ball-and-stick model is based on X-
The discovery of petroleum and the ray crystallography.[12] The single
development of the petrochemical metal atom ruthenium (Ru), (in
industry spurred the development of turquoise), is at the very center of the
organic chemistry. Converting structure; two chlorines (green), are
individual petroleum compounds into bonded to the ruthenium atom—
different types of compounds by carbon atoms are black, hydrogens
various chemical processes led to gray-white, and phosphorus orange.
organic reactions enabling a broad A phosphorus-ligand bond,
range of industrial and commercial tricyclohexyl phosphine, PCy, is
products including, among (many) below center; (another PCy ligand
others: plastics, synthetic rubber, appears at the top of the image where
organic adhesives, and various its rings are obscuring one another).
property-modifying petroleum The ring group projecting to the right,
additives and catalysts. an alkylidene, contains a metal-
carbon double bond to ruthenium.
The majority of chemical compounds
The total synthesis of vitamin B12 occurring in biological organisms are
marked a major achievement in organic
in fact carbon compounds, so the association between organic chemistry and
chemistry.
biochemistry is so close that biochemistry might be regarded as in essence a
branch of organic chemistry. Although the history of biochemistry might be
taken to span some four centuries, fundamental understanding of the field only
began to develop in the late 19th century and the actual term biochemistry was coined around the start of 20th century.
Research in the field increased throughout the twentieth century, without any indication of slackening in the rate of
increase, as may be verified by inspection of abstraction and indexing services such as BIOSIS Previews and Biological
Abstracts, which began in the 1920s as a single annual volume, but has grown so drastically that by the end of the 20th
century it was only available to the everyday user as an online electronic database.[15]
Characterization
Since organic compounds often exist as mixtures, a variety of techniques have also been developed to assess purity,
especially important being chromatography techniques such as HPLC and gas chromatography. Traditional methods of
separation include distillation, crystallization, and solvent extraction.
Organic compounds were traditionally characterized by a variety of chemical tests, called "wet methods", but such tests
have been largely displaced by spectroscopic or other computer-intensive methods of analysis.[16] Listed in approximate
order of utility, the chief analytical methods are:
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is the most commonly used technique, often permitting
complete assignment of atom connectivity and even stereochemistry using correlation spectroscopy. The principal
constituent atoms of organic chemistry – hydrogen and carbon – exist naturally with NMR-responsive isotopes,
respectively 1H and 13C.
Elemental analysis: A destructive method used to determine the elemental composition of a molecule. See also
mass spectrometry, below.
Mass spectrometry indicates the molecular weight of a compound and, from the fragmentation patterns, its
structure. High resolution mass spectrometry can usually identify the exact formula of a compound and is used in
lieu of elemental analysis. In former times, mass spectrometry was restricted to neutral molecules exhibiting some
volatility, but advanced ionization techniques allow one to obtain the "mass spec" of virtually any organic
compound.
Crystallography can be useful for determining molecular geometry when a single crystal of the material is
available and the crystal is representative of the sample. Highly automated software allows a structure to be
determined within hours of obtaining a suitable crystal.
Traditional spectroscopic methods such as infrared spectroscopy, optical rotation, UV/VIS spectroscopy provide
relatively nonspecific structural information but remain in use for specific classes of compounds. Traditionally
refractive index and density were also important for substance identification.
Properties
Physical properties of organic compounds typically of interest include both quantitative and qualitative features.
Quantitative information includes melting point, boiling point, and index of refraction. Qualitative properties include
odor, consistency, solubility, and color.
Melting and boiling properties
Organic compounds typically melt and many boil. In contrast, while inorganic materials generally can be melted, many
do not boil, tending instead to degrade. In earlier times, the melting point (m.p.) and boiling point (b.p.) provided
crucial information on the purity and identity of organic compounds. The melting and boiling points correlate with the
polarity of the molecules and their molecular weight. Some organic compounds, especially symmetrical ones, sublime,
that is they evaporate without melting. A well-known example of a sublimable organic compound is para-
dichlorobenzene, the odiferous constituent of modern mothballs. Organic compounds are usually not very stable at
temperatures above 300 °C, although some exceptions exist.
Solubility
Neutral organic compounds tend to be hydrophobic; that is, they are less soluble in water than in organic solvents.
Exceptions include organic compounds that contain ionizable (which can be converted in ions) groups as well as low
molecular weight alcohols, amines, and carboxylic acids where hydrogen bonding occurs. Organic compounds tend to
dissolve in organic solvents. Solvents can be either pure substances like ether or ethyl alcohol, or mixtures, such as the
paraffinic solvents such as the various petroleum ethers and white spirits, or the range of pure or mixed aromatic
solvents obtained from petroleum or tar fractions by physical separation or by chemical conversion. Solubility in the
different solvents depends upon the solvent type and on the functional groups if present in the solution.
Solid state properties
Various specialized properties of molecular crystals and organic polymers with conjugated systems are of interest
depending on applications, e.g. thermo-mechanical and electro-mechanical such as piezoelectricity, electrical
conductivity (see conductive polymers and organic semiconductors), and electro-optical (e.g. non-linear optics)
properties. For historical reasons, such properties are mainly the subjects of the areas of polymer science and materials
science.
Nomenclature
Various names and depictions for one organic compound.
The names of organic compounds are either systematic, following logically from a set of rules, or nonsystematic,
following various traditions. Systematic nomenclature is stipulated by specifications from IUPAC. Systematic
nomenclature starts with the name for a parent structure within the molecule of interest. This parent name is then
modified by prefixes, suffixes, and numbers to unambiguously convey the structure. Given that millions of organic
compounds are known, rigorous use of systematic names can be cumbersome. Thus, IUPAC recommendations are more
closely followed for simple compounds, but not complex molecules. To use the systematic naming, one must know the
structures and names of the parent structures. Parent structures include unsubstituted hydrocarbons, heterocycles, and
monofunctionalized derivatives thereof.
Nonsystematic nomenclature is simpler and unambiguous, at least to organic chemists. Nonsystematic names do not
indicate the structure of the compound. They are common for complex molecules, which includes most natural
products. Thus, the informally named lysergic acid diethylamide is systematically named (6aR,9R)-N,N-diethyl-7-
methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo-[4,3-fg] quinoline-9-carboxamide.
With the increased use of computing, other naming methods have evolved that are intended to be interpreted by
machines. Two popular formats are SMILES and InChI.
Structural drawings
Organic molecules are described more commonly by drawings or structural formulas, combinations of drawings and
chemical symbols. The line-angle formula is simple and unambiguous. In this system, the endpoints and intersections of
each line represent one carbon, and hydrogen atoms can either be notated explicitly or assumed to be present as implied
by tetravalent carbon. The depiction of organic compounds with drawings is greatly simplified by the fact that carbon in
almost all organic compounds has four bonds, nitrogen three, oxygen two, and hydrogen one.
Classification of organic compounds

Functional groups
The concept of functional groups is central in organic chemistry, both as a

means to classify structures and for predicting properties. A functional group is
a molecular module, and the reactivity of that functional group is assumed,
within limits, to be the same in a variety of molecules. Functional groups can
have decisive influence on the chemical and physical properties of organic
compounds. Molecules are classified on the basis of their functional groups.
Alcohols, for example, all have the subunit C-O-H. All alcohols tend to be
somewhat hydrophilic, usually form esters, and usually can be converted to the
corresponding halides. Most functional groups feature heteroatoms (atoms other
than C and H). Organic compounds are classified according to functional
The family of carboxylic acids
groups, alcohols, carboxylic acids, amines, etc.
contains a carboxyl (-COOH)
functional group. Acetic acid, shown
Aliphatic compounds here, is an example.
The aliphatic hydrocarbons are subdivided into three groups of homologous

series according to their state of saturation:
alkanes (paraffins): aliphatic hydrocarbons without any double or triple bonds, i.e. just C-C, C-H single bonds
alkenes (olefins): aliphatic hydrocarbons which contain one or more double bonds, i.e. di-olefins (dienes) or poly-
olefins.
alkynes (acetylenes): aliphatic hydrocarbons which have one or more triple bonds.
The rest of the group is classed according to the functional groups present. Such compounds can be "straight-chain",
branched-chain or cyclic. The degree of branching affects characteristics, such as the octane number or cetane number
in petroleum chemistry.
Both saturated (alicyclic) compounds and unsaturated compounds exist as cyclic derivatives. The most stable rings
contain five or six carbon atoms, but large rings (macrocycles) and smaller rings are common. The smallest cycloalkane
family is the three-membered cyclopropane ((CH2)3). Saturated cyclic compounds contain single bonds only, whereas
aromatic rings have an alternating (or conjugated) double bond. Cycloalkanes do not contain multiple bonds, whereas
the cycloalkenes and the cycloalkynes do.
Aromatic compounds
Aromatic hydrocarbons contain conjugated double bonds. This means that every
carbon atom in the ring is sp2 hybridized, allowing for added stability. The most
important example is benzene, the structure of which was formulated by Kekulé
who first proposed the delocalization or resonance principle for explaining its
structure. For "conventional" cyclic compounds, aromaticity is conferred by the
presence of 4n + 2 delocalized pi electrons, where n is an integer. Particular
instability (antiaromaticity) is conferred by the presence of 4n conjugated pi
electrons.
Heterocyclic compounds
Benzene is one of the best-known
The characteristics of the cyclic hydrocarbons are again altered if heteroatoms aromatic compounds as it is one of
are present, which can exist as either substituents attached externally to the ring the simplest and most stable
(exocyclic) or as a member of the ring itself (endocyclic). In the case of the aromatics.
latter, the ring is termed a heterocycle. Pyridine and furan are examples of
aromatic heterocycles while piperidine and tetrahydrofuran are the corresponding alicyclic heterocycles. The
heteroatom of heterocyclic molecules is generally oxygen, sulfur, or nitrogen, with the latter being particularly common
in biochemical systems.
Heterocycles are commonly found in a wide range of products including aniline dyes and medicines. Additionally, they
are prevalent in a wide range of biochemical compounds such as alkaloids, vitamins, steroids, and nucleic acids (e.g.
DNA, RNA).
Rings can fuse with other rings on an edge to give polycyclic compounds. The purine nucleoside bases are notable
polycyclic aromatic heterocycles. Rings can also fuse on a "corner" such that one atom (almost always carbon) has two
bonds going to one ring and two to another. Such compounds are termed spiro and are important in a number of natural
products.
Polymers
One important property of carbon is that it readily forms chains, or networks,

that are linked by carbon-carbon (carbon-to-carbon) bonds. The linking process
is called polymerization, while the chains, or networks, are called polymers. The
source compound is called a monomer.
Two main groups of polymers exist: synthetic polymers and biopolymers.

Synthetic polymers are artificially manufactured, and are commonly referred to
as industrial polymers.[17] Biopolymers occur within a respectfully natural
environment, or without human intervention.
This swimming board is made of
Since the invention of the first synthetic polymer product, bakelite, synthetic polystyrene, an example of a
polymer products have frequently been invented. polymer.
Common synthetic organic polymers are polyethylene (polythene),

polypropylene, nylon, teflon (PTFE), polystyrene, polyesters, polymethylmethacrylate (called perspex and plexiglas),
and polyvinylchloride (PVC).
Both synthetic and natural rubber are polymers.
Varieties of each synthetic polymer product may exist, for purposes of a specific use. Changing the conditions of
polymerization alters the chemical composition of the product and its properties. These alterations include the chain
length, or branching, or the tacticity.
With a single monomer as a start, the product is a homopolymer.
Secondary component(s) may be added to create a heteropolymer (co-polymer) and the degree of clustering of the
different components can also be controlled.
Physical characteristics, such as hardness, density, mechanical or tensile strength, abrasion resistance, heat resistance,
transparency, colour, etc. will depend on the final composition.
Biomolecules
Biomolecular chemistry is a major category within

organic chemistry which is frequently studied by
biochemists. Many complex multi-functional group
molecules are important in living organisms. Some
are long-chain biopolymers, and these include
peptides, DNA, RNA and the polysaccharides such
as starches in animals and celluloses in plants. The
other main classes are amino acids (monomer
building blocks of peptides and proteins),
Maitotoxin, a complex organic biological toxin.
carbohydrates (which includes the polysaccharides),
the nucleic acids (which include DNA and RNA as
polymers), and the lipids. In addition, animal biochemistry contains many small molecule intermediates which assist in
energy production through the Krebs cycle, and produces isoprene, the most common hydrocarbon in animals.
Isoprenes in animals form the important steroid structural (cholesterol) and steroid hormone compounds; and in plants
form terpenes, terpenoids, some alkaloids, and a class of hydrocarbons called biopolymer polyisoprenoids present in the
latex of various species of plants, which is the basis for making rubber.
Peptide Synthesis
See also Peptide synthesis
Oligonucleotide Synthesis
See also Oligonucleotide synthesis
Carbohydrate Synthesis
See also Carbohydrate synthesis
Small molecules
In pharmacology, an important group of organic compounds is small molecules,

also referred to as 'small organic compounds'. In this context, a small molecule
is a small organic compound that is biologically active, but is not a polymer. In
practice, small molecules have a molar mass less than approximately 1000
g/mol.
Fullerenes
Fullerenes and carbon nanotubes, carbon compounds with spheroidal and Molecular models of caffeine.
tubular structures, have stimulated much research into the related field of
materials science. The first fullerene was discovered in 1985 by Sir Harold W.
Kroto of the United Kingdom and by Richard E. Smalley and Robert F. Curl, Jr., of the United States. Using a laser to
vaporize graphite rods in an atmosphere of helium gas, these chemists and their assistants obtained cagelike molecules
composed of 60 carbon atoms (C60) joined together by single and double bonds to form a hollow sphere with 12
pentagonal and 20 hexagonal faces—a design that resembles a football, or soccer ball. In 1996 the trio was awarded the
Nobel Prize for their pioneering efforts. The C60 molecule was named buckminsterfullerene (or, more simply, the
buckyball) after the American architect R. Buckminster Fuller, whose geodesic dome is constructed on the same
structural principles.
Others
Organic compounds containing bonds of carbon to nitrogen, oxygen and the halogens are not normally grouped
separately. Others are sometimes put into major groups within organic chemistry and discussed under titles such as
organosulfur chemistry, organometallic chemistry, organophosphorus chemistry and organosilicon chemistry.
Organic reactions
Organic reactions are chemical reactions involving organic compounds. Many of these reactions are associated with
functional groups. The general theory of these reactions involves careful analysis of such properties as the electron
affinity of key atoms, bond strengths and steric hindrance. These factors can determine the relative stability of short-
lived reactive intermediates, which usually directly determine the path of the reaction.
The basic reaction types are: addition reactions, elimination reactions, substitution reactions, pericyclic reactions,
rearrangement reactions and redox reactions. An example of a common reaction is a substitution reaction written as:
Nu− + C-X → C-Nu + X−
where X is some functional group and Nu is a nucleophile.
The number of possible organic reactions is basically infinite. However, certain general patterns are observed that can
be used to describe many common or useful reactions. Each reaction has a stepwise reaction mechanism that explains
how it happens in sequence—although the detailed description of steps is not always clear from a list of reactants alone.
The stepwise course of any given reaction mechanism can be represented using arrow pushing techniques in which
curved arrows are used to track the movement of electrons as starting materials transition through intermediates to final
products.
Organic synthesis
Synthetic organic chemistry is an applied science as it borders
engineering, the "design, analysis, and/or construction of works for
practical purposes". Organic synthesis of a novel compound is a problem
solving task, where a synthesis is designed for a target molecule by
selecting optimal reactions from optimal starting materials. Complex
compounds can have tens of reaction steps that sequentially build the
desired molecule. The synthesis proceeds by utilizing the reactivity of the
functional groups in the molecule. For example, a carbonyl compound can
be used as a nucleophile by converting it into an enolate, or as an
electrophile; the combination of the two is called the aldol reaction.
Designing practically useful syntheses always requires conducting the
actual synthesis in the laboratory. The scientific practice of creating novel A synthesis designed by E.J. Corey for
synthetic routes for complex molecules is called total synthesis. oseltamivir (Tamiflu). This synthesis has 11
distinct reactions.
Strategies to design a synthesis include retrosynthesis, popularized by E.J.
Corey, starts with the target molecule and splices it to pieces according to known reactions. The pieces, or the proposed
precursors, receive the same treatment, until available and ideally inexpensive starting materials are reached. Then, the
retrosynthesis is written in the opposite direction to give the synthesis. A "synthetic tree" can be constructed, because
each compound and also each precursor has multiple syntheses.
See also
Important publications in organic chemistry

List of organic reactions
Molecular modelling
References
1. Clayden, J.; Greeves, N. and Warren, S. (2012) Organic Chemistry. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–15. ISBN 0199270295.
2. Elschenbroich, C. (2006) Organometallics 3rd Ed., Wiley-VCH
3. Morrison, Robert T.; Boyd, Robert N. and Boyd, Robert K. (1992) Organic Chemistry, 6th ed., Benjamin Cummings.
4. Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-08-
037941-9.
5. Henry Marshall Leicester; Herbert S. Klickstein (1951). A Source Book in Chemistry, 1400-1900. Harvard University Press.
p. 309.
6. Kiefer, D. M. (1993). "Organic Chemicals' Mauve Beginning". Chem. Eng. News. 71 (32): 22–23. doi:10.1021/cen-
v071n032.p022 (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fcen-v071n032.p022).
7. "August Kekulé and Archibald Scott Couper" (https://www.chemheritage.org/historical-profile/august-kekul%C3%A9-and-ar
chibald-scott-couper). Chemical Heritage Foundation. Retrieved 27 January 2015.
8. Roberts, Laura (7 December 2010) History of Aspirin (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/8184625/History-of-aspi
rin.html). The Telegraph
9. Bosch F & Rosich L (2008). "The contributions of Paul Ehrlich to pharmacology: A tribute on the occasion of the centenary
of his Nobel Prize" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2790789). Pharmacology. 82 (3): 171–9. PMC 2790789
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2790789) . PMID 18679046 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18679
046). doi:10.1159/000149583 (https://doi.org/10.1159%2F000149583).
10. "Paul Ehrlich, the Rockefeller Institute, and the first targeted chemotherapy" (http://centennial.rucares.org/index.php?page=Ch
emotherapy). Rockefeller University. Retrieved 3 Aug 2012.
11. "Paul Ehrlich" (https://www.chemheritage.org/historical-profile/paul-ehrlich). Chemical Heritage Foundation. Retrieved
29 November 2016.
12. Torker, Sebastian; MüLler, Andre; Sigrist, Raphael; Chen, Peter (2010). "Tuning the Steric Properties of a Metathesis Catalyst
for Copolymerization of Norbornene and Cyclooctene toward Complete Alternation". Organometallics. 29 (12): 2735–2751.
doi:10.1021/om100185g (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fom100185g).
13. Steingruber, Elmar (2004) "Indigo and Indigo Colorants" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH,
Weinheim. doi: 10.1002/14356007.a14_149.pub2 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a14_149.pub2)
14. Nicolaou, K. C.; Sorensen, E. J. (1996). Classics in Total Synthesis: Targets, Strategies, Methods. Wiley. ISBN 978-3-527-
29231-8.
15. Allan, Barbara. Livesey, Brian (1994). How to Use Biological Abstracts, Chemical Abstracts and Index Chemicus. Gower.
ISBN 978-0566075568
16. Shriner, R.L.; Hermann, C.K.F.; Morrill, T.C.; Curtin, D.Y. and Fuson, R.C. (1997) The Systematic Identification of Organic
Compounds. John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-471-59748-1
17. "industrial polymers, chemistry of." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006
External links
MIT.edu (http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/chemistry/5-12-organic-chemistry-i-s
At Wikiversity, you can
pring-2005/), OpenCourseWare: Organic Chemistry I learn more and teach
HaverFord.edu (http://www.haverford.edu/wintnerorganicchem), Organic others about Organic
Chemistry Lectures, Videos and Text chemistry at the
Organic-Chemistry.org (http://www.organic-chemistry.org), Organic Department of Organic
Chemistry Portal – Recent Abstracts and (Name)Reactions chemistry
Orgsyn.org (http://www.orgsyn.org/), Organic Chemistry synthesis journal
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7/24/2017 Biomolecule - Wikipedia
Biomolecule
A biomolecule or biological molecule is molecule that is present in living

organisms, including large macromolecules such as proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids, as well as small molecules such as
primary metabolites, secondary metabolites, and natural products. A more
general name for this class of material is biological materials.
Biomolecules are usually endogenous but may also be exogenous. For
example, pharmaceutical drugs may be natural products or semisynthetic
(biopharmaceuticals) or they may be totally synthetic.
Biology and its subsets of biochemistry and molecular biology study

biomolecules and their reactions. Most biomolecules are organic
compounds, and just four elements—oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and
nitrogen—make up 96% of the human body's mass. But many other A representation of the 3d
elements, such as the various biometals, are present in small amounts. structure of myoglobin, showing
alpha helices, represented by
The uniformity of specific types of molecules (the biomolecules) and of ribbons. This protein was the first
some metabolic pathways as invariant features between the diversity of life to have its structure solved by X-
forms is called "biochemical universals"[1] or "theory of material unity of ray crystallography by Max
the living beings", a unifying concept in biology, along with cell theory and Perutz and Sir John Cowdery
Kendrew in 1958, for which they
evolution theory.[2]
received a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry
Contents
1 Types of biomolecules
2 Nucleosides and nucleotides
2.1 DNA and RNA structure
3 Saccharides
4 Lignin
5 Lipids
6 Amino acids
6.1 Protein structure
6.1.1 Apoenzymes
6.1.2 Isoenzymes
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Types of biomolecules
A diverse range of biomolecules exist, including:
Small molecules:
Lipids, fatty acids, glycolipids, sterols, gs
Vitamins
Hormones, neurotransmitters
Metabolites
Monomers, oligomers and polymers:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomolecule 1/6
Covalent
Polymerization bond name
Biomonomers Bio-oligo Biopolymers
process between
monomers
Amino acids Oligopeptides Polypeptides, proteins (hemoglobin...) Polycondensation Peptide bond
Glycosidic
Monosaccharides Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides (cellulose...) Polycondensation
bond
Polyterpenes: cis-1,4-polyisoprene
Isoprene Terpenes natural rubber and trans-1,4- Polyaddition
polyisoprene gutta-percha
Polynucleotides, nucleic acids (DNA, Phosphodiester
Nucleotides Oligonucleotides
RNA) bond
Nucleosides and nucleotides

Nucleosides are molecules formed by attaching a nucleobase to a ribose or deoxyribose ring. Examples of these
include cytidine (C), uridine (U), adenosine (A), guanosine (G), thymidine (T) and inosine (I).
Nucleosides can be phosphorylated by specific kinases in the cell, producing nucleotides. Both DNA and RNA
are polymers, consisting of long, linear molecules assembled by polymerase enzymes from repeating structural
units, or monomers, of mononucleotides. DNA uses the deoxynucleotides C, G, A, and T, while RNA uses the
ribonucleotides (which have an extra hydroxyl(OH) group on the pentose ring) C, G, A, and U. Modified bases
are fairly common (such as with methyl groups on the base ring), as found in ribosomal RNA or transfer RNAs
or for discriminating the new from old strands of DNA after replication.[3]
Each nucleotide is made of an acyclic nitrogenous base, a pentose and one to three phosphate groups. They
contain carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen and phosphorus. They serve as sources of chemical energy
(adenosine triphosphate and guanosine triphosphate), participate in cellular signaling (cyclic guanosine
monophosphate and cyclic adenosine monophosphate), and are incorporated into important cofactors of
enzymatic reactions (coenzyme A, flavin adenine dinucleotide, flavin mononucleotide, and nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide phosphate).[4]
DNA and RNA structure
DNA structure is dominated by the well-known double helix formed by Watson-Crick base-pairing of C with G
and A with T. This is known as B-form DNA, and is overwhelmingly the most favorable and common state of
DNA; its highly specific and stable base-pairing is the basis of reliable genetic information storage. DNA can
sometimes occur as single strands (often needing to be stabilized by single-strand binding proteins) or as A-
form or Z-form helices, and occasionally in more complex 3D structures such as the crossover at Holliday
junctions during DNA replication.[4]
RNA, in contrast, forms large and complex 3D tertiary structures reminiscent of proteins, as well as the loose
single strands with locally folded regions that constitute messenger RNA molecules. Those RNA structures
contain many stretches of A-form double helix, connected into definite 3D arrangements by single-stranded
loops, bulges, and junctions.[5] Examples are tRNA, ribosomes, ribozymes, and riboswitches. These complex
structures are facilitated by the fact that RNA backbone has less local flexibility than DNA but a large set of
distinct conformations, apparently because of both positive and negative interactions of the extra OH on the
ribose.[6] Structured RNA molecules can do highly specific binding of other molecules and can themselves be
recognized specifically; in addition, they can perform enzymatic catalysis (when they are known as
"ribozymes", as initially discovered by Tom Cech and colleagues.[7]
Saccharides
Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates with only one
simple sugar. They essentially contain an aldehyde or ketone group in
their structure.[8] The presence of an aldehyde group in a
monosaccharide is indicated by the prefix aldo-. Similarly, a ketone
group is denoted by the prefix keto-.[3] Examples of monosaccharides
are the hexoses glucose, fructose, and galactose and pentoses, ribose,
and deoxyribose. Consumed fructose and glucose have different rates of
gastric emptying, are differentially absorbed and have different Stereo 3D image of a group I intron
metabolic fates, providing multiple opportunities for 2 different ribozyme (PDB file 1Y0Q); gray
lines show base pairs; ribbon arrows
saccharides to differentially affect food intake.[8] Most saccharides
show double-helix regions, blue to
eventually provide fuel for cellular respiration.
red from 5' to 3' end; white ribbon is
Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides, or two single an RNA product.
simple sugars, form a bond with removal of water. They can be
hydrolyzed to yield their saccharin building blocks by boiling with dilute acid or reacting them with appropriate
enzymes.[3] Examples of disaccharides include sucrose, maltose, and lactose.
Polysaccharides are polymerized monosaccharides, or complex carbohydrates. They have multiple simple
sugars. Examples are starch, cellulose, and glycogen. They are generally large and often have a complex
branched connectivity. Because of their size, polysaccharides are not water-soluble, but their many hydroxy
groups become hydrated individually when exposed to water, and some polysaccharides form thick colloidal
dispersions when heated in water.[3] Shorter polysaccharides, with 3 - 10 monomers, are called
oligosaccharides.[9] A fluorescent indicator-displacement molecular imprinting sensor was developed for
discriminating saccharides. It successfully discriminated three brands of orange juice beverage.[10] The change
in fluorescence intensity of the sensing films resulting is directly related to the saccharide concentration.[11]
Lignin
Lignin is a complex polyphenolic macromolecule composed mainly of beta-O4-aryl linkages. After cellulose,
lignin is the second most abundant biopolymer and is one of the primary structural components of most plants.
It contains subunits derived from p-coumaryl alcohol, coniferyl alcohol, and sinapyl alcohol[12] and is unusual
among biomolecules in that it is racemic. The lack of optical activity is due to the polymerization of lignin
which occurs via free radical coupling reactions in which there is no preference for either configuration at a
chiral center.
Lipids
Lipids (oleaginous) are chiefly fatty acid esters, and are the basic building blocks of biological membranes.
Another biological role is energy storage (e.g., triglycerides). Most lipids consist of a polar or hydrophilic head
(typically glycerol) and one to three nonpolar or hydrophobic fatty acid tails, and therefore they are
amphiphilic. Fatty acids consist of unbranched chains of carbon atoms that are connected by single bonds alone
(saturated fatty acids) or by both single and double bonds (unsaturated fatty acids). The chains are usually
14-24 carbon groups long, but it is always an even number.
For lipids present in biological membranes, the hydrophilic head is from one of three classes:
Glycolipids, whose heads contain an oligosaccharide with 1-15 saccharide residues.

Phospholipids, whose heads contain a positively charged group that is linked to the tail by a negatively
charged phosphate group.
Sterols, whose heads contain a planar steroid ring, for example, cholesterol.
Other lipids include prostaglandins and leukotrienes which are both 20-carbon fatty acyl units synthesized from
arachidonic acid. They are also known as fatty acids
Amino acids
Amino acids contain both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups. (In biochemistry, the term amino acid
is used when referring to those amino acids in which the amino and carboxylate functionalities are attached to
the same carbon, plus proline which is not actually an amino acid).
Modified amino acids are sometimes observed in proteins; this is usually the result of enzymatic modification
after translation (protein synthesis). For example, phosphorylation of serine by kinases and dephosphorylation
by phosphatases is an important control mechanism in the cell cycle. Only two amino acids other than the
standard twenty are known to be incorporated into proteins during translation, in certain organisms:
Selenocysteine is incorporated into some proteins at a UGA codon, which is normally a stop codon.
Pyrrolysine is incorporated into some proteins at a UAG codon. For instance, in some methanogens in
enzymes that are used to produce methane.
Besides those used in protein synthesis, other biologically important amino acids include carnitine (used in
lipid transport within a cell), ornithine, GABA and taurine.
Protein structure
The particular series of amino acids that form a protein is known as that protein's primary structure. This
sequence is determined by the genetic makeup of the individual. It specifies the order of side-chain groups
along the linear polypeptide "backbone".
Proteins have two types of well-classified, frequently occurring elements of local structure defined by a
particular pattern of hydrogen bonds along the backbone: alpha helix and beta sheet. Their number and
arrangement is called the secondary structure of the protein. Alpha helices are regular spirals stabilized by
hydrogen bonds between the backbone CO group (carbonyl) of one amino acid residue and the backbone NH
group (amide) of the i+4 residue. The spiral has about 3.6 amino acids per turn, and the amino acid side chains
stick out from the cylinder of the helix. Beta pleated sheets are formed by backbone hydrogen bonds between
individual beta strands each of which is in an "extended", or fully stretched-out, conformation. The strands may
lie parallel or antiparallel to each other, and the side-chain direction alternates above and below the sheet.
Hemoglobin contains only helices, natural silk is formed of beta pleated sheets, and many enzymes have a
pattern of alternating helices and beta-strands. The secondary-structure elements are connected by "loop" or
"coil" regions of non-repetitive conformation, which are sometimes quite mobile or disordered but usually
adopt a well-defined, stable arrangement.[13]
The overall, compact, 3D structure of a protein is termed its tertiary structure or its "fold". It is formed as result
of various attractive forces like hydrogen bonding, disulfide bridges, hydrophobic interactions, hydrophilic
interactions, van der Waals force etc.
When two or more polypeptide chains (either of identical or of different sequence) cluster to form a protein,
quaternary structure of protein is formed. Quaternary structure is an attribute of polymeric (same-sequence
chains) or heteromeric (different-sequence chains) proteins like hemoglobin, which consists of two "alpha" and
two "beta" polypeptide chains.
Apoenzymes
An apoenzyme (or, generally, an apoprotein) is the protein without any small-molecule cofactors, substrates, or
inhibitors bound. It is often important as an inactive storage, transport, or secretory form of a protein. This is
required, for instance, to protect the secretory cell from the activity of that protein. Apoenzymes becomes
active enzymes on addition of a cofactor. Cofactors can be either inorganic (e.g., metal ions and iron-sulfur
clusters) or organic compounds, (e.g., flavin and heme). Organic cofactors can be either prosthetic groups,
which are tightly bound to an enzyme, or coenzymes, which are released from the enzyme's active site during
the reaction.
Isoenzymes
Isoenzymes, or isozymes, are multiple forms of an enzyme, with slightly different protein sequence and closely
similar but usually not identical functions. They are either products of different genes, or else different products
of alternative splicing. They may either be produced in different organs or cell types to perform the same
function, or several isoenzymes may be produced in the same cell type under differential regulation to suit the
needs of changing development or environment. LDH (lactate dehydrogenase) has multiple isozymes, while
fetal hemoglobin is an example of a developmentally regulated isoform of a non-enzymatic protein. The
relative levels of isoenzymes in blood can be used to diagnose problems in the organ of secretion .
See also
Biomolecular engineering
List of biomolecules
Metabolism
Molecular biology
Multi-state modeling of biomolecules
References
1. Green, D.E. & Goldberger, R. Molecular Insights into the Living Process. Academic Press, New York, 1967, link (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?hl=&id=xi6FAAAAIAAJ).
2. Gayon, J. La philosophie et la biologie. In: Encyclopédie philosophique universelle, vol. IV, Le Discours
philosophique, ss dir. J.F. Mattéi, Presses Universitaires de France, 1998, pp. 2152-2171, link (https://books.google.c
om/books?hl=&id=CWcKAQAAMAAJ).
3. Slabaugh, Michael R. & Seager, Spencer L. (2007). Organic and Biochemistry for Today (6th ed.). Pacific Grove:
Brooks Cole. ISBN 0-495-11280-1.
4. Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K & Wlater P (2002). Molecular biology of the cell (http://www.ncb
i.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.TOC&depth=2) (4th ed.). New York: Garland Science. pp. 120–1. ISBN 0-
8153-3218-1.
5. Saenger W (1984). Principles of Nucleic Acid Structure. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0387907629.
6. Richardson JS, Schneider B, Murray LW, Kapral GJ, Immormino RM, Headd JJ, Richardson DC, Ham D,
Hershkovits E, Williams LD, Keating KS, Pyle AM, Micallef D, Westbrook J, Berman HM (2008). "RNA
Backbone: Consensus all-angle conformers and modular string nomenclature" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ar
ticles/PMC2248255). RNA. 14: 465–481. PMC 2248255 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2248255)
. PMID 18192612 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18192612). doi:10.1261/rna.657708 (https://doi.org/10.1
261%2Frna.657708).
7. Kruger K, Grabowski PJ, Zaug AJ, Sands J, Gottschling DE, Cech TR (1982). "Self-splicing RNA: autoexcision and
autocyclization of the ribosomal RNA intervening sequence of Tetrahymena". Cell. 31: 147–157. PMID 6297745 (ht
tps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6297745). doi:10.1016/0092-8674(82)90414-7 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F009
2-8674%2882%2990414-7).
8. Peng, Bo & Yu Qin (June 2009). "Fructose and Satiety". Journal of Nutrition: 6137–42.
9. Pigman, W.; D. Horton (1972). The Carbohydrates. 1A. San Diego: Academic Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-12-395934-8.
10. Jin, Tan; Wang He-Fang & Yan Xiu-Ping (2009). "Discrimination of Saccharides with a Fluorescent Molecular
Imprinting Sensor Array Based on Phenylboronic Acid Functionalized Mesoporous Silica". Anal. Chem. 81 (13):
5273–80. PMID 19507843 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19507843). doi:10.1021/ac900484x (https://doi.o
rg/10.1021%2Fac900484x).
11. Bo Peng & Yu Qin (2008). "Lipophilic Polymer Membrane Optical Sensor with a Synthetic Receptor for Saccharide
Detection". Anal. Chem. 80 (15): 6137–41. PMID 18593197 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18593197).
doi:10.1021/ac800946p (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fac800946p).
12. K. Freudenberg; A.C. Nash, eds. (1968). Constitution and Biosynthesis of Lignin. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
13. Richardson, JS (1981). "The Anatomy and Taxonomy of Proteins". Advances in Protein Chemistry. 34: 167–339 [1]
(http://kinemage.biochem.duke.edu/teaching/Anatax/). PMID 7020376 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7020
376). doi:10.1016/S0065-3233(08)60520-3 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0065-3233%2808%2960520-3).
External links
Society for Biomolecular Sciences (http://www.bioexpoonline.com/companies/SBS) provider of a forum
for education and information exchange among professionals within drug discovery and related
disciplines.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biomolecule&oldid=791919058"
Categories: Biomolecules Molecules Biochemistry Organic compounds

7/24/2017 Nanomaterials - Wikipedia
Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials describe, in principle, materials of which a single unit is sized (in at least one dimension)
between 1 and 1000 nanometres (10−9 meter) but is usually 1—100 nm (the usual definition of nanoscale[1]).
Nanomaterials research takes a materials science-based approach to nanotechnology, leveraging advances in

materials metrology and synthesis which have been developed in support of microfabrication research.
Materials with structure at the nanoscale often have unique optical, electronic, or mechanical properties.[2]
Nanomaterials are slowly becoming commercialized[3] and beginning to emerge as commodities.[4]
Contents
1 Types
1.1 Natural nanomaterials
1.2 Fullerenes
1.3 Graphene nanostructures
1.4 Nanoparticles
2 Nanozymes
3 Synthesis
3.1 Bottom up methods
4 Characterization
5 Uniformity
6 Legal definition
7 Health and safety
7.1 Health impact
7.2 Occupational safety
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Types
Natural nanomaterials
Biological systems often feature natural, functional nanomaterials. The structure of foraminifera (mainly chalk)
and viruses (protein, capsid), the wax crystals covering a lotus or nasturtium leaf, spider and spider-mite silk,[5]
the blue hue of tarantulas,[6] the "spatulae" on the bottom of gecko feet, some butterfly wing scales, natural
colloids (milk, blood), horny materials (skin, claws, beaks, feathers, horns, hair), paper, cotton, nacre, corals,
and even our own bone matrix are all natural organic nanomaterials.
Natural inorganic nanomaterials occur through crystal growth in the diverse chemical conditions of the Earth's
crust. For example, clays display complex nanostructures due to anisotropy of their underlying crystal structure,
and volcanic activity can give rise to opals, which are an instance of a naturally occurring photonic crystals due
to their nanoscale structure. Fires represent particularly complex reactions and can produce pigments, cement,
fumed silica etc.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomaterials 1/9
Viral capsid "Lotus effect", Close-up of the SEM micrograph of a

hydrophobic effect with underside of a gecko's butterfly wing scale
self-cleaning ability foot as it walks on a (× 5000)
glass wall. (spatula: 200
× 10-15 nm).
Peacock feather (detail) Brazilian Crystal Opal. Lycurgus Cup, glass, Blue hue of a species of
The play of color is 4th century, Roman. tarantula (450 nm
caused by the Nanoparticles (70 nm) ± 20 nm)
interference and of gold and silver,
diffraction of light dispersed in colloidal
between silica spheres form, are responsible
(150 - 300 nm in for the dichroic effect
diameter). (red/green).
Fullerenes
The fullerenes are a class of allotropes of carbon which conceptually are graphene sheets rolled into tubes or
spheres. These include the carbon nanotubes (or silicon nanotubes) which are of interest both because of their
mechanical strength and also because of their electrical properties.[7]
The first fullerene molecule to be discovered, and the family's namesake,

buckminsterfullerene (C60), was prepared in 1985 by Richard Smalley,
Robert Curl, James Heath, Sean O'Brien, and Harold Kroto at Rice
University. The name was a homage to Buckminster Fuller, whose
geodesic domes it resembles. Fullerenes have since been found to occur in
nature.[8] More recently, fullerenes have been detected in outer space.[9]
For the past decade, the chemical and physical properties of fullerenes
have been a hot topic in the field of research and development, and are
likely to continue to be for a long time. In April 2003, fullerenes were
under study for potential medicinal use: binding specific antibiotics to the
structure of resistant bacteria and even target certain types of cancer cells Rotating view of C60, one kind of
such as melanoma. The October 2005 issue of Chemistry and Biology fullerene.
contains an article describing the use of fullerenes as light-activated antimicrobial agents. In the field of
nanotechnology, heat resistance and superconductivity are among the properties attracting intense research.
A common method used to produce fullerenes is to send a large current between two nearby graphite electrodes
in an inert atmosphere. The resulting carbon plasma arc between the electrodes cools into sooty residue from
which many fullerenes can be isolated.
There are many calculations that have been done using ab-initio Quantum Methods applied to fullerenes. By
DFT and TDDFT methods one can obtain IR, Raman and UV spectra. Results of such calculations can be
compared with experimental results.
Graphene nanostructures
2D materials are crystalline materials consisting of a two-dimensional single layer of atoms. The most
important representative graphene was discovered in 2004.
Box-shaped graphene (BSG) nanostructure is an example of 3D nanomaterial.[10] BSG nanostructure has

appeared after mechanical cleavage of pyrolytic graphite. This nanostructure is a multilayer system of parallel
hollow nanochannels located along the surface and having quadrangular cross-section. The thickness of the
channel walls is approximately equal to 1 nm. The typical width of channel facets makes about 25 nm.
Nanoparticles
Inorganic nanomaterials, (e.g. quantum dots, nanowires and nanorods) because of their interesting optical and
electrical properties, could be used in optoelectronics.[11] Furthermore, the optical and electronic properties of
nanomaterials which depend on their size and shape can be tuned via synthetic techniques. There are the
possibilities to use those materials in organic material based optoelectronic devices such as Organic solar cells,
OLEDs etc. The operating principles of such devices are governed by photoinduced processes like electron
transfer and energy transfer. The performance of the devices depends on the efficiency of the photoinduced
process responsible for their functioning. Therefore, better understanding of those photoinduced processes in
organic/inorganic nanomaterial composite systems is necessary in order to use them in organic optoelectronic
devices.
Nanoparticles or nanocrystals made of metals, semiconductors, or oxides are of particular interest for their
mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical, chemical and other properties.[12][13] Nanoparticles have been used as
quantum dots and as chemical catalysts such as nanomaterial-based catalysts. Recently, a range of nanoparticles
are extensively investigated for biomedical applications including tissue engineering, drug delivery,
biosensor.[14]
Nanoparticles are of great scientific interest as they are effectively a bridge between bulk materials and atomic
or molecular structures. A bulk material should have constant physical properties regardless of its size, but at
the nano-scale this is often not the case. Size-dependent properties are observed such as quantum confinement
in semiconductor particles, surface plasmon resonance in some metal particles and superparamagnetism in
magnetic materials.
Nanoparticles exhibit a number of special properties relative to bulk material. For example, the bending of bulk
copper (wire, ribbon, etc.) occurs with movement of copper atoms/clusters at about the 50 nm scale. Copper
nanoparticles smaller than 50 nm are considered super hard materials that do not exhibit the same malleability
and ductility as bulk copper. The change in properties is not always desirable. Ferroelectric materials smaller
than 10 nm can switch their magnetisation direction using room temperature thermal energy, thus making them
useless for memory storage. Suspensions of nanoparticles are possible because the interaction of the particle
surface with the solvent is strong enough to overcome differences in density, which usually result in a material
either sinking or floating in a liquid. Nanoparticles often have unexpected visual properties because they are
small enough to confine their electrons and produce quantum effects. For example, gold nanoparticles appear
deep red to black in solution.
The often very high surface area to volume ratio of nanoparticles provides a tremendous driving force for
diffusion, especially at elevated temperatures. Sintering is possible at lower temperatures and over shorter
durations than for larger particles. This theoretically does not affect the density of the final product, though
flow difficulties and the tendency of nanoparticles to agglomerate do complicate matters. The surface effects of
nanoparticles also reduces the incipient melting temperature.
Nanozymes
Nanozymes are nanomaterials with enzyme-like characteristics.[15] They are an emerging type of artificial
enzyme, which have been used for wide applications in such as biosensing, bioimaging, tumor diagnosis and
therapy, antibiofouling, etc.
Synthesis
The goal of any synthetic method for nanomaterials is to yield a material that exhibits properties that are a
result of their characteristic length scale being in the nanometer range (~1 – 100 nm). Accordingly, the
synthetic method should exhibit control of size in this range so that one property or another can be attained.
Often the methods are divided into two main types "Bottom Up" and "Top Down."
Bottom up methods
Bottom up methods involve the assembly of atoms or molecules into nanostructured arrays. In these methods
the raw material sources can be in the form of gases, liquids or solids. The latter requiring some sort of
disassembly prior to their incorporation onto a nanostructure. Bottom methods generally fall into two
categories: chaotic and controlled.
Chaotic processes
Chaotic processes involve elevating the constituent atoms or molecules to a chaotic state and then suddenly
changing the conditions so as to make that state unstable. Through the clever manipulation of any number of
parameters, products form largely as a result of the insuring kinetics. The collapse from the chaotic state can be
difficult or impossible to control and so ensemble statistics often govern the resulting size distribution and
average size. Accordingly, nanoparticle formation is controlled through manipulation of the end state of the
products.
Examples of Chaotic Processes are: Laser ablation, Exploding wire, Arc, Flame pyrolysis, Combustion,
Precipitation synthesis techniques.
Controlled processes
Controlled Processes involve the controlled delivery of the constituent atoms or molecules to the site(s) of
nanoparticle formation such that the nanoparticle can grow to a prescribed sizes in a controlled manner.
Generally the state of the constituent atoms or molecules are never far from that needed for nanoparticle
formation. Accordingly, nanoparticle formation is controlled through the control of the state of the reactants.
Examples of controlled processes are self-limiting growth solution, self-limited chemical vapor deposition,
shaped pulse femtosecond laser techniques, and molecular beam epitaxy.
Characterization
Novel effects can occur in materials when structures are formed with sizes comparable to any one of many
possible length scales, such as the de Broglie wavelength of electrons, or the optical wavelengths of high
energy photons. In these cases quantum mechanical effects can dominate material properties. One example is
quantum confinement where the electronic properties of solids are altered with great reductions in particle size.
The optical properties of nanoparticles, e.g. fluorescence, also become a function of the particle diameter. This
effect does not come into play by going from macrosocopic to micrometer dimensions, but becomes
pronounced when the nanometer scale is reached.
In addition to optical and electronic properties, the novel mechanical properties of many nanomaterials is the
subject of nanomechanics research. When added to a bulk material, nanoparticles can strongly influence the
mechanical properties of the material, such as the stiffness or elasticity. For example, traditional polymers can
be reinforced by nanoparticles (such as carbon nanotubes) resulting in novel materials which can be used as
lightweight replacements for metals. Such composite materials may enable a weight reduction accompanied by
an increase in stability and improved functionality.[16]
Finally, nanostructured materials with small particle size such as zeolites, and asbestos, are used as catalysts in
a wide range of critical industrial chemical reactions. The further development of such catalysts can form the
basis of more efficient, environmentally friendly chemical processes.
The first observations and size measurements of nano-particles were made during the first decade of the 20th
century. Zsigmondy made detailed studies of gold sols and other nanomaterials with sizes down to 10 nm and
less. He published a book in 1914.[17] He used an ultramicroscope that employs a dark field method for seeing
particles with sizes much less than light wavelength.
There are traditional techniques developed during 20th century in Interface and Colloid Science for
characterizing nanomaterials. These are widely used for first generation passive nanomaterials specified in the
next section.
These methods include several different techniques for characterizing particle size distribution. This
characterization is imperative because many materials that are expected to be nano-sized are actually
aggregated in solutions. Some of methods are based on light scattering. Others apply ultrasound, such as
ultrasound attenuation spectroscopy for testing concentrated nano-dispersions and microemulsions.[18]
There is also a group of traditional techniques for characterizing surface charge or zeta potential of nano-
particles in solutions. This information is required for proper system stabilzation, preventing its aggregation or
flocculation. These methods include microelectrophoresis, electrophoretic light scattering and electroacoustics.
The last one, for instance colloid vibration current method is suitable for characterizing concentrated systems.
Uniformity
The chemical processing and synthesis of high performance technological components for the private,
industrial and military sectors requires the use of high purity ceramics, polymers, glass-ceramics and material
composites. In condensed bodies formed from fine powders, the irregular sizes and shapes of nanoparticles in a
typical powder often lead to non-uniform packing morphologies that result in packing density variations in the
powder compact.
Uncontrolled agglomeration of powders due to attractive van der Waals forces can also give rise to in
microstructural inhomogeneities. Differential stresses that develop as a result of non-uniform drying shrinkage
are directly related to the rate at which the solvent can be removed, and thus highly dependent upon the
distribution of porosity. Such stresses have been associated with a plastic-to-brittle transition in consolidated
bodies, and can yield to crack propagation in the unfired body if not relieved.[19][20] [21]
In addition, any fluctuations in packing density in the compact as it is prepared for the kiln are often amplified
during the sintering process, yielding inhomogeneous densification. Some pores and other structural defects
associated with density variations have been shown to play a detrimental role in the sintering process by
growing and thus limiting end-point densities. Differential stresses arising from inhomogeneous densification
have also been shown to result in the propagation of internal cracks, thus becoming the strength-controlling
flaws. [22][23]
It would therefore appear desirable to process a material in such a way that it is physically uniform with regard
to the distribution of components and porosity, rather than using particle size distributions which will maximize
the green density. The containment of a uniformly dispersed assembly of strongly interacting particles in
suspension requires total control over particle-particle interactions. It should be noted here that a number of
dispersants such as ammonium citrate (aqueous) and imidazoline or oleyl alcohol (nonaqueous) are promising
solutions as possible additives for enhanced dispersion and deagglomeration. Monodisperse nanoparticles and
colloids provide this potential.[24]
Monodisperse powders of colloidal silica, for example, may therefore be stabilized sufficiently to ensure a high
degree of order in the colloidal crystal or polycrystalline colloidal solid which results from aggregation. The
degree of order appears to be limited by the time and space allowed for longer-range correlations to be
established. Such defective polycrystalline colloidal structures would appear to be the basic elements of sub-
micrometer colloidal materials science, and, therefore, provide the first step in developing a more rigorous
understanding of the mechanisms involved in microstructural evolution in high performance materials and
components. [25][26]
Legal definition
On 18 October 2011, the European Commission adopted the following definition of a nanomaterial: "A natural,
incidental or manufactured material containing particles, in an unbound state or as an aggregate or as an
agglomerate and where, for 50% or more of the particles in the number size distribution, one or more external
dimensions is in the size range 1 nm – 100 nm. In specific cases and where warranted by concerns for the
environment, health, safety or competitiveness the number size distribution threshold of 50% may be replaced
by a threshold between 1 and 50%."[27]
However, this differs from the definition adopted by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO),
which is: "Material with any external dimension in the nanoscale or having internal structure in the
nanoscale."[28]
"Nanoscale" is, in turn, defined as: "Size range from approximately 1 nm to 100 nm."[28]
It is not currently known which of these, if any, will prevail in courts of law.
Health and safety

Health impact
While nanomaterials and nanotechnologies are expected to yield numerous health and health care advances,
such as more targeted methods of delivering drugs, new cancer therapies, and methods of early detection of
diseases, they also may have unwanted effects.[29][30] Increased rate of absorption is the main concern
associated with manufactured nanoparticles.
When materials are made into nanoparticles, their surface area to volume ratio increases. The greater specific
surface area (surface area per unit weight) may lead to increased rate of absorption through the skin, lungs, or
digestive tract and may cause unwanted effects to the lungs as well as other organs. However, the particles must
be absorbed in sufficient quantities in order to pose health risks.[30]
Nanoparticles created adventitiously (e.g., through the rubbing of prostheses) have long been known to be a
health hazard,[31] but as the use of nanomaterials increases worldwide, concerns for worker and user safety are
mounting. To address such concerns, the Swedish Karolinska Institute conducted a study in which various
nanoparticles were introduced to human lung epithelial cells. The results, released in 2008, showed that iron
oxide nanoparticles caused little DNA damage and were non-toxic. Zinc oxide nanoparticles were slightly
worse. Titanium dioxide caused only DNA damage. Carbon nanotubes caused DNA damage at low levels.
Copper oxide was found to be the worst offender, and was the only nanomaterial identified by the researchers
as a clear health risk.[32] Though nanomaterials are not confirmed as a health risk to workers who produce
them, NIOSH recommends that exposure precautions and personal protective equipment be used to protect
workers until the risks of nanomaterial manufacture are better understood.[33][34]
Occupational safety
Beyond normal chemical safety practices such as using personal protective equipment, The United States
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health recommends the use of HEPA filtration on local exhaust
ventilation such as fume hoods. General laboratory ventilation is often not sufficient to effectively clear
nanomaterials released into the general room air over a 30-minute period; therefore, researchers should leave
the hood fan on even after synthesis is complete. Nanomaterials in dry powder form have the most risk of
airborne dust generation and dermal contact, followed by liquid suspensions and then by nanomaterials
embedded in a solid matrix.[35]
Nanoparticles behave differently than other similarly sized particles. It is therefore necessary to develop
specialized approaches to testing and monitoring their effects on human health and on the environment. The
OECD Chemicals Committee has established the Working Party on Manufactured Nanomaterials to address
this issue and to study the practices of OECD member countries in regards to nanomaterial safety.[36]
See also
Gradient multilayer Nanobottle Nanotoxicology Artificial enzyme
nanofilm Nanoceramic Nanotechnology
List of software for Nanocomposite Platinum
nanostructures Nanostructures nanoparticles
modeling Nanotopography Printed electronics
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29. Kerativitayanan, Punyavee; Carrow, James K.; Gaharwar, Akhilesh K. (May 2015). "Nanomaterials for Engineering
Stem Cell Responses". Advanced Healthcare Materials. 4: 1600–27. PMID 26010739 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.go
v/pubmed/26010739). doi:10.1002/adhm.201500272 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fadhm.201500272).
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9/37770473.pdf) (PDF). OECD.org.
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ISSN 1660-6795 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1660-6795).
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33. Topmiller, Jennifer L.; Dunn, Kevin H. (9 December 2013). "Controlling Exposures to Workers Who Make or Use
Nanomaterials" (http://blogs.cdc.gov/niosh-science-blog/2013/12/09/nano-exp/). National Institute of Occupational
Safety and Health. Retrieved 6 January 2015.
34. "Current Strategies for Engineering Controls in Nanomaterial Production and Downstream Handling Processes" (htt
p://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2014-102/pdfs/2014-102.pdf) (PDF). National Institute of Occupational Safety and
Health. November 2013. Retrieved 6 January 2015.
35. "General Safe Practices for Working with Engineered Nanomaterials in Research Laboratories" (http://www.cdc.gov/
niosh/docs/2012-147/). National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. May 2012. pp. 6–8. Retrieved
2016-07-15.
36. "Safety of Manufactured Nanomaterials: About, OECD Environment Directorate" (http://www.oecd.org/about/0,334
7,en_2649_37015404_1_1_1_1_1,00.html). OECD.org. 18 July 2007.
External links
Acquisition, evaluation and public orientated presentation of societal relevant data and findings for
nanomaterials (DaNa) (http://www.nanopartikel.info/cms/lang/en/Wissensbasis)
Safety of Manufactured Nanomaterials: OECD Environment Directorate (http://www.oecd.org/departme
nt/0,3355,en_2649_37015404_1_1_1_1_1,00.html)
Assessing health risks of nanomaterials (http://copublications.greenfacts.org/en/nanotechnologies/index.h
tm) summary by GreenFacts of the European Commission SCENIHR assessment
International Liposome Society (http://www.liposome.org)
Textiles Nanotechnology Laboratory (http://nanotextiles.human.cornell.edu/) at Cornell University
IOP.org Article (http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/0957-4484/14/3/201/t303R1.pdf?request-id=NENUvFK63
BGH-Bna2wi7Kg)
Nano Structured Material (https://books.google.com/books?id=_pbtbJwkj5YC&pg=PA5)
Online course MSE 376-Nanomaterials by Mark C. Hersam (2006) (http://nanohub.org/resources/1914)
Nanomaterials: Quantum Dots, Nanowires and Nanotubes (http://nanohub.org/resources/376) online
presentation by Dr Sands
Lecture Videos for the Second International Symposium on the Risk Assessment of Manufactured
Nanomaterials (http://www.nedo.go.jp/english/event_20110929.html), NEDO 2012
Nader Engheta: Wave interaction with metamaterials (http://spie.org/newsroom/engheta-video), SPIE
Newsroom 2016
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nanomaterials&oldid=790483467"
Categories: Nanomaterials Emerging technologies Artificial objects

7/24/2017 Nanotechnology - Wikipedia
Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology ("nanotech") is manipulation of matter on an atomic, molecular, and supramolecular scale.

The earliest, widespread description of nanotechnology[1][2] referred to the particular technological goal of
precisely manipulating atoms and molecules for fabrication of macroscale products, also now referred to as
molecular nanotechnology. A more generalized description of nanotechnology was subsequently established by
the National Nanotechnology Initiative, which defines nanotechnology as the manipulation of matter with at
least one dimension sized from 1 to 100 nanometers. This definition reflects the fact that quantum mechanical
effects are important at this quantum-realm scale, and so the definition shifted from a particular technological
goal to a research category inclusive of all types of research and technologies that deal with the special
properties of matter which occur below the given size threshold. It is therefore common to see the plural form
"nanotechnologies" as well as "nanoscale technologies" to refer to the broad range of research and applications
whose common trait is size. Because of the variety of potential applications (including industrial and military),
governments have invested billions of dollars in nanotechnology research. Until 2012, through its National
Nanotechnology Initiative, the USA has invested 3.7 billion dollars, the European Union has invested 1.2
billion and Japan 750 million dollars.[3]
Nanotechnology as defined by size is naturally very broad, including fields of science as diverse as surface
science, organic chemistry, molecular biology, semiconductor physics, microfabrication, molecular
engineering, etc.[4] The associated research and applications are equally diverse, ranging from extensions of
conventional device physics to completely new approaches based upon molecular self-assembly, from
developing new materials with dimensions on the nanoscale to direct control of matter on the atomic scale.
Scientists currently debate the future implications of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology may be able to create
many new materials and devices with a vast range of applications, such as in nanomedicine, nanoelectronics,
biomaterials energy production, and consumer products. On the other hand, nanotechnology raises many of the
same issues as any new technology, including concerns about the toxicity and environmental impact of
nanomaterials,[5] and their potential effects on global economics, as well as speculation about various
doomsday scenarios. These concerns have led to a debate among advocacy groups and governments on whether
special regulation of nanotechnology is warranted.
Contents
1 Origins
2 Fundamental concepts
2.1 Larger to smaller: a materials perspective
2.2 Simple to complex: a molecular perspective
2.3 Molecular nanotechnology: a long-term view
3 Current research
3.1 Nanomaterials
3.2 Bottom-up approaches
3.3 Top-down approaches
3.4 Functional approaches
3.5 Biomimetic approaches
3.6 Speculative
3.7 Dimensionality in nanomaterials
4 Tools and techniques
5 Applications
6 Implications
6.1 Health and environmental concerns
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology 1/16
7 Regulation
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Origins
The concepts that seeded nanotechnology were first discussed in 1959 by renowned physicist Richard Feynman
in his talk There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom, in which he described the possibility of synthesis via direct
manipulation of atoms. The term "nano-technology" was first used by Norio Taniguchi in 1974, though it was
not widely known.
Inspired by Feynman's concepts, K. Eric

Drexler used the term "nanotechnology" in
his 1986 book Engines of Creation: The
Coming Era of Nanotechnology, which
proposed the idea of a nanoscale
"assembler" which would be able to build a
copy of itself and of other items of arbitrary
complexity with atomic control. Also in
1986, Drexler co-founded The Foresight
Institute (with which he is no longer
affiliated) to help increase public awareness
and understanding of nanotechnology
concepts and implications.
Thus, emergence of nanotechnology as a

field in the 1980s occurred through
convergence of Drexler's theoretical and
public work, which developed and
popularized a conceptual framework for
nanotechnology, and high-visibility
experimental advances that drew additional
Comparison of Nanomaterials Sizes
wide-scale attention to the prospects of
atomic control of matter. In the 1980s, two
major breakthroughs sparked the growth of nanotechnology in modern era.
First, the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope in 1981 which provided unprecedented visualization
of individual atoms and bonds, and was successfully used to manipulate individual atoms in 1989. The
microscope's developers Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer at IBM Zurich Research Laboratory received a
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986.[6][7] Binnig, Quate and Gerber also invented the analogous atomic force
microscope that year.
Second, Fullerenes were discovered in 1985 by Harry Kroto, Richard Smalley, and Robert Curl, who together
won the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.[8][9] C60 was not initially described as nanotechnology; the term was
used regarding subsequent work with related graphene tubes (called carbon nanotubes and sometimes called
Bucky tubes) which suggested potential applications for nanoscale electronics and devices.
In the early 2000s, the field garnered increased scientific, political, and commercial attention that led to both
controversy and progress. Controversies emerged regarding the definitions and potential implications of
nanotechnologies, exemplified by the Royal Society's report on nanotechnology.[10] Challenges were raised
regarding the feasibility of applications envisioned by advocates of molecular nanotechnology, which
culminated in a public debate between Drexler and Smalley in 2001 and 2003.[11]
Meanwhile, commercialization of products based on advancements in

nanoscale technologies began emerging. These products are limited to bulk
applications of nanomaterials and do not involve atomic control of matter.
Some examples include the Silver Nano platform for using silver nanoparticles
as an antibacterial agent, nanoparticle-based transparent sunscreens, carbon
fiber strengthening using silica nanoparticles, and carbon nanotubes for stain-
resistant textiles.[12][13]
Governments moved to promote and fund research into nanotechnology, such

as in the U.S. with the National Nanotechnology Initiative, which formalized a
Buckminsterfullerene C60, size-based definition of nanotechnology and established funding for research
also known as the buckyball, on the nanoscale, and in Europe via the European Framework Programmes for
is a representative member of Research and Technological Development.
the carbon structures known
as fullerenes. Members of the By the mid-2000s new and serious scientific attention began to flourish.
fullerene family are a major Projects emerged to produce nanotechnology roadmaps[14][15] which center on
subject of research falling atomically precise manipulation of matter and discuss existing and projected
under the nanotechnology capabilities, goals, and applications.
umbrella.
Fundamental concepts
Nanotechnology is the engineering of functional systems at the molecular scale. This covers both current work
and concepts that are more advanced. In its original sense, nanotechnology refers to the projected ability to
construct items from the bottom up, using techniques and tools being developed today to make complete, high
performance products.
One nanometer (nm) is one billionth, or 10−9, of a meter. By comparison, typical carbon-carbon bond lengths,
or the spacing between these atoms in a molecule, are in the range 0.12–0.15 nm, and a DNA double-helix has
a diameter around 2 nm. On the other hand, the smallest cellular life-forms, the bacteria of the genus
Mycoplasma, are around 200 nm in length. By convention, nanotechnology is taken as the scale range
1 to 100 nm following the definition used by the National Nanotechnology Initiative in the US. The lower limit
is set by the size of atoms (hydrogen has the smallest atoms, which are approximately a quarter of a nm
diameter) since nanotechnology must build its devices from atoms and molecules. The upper limit is more or
less arbitrary but is around the size below which phenomena not observed in larger structures start to become
apparent and can be made use of in the nano device.[16] These new phenomena make nanotechnology distinct
from devices which are merely miniaturised versions of an equivalent macroscopic device; such devices are on
a larger scale and come under the description of microtechnology.[17]
To put that scale in another context, the comparative size of a nanometer to a meter is the same as that of a
marble to the size of the earth.[18] Or another way of putting it: a nanometer is the amount an average man's
beard grows in the time it takes him to raise the razor to his face.[18]
Two main approaches are used in nanotechnology. In the "bottom-up" approach, materials and devices are built
from molecular components which assemble themselves chemically by principles of molecular recognition.[19]
In the "top-down" approach, nano-objects are constructed from larger entities without atomic-level control.[20]
Areas of physics such as nanoelectronics, nanomechanics, nanophotonics and nanoionics have evolved during
the last few decades to provide a basic scientific foundation of nanotechnology.
Larger to smaller: a materials perspective
Several phenomena become pronounced as the size of the system

decreases. These include statistical mechanical effects, as well as
quantum mechanical effects, for example the "quantum size effect"
where the electronic properties of solids are altered with great
reductions in particle size. This effect does not come into play by going
from macro to micro dimensions. However, quantum effects can
become significant when the nanometer size range is reached, typically
at distances of 100 nanometers or less, the so-called quantum realm.
Additionally, a number of physical (mechanical, electrical, optical, etc.)
properties change when compared to macroscopic systems. One
example is the increase in surface area to volume ratio altering
mechanical, thermal and catalytic properties of materials. Diffusion and
reactions at nanoscale, nanostructures materials and nanodevices with Image of reconstruction on a clean
fast ion transport are generally referred to nanoionics. Mechanical Gold(100) surface, as visualized
properties of nanosystems are of interest in the nanomechanics research. using scanning tunneling microscopy.
The catalytic activity of nanomaterials also opens potential risks in their The positions of the individual atoms
interaction with biomaterials. composing the surface are visible.
Materials reduced to the nanoscale can show different properties

compared to what they exhibit on a macroscale, enabling unique applications. For instance, opaque substances
can become transparent (copper); stable materials can turn combustible (aluminium); insoluble materials may
become soluble (gold). A material such as gold, which is chemically inert at normal scales, can serve as a
potent chemical catalyst at nanoscales. Much of the fascination with nanotechnology stems from these quantum
and surface phenomena that matter exhibits at the nanoscale.[21]
Simple to complex: a molecular perspective
Modern synthetic chemistry has reached the point where it is possible to prepare small molecules to almost any
structure. These methods are used today to manufacture a wide variety of useful chemicals such as
pharmaceuticals or commercial polymers. This ability raises the question of extending this kind of control to
the next-larger level, seeking methods to assemble these single molecules into supramolecular assemblies
consisting of many molecules arranged in a well defined manner.
These approaches utilize the concepts of molecular self-assembly and/or supramolecular chemistry to
automatically arrange themselves into some useful conformation through a bottom-up approach. The concept of
molecular recognition is especially important: molecules can be designed so that a specific configuration or
arrangement is favored due to non-covalent intermolecular forces. The Watson–Crick basepairing rules are a
direct result of this, as is the specificity of an enzyme being targeted to a single substrate, or the specific folding
of the protein itself. Thus, two or more components can be designed to be complementary and mutually
attractive so that they make a more complex and useful whole.
Such bottom-up approaches should be capable of producing devices in parallel and be much cheaper than top-
down methods, but could potentially be overwhelmed as the size and complexity of the desired assembly
increases. Most useful structures require complex and thermodynamically unlikely arrangements of atoms.
Nevertheless, there are many examples of self-assembly based on molecular recognition in biology, most
notably Watson–Crick basepairing and enzyme-substrate interactions. The challenge for nanotechnology is
whether these principles can be used to engineer new constructs in addition to natural ones.
Molecular nanotechnology: a long-term view
Molecular nanotechnology, sometimes called molecular manufacturing, describes engineered nanosystems

(nanoscale machines) operating on the molecular scale. Molecular nanotechnology is especially associated with
the molecular assembler, a machine that can produce a desired structure or device atom-by-atom using the
principles of mechanosynthesis. Manufacturing in the context of productive nanosystems is not related to, and
should be clearly distinguished from, the conventional technologies used to manufacture nanomaterials such as
carbon nanotubes and nanoparticles.
When the term "nanotechnology" was independently coined and popularized by Eric Drexler (who at the time
was unaware of an earlier usage by Norio Taniguchi) it referred to a future manufacturing technology based on
molecular machine systems. The premise was that molecular scale biological analogies of traditional machine
components demonstrated molecular machines were possible: by the countless examples found in biology, it is
known that sophisticated, stochastically optimised biological machines can be produced.
It is hoped that developments in nanotechnology will make possible their construction by some other means,
perhaps using biomimetic principles. However, Drexler and other researchers[22] have proposed that advanced
nanotechnology, although perhaps initially implemented by biomimetic means, ultimately could be based on
mechanical engineering principles, namely, a manufacturing technology based on the mechanical functionality
of these components (such as gears, bearings, motors, and structural members) that would enable
programmable, positional assembly to atomic specification.[23] The physics and engineering performance of
exemplar designs were analyzed in Drexler's book Nanosystems.
In general it is very difficult to assemble devices on the atomic scale, as one has to position atoms on other
atoms of comparable size and stickiness. Another view, put forth by Carlo Montemagno,[24] is that future
nanosystems will be hybrids of silicon technology and biological molecular machines. Richard Smalley argued
that mechanosynthesis are impossible due to the difficulties in mechanically manipulating individual
molecules.
This led to an exchange of letters in the ACS publication Chemical & Engineering News in 2003.[25] Though
biology clearly demonstrates that molecular machine systems are possible, non-biological molecular machines
are today only in their infancy. Leaders in research on non-biological molecular machines are Dr. Alex Zettl
and his colleagues at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories and UC Berkeley.[1] (http://research.physics.berkeley.ed
u/zettl/) They have constructed at least three distinct molecular devices whose motion is controlled from the
desktop with changing voltage: a nanotube nanomotor, a molecular actuator,[26] and a nanoelectromechanical
relaxation oscillator.[27] See nanotube nanomotor for more examples.
An experiment indicating that positional molecular assembly is possible was performed by Ho and Lee at
Cornell University in 1999. They used a scanning tunneling microscope to move an individual carbon
monoxide molecule (CO) to an individual iron atom (Fe) sitting on a flat silver crystal, and chemically bound
the CO to the Fe by applying a voltage.
Current research
Nanomaterials
The nanomaterials field includes subfields which develop or study

materials having unique properties arising from their nanoscale
dimensions.[30]
Interface and colloid science has given rise to many materials

which may be useful in nanotechnology, such as carbon
nanotubes and other fullerenes, and various nanoparticles and
nanorods. Nanomaterials with fast ion transport are related also to Graphical representation of a
nanoionics and nanoelectronics. rotaxane, useful as a molecular
Nanoscale materials can also be used for bulk applications; most switch.
present commercial applications of nanotechnology are of this
flavor.
Progress has been made in using these materials for medical applications; see Nanomedicine.
Nanoscale materials such as nanopillars are sometimes used in

solar cells which combats the cost of traditional silicon solar
cells.
Development of applications incorporating semiconductor
nanoparticles to be used in the next generation of products, such
as display technology, lighting, solar cells and biological imaging;
see quantum dots.
Recent application of nanomaterials include a range of
biomedical applications, such as tissue engineering, drug
delivery, and biosensors.[31]
Bottom-up approaches
These seek to arrange smaller components into more complex This DNA tetrahedron[28] is an
assemblies. artificially designed nanostructure of
the type made in the field of DNA
DNA nanotechnology utilizes the specificity of Watson–Crick nanotechnology. Each edge of the
basepairing to construct well-defined structures out of DNA and tetrahedron is a 20 base pair DNA
other nucleic acids. double helix, and each vertex is a
Approaches from the field of "classical" chemical synthesis three-arm junction.
(Inorganic and organic synthesis) also aim at designing molecules
with well-defined shape (e.g. bis-peptides[32]).
More generally, molecular self-assembly seeks to use concepts of
supramolecular chemistry, and molecular recognition in particular, to
cause single-molecule components to automatically arrange
themselves into some useful conformation.
Atomic force microscope tips can be used as a nanoscale "write
head" to deposit a chemical upon a surface in a desired pattern in a
process called dip pen nanolithography. This technique fits into the
larger subfield of nanolithography.
Top-down approaches
These seek to create smaller devices by using larger ones to direct their Rotating view of C60, one kind of
assembly. fullerene.
Many technologies that descended from conventional solid-state

silicon methods for fabricating microprocessors are now capable of creating features smaller than
100 nm, falling under the definition of nanotechnology. Giant magnetoresistance-based hard drives
already on the market fit this description,[33] as do atomic layer deposition (ALD) techniques. Peter
Grünberg and Albert Fert received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2007 for their discovery of Giant
magnetoresistance and contributions to the field of spintronics.[34]
Solid-state techniques can also be used to create devices known as nanoelectromechanical systems or
NEMS, which are related to microelectromechanical systems or MEMS.
Focused ion beams can directly remove material, or even deposit material when suitable precursor gasses
are applied at the same time. For example, this technique is used routinely to create sub-100 nm sections
of material for analysis in Transmission electron microscopy.
Atomic force microscope tips can be used as a nanoscale "write head" to deposit a resist, which is then
followed by an etching process to remove material in a top-down method.
Functional approaches
These seek to develop components of a desired functionality without regard to how they might be assembled.
Magnetic assembly for the synthesis of anisotropic superparamagnetic materials such as recently
presented magnetic nanochains.[19]
Molecular scale electronics seeks to develop molecules with

useful electronic properties. These could then be used as single-
molecule components in a nanoelectronic device.[35] For an
example see rotaxane.
Synthetic chemical methods can also be used to create synthetic
molecular motors, such as in a so-called nanocar.
Biomimetic approaches
Bionics or biomimicry seeks to apply biological methods and
systems found in nature, to the study and design of engineering
systems and modern technology. Biomineralization is one
example of the systems studied.
Bionanotechnology is the use of biomolecules for applications in
nanotechnology, including use of viruses and lipid
assemblies.[36][37] Nanocellulose is a potential bulk-scale
application.
This device transfers energy from
Speculative nano-thin layers of quantum wells to
nanocrystals above them, causing the
These subfields seek to anticipate what inventions nanotechnology
might yield, or attempt to propose an agenda along which inquiry might nanocrystals to emit visible light.[29]
progress. These often take a big-picture view of nanotechnology, with
more emphasis on its societal implications than the details of how such inventions could actually be created.
Molecular nanotechnology is a proposed approach which involves manipulating single molecules in

finely controlled, deterministic ways. This is more theoretical than the other subfields, and many of its
proposed techniques are beyond current capabilities.
Nanorobotics centers on self-sufficient machines of some functionality operating at the nanoscale. There
are hopes for applying nanorobots in medicine,[38][39][40] but it may not be easy to do such a thing
because of several drawbacks of such devices.[41] Nevertheless, progress on innovative materials and
methodologies has been demonstrated with some patents granted about new nanomanufacturing devices
for future commercial applications, which also progressively helps in the development towards
nanorobots with the use of embedded nanobioelectronics concepts.[42][43]
Productive nanosystems are "systems of nanosystems" which will be complex nanosystems that produce
atomically precise parts for other nanosystems, not necessarily using novel nanoscale-emergent
properties, but well-understood fundamentals of manufacturing. Because of the discrete (i.e. atomic)
nature of matter and the possibility of exponential growth, this stage is seen as the basis of another
industrial revolution. Mihail Roco, one of the architects of the USA's National Nanotechnology Initiative,
has proposed four states of nanotechnology that seem to parallel the technical progress of the Industrial
Revolution, progressing from passive nanostructures to active nanodevices to complex nanomachines
and ultimately to productive nanosystems.[44]
Programmable matter seeks to design materials whose properties can be easily, reversibly and externally
controlled though a fusion of information science and materials science.
Due to the popularity and media exposure of the term nanotechnology, the words picotechnology and
femtotechnology have been coined in analogy to it, although these are only used rarely and informally.
Dimensionality in nanomaterials
Nanomaterials can be classified in 0D, 1D, 2D and 3D nanomaterials. The dimensionality play a major role in
determining the characteristic of nanomaterials including physical, chemical and biological characteristics.
With the decrease in dimensionality, an increase in surface-to-volume ratio is observed. This indicate that
smaller dimensional nanomaterials have higher surface area compared to 3D nanomaterials. Recently, two
dimensional (2D) nanomaterials are extensively investigated for electronic, biomedical, drug delivery and
biosensor applications.
Tools and techniques

There are several important modern developments. The
atomic force microscope (AFM) and the Scanning
Tunneling Microscope (STM) are two early versions of
scanning probes that launched nanotechnology. There are
other types of scanning probe microscopy. Although
conceptually similar to the scanning confocal microscope
developed by Marvin Minsky in 1961 and the scanning
acoustic microscope (SAM) developed by Calvin Quate and
coworkers in the 1970s, newer scanning probe microscopes
have much higher resolution, since they are not limited by
the wavelength of sound or light.
The tip of a scanning probe can also be used to manipulate

nanostructures (a process called positional assembly). Typical AFM setup. A microfabricated cantilever
Feature-oriented scanning methodology may be a promising with a sharp tip is deflected by features on a
way to implement these nanomanipulations in automatic sample surface, much like in a phonograph but on a
mode.[45][46] However, this is still a slow process because of much smaller scale. A laser beam reflects off the
low scanning velocity of the microscope. backside of the cantilever into a set of
photodetectors, allowing the deflection to be
Various techniques of nanolithography such as optical measured and assembled into an image of the
lithography, X-ray lithography dip pen nanolithography, surface.
electron beam lithography or nanoimprint lithography were
also developed. Lithography is a top-down fabrication
technique where a bulk material is reduced in size to nanoscale pattern.
Another group of nanotechnological techniques include those used for fabrication of nanotubes and nanowires,
those used in semiconductor fabrication such as deep ultraviolet lithography, electron beam lithography,
focused ion beam machining, nanoimprint lithography, atomic layer deposition, and molecular vapor
deposition, and further including molecular self-assembly techniques such as those employing di-block
copolymers. The precursors of these techniques preceded the nanotech era, and are extensions in the
development of scientific advancements rather than techniques which were devised with the sole purpose of
creating nanotechnology and which were results of nanotechnology research.[47]
The top-down approach anticipates nanodevices that must be built piece by piece in stages, much as
manufactured items are made. Scanning probe microscopy is an important technique both for characterization
and synthesis of nanomaterials. Atomic force microscopes and scanning tunneling microscopes can be used to
look at surfaces and to move atoms around. By designing different tips for these microscopes, they can be used
for carving out structures on surfaces and to help guide self-assembling structures. By using, for example,
feature-oriented scanning approach, atoms or molecules can be moved around on a surface with scanning probe
microscopy techniques.[45][46] At present, it is expensive and time-consuming for mass production but very
suitable for laboratory experimentation.
In contrast, bottom-up techniques build or grow larger structures atom by atom or molecule by molecule. These
techniques include chemical synthesis, self-assembly and positional assembly. Dual polarisation interferometry
is one tool suitable for characterisation of self assembled thin films. Another variation of the bottom-up
approach is molecular beam epitaxy or MBE. Researchers at Bell Telephone Laboratories like John R. Arthur.
Alfred Y. Cho, and Art C. Gossard developed and implemented MBE as a research tool in the late 1960s and
1970s. Samples made by MBE were key to the discovery of the fractional quantum Hall effect for which the
1998 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded. MBE allows scientists to lay down atomically precise layers of
atoms and, in the process, build up complex structures. Important for research on semiconductors, MBE is also
widely used to make samples and devices for the newly emerging field of spintronics.
However, new therapeutic products, based on responsive nanomaterials, such as the ultradeformable, stress-
sensitive Transfersome vesicles, are under development and already approved for human use in some
countries.[48]
Applications
As of August 21, 2008, the Project on
Emerging Nanotechnologies estimates that
over 800 manufacturer-identified nanotech
products are publicly available, with new
ones hitting the market at a pace of 3–4 per
week.[13] The project lists all of the
products in a publicly accessible online
database. Most applications are limited to
the use of "first generation" passive
nanomaterials which includes titanium
dioxide in sunscreen, cosmetics, surface One of the major applications of nanotechnology is in the area of
coatings,[49] and some food products; nanoelectronics with MOSFET's being made of small nanowires ≈10
Carbon allotropes used to produce gecko nm in length. Here is a simulation of such a nanowire.
tape; silver in food packaging, clothing,
disinfectants and household appliances;
zinc oxide in sunscreens and cosmetics, surface coatings, paints and
outdoor furniture varnishes; and cerium oxide as a fuel catalyst.[12]
Further applications allow tennis balls to last longer, golf balls to fly
straighter, and even bowling balls to become more durable and have a
harder surface. Trousers and socks have been infused with
nanotechnology so that they will last longer and keep people cool in the
summer. Bandages are being infused with silver nanoparticles to heal
cuts faster.[50] Video game consoles and personal computers may Nanostructures provide this surface
become cheaper, faster, and contain more memory thanks to with superhydrophobicity, which lets
nanotechnology.[51] Nanotechnology may have the ability to make water droplets roll down the inclined
existing medical applications cheaper and easier to use in places like the plane.
general practitioner's office and at home.[52] Cars are being
manufactured with nanomaterials so they may need fewer metals and
less fuel to operate in the future.[53]
Scientists are now turning to nanotechnology in an attempt to develop diesel engines with cleaner exhaust
fumes. Platinum is currently used as the diesel engine catalyst in these engines. The catalyst is what cleans the
exhaust fume particles. First a reduction catalyst is employed to take nitrogen atoms from NOx molecules in
order to free oxygen. Next the oxidation catalyst oxidizes the hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide to form
carbon dioxide and water.[54] Platinum is used in both the reduction and the oxidation catalysts.[55] Using
platinum though, is inefficient in that it is expensive and unsustainable. Danish company InnovationsFonden
invested DKK 15 million in a search for new catalyst substitutes using nanotechnology. The goal of the project,
launched in the autumn of 2014, is to maximize surface area and minimize the amount of material required.
Objects tend to minimize their surface energy; two drops of water, for example, will join to form one drop and
decrease surface area. If the catalyst's surface area that is exposed to the exhaust fumes is maximized,
efficiency of the catalyst is maximized. The team working on this project aims to create nanoparticles that will
not merge. Every time the surface is optimized, material is saved. Thus, creating these nanoparticles will
increase the effectiveness of the resulting diesel engine catalyst—in turn leading to cleaner exhaust fumes—and
will decrease cost. If successful, the team hopes to reduce platinum use by 25%.[56]
Nanotechnology also has a prominent role in the fast developing field of Tissue Engineering. When designing
scaffolds, researchers attempt to the mimic the nanoscale features of a Cell's microenvironment to direct its
differentiation down a suitable lineage.[57] For example, when creating scaffolds to support the growth of bone,
researchers may mimic osteoclast resorption pits.[58]
Researchers have successfully used DNA origami-based nanobots capable of carrying out logic functions to
achieve targeted drug delivery in cockroaches. It is said that the computational power of these nanobots can be
scaled up to that of a Commodore 64.[59]
Implications
An area of concern is the effect that industrial-scale manufacturing and use of nanomaterials would have on
human health and the environment, as suggested by nanotoxicology research. For these reasons, some groups
advocate that nanotechnology be regulated by governments. Others counter that overregulation would stifle
scientific research and the development of beneficial innovations. Public health research agencies, such as the
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health are actively conducting research on potential health
effects stemming from exposures to nanoparticles.[60][61]
Some nanoparticle products may have unintended consequences. Researchers have discovered that
bacteriostatic silver nanoparticles used in socks to reduce foot odor are being released in the wash.[62] These
particles are then flushed into the waste water stream and may destroy bacteria which are critical components
of natural ecosystems, farms, and waste treatment processes.[63]
Public deliberations on risk perception in the US and UK carried out by the Center for Nanotechnology in
Society found that participants were more positive about nanotechnologies for energy applications than for
health applications, with health applications raising moral and ethical dilemmas such as cost and
availability.[64]
Experts, including director of the Woodrow Wilson Center's Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies David
Rejeski, have testified[65] that successful commercialization depends on adequate oversight, risk research
strategy, and public engagement. Berkeley, California is currently the only city in the United States to regulate
nanotechnology;[66] Cambridge, Massachusetts in 2008 considered enacting a similar law,[67] but ultimately
rejected it.[68] Relevant for both research on and application of nanotechnologies, the insurability of
nanotechnology is contested.[69] Without state regulation of nanotechnology, the availability of private
insurance for potential damages is seen as necessary to ensure that burdens are not socialised implicitly.
Health and environmental concerns
Nanofibers are used in several areas and in different products, in

everything from aircraft wings to tennis rackets. Inhaling airborne
nanoparticles and nanofibers may lead to a number of pulmonary
diseases, e.g. fibrosis.[70] Researchers have found that when rats
breathed in nanoparticles, the particles settled in the brain and lungs,
which led to significant increases in biomarkers for inflammation and
stress response[71] and that nanoparticles induce skin aging through
oxidative stress in hairless mice.[72][73] A video on the health and safety
implications of nanotechnology
A two-year study at UCLA's School of Public Health found lab mice
consuming nano-titanium dioxide showed DNA and chromosome damage to a degree "linked to all the big
killers of man, namely cancer, heart disease, neurological disease and aging".[74]
A major study published more recently in Nature Nanotechnology suggests some forms of carbon nanotubes –
a poster child for the "nanotechnology revolution" – could be as harmful as asbestos if inhaled in sufficient
quantities. Anthony Seaton of the Institute of Occupational Medicine in Edinburgh, Scotland, who contributed
to the article on carbon nanotubes said "We know that some of them probably have the potential to cause
mesothelioma. So those sorts of materials need to be handled very carefully."[75] In the absence of specific
regulation forthcoming from governments, Paull and Lyons (2008) have called for an exclusion of engineered
nanoparticles in food.[76] A newspaper article reports that workers in a paint factory developed serious lung
disease and nanoparticles were found in their lungs.[77][78][79][80]
Regulation
Calls for tighter regulation of nanotechnology have occurred alongside a growing debate related to the human
health and safety risks of nanotechnology.[81] There is significant debate about who is responsible for the
regulation of nanotechnology. Some regulatory agencies currently cover some nanotechnology products and
processes (to varying degrees) – by "bolting on" nanotechnology to existing regulations – there are clear gaps
in these regimes.[82] Davies (2008) has proposed a regulatory road map describing steps to deal with these
shortcomings.[83]
Stakeholders concerned by the lack of a regulatory framework to assess and control risks associated with the
release of nanoparticles and nanotubes have drawn parallels with bovine spongiform encephalopathy ("mad
cow" disease), thalidomide, genetically modified food,[84] nuclear energy, reproductive technologies,
biotechnology, and asbestosis. Dr. Andrew Maynard, chief science advisor to the Woodrow Wilson Center's
Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies, concludes that there is insufficient funding for human health and safety
research, and as a result there is currently limited understanding of the human health and safety risks associated
with nanotechnology.[85] As a result, some academics have called for stricter application of the precautionary
principle, with delayed marketing approval, enhanced labelling and additional safety data development
requirements in relation to certain forms of nanotechnology.[86][87]
The Royal Society report[10] identified a risk of nanoparticles or nanotubes being released during disposal,
destruction and recycling, and recommended that "manufacturers of products that fall under extended producer
responsibility regimes such as end-of-life regulations publish procedures outlining how these materials will be
managed to minimize possible human and environmental exposure" (p. xiii).
The Center for Nanotechnology in Society has found that people respond to nanotechnologies differently,
depending on application – with participants in public deliberations more positive about nanotechnologies for
energy than health applications – suggesting that any public calls for nano regulations may differ by technology
sector.[64]
See also
Bionanoscience Molecular mechanics
Carbon nanotube Nanobiotechnology
Energy applications of nanotechnology Nanoelectromechanical relay
Gold nanobeacon Nanoengineering
Gold nanoparticle Nanofluidics
List of emerging technologies NanoHUB
List of nanotechnology organizations Nanometrology
List of software for nanostructures modeling Nanoscale networks
Magnetic nanochains Nanotechnology education
Materiomics Nanotechnology in fiction
Nano-thermite Nanotechnology in water treatment
Molecular design software Nanoweapons
National Nanotechnology Initiative Translational research

Self-assembly of nanoparticles Wet nanotechnology
Top-down and bottom-up
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nanoparticles in hairless mice and porcine skin after subchronic dermal exposure". Toxicology letters. 191 (1): 1–8.
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74. Schneider, Andrew (March 24, 2010) "Amid Nanotech's Dazzling Promise, Health Risks Grow" (http://www.aolnew
s.com/nanotech/article/amid-nanotechs-dazzling-promise-health-risks-grow/19401235). AOL News
75. Weiss, R. (2008). Effects of Nanotubes May Lead to Cancer, Study Says. (http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/c
ontent/article/2008/05/20/AR2008052001331.html?hpid=sec-health&sid=ST2008052100104)
76. Paull, J. & Lyons, K. (2008). "Nanotechnology: The Next Challenge for Organics" (http://orgprints.org/13569/1/135
69.pdf) (PDF). Journal of Organic Systems. 3: 3–22.
77. Smith, Rebecca (August 19, 2009). "Nanoparticles used in paint could kill, research suggests" (http://www.telegraph.
co.uk/health/healthnews/6016639/Nanoparticles-used-in-paint-could-kill-research-suggests.html). London:
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78. Nanofibres 'may pose health risk' (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-19355196). BBC. 2012-08-24
79. Schinwald, A.; Murphy, F. A.; Prina-Mello, A.; Poland, C. A.; Byrne, F.; Movia, D.; Glass, J. R.; Dickerson, J. C.;
Schultz, D. A.; Jeffree, C. E.; MacNee, W.; Donaldson, K. (2012). "The Threshold Length for Fiber-Induced Acute
Pleural Inflammation: Shedding Light on the Early Events in Asbestos-Induced Mesothelioma". Toxicological
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cfm?id=chronic-inflammation-cancer) Scientific American. 2008-11-09
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82. Bowman D, Hodge G (2006). "Nanotechnology: Mapping the Wild Regulatory Frontier". Futures. 38 (9): 1060–
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83. Davies, J. C. (2008). Nanotechnology Oversight: An Agenda for the Next Administration (http://www.nanotechproje
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84. Rowe, G. (2005). "Difficulties in evaluating public engagement initiatives: Reflections on an evaluation of the UK
GM Nation? Public debate about transgenic crops". Public Understanding of Science. 14 (4): 331–352.
85. Maynard, A.Testimony by Dr. Andrew Maynard for the U.S. House Committee on Science and Technology (http://w
ww.science.house.gov/publications/Testimony.aspx?TID=12957). (2008-4-16). Retrieved on 2008-11-24. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20080529010341/http://www.science.house.gov/publications/Testimony.aspx?TID=129
57) May 29, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
86. Faunce, T.; Murray, K.; Nasu, H.; Bowman, D. (2008). "Sunscreen Safety: The Precautionary Principle, the
Australian Therapeutic Goods Administration and Nanoparticles in Sunscreens". NanoEthics. 2 (3): 231–240.
doi:10.1007/s11569-008-0041-z (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11569-008-0041-z).
87. Thomas Faunce; Katherine Murray; Hitoshi Nasu & Diana Bowman (24 July 2008). "Sunscreen Safety: The
Precautionary Principle, The Australian Therapeutic Goods Administration and Nanoparticles in Sunscreens" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20090715000000*/http://law.anu.edu.au/StaffUploads/236-Nanoethics%20Sunscreens%202
008.pdf) (PDF). Springer Science + Business Media B.V. Retrieved 18 June 2009.
External links
Nanotechnology (https://dmoztools.net/Science/Technology/Nano
technology/) at DMOZ
media related to
What is Nanotechnology? (http://www.vega.org.uk/video/progra Nanotechnology.
mme/3) (A Vega/BBC/OU Video Discussion).
the topic of:
Nanotechnology
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Nanotechnology&oldid=791796998" At Wikiversity, you can
learn more and teach
Categories: Nanotechnology Emerging technologies others about
Nanotechnology at the
1985 introductions Department of
Nanotechnology

7/19/2017 Classical physics - Wikipedia
Classical physics
Classical physics refers to theories of physics that

predate modern, more complete, or more widely
applicable theories. If a currently accepted theory is
considered to be "modern," and its introduction
represented a major paradigm shift, then the
previous theories, or new theories based on the
older paradigm, will often be referred to as
belonging to the realm of "classical" physics.
As such, the definition of a classical theory depends The four major domains of modern physics
on context. Classical physical concepts are often
used when modern theories are unnecessarily
complex for a particular situation.
Contents
1 Overview
2 Comparison with modern physics
3 Computer modeling and manual calculation, modern and classic comparison
4 References
5 See also
Overview
Classical theory has at least two distinct meanings in physics. In the context of quantum mechanics, classical
theory refers to theories of physics that do not use the quantisation paradigm, which includes classical
mechanics and relativity.[1] Likewise, classical field theories, such as general relativity and classical
electromagnetism, are those that do not use quantum mechanics.[2] In the context of general and special
relativity, classical theories are those that obey Galilean relativity.[3]
Among the branches of theory included in classical physics are:
Classical mechanics
Newton's laws of motion
Classical Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formalisms
Classical electrodynamics (Maxwell's Equations)
Classical thermodynamics
Special relativity and general relativity
Classical chaos theory and nonlinear dynamics
Comparison with modern physics

In contrast to classical physics, "modern physics" is a slightly looser term which may refer to just quantum
physics or to 20th and 21st century physics in general. Modern physics includes quantum theory and relativity,
when applicable.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_physics 1/3
A physical system can be described by classical physics when it satisfies conditions such that the laws of
classical physics are approximately valid. In practice, physical objects ranging from those larger than atoms and
molecules, to objects in the macroscopic and astronomical realm, can be well-described (understood) with
classical mechanics. Beginning at the atomic level and lower, the laws of classical physics break down and
generally do not provide a correct description of nature. Electromagnetic fields and forces can be described
well by classical electrodynamics at length scales and field strengths large enough that quantum mechanical
effects are negligible. Unlike quantum physics, classical physics is generally characterized by the principle of
complete determinism, although deterministic interpretations of quantum mechanics do exist.
From the point of view of classical physics as being non-relativistic physics, the predictions of general and
special relativity are significantly different than those of classical theories, particularly concerning the passage
of time, the geometry of space, the motion of bodies in free fall, and the propagation of light. Traditionally,
light was reconciled with classical mechanics by assuming the existence of a stationary medium through which
light propagated, the luminiferous aether, which was later shown not to exist.
Mathematically, classical physics equations are those in which Planck's constant does not appear. According to
the correspondence principle and Ehrenfest's theorem, as a system becomes larger or more massive the classical
dynamics tends to emerge, with some exceptions, such as superfluidity. This is why we can usually ignore
quantum mechanics when dealing with everyday objects and the classical description will suffice. However,
one of the most vigorous on-going fields of research in physics is classical-quantum correspondence. This field
of research is concerned with the discovery of how the laws of quantum physics give rise to classical physics
found at the limit of the large scales of the classical level.
Computer modeling and manual calculation, modern and classic

comparison
Today a computer performs millions of arithmetic
operations in seconds to solve a classical
differential equation, while Newton (one of the
fathers of the differential calculus) would take
hours to solve the same equation by manual
calculation, even if he were the discoverer of that
particular equation.
Computer modeling is essential for quantum and

relativistic physics. Classic physics is considered A computer model would use quantum theory and
the limit of quantum mechanics for large number of relativistic theory only
particles. On the other hand, classic mechanics is
derived from relativistic mechanics. For example,
in many formulations from special relativity, a correction factor (v/c)2 appears, where v is the velocity of the
object and c is the speed of light. For velocities much smaller than that of light, one can neglect the terms with
c2 and higher that appear. These formulas then reduce to the standard definitions of Newtonian kinetic energy
and momentum. This is as it should be, for special relativity must agree with Newtonian mechanics at low
velocities. Computer modeling has to be as real as possible. Classical physics would introduce an error as in the
superfluidity case. In order to produce reliable models of the world, we can not use classic physics. It is true
that quantum theories consume time and computer resources, and the equations of classical physics could be
resorted to provide a quick solution, but such a solution would lack reliability.
Computer modeling would use only the energy criteria to determine which theory to use: relativity or quantum
theory, when attempting to describe the behavior of an object. A physicist would use a classical model to
provide an approximation before more exacting models are applied and those calculations proceed.
In a computer model, there is no need to use the speed of the object if classical physics is excluded. Low energy
objects would be handled by quantum theory and high energy objects by relativity theory.[4][5][6]
References
1. Morin, David (2008). Introduction to Classical Mechanics. New York: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 9780521876223.
2. Barut, Asim O. (1980) [1964]. Introduction to Classical Mechanics. New York: Dover Publications.
ISBN 9780486640389.
3. Einstein, Albert (2004) [1920]. Relativity. Translated by Robert W. Lawson. New York: Barnes & Noble.
ISBN 9780760759219.
4. Wojciech H. Zurek, Decoherence, einselection, and the quantum origins of the classical, Reviews of Modern Physics
2003, 75, 715 or http://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0105127/
5. Wojciech H. Zurek, Decoherence and the transition from quantum to classical, Physics Today, 44, pp 36–44 (1991)
6. Wojciech H. Zurek: Decoherence and the Transition from Quantum to Classical—Revisited Los Alamos Science
Number 27 2002 (http://arxiv.org/pdf/quant-ph/0306072)
See also
Glossary of classical physics
Semiclassical physics
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Classical_physics&oldid=763412933"
Categories: Subfields of physics Physical systems Philosophy of physics
This page was last edited on 3 February 2017, at 02:45.

7/19/2017 Modern physics - Wikipedia
Modern physics
Modern physics is the post-

Newtonian conception of
physics. It implies that classical
descriptions of phenomena are
lacking, and that an accurate,
"modern", description of nature
requires theories to incorporate
elements of quantum mechanics
or Einsteinian relativity, or both.
In general, the term is used to
refer to any branch of physics
either developed in the early 20th
century and onwards, or branches Classical physics is usually concerned with everyday conditions: speeds much
greatly influenced by early 20th lower than the speed of light, and sizes much greater than that of atoms. Modern
century physics. physics is usually concerned with high velocities and small distances.
Small velocities and large

distances is usually the realm of classical physics. Modern physics, however, often involves extreme
conditions: quantum effects typically involve distances comparable to atoms (roughly 10−9 m), while
relativistic effects typically involve velocities comparable to the speed of light (roughly 108 m/s). In general,
quantum and relativistic effects exist across all scales, although these effects can be very small in everyday life.
Contents
1 Overview
2 Hallmarks
3 See also
4 References
5 Further reading
Overview
In a literal sense, the term modern physics, means up-to-date physics. In this sense, a significant portion of so-
called classical physics is modern. However, since roughly 1890, new discoveries have caused significant
paradigm shifts: the advent of quantum mechanics (QM) and of Einsteinian relativity (ER). Physics that
incorporates elements of either QM or ER (or both) is said to be modern physics. It is in this latter sense that the
term is generally used.
Modern physics is often encountered when dealing with extreme conditions. Quantum mechanical effects tend
to appear when dealing with "lows" (low temperatures, small distances), while relativistic effects tend to appear
when dealing with "highs" (high velocities, large distances), the "middles" being classical behaviour. For
example, when analysing the behaviour of a gas at room temperature, most phenomena will involve the
(classical) Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution. However near absolute zero, the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution
fails to account for the observed behaviour of the gas, and the (modern) Fermi–Dirac or Bose–Einstein
distributions have to be used instead.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_physics 1/3
German physicist German physicist Max

Albert Einstein, Planck, founder of
founder of the theory quantum theory
of relativity
Very often, it is possible to find – or "retrieve" – the classical behaviour from the modern description by
analysing the modern description at low speeds and large distances (by taking a limit, or by making an
approximation). When doing so, the result is called the classical limit.
“ The term "modern physics," taken literally, means

of course, the sum total of knowledge under the
head of present-day physics. In this sense, the
physics of 1890 is still modern; very few
statements made in a good physics text of 1890
would need to be deleted today as untrue...
On the other hand... there have been enormous

advances in physics, and some of these advances
have brought into question, or have directly
contradicted, certain theories that had seemed to be
strongly supported by the experimental evidence.
Classical physics (Rayleigh–Jeans law,
black line) failed to explain black body For example, few, if any physicists in 1890
radiation – the so-called ultraviolet questioned the wave theory of light. Its triumphs
catastrophe. The quantum description over the old corpuscular theory seemed to be final
(Planck's law, colored lines) is said to be and complete, particularly after the brilliant
modern physics. experiments of Hertz, in 1887, which demonstrated,
beyond doubt, the fundamental soundness of
Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light. And
yet... these very experiments of Hertz brought to
light a new phenomenon—the photoelectric effect
—which played an important part in establishing
the quantum theory. The latter theory... is
diametrically opposed to the wave theory of light;
indeed, the reconciliation of these two theories...
was one of the great problems of the first quarter of
the twentieth century. ”
— F. K. Richtmyer, E. H. Kennard, T. Lauritsen, Introduction to Modern
Physics, 5th edition (1955)[1]
Hallmarks
These are generally considered to be the topics regarded as the "core" of the foundation of modern physics:
Atomic theory and the evolution of the atomic Photoelectric effect

model in general Quantum thermodynamics
Black-body radiation Radioactive phenomena in general
Franck–Hertz experiment Perihelion precession of Mercury
Geiger–Marsden experiment (Rutherford's Stern–Gerlach experiment
experiment) Wave–particle duality
Gravitational lensing Solid-state physics
Michelson–Morley experiment
See also
History of physics
Classical physics
Quantum mechanics
Theory of relativity
Quantum field theory
References
1. F. K. Richtmyer; E. H. Kennard; T. Lauristen (1955). Introduction to Modern Physics (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-
Hill. p. 1. LCCN 55006862 (https://lccn.loc.gov/55006862).
Further reading
A. Beiser (2003). Concepts of Modern Physics (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-123460-8.
P. Tipler, R. Llewellyn (2002). Modern Physics (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-4345-0.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modern_physics&oldid=784039485"
Categories: Subfields of physics

7/19/2017 List of unsolved problems in physics - Wikipedia
List of unsolved problems in physics

Some of the major unsolved problems in physics are theoretical, meaning that existing theories seem incapable
of explaining a certain observed phenomenon or experimental result. The others are experimental, meaning that
there is a difficulty in creating an experiment to test a proposed theory or investigate a phenomenon in greater
detail.
There are still some deficiencies in the Standard Model of physics, such as the origin of mass, the strong CP
problem, neutrino oscillations, matter–antimatter asymmetry, and the nature of dark matter and dark energy.[1]
Another problem lies within the mathematical framework of the Standard Model itself—the Standard Model is
inconsistent with that of general relativity, to the point that one or both theories break down under certain
conditions (for example within known spacetime singularities like the Big Bang and the centers of black holes
beyond the event horizon).
Contents
1 Unsolved problems by subfield
1.1 General physics/quantum physics
1.2 Cosmology and general relativity
1.3 Quantum gravity
1.4 High-energy physics/particle physics
1.5 Astronomy and astrophysics
1.6 Nuclear physics
1.7 Atomic, molecular and optical physics
1.8 Condensed matter physics
1.9 Plasma physics
1.10 Biophysics
2 Problems solved in recent decades
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Unsolved problems by subfield

The following is a list of unsolved problems grouped into broad area of physics.[2]
General physics/quantum physics

Arrow of time (e.g. entropy's arrow of time)
Why does time have a direction? Why did the universe have such low entropy in the past, and time
correlates with the universal (but not local) increase in entropy, from the past and to the future, according
to the second law of thermodynamics?[3] Why are CP violations observed in certain weak force decays,
but not elsewhere? Are CP violations somehow a product of the Second Law of Thermodynamics, or are
they a separate arrow of time? Are there exceptions to the principle of causality? Is there a single
possible past? Is the present moment physically distinct from the past and future, or is it merely an
emergent property of consciousness? What links the quantum arrow of time to the thermodynamic
arrow?
Interpretation of quantum mechanics
How does the quantum description of reality, which includes elements such as the superposition of states
and wavefunction collapse or quantum decoherence, give rise to the reality we perceive? Another way of
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics 1/16
stating this question regards the measurement problem: What constitutes a "measurement" which
apparently causes the wave function to collapse into a definite state? Unlike classical physical processes,
some quantum mechanical processes (such as quantum teleportation arising from quantum entanglement)
cannot be simultaneously "local", "causal", and "real", but it is not obvious which of these properties
must be sacrificed, or if an attempt to describe quantum mechanical processes in these senses is a
category error such that a proper understanding of quantum mechanics would render the question
meaningless.
Grand Unification Theory/Theory of everything
Is there a theory which explains the values of all fundamental physical constants?[3] Is there a theory
which explains why the gauge groups of the standard model are as they are, and why observed spacetime
has 3 spatial dimensions and 1 temporal dimension? Do "fundamental physical constants" vary over
time? Are any of the fundamental particles in the standard model of particle physics actually composite
particles too tightly bound to observe as such at current experimental energies? Are there fundamental
particles that have not yet been observed, and, if so, which ones are they and what are their properties?
Are there unobserved fundamental forces?
Yang–Mills theory
Given an arbitrary compact gauge group, does a non-trivial quantum Yang–Mills theory with a finite
mass gap exist? This problem is also listed as one of the Millennium Prize Problems in mathematics.
Physical information
Are there physical phenomena, such as wave function collapse or black holes, which irrevocably destroy
information about their prior states? How is quantum information stored as a state of a quantum system?
Dimensionless physical constant
At the present time, the values of the dimensionless physical constants cannot be calculated; they are
determined only by physical measurement.[4][5] What is the minimum number of dimensionless physical
constants from which all other dimensionless physical constants can be derived? Are dimensional
physical constants necessary at all?
Fine-tuned Universe
The values of the fundamental physical constants are in a narrow range necessary to support carbon-
based life.[6][7][8] Is this because there exist other universes with different constants, or are our universe’s
constants the result of chance, or some other factor or process?
Cosmology and general relativity

Problem of time
How can time be reconciled with general relativity?
Cosmic inflation
Is the theory of cosmic inflation correct, and, if so, what are the details of this epoch? What is the
hypothetical inflaton field giving rise to inflation? If inflation happened at one point, is it self-sustaining
through inflation of quantum-mechanical fluctuations, and thus ongoing in some extremely distant
place?[9]
Horizon problem
Why is the distant universe so homogeneous when the Big Bang theory seems to predict larger
measurable anisotropies of the night sky than those observed? Cosmological inflation is generally
accepted as the solution, but are other possible explanations such as a variable speed of light more
appropriate?[10]
Origin and future of the universe
How did the conditions for anything to exist arise? Is the universe heading towards a Big Freeze, a Big
Rip, a Big Crunch, or a Big Bounce? Or is it part of an infinitely recurring cyclic model?
Size of universe
The diameter of the observable universe is about 93 billion light-years, but what is the size of the whole
universe? Does a multiverse exist?
Baryon asymmetry
Why is there far more matter than antimatter in the observable universe?
Cosmological constant problem
Why does the zero-point energy of the vacuum not cause a large cosmological constant? What cancels it
out?[11]
Dark matter/Galaxy rotation curve

What is the identity of dark matter?[10] Is it a particle? Is it
the lightest superpartner (LSP)? [Or] Do the phenomena
attributed to dark matter point not to some form of matter but
actually to an extension of gravity?
Dark energy
What is the cause of the observed accelerated expansion (de
Sitter phase) of the universe? Why is the energy density of
the dark energy component of the same magnitude as the
density of matter at present when the two evolve quite
differently over time; could it be simply that we are
observing at exactly the right time? Is dark energy a pure
cosmological constant or are models of quintessence such as
phantom energy applicable?
Dark flow
Is a non-spherically symmetric gravitational pull from Estimated distribution of dark matter and
outside the observable universe responsible for some of the dark energy in the universe
observed motion of large objects such as galactic clusters in
the universe?
Axis of evil (cosmology)
Some large features of the microwave sky at distances of over 13 billion light years appear to be aligned
with both the motion and orientation of the solar system. Is this due to systematic errors in processing,
contamination of results by local effects, or an unexplained violation of the Copernican principle?
Shape of the universe
What is the 3-manifold of comoving space, i.e. of a comoving spatial section of the universe, informally
called the "shape" of the universe? Neither the curvature nor the topology is presently known, though the
curvature is known to be "close" to zero on observable scales. The cosmic inflation hypothesis suggests
that the shape of the universe may be unmeasurable, but, since 2003, Jean-Pierre Luminet, et al., and
other groups have suggested that the shape of the universe may be the Poincaré dodecahedral space. Is
the shape unmeasurable; the Poincaré space; or another 3-manifold?
Quantum gravity
Vacuum catastrophe
Why does the predicted mass of the quantum vacuum have little effect on the expansion of the universe?
Quantum gravity
Can quantum mechanics and general relativity be realized as a fully consistent theory (perhaps as a
quantum field theory)?[12] Is spacetime fundamentally continuous or discrete? Would a consistent theory
involve a force mediated by a hypothetical graviton, or be a product of a discrete structure of spacetime
itself (as in loop quantum gravity)? Are there deviations from the predictions of general relativity at very
small or very large scales or in other extreme circumstances that flow from a quantum gravity theory?
Black holes, black hole information paradox, and black hole radiation
Do black holes produce thermal radiation, as expected on theoretical grounds? Does this radiation
contain information about their inner structure, as suggested by gauge–gravity duality, or not, as implied
by Hawking's original calculation? If not, and black holes can evaporate away, what happens to the
information stored in them (since quantum mechanics does not provide for the destruction of
information)? Or does the radiation stop at some point leaving black hole remnants? Is there another way
to probe their internal structure somehow, if such a structure even exists?
Extra dimensions
Does nature have more than four spacetime dimensions? If so, what is their size? Are dimensions a
fundamental property of the universe or an emergent result of other physical laws? Can we
experimentally observe evidence of higher spatial dimensions?
The cosmic censorship hypothesis and the chronology protection conjecture
Can singularities not hidden behind an event horizon, known as "naked singularities", arise from realistic
initial conditions, or is it possible to prove some version of the "cosmic censorship hypothesis" of Roger
Penrose which proposes that this is impossible?[13] Similarly, will the closed timelike curves which arise
in some solutions to the equations of general relativity (and which imply the possibility of backwards
time travel) be ruled out by a theory of quantum gravity which unites general relativity with quantum
mechanics, as suggested by the "chronology protection conjecture" of Stephen Hawking?
Locality
Are there non-local phenomena in quantum physics? If they exist, are non-local phenomena limited to
the entanglement revealed in the violations of the Bell inequalities, or can information and conserved
quantities also move in a non-local way? Under what circumstances are non-local phenomena observed?
What does the existence or absence of non-local phenomena imply about the fundamental structure of
spacetime? How does this relate to quantum entanglement? How does this elucidate the proper
interpretation of the fundamental nature of quantum physics?
High-energy physics/particle physics

Higgs mechanism
Are the branching ratios of the Higgs boson decays consistent with the standard model? Is there only one
type of Higgs boson?
Hierarchy problem
Why is gravity such a weak force? It becomes strong for particles only at the Planck scale, around 1019
GeV, much above the electroweak scale (100 GeV, the energy scale dominating physics at low energies).
Why are these scales so different from each other? What prevents quantities at the electroweak scale,
such as the Higgs boson mass, from getting quantum corrections on the order of the Planck scale? Is the
solution supersymmetry, extra dimensions, or just anthropic fine-tuning?
Planck particle
The Planck mass plays an important role in parts of mathematical physics. A series of researchers have
suggested the existence of a fundamental particle with mass equal to or close to that of the Planck mass.
The Planck mass is however enormous compared to any detected particle even compared to the Higgs
particle. While working at the Rutherford Laboratory, Lloyd Motz suggested that such a particle with
Planck mass likely had existed but that most of its mass had radiated away. Others have suggested
particles with close to the Planck mass are micro black holes. It is still an unsolved problem if there exist
or even have existed a particle with close to the Planck mass. This is indirectly related to the hierarchy
problem.
Magnetic monopoles
Did particles that carry "magnetic charge" exist in some past, higher-energy epoch? If so, do any remain
today? (Paul Dirac showed the existence of some types of magnetic monopoles would explain charge
quantization.)[14]
Proton decay and spin crisis
Is the proton fundamentally stable? Or does it decay with a finite lifetime as predicted by some
extensions to the standard model?[15] How do the quarks and gluons carry the spin of protons?[16]
Supersymmetry
Is spacetime supersymmetry realized at TeV scale? If so, what is the mechanism of supersymmetry
breaking? Does supersymmetry stabilize the electroweak scale, preventing high quantum corrections?
Does the lightest supersymmetric particle (LSP or Lightest Supersymmetric Particle) comprise dark
matter?
Generations of matter
Why are there three generations of quarks and leptons? Is there a theory that can explain the masses of
particular quarks and leptons in particular generations from first principles (a theory of Yukawa
couplings)?[17]
Neutrino mass
What is the mass of neutrinos, whether they follow Dirac or Majorana statistics? Is mass hierarchy
normal or inverted? Is the CP violating phase 0?[18][19][20]
Colour confinement
Why has there never been measured a free quark or gluon, but only objects that are built out of them,
such as mesons and baryons? How does this phenomenon emerge from QCD?
Strong CP problem and axions
Why is the strong nuclear interaction invariant to parity and charge conjugation? Is Peccei–Quinn theory
the solution to this problem? Could axions be the main component of dark matter?
Anomalous magnetic dipole moment
Why is the experimentally measured value of the muon's anomalous magnetic dipole moment ("muon
g−2") significantly different from the theoretically predicted value of that physical constant?[21]
Proton radius puzzle
What is the electric charge radius of the proton? How does it differ from gluonic charge?
Pentaquarks and other exotic hadrons
What combinations of quarks are possible? Why were pentaquarks so difficult to discover?[22] Are they a
tightly-bound system of five elementary particles, or a more weakly-bound pairing of a baryon and a
meson?[23]
Astronomy and astrophysics

Astrophysical jet
Why do the accretion discs surrounding certain
astronomical objects, such as the nuclei of active galaxies,
emit relativistic jets along their polar axes?[24] Why are
there quasi-periodic oscillations in many accretion
discs?[25] Why does the period of these oscillations scale
as the inverse of the mass of the central object?[26] Why
are there sometimes overtones, and why do these appear
at different frequency ratios in different objects?[27]
Solar cycle
How does the Sun generate its periodically reversing
large-scale magnetic field? How do other solar-like stars
generate their magnetic fields, and what are the
similarities and differences between stellar activity cycles
Relativistic jet. The environment around the
and that of the Sun?[28] What caused the Maunder AGN where the relativistic plasma is
Minimum and other grand minima, and how does the
collimated into jets which escape along the
solar cycle recover from a minima state?
pole of the supermassive black hole
Coronal heating problem
Why is the Sun's corona (atmosphere layer) so much
hotter than the Sun's surface? Why is the magnetic reconnection effect many orders of magnitude faster
than predicted by standard models?
Diffuse interstellar bands
What is responsible for the numerous interstellar absorption lines detected in astronomical spectra? Are
they molecular in origin, and if so which molecules are responsible for them? How do they form?
Supermassive black holes
What is the origin of the M-sigma relation between supermassive black hole mass and galaxy velocity
dispersion?[29] How did the most distant quasars grow their supermassive black holes up to 1010 solar
masses so early in the history of the universe?
Kuiper cliff
Why does the number of objects in the Solar System's Kuiper
belt fall off rapidly and unexpectedly beyond a radius of 50
astronomical units?
Flyby anomaly
Why is the observed energy of satellites flying by Earth
sometimes different by a minute amount from the value
predicted by theory?
Galaxy rotation problem
Is dark matter responsible for differences in observed and Rotation curve of a typical spiral galaxy:
theoretical speed of stars revolving around the centre of
predicted (A) and observed (B). Can the
galaxies, or is it something else?
discrepancy between the curves be
Supernovae
attributed to dark matter?
What is the exact mechanism by which an implosion of a
dying star becomes an explosion?
p-nuclei
What astrophysical process is responsible for the nucleogenesis of these rare isotopes?
Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray
[10] Why is it that some cosmic rays appear to possess energies that are impossibly high, given that there
are no sufficiently energetic cosmic ray sources near the Earth? Why is it that (apparently) some cosmic
rays emitted by distant sources have energies above the Greisen–Zatsepin–Kuzmin limit?[3][10]
Rotation rate of Saturn
Why does the magnetosphere of Saturn exhibit a (slowly changing) periodicity close to that at which the
planet's clouds rotate? What is the true rotation rate of Saturn's deep interior?[30]
Origin of magnetar magnetic field
What is the origin of magnetar magnetic field?
Large-scale anisotropy
Is the universe at very large scales anisotropic, making the cosmological principle an invalid assumption?
The number count and intensity dipole anisotropy in radio, NRAO VLA Sky Survey (NVSS)
catalogue[31] is inconsistent with the local motion as derived from cosmic microwave background[32][33]
and indicate an intrinsic dipole anisotropy. The same NVSS radio data also shows an intrinsic dipole in
polarization density and degree of polarization[34] in the same direction as in number count and intensity.
There are other several observation revealing large-scale anisotropy. The optical polarization from
quasars shows polarization alignment over a very large scale of Gpc.[35][36][37] The cosmic-microwave-
background data shows several features of anisotropy,[38][39][40][41] which are not consistent with the Big
Bang model.
Space roar
Why is space roar six times louder than expected? What is the source of space roar?
Age–metallicity relation in the Galactic disk
Is there a universal age–metallicity relation (AMR) in the Galactic disk (both "thin" and "thick" parts of
the disk)? Although in the local (primarily thin) disk of the Milky Way there is no evidence of a strong
AMR,[42] a sample of 229 nearby "thick" disk stars has been used to investigate the existence of an age–
metallicity relation in the Galactic thick disk, and indicate that there is an age–metallicity relation present
in the thick disk.[43][44] Stellar ages from asteroseismology confirm the lack of any strong age-metallicity
relation in the Galactic disc.[45]
The lithium problem
Why is there a discrepancy between the amount of lithium-7 predicted to be produced in Big Bang
nucleosynthesis and the amount observed in very old stars?[46]
Solar wind interaction with comets
In 2007 the Ulysses spacecraft passed through the tail of comet C/2006 P1 (McNaught) and found
surprising results concerning the interaction of the solar wind with the tail.
Ultraluminous pulsar
The ultraluminous X-ray source M82 X-2 was thought to be a black hole, but in October 2014 data from
NASA's space-based X-ray telescope NuStar indicated that M82 X-2 is a pulsar many times brighter than
the Eddington limit.
The injection problem
Fermi acceleration is thought to be the primary mechanism that accelerates astrophysical particles to high
energy. However, it is unclear what mechanism causes those particles to initially have energies high
enough for Fermi acceleration to work on them.[47]
Fast radio bursts
Transient radio pulses lasting only a few milliseconds, from emission regions thought to be no larger than
a few hundred kilometres, and estimated to occur several hundred times a day. While several theories
have been proposed, there is no generally accepted explanation for them. They may come from
cosmological distances, but there is no consensus on this, either.
Nature of KIC 8462852
What is the origin of unusual luminosity changes of this star?
Fermi paradox
Do extraterrestrial civilizations exist? If so, why do we not see them?
Nature of Wow! signal
Was that a real signal and, if so, what is the origin of it?[48]
Planetary systems
How does accretion form planetary systems?[49] Where did Earth's water come from?[49]
Nuclear physics
Quantum chromodynamics
What are the phases of strongly interacting matter, and what
roles do they play in the evolution of cosmos? What is the
detailed partonic structure of the nucleons? What does QCD
predict for the properties of strongly interacting matter? What
determines the key features of QCD, and what is their relation
to the nature of gravity and spacetime? Do glueballs exist? Do
gluons acquire mass dynamically despite having a zero rest The "island of stability" in the proton
mass, within hadrons? Does QCD truly lack CP-violations? Do vs. neutron number plot for heavy
gluons saturate when their occupation number is large? Do nuclei
gluons form a dense system called Colour Glass Condensate?
What are the signatures and evidences for the Balitsky-Fadin-
Kuarev-Lipatov, Balitsky-Kovchegov, Catani-Ciafaloni-Fiorani-Marchesini evolution equations?
Nuclei and nuclear astrophysics
What is the nature of the nuclear force that binds protons and neutrons into stable nuclei and rare
isotopes? What is the nature of exotic excitations in nuclei at the frontiers of stability and their role in
stellar processes? What is the nature of neutron stars and dense nuclear matter? What is the origin of the
elements in the cosmos? What are the nuclear reactions that drive stars and stellar explosions?
Atomic, molecular and optical physics
Abraham–Minkowski controversy
What is the momentum of light in optical media?
Bose–Einstein condensation
How do we rigorously prove the existence of Bose–Einstein condensates for general interacting
systems?[50]
Condensed matter physics

High-temperature superconductors
What is the mechanism that causes certain materials to exhibit
superconductivity at temperatures much higher than around 25 kelvin? Is it
possible to make a material that is a superconductor at room temperature?[3]
Amorphous solids
What is the nature of the glass transition between a fluid or regular solid and
a glassy phase? What are the physical processes giving rise to the general
properties of glasses and the glass transition?[51][52]
Cryogenic electron emission A sample of a cuprate
Why does the electron emission in the absence of light increase as the superconductor
temperature of a photomultiplier is decreased?[53][54] (specifically BSCCO).
Sonoluminescence The mechanism for
What causes the emission of short bursts of light from imploding bubbles in superconductivity of
a liquid when excited by sound?[55][56] these materials is
Turbulence unknown.
Is it possible to make a theoretical model to describe the statistics of a
turbulent flow (in particular, its internal structures)?[3] Also, under what
conditions do smooth solutions to the Navier–Stokes equations exist? This problem is also listed as one
of the Millennium Prize Problems in mathematics.
Alfvénic turbulence
In the solar wind and the turbulence in solar flares, coronal mass ejections, and magnetospheric
substorms are major unsolved problems in space plasma physics.[57]
Topological order
Is topological order stable at non-zero temperature? Equivalently, is it possible to have three-dimensional
self-correcting quantum memory?[58]
Fractional Hall effect
What mechanism explains the existence of the state in the fractional quantum Hall effect? Does
it describe quasiparticles with non-Abelian fractional statistics?
Liquid crystals
Can the nematic to smectic (A) phase transition in
liquid crystal states be characterized as a universal
phase transition?[59][60]
Semiconductor nanocrystals
What is the cause of the nonparabolicity of the
energy-size dependence for the lowest optical
absorption transition of quantum dots?[61]
Plasma physics
Plasma physics and fusion power
Fusion energy may potentially provide power from Magnetoresistance in a fractional quantum
abundant resource (e.g. hydrogen) without the type Hall state.
of radioactive waste that fission energy currently
produces. However, can ionized gases (plasma) be
confined long enough and at a high enough temperature to create fusion power? What is the physical
origin of H-mode?[62]
Biophysics
Stochasticity and robustness to noise in gene expression

How do genes govern our body, withstanding different external pressures and internal stochasticity?
Certain models exist for genetic processes, but we are far from understanding the whole picture, in
particular in development where gene expression must be tightly regulated.
Quantitative study of the immune system
What are the quantitative properties of immune responses? What are the basic building blocks of immune
system networks?
Unified brain processing theory
How to unify physics and neuroscience?[63]
Homochirality
What is the origin of the preponderance of specific enantiomers in biochemical systems?
Problems solved in recent decades

Existence of time crystals (2012–2016)
In 2016, the idea of time-crystals was proposed by two groups independently Khemani et.al. [64] and Else
et.al.[65] Both of these groups showed that in small systems which are disordered and periodic in time,
one can observe the phenomenon of time crystals. Norman Yao et.al. extended the calculations for a
model (which has the same qualitative features) in the laboratory environment. This was then used by
two teams, a group led by Christopher Monroe at the University of Maryland and a group led by Mikhail
Lukin at Harvard university, who were both able to show evidence for a time crystals in the lab-setting,
showing that for short times the systems exhibited the dynamics similar to the predicted one. However, at
longer times, the dynamics deviated from an ideal time-crystalline behavior. These short time dynamics
were taken as the time-crystalline phenomena and the resulting experiments have been published in
Nature.[66][67] However, a demonstration of such a phenomenon and its survival in the limit of many-
particles as well as for longer times remains an open question, in both theory and experiment.[68]
Existence of gravitational waves (1916–2016)
On 11 February 2016, the Advanced LIGO team announced that they had directly detected gravitational
waves from a pair of black holes merging,[69][70][71] which was also the first detection of a stellar binary
black hole.
Perform a loophole-free Bell test experiment (1970[72]–2015)
In October 2015, scientists from the Kavli Institute of Nanoscience reported that the quantum nonlocality
phenomenon is supported at the 96% confidence level based on a "loophole-free Bell test" study.[73][74]
These results were confirmed by two studies with statistical significance over 5 standard deviations
which were published in December 2015.[75][76]
Existence of pentaquarks (1964–2015)
0
In July 2015, the LHCb collaboration at CERN identified pentaquarks in the Λb→J/ψK−p channel, which
0 −
represents the decay of the bottom lambda baryon (Λb) into a J/ψ meson (J/ψ), a kaon (K ) and a proton
0
(p). The results showed that sometimes, instead of decaying directly into mesons and baryons, the Λb
+ +
decayed via intermediate pentaquark states. The two states, named Pc (4380) and Pc (4450), had
individual statistical significances of 9 σ and 12 σ, respectively, and a combined significance of 15 σ —
enough to claim a formal discovery. The two pentaquark states were both observed decaying strongly to
J/ψp, hence must have a valence quark content of two up quarks, a down quark, a charm quark, and an
anti-charm quark (uudcc), making them charmonium-pentaquarks.[77]
Photon underproduction crisis (2014–2015)
This problem was resolved by Khaire and Srianand.[78] They show that a factor 2 to 5 times large
metagalactic photoionization rate can be easily obtained using updated quasar and galaxy observations.
Recent observations of quasars indicate that the quasar contribution to ultraviolet photons is a factor of 2
larger than previous estimates. The revised galaxy contribution is a factor of 3 larger. These together
solve the crisis.
Existence of ball lightning (1638[79]–2014)
In January 2014, scientists from Northwest Normal University in Lanzhou, China, published the results
of recordings made in July 2012 of the optical spectrum of what was thought to be natural ball lightning
made during the study of ordinary cloud–ground lightning on China's Qinghai Plateau.[80][81] At a
distance of 900 m (3,000 ft), a total of 1.3 seconds of digital video of the ball lightning and its spectrum
was made, from the formation of the ball lightning after the ordinary lightning struck the ground, up to
the optical decay of the phenomenon. The recorded ball lightning is believed to be vaporized soil
elements that then rapidly oxidize in the atmosphere. The nature of the true theory is still not clear.[81]
Higgs boson and electroweak symmetry breaking (1963[82]–2012)
The mechanism responsible for breaking the electroweak gauge symmetry, giving mass to the W and Z
bosons, was solved with the discovery of the Higgs boson of the Standard Model, with the expected
couplings to the weak bosons. No evidence of a strong dynamics solution, as proposed by technicolor,
has been observed.
Hipparcos anomaly (1997[83]–2012)
The High Precision Parallax Collecting Satellite (Hipparcos) measured the parallax of the Pleiades and
determined a distance of 385 light years. This was significantly different from other measurements made
by means of actual to apparent brightness measurement or absolute magnitude. The anomaly was due to
the use of a weighted mean when there is a correlation between distances and distance errors for stars in
clusters. It is resolved by using an unweighted mean. There is no systematic bias in the Hipparcos data
when it comes to star clusters.[84]
Faster-than-light neutrino anomaly (2011–2012)
In 2011, the OPERA experiment mistakenly observed neutrinos appearing to travel faster than light. On
July 12, 2012 OPERA updated their paper by including the new sources of errors in their calculations.
They found agreement of neutrino speed with the speed of light.[85]
Pioneer anomaly (1980–2012)
There was a deviation in the predicted accelerations of the Pioneer spacecraft as they left the Solar
System.[3][10] It is believed that this is a result of previously unaccounted-for thermal recoil force.[86][87]
Numerical solution for binary black hole (1960s–2005)
The numerical solution of the two body problem in general relativity was achieved after four decades of
research. In 2005 (annus mirabilis of numerical relativity) when three groups devised the breakthrough
techniques.[88]
Long-duration gamma ray bursts (1993[89]–2003)
Long-duration bursts are associated with the deaths of massive stars in a specific kind of supernova-like
event commonly referred to as a collapsar. However, there are also long-duration GRBs that show
evidence against an associated supernova, such as the Swift event GRB 060614.
Solar neutrino problem (1968[90]–2001)
Solved by a new understanding of neutrino physics, requiring a modification of the Standard Model of
particle physics—specifically, neutrino oscillation.
Create Bose–Einstein condensate (1924[91]-1995)
Composite bosons in the form of dilute atomic vapours were cooled to quantum degeneracy using the
techniques of laser cooling and evaporative cooling.
Cosmic age problem (1920s-1990s)
The estimated age of the universe was around 3 to 8 billion years younger than estimates of the ages of
the oldest stars in the Milky Way. Better estimates for the distances to the stars, and the recognition of the
accelerating expansion of the universe, reconciled the age estimates.
Nature of quasars (1950s-1980s)
The nature of quasars was not understood for decades.[92] They are now accepted as a type of active
galaxy where the enormous energy output results from matter falling into a massive black hole in the
centre of the galaxy.[93]
See also
Cosmic coincidence problem
Universal Rotation Curve
Lists of unsolved problems
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Chlorine Detector". The Astrophysical Journal. 496: 505–526. Bibcode:1998ApJ...496..505C (http://adsabs.harvard.e
du/abs/1998ApJ...496..505C). doi:10.1086/305343 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F305343).
91. "Einstein papers at the Instituut-Lorentz" (http://www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/Einstein_archive/).
92. "The MKI and the discovery of Quasars" (http://www.jb.man.ac.uk/public/story/mk1quasars.html). Jodrell Bank
Observatory. Retrieved 2006-11-23.
93. Hubble Surveys the "Homes" of Quasars (http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/1996/35/image/a/)
Hubblesite News Archive, 1996-35
External links
What don't we know? (http://www.sciencemag.org/sciext/125th/) Science journal special project for its
125th anniversary: top 25 questions and 100 more.
List of links to unsolved problems in physics, prizes and research. (http://www.openproblems.net/)
Ideas Based On What We’d Like to Achieve (http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/technology/warp/ideach
ev.html)
2004 SLAC Summer Institute: Nature's Greatest Puzzles (http://www-conf.slac.stanford.edu/ssi/2004/De
fault.htm)
Dual Personality of Glass Explained at Last (http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14179-dual-personal
ity-of-glass-explained-at-last.html#.UuLoQWTTkQM)
What we do and don't know (http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2013/nov/07/physics-what-we-d

o-and-dont-know/) Review on current state of physics by Steven Weinberg, November 2013
The crisis of big science (http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2012/may/10/crisis-big-science/)
Steven Weinberg, May 2012
The 10 Biggest Unsolved Problems in Physics (http://www.publicscienceframework.org/journal/paperInf
o/ijmpa?paperId=283) Johan Hansson, March 2015

title=List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics&oldid=790694476"
Categories: Unsolved problems in physics Lists of unsolved problems Physics-related lists

7/19/2017 Quantum mechanics - Wikipedia
Quantum mechanics
Quantum mechanics (QM; also known as quantum physics

or quantum theory), including quantum field theory, is a
branch of physics which is the fundamental theory of nature
at small scales and low energy levels of atoms and subatomic
particles.[1] Classical physics, the physics existing before
quantum mechanics, derives from quantum mechanics as an
approximation valid only at large (macroscopic[2]) scales.
Quantum mechanics differs from classical physics in that
energy, momentum and other quantities are often restricted to
discrete values (quantization), objects have characteristics of
both particles and waves (wave-particle duality), and there
are limits to the precision with which quantities can be known
(uncertainty principle).
Quantum mechanics gradually arose from Max Planck's Wavefunctions of the electron in a hydrogen
solution in 1900 to the black-body radiation problem atom at different energy levels. Quantum
(reported 1859) and Albert Einstein's 1905 paper which mechanics cannot predict the exact location of a
offered a quantum-based theory to explain the photoelectric particle in space, only the probability of finding it
effect (reported 1887). Early quantum theory was profoundly at different locations. The brighter areas represent
reconceived in the mid-1920s. a higher probability of finding the electron.
The reconceived theory is formulated in various specially
developed mathematical formalisms. In one of them, a mathematical function, the wave function, provides
information about the probability amplitude of position, momentum, and other physical properties of a particle.
Important applications of quantum theory[3] include quantum chemistry, superconducting magnets, light-
emitting diodes, and the laser, the transistor and semiconductors such as the microprocessor, medical and
research imaging such as magnetic resonance imaging and electron microscopy, and explanations for many
biological and physical phenomena for energy.
Contents
1 History
2 Mathematical formulations
3 Mathematically equivalent formulations of quantum mechanics
4 Interactions with other scientific theories
4.1 Quantum mechanics and classical physics
4.2 Copenhagen interpretation of quantum versus classical kinematics
4.3 General relativity and quantum mechanics
4.4 Attempts at a unified field theory
5 Philosophical implications
6 Applications
6.1 Electronics
6.2 Cryptography
6.3 Quantum computing
6.4 Macroscale quantum effects
6.5 Quantum theory
7 Examples
7.1 Free particle
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics 1/23
7.2 Step potential

7.3 Rectangular potential barrier
7.4 Particle in a box
7.5 Finite potential well
7.6 Harmonic oscillator
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
History
Scientific inquiry into the wave nature of light began in the 17th and 18th centuries, when scientists such as
Robert Hooke, Christiaan Huygens and Leonhard Euler proposed a wave theory of light based on experimental
observations.[4] In 1803, Thomas Young, an English polymath, performed the famous double-slit experiment
that he later described in a paper titled On the nature of light and colours. This experiment played a major role
in the general acceptance of the wave theory of light.
In 1838, Michael Faraday discovered cathode rays. These studies were followed by the 1859 statement of the
black-body radiation problem by Gustav Kirchhoff, the 1877 suggestion by Ludwig Boltzmann that the energy
states of a physical system can be discrete, and the 1900 quantum hypothesis of Max Planck.[5] Planck's
hypothesis that energy is radiated and absorbed in discrete "quanta" (or energy packets) precisely matched the
observed patterns of black-body radiation.
In 1896, Wilhelm Wien empirically determined a distribution law of black-body radiation,[6] known as Wien's
law in his honor. Ludwig Boltzmann independently arrived at this result by considerations of Maxwell's
equations. However, it was valid only at high frequencies and underestimated the radiance at low frequencies.
Later, Planck corrected this model using Boltzmann's statistical interpretation of thermodynamics and proposed
what is now called Planck's law, which led to the development of quantum mechanics.
Following Max Planck's solution in 1900 to the black-body radiation problem (reported 1859), Albert Einstein
offered a quantum-based theory to explain the photoelectric effect (1905, reported 1887). Around 1900-1910,
the atomic theory and the corpuscular theory of light[7] first came to be widely accepted as scientific fact; these
latter theories can be viewed as quantum theories of matter and electromagnetic radiation, respectively.
Among the first to study quantum phenomena in nature were Arthur Compton, C. V. Raman, and Pieter
Zeeman, each of whom has a quantum effect named after him. Robert Andrews Millikan studied the
photoelectric effect experimentally, and Albert Einstein developed a theory for it. At the same time, Ernest
Rutherford experimentally discovered the nuclear model of the atom, for which Niels Bohr developed his
theory of the atomic structure, which was later confirmed by the experiments of Henry Moseley. In 1913, Peter
Debye extended Niels Bohr's theory of atomic structure, introducing elliptical orbits, a concept also introduced
by Arnold Sommerfeld.[8] This phase is known as old quantum theory.
According to Planck, each energy element (E) is proportional to its frequency (ν):
where h is Planck's constant.
Planck cautiously insisted that this was simply an aspect of the processes of absorption and emission of
radiation and had nothing to do with the physical reality of the radiation itself.[9] In fact, he considered his
quantum hypothesis a mathematical trick to get the right answer rather than a sizable discovery.[10] However, in
1905 Albert Einstein interpreted Planck's quantum hypothesis realistically and

used it to explain the photoelectric effect, in which shining light on certain
materials can eject electrons from the material. He won the 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics for this work.
Einstein further developed this idea to show that an electromagnetic wave such
as light could also be described as a particle (later called the photon), with a
discrete quantum of energy that was dependent on its frequency.[11]
The foundations of quantum

mechanics were established during
the first half of the 20th century by
Max Planck, Niels Bohr, Werner
Heisenberg, Louis de Broglie,
Max Planck is considered
Arthur Compton, Albert Einstein,
the father of the quantum
Erwin Schrödinger, Max Born,
theory.
John von Neumann, Paul Dirac,
Enrico Fermi, Wolfgang Pauli, Max
von Laue, Freeman Dyson, David Hilbert, Wilhelm Wien,
Satyendra Nath Bose, Arnold Sommerfeld, and others. The
The 1927 Solvay Conference in Brussels.
Copenhagen interpretation of Niels Bohr became widely accepted.
In the mid-1920s, developments in quantum mechanics led to its becoming the standard formulation for atomic
physics. In the summer of 1925, Bohr and Heisenberg published results that closed the old quantum theory. Out
of deference to their particle-like behavior in certain processes and measurements, light quanta came to be
called photons (1926). From Einstein's simple postulation was born a flurry of debating, theorizing, and testing.
Thus, the entire field of quantum physics emerged, leading to its wider acceptance at the Fifth Solvay
Conference in 1927.
It was found that subatomic particles and electromagnetic waves are neither simply particle nor wave but have
certain properties of each. This originated the concept of wave–particle duality.
By 1930, quantum mechanics had been further unified and formalized by the work of David Hilbert, Paul Dirac
and John von Neumann[12] with greater emphasis on measurement, the statistical nature of our knowledge of
reality, and philosophical speculation about the 'observer'. It has since permeated many disciplines including
quantum chemistry, quantum electronics, quantum optics, and quantum information science. Its speculative
modern developments include string theory and quantum gravity theories. It also provides a useful framework
for many features of the modern periodic table of elements, and describes the behaviors of atoms during
chemical bonding and the flow of electrons in computer semiconductors, and therefore plays a crucial role in
many modern technologies.
While quantum mechanics was constructed to describe the world of the very small, it is also needed to explain
some macroscopic phenomena such as superconductors,[13] and superfluids.[14]
The word quantum derives from the Latin, meaning "how great" or "how much".[15] In quantum mechanics, it
refers to a discrete unit assigned to certain physical quantities such as the energy of an atom at rest (see Figure
1). The discovery that particles are discrete packets of energy with wave-like properties led to the branch of
physics dealing with atomic and subatomic systems which is today called quantum mechanics. It underlies the
mathematical framework of many fields of physics and chemistry, including condensed matter physics, solid-
state physics, atomic physics, molecular physics, computational physics, computational chemistry, quantum
chemistry, particle physics, nuclear chemistry, and nuclear physics.[16] Some fundamental aspects of the theory
are still actively studied.[17]
Quantum mechanics is essential to understanding the behavior of systems at atomic length scales and smaller. If
the physical nature of an atom were solely described by classical mechanics, electrons would not orbit the
nucleus, since orbiting electrons emit radiation (due to circular motion) and would eventually collide with the
nucleus due to this loss of energy. This framework was unable to explain the stability of atoms. Instead,
electrons remain in an uncertain, non-deterministic, smeared, probabilistic wave–particle orbital about the
nucleus, defying the traditional assumptions of classical mechanics and electromagnetism.[18]
Quantum mechanics was initially developed to provide a better explanation and description of the atom,
especially the differences in the spectra of light emitted by different isotopes of the same chemical element, as
well as subatomic particles. In short, the quantum-mechanical atomic model has succeeded spectacularly in the
realm where classical mechanics and electromagnetism falter.
Broadly speaking, quantum mechanics incorporates four classes of phenomena for which classical physics
cannot account:
quantization of certain physical properties

quantum entanglement
principle of uncertainty
wave–particle duality
Mathematical formulations
In the mathematically rigorous formulation of quantum mechanics developed by Paul Dirac,[19] David
Hilbert,[20] John von Neumann,[21] and Hermann Weyl,[22] the possible states of a quantum mechanical system
are symbolized[23] as unit vectors (called state vectors). Formally, these reside in a complex separable Hilbert
space—variously called the state space or the associated Hilbert space of the system—that is well defined up
to a complex number of norm 1 (the phase factor). In other words, the possible states are points in the
projective space of a Hilbert space, usually called the complex projective space. The exact nature of this Hilbert
space is dependent on the system—for example, the state space for position and momentum states is the space
of square-integrable functions, while the state space for the spin of a single proton is just the product of two
complex planes. Each observable is represented by a maximally Hermitian (precisely: by a self-adjoint) linear
operator acting on the state space. Each eigenstate of an observable corresponds to an eigenvector of the
operator, and the associated eigenvalue corresponds to the value of the observable in that eigenstate. If the
operator's spectrum is discrete, the observable can attain only those discrete eigenvalues.
In the formalism of quantum mechanics, the state of a system at a given time is described by a complex wave
function, also referred to as state vector in a complex vector space.[24] This abstract mathematical object allows
for the calculation of probabilities of outcomes of concrete experiments. For example, it allows one to compute
the probability of finding an electron in a particular region around the nucleus at a particular time. Contrary to
classical mechanics, one can never make simultaneous predictions of conjugate variables, such as position and
momentum, to arbitrary precision. For instance, electrons may be considered (to a certain probability) to be
located somewhere within a given region of space, but with their exact positions unknown. Contours of
constant probability, often referred to as "clouds", may be drawn around the nucleus of an atom to
conceptualize where the electron might be located with the most probability. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle
quantifies the inability to precisely locate the particle given its conjugate momentum.[25]
According to one interpretation, as the result of a measurement the wave function containing the probability
information for a system collapses from a given initial state to a particular eigenstate. The possible results of a
measurement are the eigenvalues of the operator representing the observable—which explains the choice of
Hermitian operators, for which all the eigenvalues are real. The probability distribution of an observable in a
given state can be found by computing the spectral decomposition of the corresponding operator. Heisenberg's
uncertainty principle is represented by the statement that the operators corresponding to certain observables do
not commute.
The probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics thus stems from the act of measurement. This is one of the most
difficult aspects of quantum systems to understand. It was the central topic in the famous Bohr–Einstein
debates, in which the two scientists attempted to clarify these fundamental principles by way of thought
experiments. In the decades after the formulation of quantum mechanics, the question of what constitutes a
"measurement" has been extensively studied. Newer interpretations of quantum mechanics have been
formulated that do away with the concept of "wave function collapse" (see, for example, the relative state
interpretation). The basic idea is that when a quantum system interacts with a measuring apparatus, their
respective wave functions become entangled, so that the original quantum system ceases to exist as an
independent entity. For details, see the article on measurement in quantum mechanics.[26]
Generally, quantum mechanics does not assign definite values. Instead, it makes a prediction using a probability
distribution; that is, it describes the probability of obtaining the possible outcomes from measuring an
observable. Often these results are skewed by many causes, such as dense probability clouds. Probability
clouds are approximate (but better than the Bohr model) whereby electron location is given by a probability
function, the wave function eigenvalue, such that the probability is the squared modulus of the complex
amplitude, or quantum state nuclear attraction.[27][28] Naturally, these probabilities will depend on the quantum
state at the "instant" of the measurement. Hence, uncertainty is involved in the value. There are, however,
certain states that are associated with a definite value of a particular observable. These are known as eigenstates
of the observable ("eigen" can be translated from German as meaning "inherent" or "characteristic").[29]
In the everyday world, it is natural and intuitive to think of everything (every observable) as being in an
eigenstate. Everything appears to have a definite position, a definite momentum, a definite energy, and a
definite time of occurrence. However, quantum mechanics does not pinpoint the exact values of a particle's
position and momentum (since they are conjugate pairs) or its energy and time (since they too are conjugate
pairs); rather, it provides only a range of probabilities in which that particle might be given its momentum and
momentum probability. Therefore, it is helpful to use different words to describe states having uncertain values
and states having definite values (eigenstates). Usually, a system will not be in an eigenstate of the observable
(particle) we are interested in. However, if one measures the observable, the wave function will instantaneously
be an eigenstate (or "generalized" eigenstate) of that observable. This process is known as wave function
collapse, a controversial and much-debated process[30] that involves expanding the system under study to
include the measurement device. If one knows the corresponding wave function at the instant before the
measurement, one will be able to compute the probability of the wave function collapsing into each of the
possible eigenstates. For example, the free particle in the previous example will usually have a wave function
that is a wave packet centered around some mean position x0 (neither an eigenstate of position nor of
momentum). When one measures the position of the particle, it is impossible to predict with certainty the
result.[26] It is probable, but not certain, that it will be near x0, where the amplitude of the wave function is
large. After the measurement is performed, having obtained some result x, the wave function collapses into a
position eigenstate centered at x.[31]
The time evolution of a quantum state is described by the Schrödinger equation, in which the Hamiltonian (the
operator corresponding to the total energy of the system) generates the time evolution. The time evolution of
wave functions is deterministic in the sense that - given a wave function at an initial time - it makes a definite
prediction of what the wave function will be at any later time.[32]
During a measurement, on the other hand, the change of the initial wave function into another, later wave
function is not deterministic, it is unpredictable (i.e., random). A time-evolution simulation can be seen
here.[33][34]
Wave functions change as time progresses. The Schrödinger equation describes how wave functions change in
time, playing a role similar to Newton's second law in classical mechanics. The Schrödinger equation, applied
to the aforementioned example of the free particle, predicts that the center of a wave packet will move through
space at a constant velocity (like a classical particle with no forces acting on it). However, the wave packet will
also spread out as time progresses, which means that the position becomes more uncertain with time. This also
has the effect of turning a position eigenstate (which can be thought of as an infinitely sharp wave packet) into
a broadened wave packet that no longer represents a (definite, certain) position eigenstate.[35]
Some wave functions produce probability distributions that are

constant, or independent of time—such as when in a stationary
state of constant energy, time vanishes in the absolute square of
the wave function. Many systems that are treated dynamically
in classical mechanics are described by such "static" wave
functions. For example, a single electron in an unexcited atom
is pictured classically as a particle moving in a circular
trajectory around the atomic nucleus, whereas in quantum
mechanics it is described by a static, spherically symmetric
wave function surrounding the nucleus (Fig. 1) (note, however,
that only the lowest angular momentum states, labeled s, are
spherically symmetric).[36]
The Schrödinger equation acts on the entire probability

amplitude, not merely its absolute value. Whereas the absolute
value of the probability amplitude encodes information about Fig. 1: Probability densities corresponding to
probabilities, its phase encodes information about the the wave functions of an electron in a hydrogen
interference between quantum states. This gives rise to the atom possessing definite energy levels
"wave-like" behavior of quantum states. As it turns out, (increasing from the top of the image to the
analytic solutions of the Schrödinger equation are available for bottom: n = 1, 2, 3, ...) and angular momenta
only a very small number of relatively simple model (increasing across from left to right: s, p, d, ...).
Hamiltonians, of which the quantum harmonic oscillator, the Brighter areas correspond to higher probability
particle in a box, the dihydrogen cation, and the hydrogen atom density in a position measurement. Such wave
are the most important representatives. Even the helium atom functions are directly comparable to Chladni's
—which contains just one more electron than does the figures of acoustic modes of vibration in
hydrogen atom—has defied all attempts at a fully analytic classical physics, and are modes of oscillation
treatment. as well, possessing a sharp energy and, thus, a
definite frequency. The angular momentum and
There exist several techniques for generating approximate
energy are quantized, and take only discrete
solutions, however. In the important method known as
values like those shown (as is the case for
perturbation theory, one uses the analytic result for a simple
resonant frequencies in acoustics)
quantum mechanical model to generate a result for a more
complicated model that is related to the simpler model by (for
one example) the addition of a weak potential energy. Another method is the "semi-classical equation of
motion" approach, which applies to systems for which quantum mechanics produces only weak (small)
deviations from classical behavior. These deviations can then be computed based on the classical motion. This
approach is particularly important in the field of quantum chaos.
Mathematically equivalent formulations of quantum mechanics

There are numerous mathematically equivalent formulations of quantum mechanics. One of the oldest and most
commonly used formulations is the "transformation theory" proposed by Paul Dirac, which unifies and
generalizes the two earliest formulations of quantum mechanics - matrix mechanics (invented by Werner
Heisenberg) and wave mechanics (invented by Erwin Schrödinger).[37]
Especially since Werner Heisenberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1932 for the creation of
quantum mechanics, the role of Max Born in the development of QM was overlooked until the 1954 Nobel
award. The role is noted in a 2005 biography of Born, which recounts his role in the matrix formulation of
quantum mechanics, and the use of probability amplitudes. Heisenberg himself acknowledges having learned
matrices from Born, as published in a 1940 festschrift honoring Max Planck.[38] In the matrix formulation, the
instantaneous state of a quantum system encodes the probabilities of its measurable properties, or
"observables". Examples of observables include energy, position, momentum, and angular momentum.
Observables can be either continuous (e.g., the position of a particle) or discrete (e.g., the energy of an electron
bound to a hydrogen atom).[39] An alternative formulation of quantum mechanics is Feynman's path integral
formulation, in which a quantum-mechanical amplitude is considered as a sum over all possible classical and
non-classical paths between the initial and final states. This is the quantum-mechanical counterpart of the
action principle in classical mechanics.
Interactions with other scientific theories

The rules of quantum mechanics are fundamental. They assert that the state space of a system is a Hilbert space
and that observables of that system are Hermitian operators acting on that space—although they do not tell us
which Hilbert space or which operators. These can be chosen appropriately in order to obtain a quantitative
description of a quantum system. An important guide for making these choices is the correspondence principle,
which states that the predictions of quantum mechanics reduce to those of classical mechanics when a system
moves to higher energies or, equivalently, larger quantum numbers, i.e. whereas a single particle exhibits a
degree of randomness, in systems incorporating millions of particles averaging takes over and, at the high
energy limit, the statistical probability of random behaviour approaches zero. In other words, classical
mechanics is simply a quantum mechanics of large systems. This "high energy" limit is known as the classical
or correspondence limit. One can even start from an established classical model of a particular system, then
attempt to guess the underlying quantum model that would give rise to the classical model in the
correspondence limit.
When quantum mechanics was originally formulated, it was applied to Unsolved problem in
models whose correspondence limit was non-relativistic classical physics:
mechanics. For instance, the well-known model of the quantum In the correspondence
harmonic oscillator uses an explicitly non-relativistic expression for the limit of quantum
kinetic energy of the oscillator, and is thus a quantum version of the mechanics: Is there a
classical harmonic oscillator. preferred interpretation of
quantum mechanics?
Early attempts to merge quantum mechanics with special relativity How does the quantum
involved the replacement of the Schrödinger equation with a covariant description of reality,
equation such as the Klein–Gordon equation or the Dirac equation. which includes elements
While these theories were successful in explaining many experimental such as the "superposition
results, they had certain unsatisfactory qualities stemming from their of states" and "wave
neglect of the relativistic creation and annihilation of particles. A fully function collapse", give
relativistic quantum theory required the development of quantum field rise to the reality we
theory, which applies quantization to a field (rather than a fixed set of perceive?
particles). The first complete quantum field theory, quantum (more unsolved problems in
electrodynamics, provides a fully quantum description of the physics)
electromagnetic interaction. The full apparatus of quantum field theory is
often unnecessary for describing electrodynamic systems. A simpler
approach, one that has been employed since the inception of quantum mechanics, is to treat charged particles as
quantum mechanical objects being acted on by a classical electromagnetic field. For example, the elementary
quantum model of the hydrogen atom describes the electric field of the hydrogen atom using a classical
Coulomb potential. This "semi-classical" approach fails if quantum fluctuations in the
electromagnetic field play an important role, such as in the emission of photons by charged particles.
Quantum field theories for the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force have also been developed. The
quantum field theory of the strong nuclear force is called quantum chromodynamics, and describes the
interactions of subnuclear particles such as quarks and gluons. The weak nuclear force and the electromagnetic
force were unified, in their quantized forms, into a single quantum field theory (known as electroweak theory),
by the physicists Abdus Salam, Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg. These three men shared the Nobel
Prize in Physics in 1979 for this work.[40]
It has proven difficult to construct quantum models of gravity, the remaining fundamental force. Semi-classical
approximations are workable, and have led to predictions such as Hawking radiation. However, the formulation
of a complete theory of quantum gravity is hindered by apparent incompatibilities between general relativity
(the most accurate theory of gravity currently known) and some of the fundamental assumptions of quantum
theory. The resolution of these incompatibilities is an area of active research, and theories such as string theory
are among the possible candidates for a future theory of quantum gravity.
Classical mechanics has also been extended into the complex domain, with complex classical mechanics
exhibiting behaviors similar to quantum mechanics.[41]
Quantum mechanics and classical physics
Predictions of quantum mechanics have been verified experimentally to an extremely high degree of
accuracy.[42] According to the correspondence principle between classical and quantum mechanics, all objects
obey the laws of quantum mechanics, and classical mechanics is just an approximation for large systems of
objects (or a statistical quantum mechanics of a large collection of particles).[43] The laws of classical
mechanics thus follow from the laws of quantum mechanics as a statistical average at the limit of large systems
or large quantum numbers.[44] However, chaotic systems do not have good quantum numbers, and quantum
chaos studies the relationship between classical and quantum descriptions in these systems.
Quantum coherence is an essential difference between classical and quantum theories as illustrated by the
Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen (EPR) paradox — an attack on a certain philosophical interpretation of quantum
mechanics by an appeal to local realism.[45] Quantum interference involves adding together probability
amplitudes, whereas classical "waves" infer that there is an adding together of intensities. For microscopic
bodies, the extension of the system is much smaller than the coherence length, which gives rise to long-range
entanglement and other nonlocal phenomena characteristic of quantum systems.[46] Quantum coherence is not
typically evident at macroscopic scales, though an exception to this rule may occur at extremely low
temperatures (i.e. approaching absolute zero) at which quantum behavior may manifest itself
macroscopically.[47] This is in accordance with the following observations:
Many macroscopic properties of a classical system are a direct consequence of the quantum behavior of
its parts. For example, the stability of bulk matter (consisting of atoms and molecules which would
quickly collapse under electric forces alone), the rigidity of solids, and the mechanical, thermal,
chemical, optical and magnetic properties of matter are all results of the interaction of electric charges
under the rules of quantum mechanics.[48]
While the seemingly "exotic" behavior of matter posited by quantum mechanics and relativity theory
become more apparent when dealing with particles of extremely small size or velocities approaching the
speed of light, the laws of classical, often considered "Newtonian", physics remain accurate in predicting
the behavior of the vast majority of "large" objects (on the order of the size of large molecules or bigger)
at velocities much smaller than the velocity of light.[49]
Copenhagen interpretation of quantum versus classical kinematics
A big difference between classical and quantum mechanics is that they use very different kinematic
descriptions.[50]
In Niels Bohr's mature view, quantum mechanical phenomena are required to be experiments, with complete
descriptions of all the devices for the system, preparative, intermediary, and finally measuring. The descriptions
are in macroscopic terms, expressed in ordinary language, supplemented with the concepts of classical
mechanics.[51][52][53][54] The initial condition and the final condition of the system are respectively described
by values in a configuration space, for example a position space, or some equivalent space such as a
momentum space. Quantum mechanics does not admit a completely precise description, in terms of both
position and momentum, of an initial condition or "state" (in the classical sense of the word) that would support
a precisely deterministic and causal prediction of a final condition.[55][56] In this sense, advocated by Bohr in
his mature writings, a quantum phenomenon is a process, a passage from initial to final condition, not an
instantaneous "state" in the classical sense of that word.[57][58] Thus there are two kinds of processes in
quantum mechanics: stationary and transitional. For a stationary process, the initial and final condition are the
same. For a transition, they are different. Obviously by definition, if only the initial condition is given, the
process is not determined.[55] Given its initial condition, prediction of its final condition is possible, causally
but only probabilistically, because the Schrödinger equation is deterministic for wave function evolution, but
the wave function describes the system only probabilistically.[59][60]
For many experiments, it is possible to think of the initial and final conditions of the system as being a particle.
In some cases it appears that there are potentially several spatially distinct pathways or trajectories by which a
particle might pass from initial to final condition. It is an important feature of the quantum kinematic
description that it does not permit a unique definite statement of which of those pathways is actually followed.
Only the initial and final conditions are definite, and, as stated in the foregoing paragraph, they are defined only
as precisely as allowed by the configuration space description or its equivalent. In every case for which a
quantum kinematic description is needed, there is always a compelling reason for this restriction of kinematic
precision. An example of such a reason is that for a particle to be experimentally found in a definite position, it
must be held motionless; for it to be experimentally found to have a definite momentum, it must have free
motion; these two are logically incompatible.[61][62]
Classical kinematics does not primarily demand experimental description of its phenomena. It allows
completely precise description of an instantaneous state by a value in phase space, the Cartesian product of
configuration and momentum spaces. This description simply assumes or imagines a state as a physically
existing entity without concern about its experimental measurability. Such a description of an initial condition,
together with Newton's laws of motion, allows a precise deterministic and causal prediction of a final condition,
with a definite trajectory of passage. Hamiltonian dynamics can be used for this. Classical kinematics also
allows the description of a process analogous to the initial and final condition description used by quantum
mechanics. Lagrangian mechanics applies to this.[63] For processes that need account to be taken of actions of a
small number of Planck constants, classical kinematics is not adequate; quantum mechanics is needed.
General relativity and quantum mechanics
Even with the defining postulates of both Einstein's theory of general relativity and quantum theory being
indisputably supported by rigorous and repeated empirical evidence, and while they do not directly contradict
each other theoretically (at least with regard to their primary claims), they have proven extremely difficult to
incorporate into one consistent, cohesive model.[64]
Gravity is negligible in many areas of particle physics, so that unification between general relativity and
quantum mechanics is not an urgent issue in those particular applications. However, the lack of a correct theory
of quantum gravity is an important issue in physical cosmology and the search by physicists for an elegant
"Theory of Everything" (TOE). Consequently, resolving the inconsistencies between both theories has been a
major goal of 20th and 21st century physics. Many prominent physicists, including Stephen Hawking, have
labored for many years in the attempt to discover a theory underlying everything. This TOE would combine not
only the different models of subatomic physics, but also derive the four fundamental forces of nature - the
strong force, electromagnetism, the weak force, and gravity - from a single force or phenomenon. While
Stephen Hawking was initially a believer in the Theory of Everything, after considering Gödel's
Incompleteness Theorem, he has concluded that one is not obtainable, and has stated so publicly in his lecture
"Gödel and the End of Physics" (2002).[65]
Attempts at a unified field theory
The quest to unify the fundamental forces through quantum mechanics is still ongoing. Quantum
electrodynamics (or "quantum electromagnetism"), which is currently (in the perturbative regime at least) the
most accurately tested physical theory in competition with general relativity,[66][67] has been successfully
merged with the weak nuclear force into the electroweak force and work is currently being done to merge the
electroweak and strong force into the electrostrong force. Current predictions state that at around 1014 GeV the
three aforementioned forces are fused into a single unified field.[68] Beyond this "grand unification", it is
speculated that it may be possible to merge gravity with the other three gauge symmetries, expected to occur at
roughly 1019 GeV. However — and while special relativity is parsimoniously incorporated into quantum
electrodynamics — the expanded general relativity, currently the best theory describing the gravitation force,
has not been fully incorporated into quantum theory. One of those searching for a coherent TOE is Edward
Witten, a theoretical physicist who formulated the M-theory, which is an attempt at describing the
supersymmetrical based string theory. M-theory posits that our apparent 4-dimensional spacetime is, in reality,
actually an 11-dimensional spacetime containing 10 spatial dimensions and 1 time dimension, although 7 of the
spatial dimensions are - at lower energies - completely "compactified" (or infinitely curved) and not readily
amenable to measurement or probing.
Another popular theory is Loop quantum gravity (LQG), a theory first proposed by Carlo Rovelli that describes
the quantum properties of gravity. It is also a theory of quantum space and quantum time, because in general
relativity the geometry of spacetime is a manifestation of gravity. LQG is an attempt to merge and adapt
standard quantum mechanics and standard general relativity. The main output of the theory is a physical picture
of space where space is granular. The granularity is a direct consequence of the quantization. It has the same
nature of the granularity of the photons in the quantum theory of electromagnetism or the discrete levels of the
energy of the atoms. But here it is space itself which is discrete. More precisely, space can be viewed as an
extremely fine fabric or network "woven" of finite loops. These networks of loops are called spin networks.
The evolution of a spin network over time is called a spin foam. The predicted size of this structure is the
Planck length, which is approximately 1.616×10−35 m. According to theory, there is no meaning to length
shorter than this (cf. Planck scale energy). Therefore, LQG predicts that not just matter, but also space itself,
has an atomic structure.
Philosophical implications
Since its inception, the many counter-intuitive aspects and results of quantum mechanics have provoked strong
philosophical debates and many interpretations. Even fundamental issues, such as Max Born's basic rules
concerning probability amplitudes and probability distributions, took decades to be appreciated by society and
many leading scientists. Richard Feynman once said, "I think I can safely say that nobody understands quantum
mechanics."[69] According to Steven Weinberg, "There is now in my opinion no entirely satisfactory
interpretation of quantum mechanics."[70]
The Copenhagen interpretation — due largely to Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg — remains most widely
accepted amongst physicists, some 75 years after its enunciation. According to this interpretation, the
probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics is not a temporary feature which will eventually be replaced by a
deterministic theory, but instead must be considered a final renunciation of the classical idea of "causality." It is
also believed therein that any well-defined application of the quantum mechanical formalism must always
make reference to the experimental arrangement, due to the conjugate nature of evidence obtained under
different experimental situations.
Albert Einstein, himself one of the founders of quantum theory, did not accept some of the more philosophical
or metaphysical interpretations of quantum mechanics, such as rejection of determinism and of causality. He is
famously quoted as saying, in response to this aspect, "God does not play with dice".[71] He rejected the
concept that the state of a physical system depends on the experimental arrangement for its measurement. He
held that a state of nature occurs in its own right, regardless of whether or how it might be observed. In that
view, he is supported by the currently accepted definition of a quantum state, which remains invariant under
arbitrary choice of configuration space for its representation, that is to say, manner of observation. He also held
that underlying quantum mechanics there should be a theory that thoroughly and directly expresses the rule
against action at a distance; in other words, he insisted on the principle of locality. He considered, but rejected
on theoretical grounds, a particular proposal for hidden variables to obviate the indeterminism or acausality of
quantum mechanical measurement. He considered that quantum mechanics was a currently valid but not a
permanently definitive theory for quantum phenomena. He thought its future replacement would require
profound conceptual advances, and would not come quickly or easily. The Bohr-Einstein debates provide a
vibrant critique of the Copenhagen Interpretation from an epistemological point of view. In arguing for his
views, he produced a series of objections, the most famous of which has become known as the Einstein–
Podolsky–Rosen paradox.
John Bell showed that this "EPR" paradox led to experimentally testable differences between quantum
mechanics and theories that rely on added hidden variables. Experiments have been performed confirming the
accuracy of quantum mechanics, thereby demonstrating that quantum mechanics cannot be improved upon by
addition of hidden variables.[72] Alain Aspect's initial experiments in 1982, and many subsequent experiments
since, have definitively verified quantum entanglement.
Entanglement, as demonstrated in Bell-type experiments, does not, however, violate causality, since no transfer
of information happens. Quantum entanglement forms the basis of quantum cryptography, which is proposed
for use in high-security commercial applications in banking and government.
The Everett many-worlds interpretation, formulated in 1956, holds that all the possibilities described by
quantum theory simultaneously occur in a multiverse composed of mostly independent parallel universes.[73]
This is not accomplished by introducing some "new axiom" to quantum mechanics, but on the contrary, by
removing the axiom of the collapse of the wave packet. All of the possible consistent states of the measured
system and the measuring apparatus (including the observer) are present in a real physical - not just formally
mathematical, as in other interpretations - quantum superposition. Such a superposition of consistent state
combinations of different systems is called an entangled state. While the multiverse is deterministic, we
perceive non-deterministic behavior governed by probabilities, because we can only observe the universe (i.e.,
the consistent state contribution to the aforementioned superposition) that we, as observers, inhabit. Everett's
interpretation is perfectly consistent with John Bell's experiments and makes them intuitively understandable.
However, according to the theory of quantum decoherence, these "parallel universes" will never be accessible
to us. The inaccessibility can be understood as follows: once a measurement is done, the measured system
becomes entangled with both the physicist who measured it and a huge number of other particles, some of
which are photons flying away at the speed of light towards the other end of the universe. In order to prove that
the wave function did not collapse, one would have to bring all these particles back and measure them again,
together with the system that was originally measured. Not only is this completely impractical, but even if one
could theoretically do this, it would have to destroy any evidence that the original measurement took place
(including the physicist's memory). In light of these Bell tests, Cramer (1986) formulated his transactional
interpretation.[74] Relational quantum mechanics appeared in the late 1990s as the modern derivative of the
Copenhagen Interpretation.
Applications
Quantum mechanics has had enormous[75] success in explaining many of the features of our universe. Quantum
mechanics is often the only tool available that can reveal the individual behaviors of the subatomic particles
that make up all forms of matter (electrons, protons, neutrons, photons, and others). Quantum mechanics has
strongly influenced string theories, candidates for a Theory of Everything (see reductionism).
Quantum mechanics is also critically important for understanding how individual atoms combine covalently to
form molecules. The application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is known as quantum chemistry.
Relativistic quantum mechanics can, in principle, mathematically describe most of chemistry. Quantum
mechanics can also provide quantitative insight into ionic and covalent bonding processes by explicitly
showing which molecules are energetically favorable to which others and the magnitudes of the energies
involved.[76] Furthermore, most of the calculations performed in modern computational chemistry rely on
quantum mechanics.
In many aspects modern technology operates at a scale where quantum effects are significant.
Electronics
Many modern electronic devices are designed using quantum mechanics. Examples include the laser, the
transistor (and thus the microchip), the electron microscope, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The study
of semiconductors led to the invention of the diode and the transistor, which are indispensable parts of modern
electronics systems, computer and telecommunication devices. Another application is the light emitting diode
which is a high-efficiency source of light.
Many electronic devices operate under effect of quantum

tunneling. It even exists in the simple light switch. The
switch would not work if electrons could not quantum
tunnel through the layer of oxidation on the metal contact
surfaces. Flash memory chips found in USB drives use
quantum tunneling to erase their memory cells. Some
negative differential resistance devices also utilize quantum
tunneling effect, such as resonant tunneling diode. Unlike
classical diodes, its current is carried by resonant tunneling
through two potential barriers (see right figure). Its
negative resistance behavior can only be understood with
quantum mechanics: As the confined state moves close to
Fermi level, tunnel current increases. As it moves away,
current decreases. Quantum mechanics is vital to
A working mechanism of a resonant tunneling
understanding and designing such electronic devices.
diode device, based on the phenomenon of quantum
tunneling through potential barriers. (Left: band
Cryptography diagram; Center: transmission coefficient; Right:
current-voltage characteristics) As shown in the
Researchers are currently seeking robust methods of
band diagram(left), although there are two barriers,
directly manipulating quantum states. Efforts are being
electrons still tunnel through via the confined states
made to more fully develop quantum cryptography, which
between two barriers(center), conducting current.
will theoretically allow guaranteed secure transmission of
information.
An inherent advantage yielded by quantum cryptography when compared to classical cryptography is the
detection of passive eavesdropping. This is a natural result of the behavior of quantum bits; due to the observer
effect, if a bit in a superposition state were to be observed, the superposition state would collapse into an
eigenstate. Because the intended recipient was expecting to receive the bit in a superposition state, the intended
recipient would know there was an attack, because the bit's state would no longer be in a superposition.[77]
Quantum computing
A more distant goal is the development of quantum computers, which are expected to perform certain
computational tasks exponentially faster than classical computers. Instead of using classical bits, quantum
computers use qubits, which can be in superpositions of states. Quantum programmers are able to manipulate
the superposition of qubits in order to solve problems that classical computing cannot do effectively, such as
searching unsorted databases or integer factorization. IBM claims that the advent of quantum computing may
progress the fields of medicine, logistics, financial services, artificial intelligence and cloud security.[78]
Another active research topic is quantum teleportation, which deals with techniques to transmit quantum
information over arbitrary distances.
Macroscale quantum effects
While quantum mechanics primarily applies to the smaller atomic regimes of matter and energy, some systems
exhibit quantum mechanical effects on a large scale. Superfluidity, the frictionless flow of a liquid at
temperatures near absolute zero, is one well-known example. So is the closely related phenomenon of
superconductivity, the frictionless flow of an electron gas in a conducting material (an electric current) at
sufficiently low temperatures. The fractional quantum Hall effect is a topological ordered state which
corresponds to patterns of long-range quantum entanglement.[79] States with different topological orders (or
different patterns of long range entanglements) cannot change into each other without a phase transition.
Quantum theory
Quantum theory also provides accurate descriptions for many previously unexplained phenomena, such as
black-body radiation and the stability of the orbitals of electrons in atoms. It has also given insight into the
workings of many different biological systems, including smell receptors and protein structures.[80] Recent
work on photosynthesis has provided evidence that quantum correlations play an essential role in this
fundamental process of plants and many other organisms.[81] Even so, classical physics can often provide good
approximations to results otherwise obtained by quantum physics, typically in circumstances with large
numbers of particles or large quantum numbers. Since classical formulas are much simpler and easier to
compute than quantum formulas, classical approximations are used and preferred when the system is large
enough to render the effects of quantum mechanics insignificant.
Examples
Free particle
For example, consider a free particle. In quantum mechanics, there is wave–particle duality, so the properties of
the particle can be described as the properties of a wave. Therefore, its quantum state can be represented as a
wave of arbitrary shape and extending over space as a wave function. The position and momentum of the
particle are observables. The Uncertainty Principle states that both the position and the momentum cannot
simultaneously be measured with complete precision. However, one can measure the position (alone) of a
moving free particle, creating an eigenstate of position with a wave function that is very large (a Dirac delta) at
a particular position x, and zero everywhere else. If one performs a position measurement on such a wave
function, the resultant x will be obtained with 100% probability (i.e., with full certainty, or complete precision).
This is called an eigenstate of position—or, stated in mathematical terms, a generalized position eigenstate
(eigendistribution). If the particle is in an eigenstate of position, then its momentum is completely unknown.
On the other hand, if the particle is in an eigenstate of momentum, then its position is completely unknown.[82]
In an eigenstate of momentum having a plane wave form, it can be shown that the wavelength is equal to h/p,
where h is Planck's constant and p is the momentum of the eigenstate.[83]
Step potential
The potential in this case is given by:
The solutions are superpositions of left- and right-moving waves:
Scattering at a finite potential step of height V0, shown in green. The

amplitudes and direction of left- and right-moving waves are
indicated. Yellow is the incident wave, blue are reflected and
transmitted waves, red does not occur. E > V0 for this figure.
where the wave vectors are related to the energy via
, and
with coefficients A and B determined from the boundary conditions and by imposing a continuous derivative
on the solution.
Each term of the solution can be interpreted as an incident, reflected, or transmitted component of the wave,
allowing the calculation of transmission and reflection coefficients. Notably, in contrast to classical mechanics,
incident particles with energies greater than the potential step are partially reflected.
Rectangular potential barrier
This is a model for the quantum tunneling effect which plays an important role in the performance of modern
technologies such as flash memory and scanning tunneling microscopy. Quantum tunneling is central to
physical phenomena involved in superlattices.
Particle in a box
The particle in a one-dimensional potential energy box is the most mathematically simple example where
restraints lead to the quantization of energy levels. The box is defined as having zero potential energy
everywhere inside a certain region, and infinite potential energy everywhere outside that region. For the one-
dimensional case in the direction, the time-independent Schrödinger equation may be written[84]
With the differential operator defined by
the previous equation is evocative of the classic kinetic energy

analogue,
with state in this case having energy coincident with the kinetic
energy of the particle.
1-dimensional potential energy box
The general solutions of the Schrödinger equation for the particle in a (or infinite potential well)
box are
or, from Euler's formula,
The infinite potential walls of the box determine the values of C, D, and k at x = 0 and x = L where ψ must be
zero. Thus, at x = 0,
and D = 0. At x = L,
in which C cannot be zero as this would conflict with the Born interpretation. Therefore, since sin(kL) = 0, kL
must be an integer multiple of π,
The quantization of energy levels follows from this constraint on k, since
Finite potential well
A finite potential well is the generalization of the infinite potential well problem to potential wells having finite
depth.
The finite potential well problem is mathematically more complicated than the infinite particle-in-a-box
problem as the wave function is not pinned to zero at the walls of the well. Instead, the wave function must
satisfy more complicated mathematical boundary conditions as it is nonzero in regions outside the well.
Harmonic oscillator
As in the classical case, the potential for the quantum harmonic oscillator is given by
This problem can either be treated by directly solving the

Schrödinger equation, which is not trivial, or by using the
more elegant "ladder method" first proposed by Paul Dirac.
The eigenstates are given by
Some trajectories of a harmonic oscillator (i.e. a

ball attached to a spring) in classical mechanics (A-
B) and quantum mechanics (C-H). In quantum
mechanics, the position of the ball is represented by
a wave (called the wave function), with the real part
shown in blue and the imaginary part shown in red.
Some of the trajectories (such as C,D,E,and F) are
standing waves (or "stationary states"). Each
standing-wave frequency is proportional to a
possible energy level of the oscillator. This "energy
quantization" does not occur in classical physics,
where the oscillator can have any energy.
where Hn are the Hermite polynomials
and the corresponding energy levels are
This is another example illustrating the quantification of energy for bound states.
See also
Angular momentum diagrams (quantum mechanics)
EPR paradox
Fractional quantum mechanics
List of quantum-mechanical systems with analytical solutions
Macroscopic quantum phenomena
Phase space formulation
Regularization (physics)
Spherical basis
Notes
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50. Born, M., Heisenberg, W., Jordan, P. (1926). Z. Phys. 35: 557–615. Translated as 'On quantum mechanics II', pp.
321–385 in Van der Waerden, B.L. (1967), Sources of Quantum Mechanics, North-Holland, Amsterdam, "The basic
difference between the theory proposed here and that used hitherto ... lies in the characteristic kinematics ...", p. 385.
51. Dirac, P.A.M. (1930/1958). The Principles of Quantum Mechanics, fourth edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford
UK, p. 5: "A question about what will happen to a particular photon under certain conditions is not really very
precise. To make it precise one must imagine some experiment performed having a bearing on the question, and
enquire what will be the result of the experiment. Only questions about the results of experiments have a real
significance and it is only such questions that theoretical physics has to consider."
52. Bohr, N. (1939). The Causality Problem in Atomic Physics, in New Theories in Physics, Conference organized in
collaboration with the International Union of Physics and the Polish Intellectual Co-operation Committee, Warsaw,
May 30th – June 3rd 1938, International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, Paris, 1939, pp. 11–30, reprinted in
Niels Bohr, Collected Works, volume 7 (1933 – 1958) edited by J. Kalckar, Elsevier, Amsterdam, ISBN 0-444-
89892-1, pp. 303–322. "The essential lesson of the analysis of measurements in quantum theory is thus the emphasis
on the necessity, in the account of the phenomena, of taking the whole experimental arrangement into consideration,
in complete conformity with the fact that all unambiguous interpretation of the quantum mechanical formalism
involves the fixation of the external conditions, defining the initial state of the atomic system and the character of the
possible predictions as regards subsequent observable properties of that system. Any measurement in quantum
theory can in fact only refer either to a fixation of the initial state or to the test of such predictions, and it is first the
combination of both kinds which constitutes a well-defined phenomenon."
53. Bohr, N. (1948). On the notions of complementarity and causality, Dialectica 2: 312–319. "As a more appropriate
way of expression, one may advocate limitation of the use of the word phenomenon to refer to observations obtained
under specified circumstances, including an account of the whole experiment."
54. Ludwig, G. (1987). An Axiomatic Basis for Quantum Mechanics, volume 2, Quantum Mechanics and Macrosystems,
translated by K. Just, Springer, Berlin, ISBN 978-3-642-71899-1, Chapter XIII, Special Structures in Preparation
and Registration Devices, §1, Measurement chains, p. 132.
55. Heisenberg, W. (1927). Über den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen Kinematik und Mechanik, Z. Phys.
43: 172–198. Translation as 'The actual content of quantum theoretical kinematics and mechanics' here [1] (https://nt
rs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19840008978.pdf), "But in the rigorous formulation of the law of
causality, — "If we know the present precisely, we can calculate the future" — it is not the conclusion that is faulty,
but the premise."
56. Green, H.S. (1965). Matrix Mechanics, with a foreword by Max Born, P. Noordhoff Ltd, Groningen. "It is not
possible, therefore, to provide 'initial conditions' for the prediction of the behaviour of atomic systems, in the way
contemplated by classical physics. This is accepted by quantum theory, not merely as an experimental difficulty, but
as a fundamental law of nature", p. 32.
57. Rosenfeld, L. (1957). Misunderstandings about the foundations of quantum theory, pp. 41–45 in Observation and
Interpretation, edited by S. Körner, Butterworths, London. "A phenomenon is therefore a process (endowed with the
characteristic quantal wholeness) involving a definite type of interaction between the system and the apparatus."
58. Dirac, P.A.M. (1973). Development of the physicist's conception of nature, pp. 1–55 in The Physicist's Conception of
Nature, edited by J. Mehra, D. Reidel, Dordrecht, ISBN 90-277-0345-0, p. 5: "That led Heisenberg to his really
masterful step forward, resulting in the new quantum mechanics. His idea was to build up a theory entirely in terms
of quantities referring to two states."
59. Born, M. (1927). Physical aspects of quantum mechanics, Nature 119: 354–357, "These probabilities are thus
dynamically determined. But what the system actually does is not determined ..."
60. Messiah, A. (1961). Quantum Mechanics, volume 1, translated by G.M. Temmer from the French Mécanique
Quantique, North-Holland, Amsterdam, p. 157.
61. Bohr, N. (1928). "The Quantum postulate and the recent development of atomic theory". Nature. 121: 580–590.
62. Heisenberg, W. (1930). The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory, translated by C. Eckart and F.C. Hoyt,
University of Chicago Press.
63. Goldstein, H. (1950). Classical Mechanics, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-02510-8.
64. "There is as yet no logically consistent and complete relativistic quantum field theory.", p. 4. — V. B. Berestetskii,
E. M. Lifshitz, L P Pitaevskii (1971). J. B. Sykes, J. S. Bell (translators). Relativistic Quantum Theory 4, part I.
Course of Theoretical Physics (Landau and Lifshitz) ISBN 0-08-016025-5
65. "Stephen Hawking; Gödel and the end of physics" (http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/strings02/dirac/hawking/).
cam.ac.uk. Retrieved 11 September 2015.
66. "The Nature of Space and Time" (https://books.google.com/books?id=6a-agBFWuyQC&pg=PA61&lpg=PA61&dq=
most+accurately+tested+physical+theory+pulsar&source=bl&ots=rsrPvowECD&sig=S9MaY509U0pOgF86h2uvcp
QQ_wU&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TwkTT6j9M8LXiAKSwNjTDQ&sqi=2&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=most%
20accurately%20tested%20physical%20theory%20pulsar&f=false). google.com. Retrieved 11 September 2015.
67. Tatsumi Aoyama; Masashi Hayakawa; Toichiro Kinoshita; Makiko Nio (2012). "Tenth-Order QED Contribution to
the Electron g-2 and an Improved Value of the Fine Structure Constant" (http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLet
t.109.111807). Physical Review Letters. 109 (11): 111807. Bibcode:2012PhRvL.109k1807A (http://adsabs.harvard.e
du/abs/2012PhRvL.109k1807A). PMID 23005618 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23005618).
arXiv:1205.5368v2 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1205.5368v2) . doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.109.111807 (https://doi.org/10.1
103%2FPhysRevLett.109.111807).
68. Parker, B. (1993). Overcoming some of the problems. pp. 259–279.
69. The Character of Physical Law (1965) Ch. 6; also quoted in The New Quantum Universe (2003), by Tony Hey and
Patrick Walters
70. Weinberg, S. "Collapse of the State Vector" (http://arxiv.org/abs/1109.6462), Phys. Rev. A 85, 062116 (2012).
71. Harrison, Edward (16 March 2000). Cosmology: The Science of the Universe (https://books.google.com/books?id=k
NxeHD2cbLYC&pg=PA239). Cambridge University Press. p. 239. ISBN 978-0-521-66148-5.
72. "Action at a Distance in Quantum Mechanics (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entri
es/qm-action-distance/). Plato.stanford.edu. 2007-01-26. Retrieved 2012-08-18.
73. "Everett's Relative-State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)" (http://plato.st
anford.edu/entries/qm-everett/). Plato.stanford.edu. Retrieved 2012-08-18.
74. The Transactional Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics (http://journals.aps.org/rmp/abstract/10.1103/RevModPhys.
58.647) by John Cramer. Reviews of Modern Physics 58, 647-688, July (1986)
75. See, for example, the Feynman Lectures on Physics for some of the technological applications which use quantum
mechanics, e.g., transistors (vol III, pp. 14–11 ff), integrated circuits, which are follow-on technology in solid-state
physics (vol II, pp. 8–6), and lasers (vol III, pp. 9–13).
76. Pauling, Linus; Wilson, Edgar Bright (1985-03-01). Introduction to Quantum Mechanics with Applications to
Chemistry (https://books.google.com/books?id=vdXU6SD4_UYC). ISBN 9780486648712. Retrieved 2012-08-18.
77. Schneier, Bruce (1993). Applied Cryptography (2nd ed.). Wiley. p. 554. ISBN 0471117099.
78. "Applications of Quantum Computing" (https://www.research.ibm.com/ibm-q/learn/quantum-computing-application
s/). research.ibm.com. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
79. Chen, Xie; Gu, Zheng-Cheng; Wen, Xiao-Gang (2010). "Local unitary transformation, long-range quantum
entanglement, wave function renormalization, and topological order". Phys. Rev. B. 82: 155138.
Bibcode:2010PhRvB..82o5138C (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PhRvB..82o5138C). arXiv:1004.3835 (https://a
rxiv.org/abs/1004.3835) . doi:10.1103/physrevb.82.155138 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2Fphysrevb.82.155138).
80. Anderson, Mark (2009-01-13). "Is Quantum Mechanics Controlling Your Thoughts? | Subatomic Particles" (http://di
scovermagazine.com/2009/feb/13-is-quantum-mechanics-controlling-your-thoughts/article_view?b_start:int=1&-C).
DISCOVER Magazine. Retrieved 2012-08-18.
81. "Quantum mechanics boosts photosynthesis" (http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/41632). physicsworld.com.
82. Davies, P. C. W.; Betts, David S. (1984). Quantum Mechanics, Second edition (https://books.google.com/books?id=
XRyHCrGNstoC&pg=PA79). Chapman and Hall. p. 79. ISBN 0-7487-4446-0., Chapter 6, p. 79 (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=XRyHCrGNstoC&pg=PA79)
83. Baofu, Peter (2007-12-31). The Future of Complexity: Conceiving a Better Way to Understand Order and Chaos (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=tKm-Ekwke_UC). ISBN 9789812708991. Retrieved 2012-08-18.
84. Derivation of particle in a box, chemistry.tidalswan.com (https://web.archive.org/web/20070330042000/http://chemi
stry.tidalswan.com/index.php?title=Quantum_Mechanics)
References
The following titles, all by working physicists, attempt to communicate quantum theory to lay people, using a minimum of
technical apparatus.
Chester, Marvin (1987) Primer of Quantum Mechanics. John Wiley. ISBN 0-486-42878-8
Cox, Brian; Forshaw, Jeff (2011). The Quantum Universe: Everything That Can Happen Does Happen:. Allen Lane.
ISBN 1-84614-432-9.
Richard Feynman, 1985. QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter, Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-
08388-6. Four elementary lectures on quantum electrodynamics and quantum field theory, yet containing many
insights for the expert.
Ghirardi, GianCarlo, 2004. Sneaking a Look at God's Cards, Gerald Malsbary, trans. Princeton Univ. Press. The most
technical of the works cited here. Passages using algebra, trigonometry, and bra–ket notation can be passed over on a
first reading.
N. David Mermin, 1990, "Spooky actions at a distance: mysteries of the QT" in his Boojums all the way through.
Cambridge University Press: 110-76.
Victor Stenger, 2000. Timeless Reality: Symmetry, Simplicity, and Multiple Universes. Buffalo NY: Prometheus
Books. Chpts. 5-8. Includes cosmological and philosophical considerations.
More technical:
Bryce DeWitt, R. Neill Graham, eds., 1973. The Many-Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics, Princeton
Series in Physics, Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08131-X
Dirac, P. A. M. (1930). The Principles of Quantum Mechanics. ISBN 0-19-852011-5. The beginning chapters make
up a very clear and comprehensible introduction.
Everett, Hugh (1957). "Relative State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics". Reviews of Modern Physics. 29: 454–
62. Bibcode:1957RvMP...29..454E (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1957RvMP...29..454E).
doi:10.1103/revmodphys.29.454 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2Frevmodphys.29.454).
Feynman, Richard P.; Leighton, Robert B.; Sands, Matthew (1965). The Feynman Lectures on Physics. 1–3.
Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-7382-0008-5.
Griffiths, David J. (2004). Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-111892-7.
OCLC 40251748 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/40251748). A standard undergraduate text.
Max Jammer, 1966. The Conceptual Development of Quantum Mechanics. McGraw Hill.
Hagen Kleinert, 2004. Path Integrals in Quantum Mechanics, Statistics, Polymer Physics, and Financial Markets,
3rd ed. Singapore: World Scientific. Draft of 4th edition. (http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/b5)
Gunther Ludwig, 1968. Wave Mechanics. London: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-203204-1
George Mackey (2004). The mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-
43517-2.
Albert Messiah, 1966. Quantum Mechanics (Vol. I), English translation from French by G. M. Temmer. North
Holland, John Wiley & Sons. Cf. chpt. IV, section III. online (https://archive.org/details/QuantumMechanicsVolume
I)
Omnès, Roland (1999). Understanding Quantum Mechanics. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00435-8.
Scerri, Eric R., 2006. The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance. Oxford University Press. Considers the
extent to which chemistry and the periodic system have been reduced to quantum mechanics. ISBN 0-19-530573-6
Transnational College of Lex (1996). What is Quantum Mechanics? A Physics Adventure. Language Research
Foundation, Boston. ISBN 0-9643504-1-6. OCLC 34661512 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/34661512).
von Neumann, John (1955). Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-
691-02893-1.
Hermann Weyl, 1950. The Theory of Groups and Quantum Mechanics, Dover Publications.
D. Greenberger, K. Hentschel, F. Weinert, eds., 2009. Compendium of quantum physics, Concepts, experiments,
history and philosophy, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Further reading
Bernstein, Jeremy (2009). Quantum Leaps (https://books.google.com/books?id=j0Me3brYOL0C&printse
c=frontcover). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-
03541-6.
Bohm, David (1989). Quantum Theory. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-65969-0.
Eisberg, Robert; Resnick, Robert (1985). Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules, Solids, Nuclei, and
Particles (2nd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 0-471-87373-X.
Liboff, Richard L. (2002). Introductory Quantum Mechanics. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-8053-8714-5.
Merzbacher, Eugen (1998). Quantum Mechanics. Wiley, John & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-88702-1.
Sakurai, J. J. (1994). Modern Quantum Mechanics. Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-201-53929-2.
Shankar, R. (1994). Principles of Quantum Mechanics. Springer. ISBN 0-306-44790-8.
Stone, A. Douglas (2013). Einstein and the Quantum. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-
13968-5.
Martinus J. G. Veltman (2003), Facts and Mysteries in Elementary Particle Physics.
Shushi, Tomer (2014). The Influence of Particle Interactions on the Existence of Quantum Particles
Properties (http://www.davidpublisher.org/Public/uploads/Contribute/55c84ab660c47.pdf) (PDF). Haifa,
Israel: Journal of Physical Science and Application.
Zucav, Gary (1979, 2001). The Dancing Wu Li Masters: An overview of the new physics (Perennial
Classics Edition) HarperCollins.
On Wikibooks
This Quantum World (https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/This_Quantum_World)
External links
3D animations, applications and research for basic quantum effects (http://www.toutestquantique.fr/)
(animations also available in commons.wikimedia.org (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Con
tributions/Jubobroff) (Université paris Sud))
Quantum Cook Book (http://oyc.yale.edu/sites/default/files/notes_quantum_cookbook.pdf) by R.
Shankar, Open Yale PHYS 201 material (4pp)
The Modern Revolution in Physics (http://www.lightandmatter.com/lm/) - an online textbook.
J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson: A history of quantum mechanics. (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.a
c.uk/history/HistTopics/The_Quantum_age_begins.html)
Introduction to Quantum Theory at Quantiki. (https://web.archive.org/web/20080913201312/http://www.
quantiki.org/wiki/index.php/Introduction_to_Quantum_Theory)
Quantum Physics Made Relatively Simple (http://bethe.cornell.edu/): three video lectures by Hans Bethe
H is for h-bar. (https://web.archive.org/web/20071002191047/http://www.nonlocal.com/hbar/)
Quantum Mechanics Books Collection (http://www.freebookcentre.net/Physics/Quantum-Mechanics-Bo
oks.html): Collection of free books
Course material
A collection of lectures on Quantum Mechanics (https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/LearnIt/Quantum_Mecha

nics)
Quantum Physics Database - Fundamentals and Historical Background of Quantum Theory. (http://qpdb.
eu/)
Doron Cohen: Lecture notes in Quantum Mechanics (comprehensive, with advanced topics). (http://arxiv.
org/abs/quant-ph/0605180)
MIT OpenCourseWare: Chemistry (http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Chemistry/index.htm).
MIT OpenCourseWare: Physics (http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Physics/index.htm). See 8.04 (http://ocw.m
it.edu/OcwWeb/Physics/8-04Spring-2006/CourseHome/index.htm)
Stanford Continuing Education PHY 25: Quantum Mechanics (https://www.youtube.com/stanford#g/c/84
C10A9CB1D13841) by Leonard Susskind, see course description (http://continuingstudies.stanford.edu/c
ourses/course.php?cid=20072_PHY%2025) Fall 2007
5½ Examples in Quantum Mechanics (http://www.physics.csbsju.edu/QM/)
Imperial College Quantum Mechanics Course. (http://www.imperial.ac.uk/quantuminformation/qi/tutoria
ls)
Spark Notes - Quantum Physics. (http://www.sparknotes.com/testprep/books/sat2/physics/chapter19secti
on3.rhtml)
Quantum Physics Online : interactive introduction to quantum mechanics (RS applets). (http://www.quan
tum-physics.polytechnique.fr/)
Experiments to the foundations of quantum physics with single photons. (http://www.didaktik.physik.uni
-erlangen.de/quantumlab/english/index.html)
AQME (http://www.nanohub.org/topics/AQME) : Advancing Quantum Mechanics for Engineers — by
T.Barzso, D.Vasileska and G.Klimeck online learning resource with simulation tools on nanohub
Quantum Mechanics (https://web.archive.org/web/20091229101144/http://www.lsr.ph.ic.ac.uk/~plenio/le
cture.pdf) by Martin Plenio
Quantum Mechanics (https://web.archive.org/web/20110124130101/http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teachin
g/qm/389.pdf) by Richard Fitzpatrick
Online course on Quantum Transport (http://nanohub.org/resources/2039)
FAQs
Many-worlds or relative-state interpretation. (http://www.hedweb.com/manworld.htm)

Measurement in Quantum mechanics. (http://www.mtnmath.com/faq/meas-qm.html)
Media
PHYS 201: Fundamentals of Physics II (http://oyc.yale.edu/physics/phys-201#sessions) by Ramamurti

Shankar, Open Yale Course
Lectures on Quantum Mechanics (https://www.youtube.com/view_play_list?p=84C10A9CB1D13841)
by Leonard Susskind
Everything you wanted to know about the quantum world (http://www.newscientist.com/channel/fundam
entals/quantum-world) — archive of articles from New Scientist.
Quantum Physics Research (http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/matter_energy/quantum_physics/) from
Science Daily
Overbye, Dennis (December 27, 2005). "Quantum Trickery: Testing Einstein's Strangest Theory" (https://
www.nytimes.com/2005/12/27/science/27eins.html?scp=1&sq=quantum%20trickery&st=cse). The New
York Times. Retrieved April 12, 2010.
Audio: Astronomy Cast (http://www.astronomycast.com/physics/ep-138-quantum-mechanics/) Quantum
Mechanics — June 2009. Fraser Cain interviews Pamela L. Gay.
Philosophy
Ismael, Jenann. "Quantum Mechanics" (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qm/). Stanford Encyclopedia of

Philosophy.
Krips, Henry. "Measurement in Quantum Theory" (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qt-measurement/).
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quantum_mechanics&oldid=791193616"
Categories: Concepts in physics Quantum mechanics

7/19/2017 Theory of relativity - Wikipedia
Theory of relativity
The theory of relativity usually encompasses two

interrelated theories by Albert Einstein: special relativity
and general relativity.[1] Special relativity applies to
elementary particles and their interactions, describing all
their physical phenomena except gravity. General relativity
explains the law of gravitation and its relation to other
forces of nature.[2] It applies to the cosmological and
astrophysical realm, including astronomy.[3] Two-dimensional projection of a three-dimensional
analogy of spacetime curvature described in general
The theory transformed theoretical physics and astronomy relativity
during the 20th century, superseding a 200-year-old theory
of mechanics created primarily by Isaac Newton.[3][4][5] It
introduced concepts including spacetime as a unified entity of space and time, relativity of simultaneity,
kinematic and gravitational time dilation, and length contraction. In the field of physics, relativity improved the
science of elementary particles and their fundamental interactions, along with ushering in the nuclear age. With
relativity, cosmology and astrophysics predicted extraordinary astronomical phenomena such as neutron stars,
black holes, and gravitational waves.[3][4][5]
Contents
1 Development and acceptance
2 Special relativity
3 General relativity
4 Experimental evidence
4.1 Tests of special relativity
4.2 Tests of general relativity
5 Modern applications
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Development and acceptance

Albert Einstein published the theory of special relativity in 1905, building on many theoretical results and
empirical findings obtained by Albert A. Michelson, Hendrik Lorentz, Henri Poincaré and others. Max Planck,
Hermann Minkowski and others did subsequent work.
Einstein developed general relativity between 1907 and 1915, with contributions by many others after 1915.
The final form of general relativity was published in 1916.[3]
The term "theory of relativity" was based on the expression "relative theory" (German: Relativtheorie) used in
1906 by Planck, who emphasized how the theory uses the principle of relativity. In the discussion section of the
same paper, Alfred Bucherer used for the first time the expression "theory of relativity" (German:
Relativitätstheorie).[6][7]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_relativity 1/6
By the 1920s, the physics community understood and accepted special relativity.[8] It rapidly became a
significant and necessary tool for theorists and experimentalists in the new fields of atomic physics, nuclear
physics, and quantum mechanics.
By comparison, general relativity did not appear to be as useful, beyond making minor corrections to
predictions of Newtonian gravitation theory.[3] It seemed to offer little potential for experimental test, as most
of its assertions were on an astronomical scale. Its mathematics of general relativity seemed difficult and fully
understandable only by a small number of people. Around 1960, general relativity became central to physics
and astronomy. New mathematical techniques to apply to general relativity streamlined calculations and made
its concepts more easily visualized. As astronomical phenomena were discovered, such as quasars (1963), the
3-kelvin microwave background radiation (1965), pulsars (1967), and the first black hole candidates (1981),[3]
the theory explained their attributes, and measurement of them further confirmed the theory.
Special relativity
Special relativity is a theory of the structure of spacetime. It was introduced in Einstein's 1905 paper "On the
Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" (for the contributions of many other physicists see History of special
relativity). Special relativity is based on two postulates which are contradictory in classical mechanics:
1. The laws of physics are the same for all observers in uniform motion relative to one another (principle of
relativity).
2. The speed of light in a vacuum is the same for all observers, regardless of their relative motion or of the
motion of the light source.
The resultant theory copes with experiment better than classical mechanics. For instance, postulate 2 explains
the results of the Michelson–Morley experiment. Moreover, the theory has many surprising and counterintuitive
consequences. Some of these are:
Relativity of simultaneity: Two events, simultaneous for one observer, may not be simultaneous for
another observer if the observers are in relative motion.
Time dilation: Moving clocks are measured to tick more slowly than an observer's "stationary" clock.
Length contraction: Objects are measured to be shortened in the direction that they are moving with
respect to the observer.
Maximum speed is finite: No physical object, message or field line can travel faster than the speed of
light in a vacuum.
The effect of Gravity can only travel through space at the speed of light, not faster or instantaneously.
Mass–energy equivalence: E = mc2, energy and mass are equivalent and transmutable.
Relativistic mass, idea used by some researchers.[9]
The defining feature of special relativity is the replacement of the Galilean transformations of classical
mechanics by the Lorentz transformations. (See Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism).
General relativity
General relativity is a theory of gravitation developed by Einstein in the years 1907–1915. The development of
general relativity began with the equivalence principle, under which the states of accelerated motion and being
at rest in a gravitational field (for example, when standing on the surface of the Earth) are physically identical.
The upshot of this is that free fall is inertial motion: an object in free fall is falling because that is how objects
move when there is no force being exerted on them, instead of this being due to the force of gravity as is the
case in classical mechanics. This is incompatible with classical mechanics and special relativity because in
those theories inertially moving objects cannot accelerate with respect to each other, but objects in free fall do
so. To resolve this difficulty Einstein first proposed that spacetime is curved. In 1915, he devised the Einstein
field equations which relate the curvature of spacetime with the mass, energy, and any momentum within it.
Some of the consequences of general relativity are:
Clocks run slower in deeper gravitational wells.[10] This is called gravitational time dilation.
Orbits precess in a way unexpected in Newton's theory of gravity. (This has been observed in the orbit of
Mercury and in binary pulsars).
Rays of light bend in the presence of a gravitational field.
Rotating masses "drag along" the spacetime around them; a phenomenon termed "frame-dragging".
The universe is expanding, and the far parts of it are moving away from us faster than the speed of light.
Technically, general relativity is a theory of gravitation whose defining feature is its use of the Einstein field
equations. The solutions of the field equations are metric tensors which define the topology of the spacetime
and how objects move inertially.
Experimental evidence
Einstein stated that the theory of relativity belongs to a class of "principle-theories". As such, it employs an
analytic method, which means that the elements of this theory are not based on hypothesis but on empirical
discovery. By observing natural processes, we understand their general characteristics, devise mathematical
models to describe what we observed, and by analytical means we deduce the necessary conditions that have to
be satisfied. Measurement of separate events must satisfy these conditions and match the theory's
conclusions.[2]
Tests of special relativity
Relativity is a falsifiable theory: It makes predictions that can be tested

by experiment. In the case of special relativity, these include the
principle of relativity, the constancy of the speed of light, and time
dilation.[11] The predictions of special relativity have been confirmed in
numerous tests since Einstein published his paper in 1905, but three
experiments conducted between 1881 and 1938 were critical to its
validation. These are the Michelson–Morley experiment, the Kennedy–
Thorndike experiment, and the Ives–Stilwell experiment. Einstein
derived the Lorentz transformations from first principles in 1905, but
these three experiments allow the transformations to be induced from
A diagram of the Michelson–Morley
experimental evidence.
experiment
Maxwell's equations—the foundation of classical electromagnetism—
describe light as a wave that moves with a characteristic velocity. The modern view is that light needs no
medium of transmission, but Maxwell and his contemporaries were convinced that light waves were propagated
in a medium, analogous to sound propagating in air, and ripples propagating on the surface of a pond. This
hypothetical medium was called the luminiferous aether, at rest relative to the "fixed stars" and through which
the Earth moves. Fresnel's partial ether dragging hypothesis ruled out the measurement of first-order (v/c)
effects, and although observations of second-order effects (v2/c2) were possible in principle, Maxwell thought
they were too small to be detected with then-current technology.[12][13]
The Michelson–Morley experiment was designed to detect second-order effects of the "aether wind"—the
motion of the aether relative to the earth. Michelson designed an instrument called the Michelson
interferometer to accomplish this. The apparatus was more than accurate enough to detect the expected effects,
but he obtained a null result when the first experiment was conducted in 1881,[14] and again in 1887.[15]
Although the failure to detect an aether wind was a disappointment, the results were accepted by the scientific
community.[13] In an attempt to salvage the aether paradigm, FitzGerald and Lorentz independently created an
ad hoc hypothesis in which the length of material bodies changes according to their motion through the
aether.[16] This was the origin of FitzGerald–Lorentz contraction, and their hypothesis had no theoretical basis.
The interpretation of the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment is that the round-trip travel time for
light is isotropic (independent of direction), but the result alone is not enough to discount the theory of the
aether or validate the predictions of special relativity.[17][18]
While the Michelson–Morley experiment showed that the velocity of

light is isotropic, it said nothing about how the magnitude of the
velocity changed (if at all) in different inertial frames. The Kennedy–
Thorndike experiment was designed to do that, and was first performed
in 1932 by Roy Kennedy and Edward Thorndike.[19] They obtained a
null result, and concluded that "there is no effect ... unless the velocity
of the solar system in space is no more than about half that of the earth
in its orbit".[18][20] That possibility was thought to be too coincidental to
provide an acceptable explanation, so from the null result of their
The Kennedy–Thorndike experiment
experiment it was concluded that the round-trip time for light is the
shown with interference fringes. same in all inertial reference frames.[17][18]
The Ives–Stilwell experiment was carried out by Herbert Ives and G.R.
Stilwell first in 1938[21] and with better accuracy in 1941.[22] It was designed to test the transverse Doppler
effect – the redshift of light from a moving source in a direction perpendicular to its velocity—which had been
predicted by Einstein in 1905. The strategy was to compare observed Doppler shifts with what was predicted
by classical theory, and look for a Lorentz factor correction. Such a correction was observed, from which was
concluded that the frequency of a moving atomic clock is altered according to special relativity.[17][18]
Those classic experiments have been repeated many times with increased precision. Other experiments include,
for instance, relativistic energy and momentum increase at high velocities, time dilation of moving particles,
and modern searches for Lorentz violations.
Tests of general relativity
General relativity has also been confirmed many times, the classic experiments being the perihelion precession
of Mercury's orbit, the deflection of light by the Sun, and the gravitational redshift of light. Other tests
confirmed the equivalence principle and frame dragging.
Modern applications
Far from being simply of theoretical interest, relativitistic effects are important practical engineering concerns.
Satellite-based measurement needs to take into account relativistic effects, as each satellite is in motion relative
to an Earth-bound user and is thus in a different frame of reference under the theory of relativity. Global
positioning systems such as GPS, GLONASS, and the forthcoming Galileo, must account for all of the
relativistic effects, such as the consequences of Earth's gravitational field, in order to work with precision.[23]
This is also the case in the high-precision measurement of time.[24] Instruments ranging from electron
microscopes to particle accelerators would not work if relativistic considerations were omitted.
See also
Doubly special relativity
Galilean invariance
General relativity references
Scale relativity
Special relativity references
References
1. Einstein A. (1916), Relativity: The Special and General Theory (Translation 1920), New York: H. Holt and
Company
2. Einstein, Albert (November 28, 1919). "Time, Space, and Gravitation". The Times.
3. Will, Clifford M (August 1, 2010). "Relativity" (http://gme.grolier.com/article?assetid=0244990-0). Grolier
Multimedia Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2010-08-01.
4. Will, Clifford M (August 1, 2010). "Space-Time Continuum" (http://gme.grolier.com/article?assetid=0272730-0).
Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2010-08-01.
5. Will, Clifford M (August 1, 2010). "Fitzgerald–Lorentz contraction" (http://gme.grolier.com/article?assetid=0107090
-0). Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2010-08-01.
6. Planck, Max (1906), "Die Kaufmannschen Messungen der Ablenkbarkeit der β-Strahlen in ihrer Bedeutung für die
Dynamik der Elektronen (The Measurements of Kaufmann on the Deflectability of β-Rays in their Importance for
the Dynamics of the Electrons)", Physikalische Zeitschrift, 7: 753–761
7. Miller, Arthur I. (1981), Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation
(1905–1911), Reading: Addison–Wesley, ISBN 0-201-04679-2
8. Hey, Anthony J. G.; Walters, Patrick (2003). The New Quantum Universe (https://books.google.com/books?id=cTk-e
VzT1oMC) (illustrated, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 227. ISBN 978-0-521-56457-1. Extract of page
227 (https://books.google.com/books?id=cTk-eVzT1oMC&pg=PA227)
9. Greene, Brian. "The Theory of Relativity, Then and Now" (http://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/theory-of-re
lativity-then-and-now-180956622/?no-ist). Retrieved 2015-09-26.
10. Feynman, Richard Phillips; Morínigo, Fernando B.; Wagner, William; Pines, David; Hatfield, Brian (2002).
Feynman Lectures on Gravitation (https://books.google.com/books?id=jL9reHGIcMgC). West view Press. p. 68.
ISBN 0-8133-4038-1., Lecture 5
11. Roberts, T; Schleif, S; Dlugosz, JM (ed.) (2007). "What is the experimental basis of Special Relativity?" (http://math.
ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SR/experiments.html). Usenet Physics FAQ. University of California,
Riverside. Retrieved 2010-10-31.
12. Maxwell, James Clerk (1880), "On a Possible Mode of Detecting a Motion of the Solar System through the
Luminiferous Ether", Nature, 21 (535): 314–315, Bibcode:1880Natur..21S.314. (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1880
Natur..21S.314.), doi:10.1038/021314c0 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F021314c0)
13. Pais, Abraham (1982). "Subtle is the Lord ...": The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford
Univ. Press. pp. 111–113. ISBN 0192806726.
14. Michelson, Albert A. (1881). "The Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether". American Journal of
Science. 22 (128): 120–129. doi:10.2475/ajs.s3-22.128.120 (https://doi.org/10.2475%2Fajs.s3-22.128.120).
15. Michelson, Albert A. & Morley, Edward W. (1887). "On the Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous
Ether". American Journal of Science. 34 (203): 333–345. doi:10.2475/ajs.s3-34.203.333 (https://doi.org/10.2475%2F
ajs.s3-34.203.333).
16. Pais, Abraham (1982). "Subtle is the Lord ...": The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford
Univ. Press. p. 122. ISBN 0192806726.
17. Robertson, H.P. (July 1949). "Postulate versus Observation in the Special Theory of Relativity". Reviews of Modern
Physics. 21 (3): 378–382. Bibcode:1949RvMP...21..378R (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1949RvMP...21..378R).
doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.21.378 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.21.378).
18. Taylor, Edwin F.; John Archibald Wheeler (1992). Spacetime physics: Introduction to Special Relativity (2nd ed.).
New York: W.H. Freeman. pp. 84–88. ISBN 0716723271.
19. Kennedy, R. J.; Thorndike, E. M. (1932). "Experimental Establishment of the Relativity of Time". Physical Review.
42 (3): 400–418. Bibcode:1932PhRv...42..400K (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1932PhRv...42..400K).
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.42.400 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.42.400).
20. Robertson, H.P. (July 1949). "Postulate versus Observation in the Special Theory of Relativity". Reviews of Modern
Physics. 21 (3): 381. Bibcode:1949RvMP...21..378R (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1949RvMP...21..378R).
doi:10.1103/revmodphys.21.378 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2Frevmodphys.21.378).
21. Ives, H. E.; Stilwell, G. R. (1938). "An experimental study of the rate of a moving atomic clock". Journal of the
Optical Society of America. 28 (7): 215. Bibcode:1938JOSA...28..215I (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1938JOSA...2
8..215I). doi:10.1364/JOSA.28.000215 (https://doi.org/10.1364%2FJOSA.28.000215).
22. Ives, H. E.; Stilwell, G. R. (1941). "An experimental study of the rate of a moving atomic clock. II". Journal of the
Optical Society of America. 31 (5): 369. Bibcode:1941JOSA...31..369I (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1941JOSA...3
1..369I). doi:10.1364/JOSA.31.000369 (https://doi.org/10.1364%2FJOSA.31.000369).
23. http://relativity.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrr-2003-1/download/lrr-2003-1Color.pdf
24. Francis, S.; B. Ramsey; S. Stein; Leitner, J.; M. Moreau. J. M.; Burns, R.; Nelson, R. A.; Bartholomew, T. R.;
Gifford, A. (2002). "Timekeeping and Time Dissemination in a Distributed Space-Based Clock Ensemble" (http://tyc
ho.usno.navy.mil/ptti/ptti2002/paper20.pdf) (PDF). Proceedings 34th Annual Precise Time and Time Interval (PTTI)
Systems and Applications Meeting: 201–214. Retrieved 14 April 2013.
Further reading
Einstein, Albert (2005). Relativity: The Special and General Theory. Translated by Robert W. Lawson
(The masterpiece science ed.). New York: Pi Press. ISBN 0131862618.
Einstein, Albert. Relativity: The Special and General Theory (https://www.ibiblio.org/ebooks/Einstein/Ei
nstein_Relativity.pdf) (PDF). 1920: Henry Holt and Company.
Einstein, Albert; trans. Schilpp; Paul Arthur (1979). Albert Einstein, Autobiographical Notes (A
Centennial ed.). La Salle, Ill.: Open Court Publishing Co. ISBN 0875483526.
Einstein, Albert (2009). Einstein's Essays in Science. Translated by Alan Harris (Dover ed.). Mineola,
N.Y.: Dover Publications. ISBN 9780486470115.
Einstein, Albert (1956) [1922]. The Meaning of Relativity (5 ed.). Princeton University Press.
The Meaning of Relativity (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/36276/36276-pdf.pdf?session_id=c6fd49e1b7
f6dd81790ed141e999cf2bce859386) Albert Einstein: Four lectures delivered at Princeton University,
May 1921
How I created the theory of relativity (http://inpac.ucsd.edu/students/courses/winter2012/physics2d/einst
einonrelativity.pdf) Albert Einstein, December 14, 1922; Physics Today August 1982
Relativity (http://www.britannica.com/science/relativity) Sidney Perkowitz Encyclopædia Britannica
External links
Theory of relativity (https://dmoztools.net/Science/Physics/Relati
vity/) at DMOZ
related to: Theory of
Relativity Milestones: Timeline of Notable Relativity Scientists relativity
and Contributions (http://www.juliantrubin.com/schooldirectory/r
elativity_scientists_timeline.html)
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7/19/2017 Nuclear physics - Wikipedia
Nuclear physics
Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies atomic nuclei and their constituents and interactions. Other
forms of nuclear matter are also studied.[1] Nuclear physics should not be confused with atomic physics, which
studies the atom as a whole, including its electrons.
Discoveries in nuclear physics have led to applications in many fields. This includes nuclear power, nuclear
weapons, nuclear medicine and magnetic resonance imaging, industrial and agricultural isotopes, ion
implantation in materials engineering, and radiocarbon dating in geology and archaeology. Such applications
are studied in the field of nuclear engineering.
Particle physics evolved out of nuclear physics and the two fields are typically taught in close association.
Nuclear astrophysics, the application of nuclear physics to astrophysics, is crucial in explaining the inner
workings of stars and the origin of the chemical elements.
Contents
1 History
1.1 Rutherford's team discovers the nucleus
1.2 James Chadwick discovers the neutron
1.3 Proca's equations of the massive vector boson field
1.4 Yukawa's meson postulated to bind nuclei
2 Modern nuclear physics
2.1 Nuclear decay
2.2 Nuclear fusion
2.3 Nuclear fission
2.4 Production of "heavy" elements (atomic number greater than five)
3 See also
4 References
5 Bibliography
6 External links
History
The history of nuclear physics as a discipline distinct from atomic physics starts with the discovery of
radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in 1896,[2] while investigating phosphorescence in uranium salts.[3] The
discovery of the electron by J. J. Thomson[4] a year later was an indication that the atom had internal structure.
At the beginning of the 20th century the accepted model of the atom was J. J. Thomson's "plum pudding"
model in which the atom was a positively charged ball with smaller negatively charged electrons embedded
inside it.
In the years that followed, radioactivity was extensively investigated, notably by Marie and Pierre Curie as well
as by Ernest Rutherford and his collaborators. By the turn of the century physicists had also discovered three
types of radiation emanating from atoms, which they named alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Experiments by
Otto Hahn in 1911 and by James Chadwick in 1914 discovered that the beta decay spectrum was continuous
rather than discrete. That is, electrons were ejected from the atom with a continuous range of energies, rather
than the discrete amounts of energy that were observed in gamma and alpha decays. This was a problem for
nuclear physics at the time, because it seemed to indicate that energy was not conserved in these decays.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_physics 1/7
The 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded jointly to Becquerel for
his discovery and to Marie and Pierre Curie for their subsequent
research into radioactivity. Rutherford was awarded the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1908 for his "investigations into the disintegration of the
elements and the chemistry of radioactive substances".
In 1905 Albert Einstein formulated the idea of mass–energy

equivalence. While the work on radioactivity by Becquerel and Marie
Curie predates this, an explanation of the source of the energy of
radioactivity would have to wait for the discovery that the nucleus itself
was composed of smaller constituents, the nucleons.
Rutherford's team discovers the nucleus
In 1906 Ernest Rutherford published "Retardation of the α Particle from

Radium in passing through matter."[5] Hans Geiger expanded on this Henri Becquerel
work in a communication to the Royal Society[6] with experiments he

and Rutherford had done, passing alpha particles through air, aluminum foil and gold leaf. More work was
published in 1909 by Geiger and Ernest Marsden,[7] and further greatly expanded work was published in 1910
by Geiger.[8] In 1911–1912 Rutherford went before the Royal Society to explain the experiments and propound
the new theory of the atomic nucleus as we now understand it.
The key experiment behind this announcement was performed in 1910 at the University of Manchester: Ernest
Rutherford's team performed a remarkable experiment in which Geiger and Marsden under Rutherford's
supervision fired alpha particles (helium nuclei) at a thin film of gold foil. The plum pudding model had
predicted that the alpha particles should come out of the foil with their trajectories being at most slightly bent.
But Rutherford instructed his team to look for something that shocked him to observe: a few particles were
scattered through large angles, even completely backwards in some cases. He likened it to firing a bullet at
tissue paper and having it bounce off. The discovery, with Rutherford's analysis of the data in 1911, led to the
Rutherford model of the atom, in which the atom had a very small, very dense nucleus containing most of its
mass, and consisting of heavy positively charged particles with embedded electrons in order to balance out the
charge (since the neutron was unknown). As an example, in this model (which is not the modern one) nitrogen-
14 consisted of a nucleus with 14 protons and 7 electrons (21 total particles) and the nucleus was surrounded by
7 more orbiting electrons.
The Rutherford model worked quite well until studies of nuclear spin were carried out by Franco Rasetti at the
California Institute of Technology in 1929. By 1925 it was known that protons and electrons each had a spin of
1⁄2. In the Rutherford model of nitrogen-14, 20 of the total 21 nuclear particles should have paired up to cancel
each other's spin, and the final odd particle should have left the nucleus with a net spin of 1⁄2. Rasetti
discovered, however, that nitrogen-14 had a spin of 1.
James Chadwick discovers the neutron
In 1932 Chadwick realized that radiation that had been observed by Walther Bothe, Herbert Becker, Irène and
Frédéric Joliot-Curie was actually due to a neutral particle of about the same mass as the proton, that he called
the neutron (following a suggestion from Rutherford about the need for such a particle).[9] In the same year
Dmitri Ivanenko suggested that there were no electrons in the nucleus — only protons and neutrons — and that
neutrons were spin 1⁄2 particles which explained the mass not due to protons. The neutron spin immediately
solved the problem of the spin of nitrogen-14, as the one unpaired proton and one unpaired neutron in this
model each contributed a spin of 1⁄2 in the same direction, giving a final total spin of 1.
With the discovery of the neutron, scientists could at last calculate what fraction of binding energy each nucleus
had, by comparing the nuclear mass with that of the protons and neutrons which composed it. Differences
between nuclear masses were calculated in this way. When nuclear reactions were measured, these were found
to agree with Einstein's calculation of the equivalence of mass and energy to within 1% as of 1934.
Proca's equations of the massive vector boson field
Alexandru Proca was the first to develop and report the massive vector boson field equations and a theory of
the mesonic field of nuclear forces. Proca's equations were known to Wolfgang Pauli[10] who mentioned the
equations in his Nobel address, and they were also known to Yukawa, Wentzel, Taketani, Sakata, Kemmer,
Heitler, and Fröhlich who appreciated the content of Proca's equations for developing a theory of the atomic
nuclei in Nuclear Physics.[11][12][13][14][15]
Yukawa's meson postulated to bind nuclei
In 1935 Hideki Yukawa [16] proposed the first significant theory of the strong force to explain how the nucleus
holds together. In the Yukawa interaction a virtual particle, later called a meson, mediated a force between all
nucleons, including protons and neutrons. This force explained why nuclei did not disintegrate under the
influence of proton repulsion, and it also gave an explanation of why the attractive strong force had a more
limited range than the electromagnetic repulsion between protons. Later, the discovery of the pi meson showed
it to have the properties of Yukawa's particle.
With Yukawa's papers, the modern model of the atom was complete. The center of the atom contains a tight
ball of neutrons and protons, which is held together by the strong nuclear force, unless it is too large. Unstable
nuclei may undergo alpha decay, in which they emit an energetic helium nucleus, or beta decay, in which they
eject an electron (or positron). After one of these decays the resultant nucleus may be left in an excited state,
and in this case it decays to its ground state by emitting high energy photons (gamma decay).
The study of the strong and weak nuclear forces (the latter explained by Enrico Fermi via Fermi's interaction in
1934) led physicists to collide nuclei and electrons at ever higher energies. This research became the science of
particle physics, the crown jewel of which is the standard model of particle physics which describes the strong,
weak, and electromagnetic forces.
Modern nuclear physics

A heavy nucleus can contain hundreds of nucleons. This means that with some approximation it can be treated
as a classical system, rather than a quantum-mechanical one. In the resulting liquid-drop model,[17] the nucleus
has an energy which arises partly from surface tension and partly from electrical repulsion of the protons. The
liquid-drop model is able to reproduce many features of nuclei, including the general trend of binding energy
with respect to mass number, as well as the phenomenon of nuclear fission.
Superimposed on this classical picture, however, are quantum-mechanical effects, which can be described using
the nuclear shell model, developed in large part by Maria Goeppert Mayer[18] and J. Hans D. Jensen.[19] Nuclei
with certain numbers of neutrons and protons (the magic numbers 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126, ...) are particularly
stable, because their shells are filled.
Other more complicated models for the nucleus have also been proposed, such as the interacting boson model,
in which pairs of neutrons and protons interact as bosons, analogously to Cooper pairs of electrons.
Ab initio methods try to solve the nuclear many-body problem from the ground up, starting from the nucleons
and their interactions.
Much of current research in nuclear physics relates to the study of nuclei under extreme conditions such as high
spin and excitation energy. Nuclei may also have extreme shapes (similar to that of Rugby balls or even pears)
or extreme neutron-to-proton ratios. Experimenters can create such nuclei using artificially induced fusion or
nucleon transfer reactions, employing ion beams from an accelerator. Beams with even higher energies can be
used to create nuclei at very high temperatures, and there are signs that these experiments have produced a
phase transition from normal nuclear matter to a new state, the quark–gluon plasma, in which the quarks mingle
with one another, rather than being segregated in triplets as they are in neutrons and protons.
Nuclear decay
Eighty elements have at least one stable isotope which is never observed to decay, amounting to a total of about
254 stable isotopes. However, thousands of isotopes have been characterized as unstable. These "radioisotopes"
decay over time scales ranging from fractions of a second to trillions of years. Plotted on a chart as a function
of atomic and neutron numbers, the binding energy of the nuclides forms what is known as the valley of
stability. Stable nuclides lie along the bottom of this energy valley, while increasingly unstable nuclides lie up
the valley walls, that is, have weaker binding energy.
The most stable nuclei fall within certain ranges or balances of composition of neutrons and protons: too few or
too many neutrons (in relation to the number of protons) will cause it to decay. For example, in beta decay a
nitrogen-16 atom (7 protons, 9 neutrons) is converted to an oxygen-16 atom (8 protons, 8 neutrons)[20] within a
few seconds of being created. In this decay a neutron in the nitrogen nucleus is converted by the weak
interaction into a proton, an electron and an antineutrino. The element is transmuted to another element, with a
different number of protons.
In alpha decay (which typically occurs in the heaviest nuclei) the radioactive element decays by emitting a
helium nucleus (2 protons and 2 neutrons), giving another element, plus helium-4. In many cases this process
continues through several steps of this kind, including other types of decays (usually beta decay) until a stable
element is formed.
In gamma decay, a nucleus decays from an excited state into a lower energy state, by emitting a gamma ray.
The element is not changed to another element in the process (no nuclear transmutation is involved).
Other more exotic decays are possible (see the first main article). For example, in internal conversion decay, the
energy from an excited nucleus may eject one of the inner orbital electrons from the atom, in a process which
produces high speed electrons, but is not beta decay, and (unlike beta decay) does not transmute one element to
another.
Nuclear fusion
In nuclear fusion, two low mass nuclei come into very close contact with each other, so that the strong force
fuses them. It requires a large amount of energy for the strong or nuclear forces to overcome the electrical
repulsion between the nuclei in order to fuse them; therefore nuclear fusion can only take place at very high
temperatures or high pressures. When nuclei fuse, a very large amount of energy is released and the combined
nucleus assumes a lower energy level. The binding energy per nucleon increases with mass number up to
nickel-62. Stars like the Sun are powered by the fusion of four protons into a helium nucleus, two positrons,
and two neutrinos. The uncontrolled fusion of hydrogen into helium is known as thermonuclear runaway. A
frontier in current research at various institutions, for example the Joint European Torus (JET) and ITER, is the
development of an economically viable method of using energy from a controlled fusion reaction. Nuclear
fusion is the origin of the energy (including in the form of light and other electromagnetic radiation) produced
by the core of all stars including our own Sun.
Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission is the reverse process to fusion. For nuclei heavier than nickel-62 the binding energy per
nucleon decreases with the mass number. It is therefore possible for energy to be released if a heavy nucleus
breaks apart into two lighter ones.
The process of alpha decay is in essence a special type of spontaneous nuclear fission. It is a highly
asymmetrical fission because the four particles which make up the alpha particle are especially tightly bound to
each other, making production of this nucleus in fission particularly likely.
From certain of the heaviest nuclei whose fission produces free neutrons, and which also easily absorb neutrons
to initiate fission, a self-igniting type of neutron-initiated fission can be obtained, in a chain reaction. Chain
reactions were known in chemistry before physics, and in fact many familiar processes like fires and chemical
explosions are chemical chain reactions. The fission or "nuclear" chain-reaction, using fission-produced
neutrons, is the source of energy for nuclear power plants and fission type nuclear bombs, such as those
detonated in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, at the end of World War II. Heavy nuclei such as uranium and
thorium may also undergo spontaneous fission, but they are much more likely to undergo decay by alpha decay.
For a neutron-initiated chain reaction to occur, there must be a critical mass of the relevant isotope present in a
certain space under certain conditions. The conditions for the smallest critical mass require the conservation of
the emitted neutrons and also their slowing or moderation so that there is a greater cross-section or probability
of them initiating another fission. In two regions of Oklo, Gabon, Africa, natural nuclear fission reactors were
active over 1.5 billion years ago.[21] Measurements of natural neutrino emission have demonstrated that around
half of the heat emanating from the Earth's core results from radioactive decay. However, it is not known if any
of this results from fission chain reactions.
Production of "heavy" elements (atomic number greater than five)
According to the theory, as the Universe cooled after the Big Bang it eventually became possible for common
subatomic particles as we know them (neutrons, protons and electrons) to exist. The most common particles
created in the Big Bang which are still easily observable to us today were protons and electrons (in equal
numbers). The protons would eventually form hydrogen atoms. Almost all the neutrons created in the Big Bang
were absorbed into helium-4 in the first three minutes after the Big Bang, and this helium accounts for most of
the helium in the universe today (see Big Bang nucleosynthesis).
Some relatively small quantities of elements beyond helium (lithium, beryllium, and perhaps some boron) were
created in the Big Bang, as the protons and neutrons collided with each other, but all of the "heavier elements"
(carbon, element number 6, and elements of greater atomic number) that we see today, were created inside stars
during a series of fusion stages, such as the proton-proton chain, the CNO cycle and the triple-alpha process.
Progressively heavier elements are created during the evolution of a star.
Since the binding energy per nucleon peaks around iron (56 nucleons), energy is only released in fusion
processes involving smaller atoms than that. Since the creation of heavier nuclei by fusion requires energy,
nature resorts to the process of neutron capture. Neutrons (due to their lack of charge) are readily absorbed by a
nucleus. The heavy elements are created by either a slow neutron capture process (the so-called s process) or
the rapid, or r process. The s process occurs in thermally pulsing stars (called AGB, or asymptotic giant branch
stars) and takes hundreds to thousands of years to reach the heaviest elements of lead and bismuth. The r
process is thought to occur in supernova explosions which provide the necessary conditions of high
temperature, high neutron flux and ejected matter. These stellar conditions make the successive neutron
captures very fast, involving very neutron-rich species which then beta-decay to heavier elements, especially at
the so-called waiting points that correspond to more stable nuclides with closed neutron shells (magic
numbers).
See also
Isomeric shift
Neutron-degenerate matter
Nuclear matter
Nuclear model
QCD matter
References
1. European Science Foundation (2010). NuPECC Long Range Plan 2010: Perspectives of Nuclear Physics in Europe
(http://www.nupecc.org/lrp2010/Documents/lrp2010_final_hires.pdf) (PDF) (Report). p. 6. "Nuclear physics is the
science of the atomic nucleus and of nuclear matter."
2. B. R. Martin (2006). Nuclear and Particle Physics. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN 0-470-01999-9.
3. Henri Becquerel (1896). "Sur les radiations émises par phosphorescence" (http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3078
0/f422.chemindefer). Comptes Rendus. 122: 420–421.
4. Thomson, Joseph John (1897). "Cathode Rays" (https://archive.org/stream/proceedings15roya#page/418/mode/2up).
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain. Royal Society. XV: 419–432.
5. Rutherford, Ernest (1906). "On the retardation of the α particle from radium in passing through matter" (http://www.t
andfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14786440609463525). Philosophical Magazine. Taylor & Francis. 12 (68): 134–
146. doi:10.1080/14786440609463525 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440609463525).
6. Geiger, Hans (1908). "On the scattering of α-particles by matter" (http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/81/5
46/174). Proceedings of the Royal Society A. Royal Society. 81 (546): 174–177. doi:10.1098/rspa.1908.0067 (https://
doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1908.0067).
7. Geiger, Hans; Marsden, Ernest (1909). "On the diffuse reflection of the α-particles" (http://rspa.royalsocietypublishin
g.org/content/82/557/495). Proceedings of the Royal Society A. Royal Society. 82 (557). doi:10.1098/rspa.1909.0054
(https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1909.0054).
8. Geiger, Hans (1910). "The scattering of the α-particles by matter" (http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/83/
565/492). Proceedings of the Royal Society A. Royal Society. 83 (565): 492–504. doi:10.1098/rspa.1910.0038 (http
s://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1910.0038).
9. Chadwick, James (1932). "The existence of a neutron" (http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/136/830/692).
Proceedings of the Royal Society A. Royal Society. 136 (830): 692–708. doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0112 (https://doi.org/
10.1098%2Frspa.1932.0112).
10. W. Pauli, Nobel lecture, December 13, 1946.
11. Poenaru, Dorin N.; Calboreanu, Alexandru. "Alexandru Proca (1897–1955) and his equation of the massive vector
boson field". Europhysics News. 37 (5): 25–27. Bibcode:2006ENews..37...24P (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006E
News..37...24P). doi:10.1051/epn:2006504 (https://doi.org/10.1051%2Fepn%3A2006504) – via
http://www.europhysicsnews.org.
12. G. A. Proca, Alexandre Proca.Oeuvre Scientifique Publiée, S.I.A.G., Rome, 1988.
13. Vuille, C.; Ipser, J.; Gallagher, J. (2002). "Einstein-Proca model, micro black holes, and naked singularities".
General Relativity and Gravitation. 34: 689. doi:10.1023/a:1015942229041 (https://doi.org/10.1023%2Fa%3A10159
42229041).
14. Scipioni, R. (1999). "Isomorphism between non-Riemannian gravity and Einstein-Proca-Weyl theories extended to a
class of scalar gravity theories". Class. Quantum Gravity. 16: 2471–2478. Bibcode:1999CQGra..16.2471S (http://ads
abs.harvard.edu/abs/1999CQGra..16.2471S). arXiv:gr-qc/9905022 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/9905022) .
doi:10.1088/0264-9381/16/7/320 (https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0264-9381%2F16%2F7%2F320).
15. Tucker, R. W.; Wang, C. (1997). "An Einstein-Proca-fluid model for dark matter gravitational interactions", Nucl.
Phys. B –". Proc. suppl. 57: 259–262. Bibcode:1997NuPhS..57..259T (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997NuPhS..5
7..259T). doi:10.1016/s0920-5632(97)00399-x (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0920-5632%2897%2900399-x).
16. On the Interaction of Elementary Particles I. Proceedings of the Physico-Mathematical Society of Japan. 3rd Series
Vol. 17 (1935) p. 48-57
17. J.M.Blatt and V.F.Weisskopf, Theoretical Nuclear Physics, Springer, 1979, VII.5
18. M.G. Mayer, Physical Review 75 (1949) 1969
19. O. Haxel, J.H.D. Jensen, H.E. Suess, Physical Review, 75 (1949) 1766
20. Not a typical example as it results in a "doubly magic" nucleus
21. Meshik, A. P. (November 2005). "The Workings of an Ancient Nuclear Reactor" (http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?
id=ancient-nuclear-reactor). Scientific American. 293: 82–91. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1105-82 (https://doi.org/
10.1038%2Fscientificamerican1105-82). Retrieved 2014-01-04.
Bibliography
Nuclear Physics by Irving Kaplan 2nd edition1962 Addison-Wesley
General Chemistry by Linus Pauling 1970 Dover Pub. ISBN 0-486-65622-5
Introductory Nuclear Physics by Kenneth S. Krane Pub. Wiley

N.D. Cook (2010). Models of the Atomic Nucleus (http://www.springer.com/physics/particle+and+nuclea
r+physics/book/978-3-642-14736-4) (2nd ed.). Springer. pp. xvi, 324. ISBN 978-3-642-14736-4.
Ahmad, D.Sc., Ishfaq; American Institute of Physics (1996). Physics of particles and nuclei. 1–3. 27 (3rd
ed.). University of California: American Institute of Physics Press.
External links
Ernest Rutherford's biography at the American Institute of Physics (http://www.aip.org/history/exhibits/r
utherford/)
American Physical Society Division of Nuclear Physics (http://dnp.aps.org)
American Nuclear Society (http://www.ans.org)
Annotated bibliography on nuclear physics from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues (http://also
s.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=science/Nuclear+Physics)
Nucleonica ..web driven nuclear science (http://www.nucleonica.net)
Nuclear science wiki (http://www.nucleonica.net/wiki/index.php/Main_Page)
Nuclear Data Services – IAEA (http://www-nds.iaea.org)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_physics&oldid=787363803"
Categories: Nuclear physics Concepts in physics Subfields of physics

7/24/2017 Experimental physics - Wikipedia
Experimental physics
Experimental physics is the category of disciplines and sub-disciplines in the field of physics that are
concerned with the observation of physical phenomena and experiments. Methods vary from discipline to
discipline, from simple experiments and observations, such as the Cavendish experiment, to more complicated
ones, such as the Large Hadron Collider.
Contents
1 Overview
2 History
3 Current experiments
4 Method
5 Famous experiments
6 Experimental techniques
7 Prominent experimental physicists
8 Timelines
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
Overview
Experimental physics regroups all the disciplines of physics that are concerned with data acquisition, data–
acquisition methods, and the detailed conceptualization (beyond simple thought experiments) and realization of
laboratory experiments. It is often put in contrast with theoretical physics, which is more concerned with
predicting and explaining the physical behaviour of nature than the acquisition of knowledge about it.
Although experimental and theoretical physics are concerned with different aspects of nature, they both share
the same goal of understanding it and have a symbiotic relation. The former provides data about the universe,
which can then be analyzed in order to be understood, while the latter provides explanations for the data and
thus offers insight on how to better acquire data and on how to set up experiments. Theoretical physics can also
offer insight on what data is needed in order to gain a better understanding of the universe, and on what
experiments to devise in order to obtain it.
History
As a distinct field, experimental physics was established in early modern Europe, during what is known as the
Scientific Revolution, by physicists such as Galileo Galilei, Christiaan Huygens, Johannes Kepler, Blaise
Pascal and Sir Isaac Newton. In the early 17th century, Galileo made extensive use of experimentation to
validate physical theories, which is the key idea in the modern scientific method. Galileo formulated and
successfully tested several results in dynamics, in particular the law of inertia, which later became the first law
in Newton's laws of motion. In Galileo's Two New Sciences, a dialogue between the characters Simplicio and
Salviati discuss the motion of a ship (as a moving frame) and how that ship's cargo is indifferent to its motion.
Huygens used the motion of a boat along a Dutch canal to illustrate an early form of the conservation of
momentum.
Experimental physics is considered to have reached a high point with the publication of the Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687 by Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727). In 1687, Newton published the
Principia, detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: Newton's laws of motion, from which
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_physics 1/5
arise classical mechanics; and Newton's law of universal gravitation, which describes the fundamental force of
gravity. Both theories agreed well with experiment. The Principia also included several theories in fluid
dynamics.
From the late 17th century onward, thermodynamics was developed by physicist and chemist Boyle, Young,
and many others. In 1733, Bernoulli used statistical arguments with classical mechanics to derive
thermodynamic results, initiating the field of statistical mechanics. In 1798, Thompson demonstrated the
conversion of mechanical work into heat, and in 1847 Joule stated the law of conservation of energy, in the
form of heat as well as mechanical energy. Ludwig Boltzmann, in the nineteenth century, is responsible for the
modern form of statistical mechanics.
Besides classical mechanics and thermodynamics, another great field of experimental inquiry within physics
was the nature of electricity. Observations in the 17th and eighteenth century by scientists such as Robert
Boyle, Stephen Gray, and Benjamin Franklin created a foundation for later work. These observations also
established our basic understanding of electrical charge and current. By 1808 John Dalton had discovered that
atoms of different elements have different weights and proposed the modern theory of the atom.
It was Hans Christian Ørsted who first proposed the connection between electricity and magnetism after
observing the deflection of a compass needle by a nearby electric current. By the early 1830s Michael Faraday
had demonstrated that magnetic fields and electricity could generate each other. In 1864 James Clerk Maxwell
presented to the Royal Society a set of equations that described this relationship between electricity and
magnetism. Maxwell's equations also predicted correctly that light is an electromagnetic wave. Starting with
astronomy, the principles of natural philosophy crystallized into fundamental laws of physics which were
enunciated and improved in the succeeding centuries. By the 19th century, the sciences had segmented into
multiple fields with specialized researchers and the field of physics, although logically pre-eminent, no longer
could claim sole ownership of the entire field of scientific research.
Current experiments
Some examples of prominent experimental physics projects are:
Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider which collides heavy ions such as

gold ions (it is the first heavy ion collider) and protons, it is
located at Brookhaven National Laboratory, on Long Island,
USA.
HERA, which collides electrons or positrons and protons, and is
part of DESY, located in Hamburg, Germany.
LHC, or the Large Hadron Collider, which completed
construction in 2008 but suffered a series of setbacks. The LHC
began operations in 2008, but was shut down for maintenance
until the summer of 2009. It is the world's most energetic collider
upon completion, it is located at CERN, on the French-Swiss
border near Geneva. The collider became fully operational March
29, 2010 a year and a half later than originally planned.[1]
LIGO, the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory,
is a large-scale physics experiment and observatory to detect
cosmic gravitational waves and to develop gravitational-wave A view of the CMS detector, an
observations as an astronomical tool. Currently two LIGO experimental endeavour of the LHC
observatories exist: LIGO Livingston Observatory in Livingston, at CERN.
Louisiana, and LIGO Hanford Observatory near Richland,
Washington.
JWST, or the James Webb Space Telescope, is planned for launch in 2018. It will be the successor to the
Hubble Space Telescope. It will survey the sky in the infrared region. The main goals of the JWST will
be in order to understand the initial stages of the universe, galaxy formation as well as the formations of
stars and planets, and the origins of life.
Method
Experimental physics uses two main methods of experimental research, controlled experiments, and natural
experiments. Controlled experiments are often used in laboratories as laboratories can offer a controlled
environment. Natural experiments are used, for example, in astrophysics when observing celestial objects
where control of the variables in effect is impossible.
Famous experiments
Famous experiments include:
2-degree-Field Galaxy Redshift Survey

2-Micron All-Sky Survey (2MASS)
Bell test experiments
BOOMERanG experiment
Camera obscura experiments
Cavendish experiment
Cosmic Background Explorer
Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment
Davisson–Germer experiment
Double-slit experiment
Foucault pendulum
Franck–Hertz experiment
Geiger–Marsden experiment
Gravity Probe A
Gravity Probe B
Hafele–Keating experiment
Homestake experiment
LIGO
Oil drop experiment
Michelson–Morley experiment
Sloan Digital Sky Survey
Stern–Gerlach experiment
Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
Wu experiment
Experimental techniques
Some well-known experimental techniques include:
Crystallography Raman spectroscopy

Ellipsometry Signal processing
Faraday cage Spectroscopy
Interferometry STM
NMR Vacuum technique
Laser cooling X-ray spectroscopy
Laser spectroscopy
Raman spectroscopy
Prominent experimental physicists
Famous experimental physicists include:
Alhazen (965–1039)
Al-Biruni (973–1043)
Al-Khazini (fl. 1115–1130)

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)
Isaac Newton (1643–1727)
Laura Bassi (1711–1778)
Michael Faraday (1791–1867)
Ernst Mach (1838–1916)
John William Strutt (3rd Baron Rayleigh) (1842–1919)
Wilhelm Röntgen (1845–1923)
Karl Ferdinand Braun (1850–1918)
Henri Becquerel (1852–1908)
Albert Abraham Michelson (1852–1931)
Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (1853–1926)
J. J. Thomson (1856–1940)
Nikola Tesla (1856–1943)
Jagadish Chandra Bose (1858–1937)
William Henry Bragg (1862–1942)
Marie Curie (1867–1934)
Robert Andrews Millikan (1868–1953)
Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937)
Lise Meitner (1878–1968)
Max von Laue (1879–1960)
Clinton Davisson (1881–1958)
C. V. Raman (1888–1970)
William Lawrence Bragg (1890–1971)
James Chadwick (1891–1974)
Pyotr Kapitsa (1894–1984)
Charles Drummond Ellis (1895–1980)
John Cockcroft (1897–1967)
Patrick Blackett (Baron Blackett) (1897–1974)
Ukichiro Nakaya (1900–1962)
Enrico Fermi (1901–1954)
Ernest Lawrence (1901–1958)
Walter Houser Brattain (1902–1987)
Pavel Cherenkov (1904–1990)
Carl David Anderson (1905–1991)
Ernst Ruska (1906–1988)
John Bardeen (1908–1991)
William Shockley (1910–1989)
Chien-Shiung Wu (1912–1997)
Charles Hard Townes (1915–2015)
Rosalind Franklin (1920–1958)
Owen Chamberlain (1920–2006)
Nicolaas Bloembergen (1920–)
Vera Rubin (1928–2016)
Mildred Dresselhaus (1930–)
Samar Mubarakmand (1942–)
Gerd Binnig (1947–)
Steven Chu (1948–)
Wolfgang Ketterle (1957–)
Andre Geim (1958–)
Lene Hau (1959–)
Timelines
See the timelines below for listings of physics experiments.
Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics

Timeline of classical mechanics
Timeline of electromagnetism and classical optics
Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity
Timeline of nuclear fusion
Timeline of particle discoveries
Timeline of particle physics technology
Timeline of states of matter and phase transitions
Timeline of thermodynamics
See also
Physics
Engineering
Experimental science
Measuring instrument
References
1. "Yes, we did it!" (http://cdsweb.cern.ch/journal/CERNBulletin/2010/14/News%20Articles/1246424?ln=en). CERN.
2010-03-29. Retrieved 2010-04-16.
Further reading
Taylor, John R. (1987). An Introduction to Error Analysis (2nd ed.). University Science Books. ISBN 0-
935702-75-X.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Experimental_physics&oldid=788539334"
Categories: Experimental physics Subfields of physics Experiments

7/24/2017 Theoretical physics - Wikipedia
Theoretical physics
Theoretical physics is a branch of physics that employs mathematical

models and abstractions of physical objects and systems to rationalize,
explain and predict natural phenomena. This is in contrast to
experimental physics, which uses experimental tools to probe these
phenomena.
The advancement of science generally depends on the interplay between

experimental studies and theory. In some cases, theoretical physics
adheres to standards of mathematical rigor while giving little weight to
experiments and observations.[a] For example, while developing special
relativity, Albert Einstein was concerned with the Lorentz
transformation which left Maxwell's equations invariant, but was
apparently uninterested in the Michelson–Morley experiment on Earth's Visual representation of a
drift through a luminiferous ether. Conversely, Einstein was awarded Schwarzschild wormhole. Wormholes
the Nobel Prize for explaining the photoelectric effect, previously an have never been observed, but they
experimental result lacking a theoretical formulation.[1] are predicted to exist through
mathematical models and scientific
theory.
Contents
1 Overview
2 History
3 Mainstream theories
3.1 Examples
4 Proposed theories
4.1 Examples
5 Fringe theories
5.1 Examples
6 Thought experiments vs real experiments
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 Suggested reading list
11 External links
Overview
A physical theory is a model of physical events. It is judged by the extent to which its predictions agree with
empirical observations. The quality of a physical theory is also judged on its ability to make new predictions
which can be verified by new observations. A physical theory differs from a mathematical theorem in that
while both are based on some form of axioms, judgment of mathematical applicability is not based on
agreement with any experimental results.[2][3] A physical theory similarly differs from a mathematical theory,
in the sense that the word "theory" has a different meaning in mathematical terms.[b]
A physical theory involves one or more relationships between various

measurable quantities. Archimedes realized that a ship floats by
displacing its mass of water, Pythagoras understood the relation “ ”
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_physics 1/6
between the length of a vibrating string and the musical tone it The equations for an
produces.[4][5] Other examples include entropy as a measure of the Einstein manifold, used
uncertainty regarding the positions and motions of unseen particles and in general relativity to
the quantum mechanical idea that (action and) energy are not describe the curvature
continuously variable. of spacetime
Theoretical physics consists of several different approaches. In this

regard, theoretical particle physics forms a good example. For instance: "phenomenologists" might employ
(semi-) empirical formulas to agree with experimental results, often without deep physical understanding.[c]
"Modelers" (also called "model-builders") often appear much like phenomenologists, but try to model
speculative theories that have certain desirable features (rather than on experimental data), or apply the
techniques of mathematical modeling to physics problems.[d] Some attempt to create approximate theories,
called effective theories, because fully developed theories may be regarded as unsolvable or too complicated.
Other theorists may try to unify, formalise, reinterpret or generalise extant theories, or create completely new
ones altogether.[e] Sometimes the vision provided by pure mathematical systems can provide clues to how a
physical system might be modeled;[f] e.g., the notion, due to Riemann and others, that space itself might be
curved. Theoretical problems that need computational investigation are often the concern of computational
physics.
Theoretical advances may consist in setting aside old, incorrect paradigms (e.g., aether theory of light
propagation, caloric theory of heat, burning consisting of evolving phlogiston, or astronomical bodies revolving
around the Earth) or may be an alternative model that provides answers that are more accurate or that can be
more widely applied. In the latter case, a correspondence principle will be required to recover the previously
known result.[6][7] Sometimes though, advances may proceed along different paths. For example, an essentially
correct theory may need some conceptual or factual revisions; atomic theory, first postulated millennia ago (by
several thinkers in Greece and India) and the two-fluid theory of electricity[8] are two cases in this point.
However, an exception to all the above is the wave–particle duality, a theory combining aspects of different,
opposing models via the Bohr complementarity principle.
Physical theories become accepted if they are able to make correct

predictions and no (or few) incorrect ones. The theory should have, at
least as a secondary objective, a certain economy and elegance
(compare to mathematical beauty), a notion sometimes called "Occam's
razor" after the 13th-century English philosopher William of Occam (or
Ockham), in which the simpler of two theories that describe the same
matter just as adequately is preferred (but conceptual simplicity may
mean mathematical complexity).[9] They are also more likely to be
accepted if they connect a wide range of phenomena. Testing the
Relationship between mathematics consequences of a theory is part of the scientific method.
and physics
Physical theories can be grouped into three categories: mainstream
theories, proposed theories and fringe theories.
History
Theoretical physics began at least 2,300 years ago, under the Pre-socratic philosophy, and continued by Plato
and Aristotle, whose views held sway for a millennium. During the rise of medieval universities, the only
acknowledged intellectual disciplines were the seven liberal arts of the Trivium like grammar, logic, and
rhetoric and of the Quadrivium like arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy. During the Middle Ages and
Renaissance, the concept of experimental science, the counterpoint to theory, began with scholars such as Ibn
al-Haytham and Francis Bacon. As the Scientific Revolution gathered pace, the concepts of matter, energy,
space, time and causality slowly began to acquire the form we know today, and other sciences spun off from the
rubric of natural philosophy. Thus began the modern era of theory with the Copernican paradigm shift in
astronomy, soon followed by Johannes Kepler's expressions for planetary orbits, which summarized the
meticulous observations of Tycho Brahe; the works of these men (alongside Galileo's) can perhaps be
considered to constitute the Scientific Revolution.
The great push toward the modern concept of explanation started with Galileo, one of the few physicists who
was both a consummate theoretician and a great experimentalist. The analytic geometry and mechanics of
Descartes were incorporated into the calculus and mechanics of Isaac Newton, another
theoretician/experimentalist of the highest order, writing Principia Mathematica.[10] In it contained a grand
synthesis of the work of Copernicus, Galileo and Kepler; as well as Newton's theories of mechanics and
gravitation, which held sway as worldviews until the early 20th century. Simultaneously, progress was also
made in optics (in particular colour theory and the ancient science of geometrical optics), courtesy of Newton,
Descartes and the Dutchmen Snell and Huygens. In the 18th and 19th centuries Joseph-Louis Lagrange,
Leonhard Euler and William Rowan Hamilton would extend the theory of classical mechanics considerably.[11]
They picked up the interactive intertwining of mathematics and physics begun two millennia earlier by
Pythagoras.
Among the great conceptual achievements of the 19th and 20th centuries were the consolidation of the idea of
energy (as well as its global conservation) by the inclusion of heat, electricity and magnetism, and then light.
The laws of thermodynamics, and most importantly the introduction of the singular concept of entropy began to
provide a macroscopic explanation for the properties of matter. Statistical mechanics (followed by statistical
physics) emerged as an offshoot of thermodynamics late in the 19th century. Another important event in the
19th century was the discovery of electromagnetic theory, unifying the previously separate phenomena of
electricity, magnetism and light.
The pillars of modern physics, and perhaps the most revolutionary theories in the history of physics, have been
relativity theory and quantum mechanics. Newtonian mechanics was subsumed under special relativity and
Newton's gravity was given a kinematic explanation by general relativity. Quantum mechanics led to an
understanding of blackbody radiation (which indeed, was an original motivation for the theory) and of
anomalies in the specific heats of solids — and finally to an understanding of the internal structures of atoms
and molecules. Quantum mechanics soon gave way to the formulation of quantum field theory (QFT), begun in
the late 1920s. In the aftermath of World War 2, more progress brought much renewed interest in QFT, which
had since the early efforts, stagnated. The same period also saw fresh attacks on the problems of
superconductivity and phase transitions, as well as the first applications of QFT in the area of theoretical
condensed matter. The 1960s and 70s saw the formulation of the Standard model of particle physics using QFT
and progress in condensed matter physics (theoretical foundation of superconductivity and critical phenomena,
among others), in parallel to the applications of relativity to problems in astronomy and cosmology
respectively.
All of these achievements depended on the theoretical physics as a moving force both to suggest experiments
and to consolidate results — often by ingenious application of existing mathematics, or, as in the case of
Descartes and Newton (with Leibniz), by inventing new mathematics. Fourier's studies of heat conduction led
to a new branch of mathematics: infinite, orthogonal series.[12]
Modern theoretical physics attempts to unify theories and explain phenomena in further attempts to understand
the Universe, from the cosmological to the elementary particle scale. Where experimentation cannot be done,
theoretical physics still tries to advance through the use of mathematical models.
Mainstream theories
Mainstream theories (sometimes referred to as central theories) are the body of knowledge of both factual and
scientific views and possess a usual scientific quality of the tests of repeatability, consistency with existing
well-established science and experimentation. There do exist mainstream theories that are generally accepted
theories based solely upon their effects explaining a wide variety of data, although the detection, explanation,
and possible composition are subjects of debate.
Examples
Classical Dynamics Quantum Quantum

mechanics Electromagnetism computers mechanics
Condensed matter Field theory Quantum Solid mechanics
physics (including Fluid dynamics electrochemistry Special relativity
solid state physics General relativity Quantum Standard Model
and the electronic Particle physics electrodynamics Statistical
structure of Physical Quantum field mechanics
materials) cosmology theory Thermodynamics
Conservation of Quantum Quantum
energy chromodynamics information theory
Dynamics Quantum Quantum
Proposed theories
The proposed theories of physics are usually relatively new theories which deal with the study of physics
which include scientific approaches, means for determining the validity of models and new types of reasoning
used to arrive at the theory. However, some proposed theories include theories that have been around for
decades and have eluded methods of discovery and testing. Proposed theories can include fringe theories in the
process of becoming established (and, sometimes, gaining wider acceptance). Proposed theories usually have
not been tested.
Examples
Black hole thermodynamics M-theory

Causal Sets Quantum gravity
Dark energy or Einstein's Cosmological Scale relativity
Constant String theory
Dark matter Supersymmetry
Einstein–Rosen Bridge Theory of everything
Emergence Unparticle physics
Grand unification theory
Loop quantum gravity
M-theory
Fringe theories
Fringe theories include any new area of scientific endeavor in the process of becoming established and some
proposed theories. It can include speculative sciences. This includes physics fields and physical theories
presented in accordance with known evidence, and a body of associated predictions have been made according
to that theory.
Some fringe theories go on to become a widely accepted part of physics. Other fringe theories end up being
disproven. Some fringe theories are a form of protoscience and others are a form of pseudoscience. The
falsification of the original theory sometimes leads to reformulation of the theory.
Examples
Electrogravitics Orgone
Tesla's dynamic theory of gravity
Luminiferous aether
Thought experiments vs real experiments
"Thought" experiments are situations created in one's mind, asking a question akin to "suppose you are in this
situation, assuming such is true, what would follow?". They are usually created to investigate phenomena that
are not readily experienced in every-day situations. Famous examples of such thought experiments are
Schrödinger's cat, the EPR thought experiment, simple illustrations of time dilation, and so on. These usually
lead to real experiments designed to verify that the conclusion (and therefore the assumptions) of the thought
experiments are correct. The EPR thought experiment led to the Bell inequalities, which were then tested to
various degrees of rigor, leading to the acceptance of the current formulation of quantum mechanics and
probabilism as a working hypothesis.
See also
List of theoretical physicists
Symmetry in quantum mechanics
Timeline of developments in theoretical physics
Notes
a. There is some debate as to whether or not theoretical physics uses mathematics to build intuition and illustrativeness
to extract physical insight (especially when normal experience fails), rather than as a tool in formalizing theories.
This links to the question of it using mathematics in a less formally rigorous, and more intuitive or heuristic way
than, say, mathematical physics.
b. Sometimes the word "theory" can be used ambiguously in this sense, not to describe scientific theories, but research
(sub)fields and programmes. Examples: relativity theory, quantum field theory, string theory.
c. The work of Johann Balmer and Johannes Rydberg in spectroscopy, and the semi-empirical mass formula of nuclear
physics are good candidates for examples of this approach.
d. The Ptolemaic and Copernican models of the Solar system, the Bohr model of hydrogen atoms and nuclear shell
model are good candidates for examples of this approach.
e. Arguably these are the most celebrated theories in physics: Newton's theory of gravitation, Einstein's theory of
relativity and Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism share some of these attributes.
f. This approach is often favoured by (pure) mathematicians and mathematical physicists.
References
1. "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921" (http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/index.html). The
Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-09.
2. Theorems and Theories (http://www.esotericka.org/cmc/tth.html), Sam Nelson.
3. Mark C. Chu-Carroll, March 13, 2007:Theorems, Lemmas, and Corollaries. (http://scienceblogs.com/goodmath/200
7/03/13/theories-theorems-lemmas-and-c-1/Theories,) Good Math, Bad Math blog.
4. Singiresu S. Rao (2007). Vibration of Continuous Systems (illustrated ed.). John Wiley & Sons. 5,12.
ISBN 0471771716. ISBN 9780471771715
5. Eli Maor (2007). The Pythagorean Theorem: A 4,000-year History (illustrated ed.). Princeton University Press.
pp. 18–20. ISBN 0691125260. ISBN 9780691125268
6. Bokulich, Alisa, "Bohr's Correspondence Principle (http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2014/entries/bohr-correspon
dence/)", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
7. Enc. Britannica (1994), pg 844.
8. Enc. Britannica (1994), pg 834.
9. Simplicity in the Philosophy of Science (http://www.iep.utm.edu/simplici/) (retrieved 19 Aug 2014), Internet
Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
10. See 'Correspondence of Isaac Newton, vol.2, 1676–1687' ed. H W Turnbull, Cambridge University Press 1960; at
page 297, document #235, letter from Hooke to Newton dated 24 November 1679.
11. Penrose, R (2004). The Road to Reality. Jonathan Cape. p. 471.
12. Penrose, R (2004). "9: Fourier decompositions and hyperfunctions". The Road to Reality. Jonathan Cape.
Suggested reading list

Physical Sciences. Encyclopædia Britannica (Macropaedia). 25 (15th ed.). 1994.
Duhem, Pierre. "La théorie physique - Son objet, sa structure," (in French). 2nd edition - 1914. English
translation: "The physical theory - its purpose, its structure,". Republished by Joseph Vrin philosophical
bookstore (1981), ISBN 2711602214.
Feynman, et al. "The Feynman Lectures on Physics" (3 vol.). First edition: Addison–Wesley, (1964,
1966).
Bestselling three-volume textbook covering the span of physics. Reference for both (under)graduate
student and professional researcher alike.
Landau et al. "Course of Theoretical Physics".
Famous series of books dealing with theoretical concepts in physics covering 10 volumes, translated into
many languages and reprinted over many editions. Often known simply as "Landau and Lifschits" or
"Landau-Lifschits" in the literature.
Longair, MS. "Theoretical Concepts in Physics: An Alternative View of Theoretical Reasoning in

Physics". Cambridge University Press; 2d edition (4 Dec 2003). ISBN 052152878X. ISBN 978-
0521528788
Planck, Max (1909). "Eight Lectures on theoretical physics" (https://books.google.com/books/about/Eigh
t_Lectures_on_Theoretical_Physics_De.html?id=KisvtatMApwC&redir_esc=y). Library of Alexandria.
ISBN 1465521887, ISBN 9781465521880.
A set of lectures given in 1909 at Columbia University.
Sommerfeld, Arnold. "Vorlesungen über theoretische Physik" (Lectures on theoretical physics); German,
6 volumes.
A series of lessons from a master educator of theoretical physicists.
External links
Timeline of Theoretical Physics (http://superstringtheory.com/hist
ory/history3.html)
the topic of: Introduction
MIT Center for Theoretical Physics (http://ctp.lns.mit.edu/index.h to Theoretical Physics
tml)
How to become a GOOD Theoretical Physicist (http://www.staff.science.uu.nl/~gadda001/goodtheorist/),
a website made by Gerard 't Hooft
Theory of longitudinal and transversal angular momentums (http://www.odomann.com/)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theoretical_physics&oldid=787235903"
Categories: Theoretical physics History of physics

7/25/2017 Applied physics - Wikipedia
Applied physics
Applied physics is physics which is intended for a particular

technological or practical use. It is usually considered as a bridge
or a connection between physics and engineering.
"Applied" is distinguished from "pure" by a subtle combination of

factors such as the motivation and attitude of researchers and the
nature of the relationship to the technology or science that may be
affected by the work. Applied Physics is rooted in the fundamental
truths and basic concepts of the physical sciences but is concerned
with the utilization of scientific principles in practical devices and
systems, and in the application of physics in other areas of Experiment using a laser
science.[1]
It usually differs from engineering in that an applied physicist may

not be designing something in particular, but rather is using physics
or conducting physics research with the aim of developing new
technologies or solving an engineering problem. This approach is
similar to that of applied mathematics.
In other words, applied physics is rooted in the fundamental truths

and basic concepts of the physical sciences but is concerned with
the utilization of these scientific principles in practical devices and
systems.[2]
Applied physicists can also be interested in the use of physics for

scientific research. For instance, the field of accelerator physics can
contribute to research in theoretical physics by working with A magnetic resonance image
engineers enabling design and construction of high-energy
colliders.
Examples of research & development

areas
The transistor, which was first invented by physicists John
Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley in 1947
Lasers, such as Vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers
Photonic crystals and quantum optics
Magnetic resonance imaging
Microscopy
Semiconductors
Accelerator physics Computer modeling of the space shuttle
Quantum information science during re-entry
Quantum technology
Astrodynamics
Electromagnetic propulsion
Stealth technology
Nuclear engineering
Engineering Physics
Electronics
Sonar
Radar
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_physics 1/2
7/25/2017 Applied physics - Wikipedia
Lidar
References
1. "General Information on Applied Physics" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070307121331/http://www.stanford.edu/d
ept/app-physics/general/). Stanford Department of Applied Physics. Archived from the original (http://www.stanford.
edu/dept/app-physics/general/) on 7 March 2007.
2. "Department of Applied Physics" (http://www.sci.waseda.ac.jp/research/BELONG/E/02802.html). Waseda
University. Retrieved 16 October 2016.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Applied_physics&oldid=767411086"
Categories: Applied and interdisciplinary physics Engineering Subfields of physics
This page was last edited on 25 February 2017, at 19:34.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_physics 2/2
7/24/2017 Thermodynamics - Wikipedia
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics concerned with heat and

temperature and their relation to energy and work. The behavior of
these quantities is governed by the four laws of thermodynamics,
irrespective of the composition or specific properties of the
material or system in question. The laws of thermodynamics are
explained in terms of microscopic constituents by statistical
mechanics. Thermodynamics applies to a wide variety of topics in
science and engineering, especially physical chemistry, chemical
engineering and mechanical engineering.
Historically, thermodynamics developed out of a desire to increase

the efficiency of early steam engines, particularly through the work
of French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot (1824) who
believed that engine efficiency was the key that could help France
win the Napoleonic Wars.[1] Scottish physicist Lord Kelvin was the
first to formulate a concise definition of thermodynamics in 1854[2] Annotated color version of the original
which stated, "Thermo-dynamics is the subject of the relation of 1824 Carnot heat engine showing the hot
heat to forces acting between contiguous parts of bodies, and the body (boiler), working body (system,
relation of heat to electrical agency." steam), and cold body (water), the letters
labeled according to the stopping points in
The initial application of thermodynamics to mechanical heat Carnot cycle.
engines was extended early on to the study of chemical compounds
and chemical reactions. Chemical thermodynamics studies the nature of the role of entropy in the process of
chemical reactions and has provided the bulk of expansion and knowledge of the field.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11]
Other formulations of thermodynamics emerged in the following decades. Statistical thermodynamics, or
statistical mechanics, concerned itself with statistical predictions of the collective motion of particles from their
microscopic behavior. In 1909, Constantin Carathéodory presented a purely mathematical approach to the field
in his axiomatic formulation of thermodynamics, a description often referred to as geometrical
thermodynamics.
Contents
1 Introduction
2 History
3 Etymology
4 Branches of description
4.1 Classical thermodynamics
4.2 Statistical mechanics
4.3 Chemical thermodynamics
4.4 Treatment of equilibrium
5 Laws of thermodynamics
6 System models
7 States and processes
8 Instrumentation
9 Conjugate variables
10 Potentials
11 Applied fields
12 See also
12.1 Lists and timelines
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamics 1/10
12.2 Wikibooks
13 References
14 Further reading
15 External links
Introduction
A description of any thermodynamic system employs the four laws of thermodynamics that form an axiomatic
basis. The first law specifies that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat and work.[12] The
second law defines the existence of a quantity called entropy, that describes the direction, thermodynamically,
that a system can evolve and quantifies the state of order of a system and that can be used to quantify the useful
work that can be extracted from the system.[13]
In thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized. Central to this
are the concepts of the thermodynamic system and its surroundings. A system is composed of particles, whose
average motions define its properties, and those properties are in turn related to one another through equations
of state. Properties can be combined to express internal energy and thermodynamic potentials, which are useful
for determining conditions for equilibrium and spontaneous processes.
With these tools, thermodynamics can be used to describe how systems respond to changes in their
environment. This can be applied to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering, such as engines, phase
transitions, chemical reactions, transport phenomena, and even black holes. The results of thermodynamics are
essential for other fields of physics and for chemistry, chemical engineering, aerospace engineering,
mechanical engineering, cell biology, biomedical engineering, materials science, and economics, to name a
few.[14][15]
This article is focused mainly on classical thermodynamics which primarily studies systems in thermodynamic
equilibrium. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is often treated as an extension of the classical treatment, but
statistical mechanics has brought many advances to that field.
History
The history of thermodynamics as a scientific discipline generally begins with Otto von Guericke who, in 1650,
built and designed the world's first vacuum pump and demonstrated a vacuum using his Magdeburg
hemispheres. Guericke was driven to make a vacuum in order to disprove Aristotle's long-held supposition that
'nature abhors a vacuum'. Shortly after Guericke, the English physicist and chemist Robert Boyle had learned of
Guericke's designs and, in 1656, in coordination with English scientist Robert Hooke, built an air pump.[17]
Using this pump, Boyle and Hooke noticed a correlation between pressure, temperature, and volume. In time,
Boyle's Law was formulated, which states that pressure and volume are inversely proportional. Then, in 1679,
based on these concepts, an associate of Boyle's named Denis Papin built a steam digester, which was a closed
vessel with a tightly fitting lid that confined steam until a high pressure was generated.
Later designs implemented a steam release valve that kept the machine from exploding. By watching the valve
rhythmically move up and down, Papin conceived of the idea of a piston and a cylinder engine. He did not,
however, follow through with his design. Nevertheless, in 1697, based on Papin's designs, engineer Thomas
Savery built the first engine, followed by Thomas Newcomen in 1712. Although these early engines were crude
and inefficient, they attracted the attention of the leading scientists of the time.
The fundamental concepts of heat capacity and latent heat, which were necessary for the development of
thermodynamics, were developed by Professor Joseph Black at the University of Glasgow, where James Watt
was employed as an instrument maker. Black and Watt performed experiments together, but it was Watt who
conceived the idea of the external condenser which resulted in a large increase in steam engine efficiency.[18]
Drawing on all the previous work led Sadi

Carnot, the "father of thermodynamics", to
publish Reflections on the Motive Power of
Fire (1824), a discourse on heat, power,
energy and engine efficiency. The book
outlined the basic energetic relations
between the Carnot engine, the Carnot
cycle, and motive power. It marked the start
of thermodynamics as a modern science.[10]
The first thermodynamic textbook was

written in 1859 by William Rankine,
originally trained as a physicist and a civil
and mechanical engineering professor at the
University of Glasgow.[19] The first and
second laws of thermodynamics emerged
simultaneously in the 1850s, primarily out
of the works of William Rankine, Rudolf
Clausius, and William Thomson (Lord
Kelvin). The thermodynamicists representative of the original eight founding
schools of thermodynamics. The schools with the most-lasting effect
The foundations of statistical in founding the modern versions of thermodynamics are the Berlin
thermodynamics were set out by physicists school, particularly as established in Rudolf Clausius’s 1865 textbook
such as James Clerk Maxwell, Ludwig The Mechanical Theory of Heat, the Vienna school, with the
Boltzmann, Max Planck, Rudolf Clausius statistical mechanics of Ludwig Boltzmann, and the Gibbsian school
and J. Willard Gibbs. at Yale University, American engineer Willard Gibbs' 1876 On the
Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances launching chemical
During the years 1873-76 the American
mathematical physicist Josiah Willard thermodynamics.[16]
Gibbs published a series of three papers, the
most famous being On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances,[3] in which he showed how
thermodynamic processes, including chemical reactions, could be graphically analyzed, by studying the energy,
entropy, volume, temperature and pressure of the thermodynamic system in such a manner, one can determine
if a process would occur spontaneously.[20] Also Pierre Duhem in the 19th century wrote about chemical
thermodynamics.[4] During the early 20th century, chemists such as Gilbert N. Lewis, Merle Randall,[5] and E.
A. Guggenheim[6][7] applied the mathematical methods of Gibbs to the analysis of chemical processes.
Etymology
The etymology of thermodynamics has an intricate history.[21] It was first spelled in a hyphenated form as an
adjective (thermo-dynamic) and from 1854 to 1868 as the noun thermo-dynamics to represent the science of
generalized heat engines.[21]
American biophysicist Donald Haynie claims that thermodynamics was coined in 1840 from the Greek root
θέρμη therme, meaning heat and δύναμις dynamis, meaning power.[22] However, this etymology has been cited
as unlikely.[21]
Pierre Perrot claims that the term thermodynamics was coined by James Joule in 1858 to designate the science
of relations between heat and power,[10] however, Joule never used that term, but used instead the term perfect
thermo-dynamic engine in reference to Thomson’s 1849[23] phraseology.[21]
By 1858, thermo-dynamics, as a functional term, was used in William Thomson's paper "An Account of
Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat."[23]
Branches of description
The study of thermodynamical systems has developed into several related branches, each using a different
fundamental model as a theoretical or experimental basis, or applying the principles to varying types of
systems.
Classical thermodynamics
Classical thermodynamics is the description of the states of thermodynamic systems at near-equilibrium, that
uses macroscopic, measurable properties. It is used to model exchanges of energy, work and heat based on the
laws of thermodynamics. The qualifier classical reflects the fact that it represents the first level of
understanding of the subject as it developed in the 19th century and describes the changes of a system in terms
of macroscopic empirical (large scale, and measurable) parameters. A microscopic interpretation of these
concepts was later provided by the development of statistical mechanics.
Statistical mechanics
Statistical mechanics, also called statistical thermodynamics, emerged with the development of atomic and
molecular theories in the late 19th century and early 20th century, and supplemented classical thermodynamics
with an interpretation of the microscopic interactions between individual particles or quantum-mechanical
states. This field relates the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic, bulk
properties of materials that can be observed on the human scale, thereby explaining classical thermodynamics
as a natural result of statistics, classical mechanics, and quantum theory at the microscopic level.
Chemical thermodynamics
Chemical thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of energy

with chemical reactions or with a physical change of state within the
confines of the laws of thermodynamics.
Treatment of equilibrium
Equilibrium thermodynamics is the systematic study of transformations

of matter and energy in systems as they approach equilibrium. The word
equilibrium implies a state of balance. In an equilibrium state there are
no unbalanced potentials, or driving forces, within the system. A central
aim in equilibrium thermodynamics is: given a system in a well-defined
initial state, subject to accurately specified constraints, to calculate what
the state of the system will be once it has reached equilibrium.
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a branch of thermodynamics that

deals with systems that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium. Most
systems found in nature are not in thermodynamic equilibrium because
they are not in stationary states, and are continuously and discontinuously subject to flux of matter and energy
to and from other systems. The thermodynamic study of non-equilibrium systems requires more general
concepts than are dealt with by equilibrium thermodynamics. Many natural systems still today remain beyond
the scope of currently known macroscopic thermodynamic methods.
Laws of thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is principally based on a set of four laws which are universally valid when applied to systems
that fall within the constraints implied by each. In the various theoretical descriptions of thermodynamics these
laws may be expressed in seemingly differing forms, but the most prominent formulations are the following:
Zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are also
in thermal equilibrium with each other.
This statement implies that thermal equilibrium is an equivalence relation on the set of thermodynamic systems
under consideration. Systems are said to be in equilibrium if the small, random exchanges between them (e.g.
Brownian motion) do not lead to a net change in energy. This law is tacitly assumed in every measurement of
temperature. Thus, if one seeks to decide if two bodies are at the same temperature, it is not necessary to bring
them into contact and measure any changes of their observable properties in time.[24] The law provides an
empirical definition of temperature and justification for the construction of practical thermometers.
The zeroth law was not initially recognized as a law, as its basis in thermodynamical equilibrium was implied
in the other laws. The first, second, and third laws had been explicitly stated prior and found common
acceptance in the physics community. Once the importance of the zeroth law for the definition of temperature
was realized, it was impracticable to renumber the other laws, hence it was numbered the zeroth law.
First law of thermodynamics: The internal energy of an isolated system is constant.
The first law of thermodynamics is an expression of the principle of conservation of energy. It states that
energy can be transformed (changed from one form to another), but cannot be created or destroyed.[25]
The first law is usually formulated by saying that the change in the internal energy of a closed thermodynamic
system is equal to the difference between the heat supplied to the system and the amount of work done by the
system on its surroundings. It is important to note that internal energy is a state of the system (see
Thermodynamic state) whereas heat and work modify the state of the system. In other words, a change of
internal energy of a system may be achieved by any combination of heat and work added or removed from the
system as long as those total to the change of internal energy. The manner by which a system achieves its
internal energy is path independent.
Second law of thermodynamics: Heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder location to a hotter
location.
The second law of thermodynamics is an expression of the universal principle of decay observable in nature.
The second law is an observation of the fact that over time, differences in temperature, pressure, and chemical
potential tend to even out in a physical system that is isolated from the outside world. Entropy is a measure of
how much this process has progressed. The entropy of an isolated system which is not in equilibrium will tend
to increase over time, approaching a maximum value at equilibrium.
In classical thermodynamics, the second law is a basic postulate applicable to any system involving heat energy
transfer; in statistical thermodynamics, the second law is a consequence of the assumed randomness of
molecular chaos. There are many versions of the second law, but they all have the same effect, which is to
explain the phenomenon of irreversibility in nature.
Third law of thermodynamics: As a system approaches absolute zero, all processes cease and the entropy
of the system approaches a minimum value.
The third law of thermodynamics is a statistical law of nature regarding entropy and the impossibility of
reaching absolute zero of temperature. This law provides an absolute reference point for the determination of
entropy. The entropy determined relative to this point is the absolute entropy. Alternate definitions are, "the
entropy of all systems and of all states of a system is smallest at absolute zero," or equivalently "it is impossible
to reach the absolute zero of temperature by any finite number of processes".
Absolute zero, at which all activity would stop if it were possible to happen, is −273.15 °C (degrees Celsius), or
−459.67 °F (degrees Fahrenheit) or 0 K (kelvin).
System models
An important concept in thermodynamics is the thermodynamic system,
which is a precisely defined region of the universe under study. Everything
in the universe except the system is called the surroundings. A system is
separated from the remainder of the universe by a boundary which may be
a physical boundary or notional, but which by convention defines a finite
volume. Exchanges of work, heat, or matter between the system and the
surroundings take place across this boundary.
In practice, the boundary of a system is simply an imaginary dotted line

drawn around a volume within which is going to be a change in the internal
energy of that volume. Anything that passes across the boundary that A diagram of a generic
effects a change in the internal energy of the system needs to be accounted thermodynamic system
for in the energy balance equation. The volume can be the region
surrounding a single atom resonating energy, such as Max Planck defined
in 1900; it can be a body of steam or air in a steam engine, such as Sadi Carnot defined in 1824; it can be the
body of a tropical cyclone, such as Kerry Emanuel theorized in 1986 in the field of atmospheric
thermodynamics; it could also be just one nuclide (i.e. a system of quarks) as hypothesized in quantum
thermodynamics, or the event horizon of a black hole.
Boundaries are of four types: fixed, movable, real, and imaginary. For example, in an engine, a fixed boundary
means the piston is locked at its position, within which a constant volume process might occur. If the piston is
allowed to move that boundary is movable while the cylinder and cylinder head boundaries are fixed. For
closed systems, boundaries are real while for open systems boundaries are often imaginary. In the case of a jet
engine, a fixed imaginary boundary might be assumed at the intake of the engine, fixed boundaries along the
surface of the case and a second fixed imaginary boundary across the exhaust nozzle.
Generally, thermodynamics distinguishes three classes of systems, defined in terms of what is allowed to cross
their boundaries:
Interactions of thermodynamic systems

Type of system Mass flow Work Heat
Open
Closed
Thermally isolated
Mechanically isolated
Isolated
As time passes in an isolated system, internal differences of pressures, densities, and temperatures tend to even
out. A system in which all equalizing processes have gone to completion is said to be in a state of
thermodynamic equilibrium.
Once in thermodynamic equilibrium, a system's properties are, by definition, unchanging in time. Systems in
equilibrium are much simpler and easier to understand than are systems which are not in equilibrium. Often,
when analysing a dynamic thermodynamic process, the simplifying assumption is made that each intermediate
state in the process is at equilibrium, producing thermodynamic processes which develop so slowly as to allow
each intermediate step to be an equilibrium state and are said to be reversible processes.
States and processes

When a system is at equilibrium under a given set of conditions, it is said to be in a definite thermodynamic
state. The state of the system can be described by a number of state quantities that do not depend on the process
by which the system arrived at its state. They are called intensive variables or extensive variables according to
how they change when the size of the system changes. The properties of the system can be described by an
equation of state which specifies the relationship between these variables. State may be thought of as the
instantaneous quantitative description of a system with a set number of variables held constant.
A thermodynamic process may be defined as the energetic evolution of a thermodynamic system proceeding
from an initial state to a final state. It can be described by process quantities. Typically, each thermodynamic
process is distinguished from other processes in energetic character according to what parameters, such as
temperature, pressure, or volume, etc., are held fixed. Furthermore, it is useful to group these processes into
pairs, in which each variable held constant is one member of a conjugate pair.
Several commonly studied thermodynamic processes are:
Adiabatic process: occurs without loss or gain of energy by heat

Isenthalpic process: occurs at a constant enthalpy
Isentropic process: a reversible adiabatic process, occurs at a constant entropy
Isobaric process: occurs at constant pressure
Isochoric process: occurs at constant volume (also called isometric/isovolumetric)
Isothermal process: occurs at a constant temperature
Steady state process: occurs without a change in the internal energy
Instrumentation
There are two types of thermodynamic instruments, the meter and the reservoir. A thermodynamic meter is
any device which measures any parameter of a thermodynamic system. In some cases, the thermodynamic
parameter is actually defined in terms of an idealized measuring instrument. For example, the zeroth law states
that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each
other. This principle, as noted by James Maxwell in 1872, asserts that it is possible to measure temperature. An
idealized thermometer is a sample of an ideal gas at constant pressure. From the ideal gas law pV=nRT, the
volume of such a sample can be used as an indicator of temperature; in this manner it defines temperature.
Although pressure is defined mechanically, a pressure-measuring device, called a barometer may also be
constructed from a sample of an ideal gas held at a constant temperature. A calorimeter is a device which is
used to measure and define the internal energy of a system.
A thermodynamic reservoir is a system which is so large that its state parameters are not appreciably altered
when it is brought into contact with the system of interest. When the reservoir is brought into contact with the
system, the system is brought into equilibrium with the reservoir. For example, a pressure reservoir is a system
at a particular pressure, which imposes that pressure upon the system to which it is mechanically connected.
The Earth's atmosphere is often used as a pressure reservoir. If ocean water is used to cool a power plant, the
ocean is often a temperature reservoir in the analysis of the power plant cycle.
Conjugate variables
The central concept of thermodynamics is that of energy, the ability to do work. By the First Law, the total
energy of a system and its surroundings is conserved. Energy may be transferred into a system by heating,
compression, or addition of matter, and extracted from a system by cooling, expansion, or extraction of matter.
In mechanics, for example, energy transfer equals the product of the force applied to a body and the resulting
displacement.
Conjugate variables are pairs of thermodynamic concepts, with the first being akin to a "force" applied to some
thermodynamic system, the second being akin to the resulting "displacement," and the product of the two
equalling the amount of energy transferred. The common conjugate variables are:
Pressure-volume (the mechanical parameters);

Temperature-entropy (thermal parameters);
Chemical potential-particle number (material parameters).
Potentials
Thermodynamic potentials are different quantitative measures of the stored energy in a system. Potentials are
used to measure energy changes in systems as they evolve from an initial state to a final state. The potential
used depends on the constraints of the system, such as constant temperature or pressure. For example, the
Helmholtz and Gibbs energies are the energies available in a system to do useful work when the temperature
and volume or the pressure and temperature are fixed, respectively.
The five most well known potentials are:
Name Symbol Formula Natural variables
Internal energy
Helmholtz free energy

Enthalpy
Gibbs free energy
Landau Potential (Grand potential) ,
where is the temperature, the entropy, the pressure, the volume, the chemical potential, the
number of particles in the system, and is the count of particles types in the system.
Thermodynamic potentials can be derived from the energy balance equation applied to a thermodynamic
system. Other thermodynamic potentials can also be obtained through Legendre transformation.
Applied fields
Atmospheric thermodynamics Non-equilibrium thermodynamics
Biological thermodynamics Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics
Black hole thermodynamics Psychrometrics
Chemical thermodynamics Quantum thermodynamics
Classical thermodynamics Statistical thermodynamics
Equilibrium thermodynamics Thermoeconomics
Industrial ecology (re: Exergy)
Maximum entropy thermodynamics
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics
See also
Lists and timelines
List of important publications in thermodynamics

List of textbooks in statistical mechanics
List of thermal conductivities
List of thermodynamic properties
Table of thermodynamic equations
Timeline of thermodynamics
Wikibooks
Engineering Thermodynamics
Entropy for Beginners
References
1. Clausius, Rudolf (1850). On the Motive Power of Heat, and on the Laws which can be deduced from it for the Theory
of Heat. Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik, LXXIX (Dover Reprint). ISBN 0-486-59065-8.
2. William Thomson, LL.D. D.C.L., F.R.S. (1882). Mathematical and Physical Papers (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=nWMSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA100&dq=On+an+Absolute+Thermometric+Scale+Founded+on+Carnot%E2%80%
99s+Theory&ei=roDISOecOKayjAHajoXyCw#v=onepage&q=On%20an%20Absolute%20Thermometric%20Scal
e%20Founded%20on%20Carnot%E2%80%99s%20Theory&f=false). 1. London, Cambridge: C.J. Clay, M.A. &
Son, Cambridge University Press. p. 232.
3. Gibbs, Willard, J. (1876). Transactions of the Connecticut Academy, III, pp. 108-248, Oct. 1875-May 1876, and pp.
343-524, May 1877-July 1878.
4. Duhem, P.M.M. (1886). Le Potential Thermodynamique et ses Applications, Hermann, Paris.
5. Lewis, Gilbert N.; Randall, Merle (1923). Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances. McGraw-
Hill Book Co. Inc.
6. Guggenheim, E.A. (1933). Modern Thermodynamics by the Methods of J.W. Gibbs, Methuen, London.
7. Guggenheim, E.A. (1949/1967). Thermodynamics. An Advanced Treatment for Chemists and Physicists, 1st edition
1949, 5th edition 1967, North-Holland, Amsterdam.
8. Ilya Prigogine, I. & Defay, R., translated by D.H. Everett (1954). Chemical Thermodynamics. Longmans, Green &
Co., London. Includes classical non-equilibrium thermodynamics.
9. Enrico Fermi (1956). Thermodynamics (https://books.google.com/books?id=VEZ1ljsT3IwC&printsec=frontcover&d
q=thermodynamics). Courier Dover Publications. pp. (ix). ISBN 048660361X. OCLC 230763036 (https://www.worl
dcat.org/oclc/230763036).
10. Perrot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-856552-6. OCLC 123283342
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/123283342).
11. Clark, John, O.E. (2004). The Essential Dictionary of Science. Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 0-7607-4616-8.
12. Van Ness, H.C. (1983) [1969]. Understanding Thermodynamics. Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 9780486632773.
13. Dugdale, J.S. (1998). Entropy and its Physical Meaning. Taylor and Francis. ISBN 0-7484-0569-0. OCLC 36457809
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/36457809).
14. Smith, J.M.; Van Ness, H.C.; Abbott, M.M. (2005). Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics.
McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-310445-0. OCLC 56491111 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/56491111).
15. Haynie, Donald, T. (2001). Biological Thermodynamics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-79549-4.
16. Schools of thermodynamics (http://www.eoht.info/page/Schools+of+thermodynamics) - EoHT.info.
17. Partington, J.R. (1989). A Short History of Chemistry. Dover. OCLC 19353301 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1935
3301).
18. The Newcomen engine was improved from 1711 until Watt's work, making the efficiency comparison subject to
qualification, but the increase from the 1865 version was on the order of 100%.
19. Cengel, Yunus A.; Boles, Michael A. (2005). Thermodynamics - an Engineering Approach. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-
07-310768-9.
20. Gibbs, Willard (1993). The Scientific Papers of J. Willard Gibbs, Volume One: Thermodynamics. Ox Bow Press.
21. "Thermodynamics (etymology)" (http://www.eoht.info/page/Thermo-dynamics). EoHT.info.
22. Donald T. Haynie (2008). Biological Thermodynamics (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 26.
23. Kelvin, William T. (1849) "An Account of Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat - with Numerical Results
Deduced from Regnault's Experiments on Steam." Transactions of the Edinburg Royal Society, XVI. January
2.Scanned Copy (http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualiseur?Destination=Gallica&O=NUMM-95118)
24. Moran, Michael J. and Howard N. Shapiro, 2008. Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics. 6th ed. Wiley and
Sons: 16.
25. "Energy Rules! Energy Conversion and the Laws of Thermodynamics - More About the First and Second Laws" (htt
p://www.uwsp.edu/cnr/wcee/keep/mod1/rules/ThermoLaws.htm). Uwsp.edu. Retrieved 2010-09-12.
Further reading
Goldstein, Martin & Inge F. (1993). The Refrigerator and the Universe. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-
75325-9. OCLC 32826343 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32826343). A nontechnical introduction, good on
historical and interpretive matters.
Kazakov, Andrei (July–August 2008). "Web Thermo Tables – an On-Line Version of the TRC Thermodynamic
Tables" (http://nvl-i.nist.gov/pub/nistpubs/jres/113/4/V113.N04.A03.pdf) (PDF). Journal of Research of the National
Institutes of Standards and Technology. 113 (4): 209–220.
The following titles are more technical:
Cengel, Yunus A., & Boles, Michael A. (2002). Thermodynamics - an Engineering Approach. McGraw Hill.
Dunning-Davies, Jeremy (1997). Concise Thermodynamics: Principles and Applications. Horwood Publishing.
Kroemer, Herbert & Kittel, Charles (1980). Thermal Physics. W. H. Freeman Company. ISBN 0-7167-1088-9.
External links
Thermodynamics Data & Property Calculation Websites (http://ti
gger.uic.edu/~mansoori/Thermodynamic.Data.and.Property_html)
related to:
Thermodynamics Educational Websites (http://tigger.uic.edu/~ma Thermodynamics
nsoori/Thermodynamics.Educational.Sites_html)
Thermodynamics at ScienceWorld (http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/topics/Thermodynamics.ht
ml)
Biochemistry Thermodynamics (http://www.wiley.com/legacy/college/boyer/0470003790/reviews/therm
o/thermo_intro.htm)
Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics (http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/sm1/lectures/lectures.h
tml)
Engineering Thermodynamics - A Graphical Approach (http://www.ent.ohiou.edu/~thermo/)
Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics (http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/sm1/statmech.pdf) by
Richard Fitzpatrick
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thermodynamics&oldid=789252973"
Categories: Thermodynamics Chemical engineering Concepts in physics Subfields of physics

7/19/2017 Statistical physics - Wikipedia
Statistical physics
Statistical physics is a branch of physics that uses methods of probability theory and statistics, and particularly
the mathematical tools for dealing with large populations and approximations, in solving physical problems. It
can describe a wide variety of fields with an inherently stochastic nature. Its applications include many
problems in the fields of physics, biology, chemistry, neurology, and even some social sciences, such as
sociology. Its main purpose is to clarify the properties of matter in aggregate, in terms of physical laws
governing atomic motion.[1]
In particular, statistical mechanics develops the phenomenological results of thermodynamics from a

probabilistic examination of the underlying microscopic systems. Historically, one of the first topics in physics
where statistical methods were applied was the field of mechanics, which is concerned with the motion of
particles or objects when subjected to a force.
Contents
1 Statistical mechanics
2 Scientists and Universities
3 Achievements
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 Books
Statistical mechanics provides a framework for relating the microscopic properties of individual atoms and
molecules to the macroscopic or bulk properties of materials that can be observed in everyday life, therefore
explaining thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics, classical mechanics, and quantum mechanics at the
microscopic level. Because of this history, the statistical physics is often considered synonymous with
statistical mechanics or statistical thermodynamics.[note 1]
One of the most important equations in Statistical mechanics (analogous to in mechanics, or the
Schrödinger equation in quantum mechanics) is the definition of the partition function , which is essentially a
weighted sum of all possible states available to a system.
where is the Boltzmann constant, is temperature and is energy of state . Furthermore, the
probability of a given state, , occurring is given by
Here we see that very-high-energy states have little probability of occurring, a result that is consistent with
intuition.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_physics 1/3
A statistical approach can work well in classical systems when the number of degrees of freedom (and so the
number of variables) is so large that exact solution is not possible, or not really useful. Statistical mechanics can
also describe work in non-linear dynamics, chaos theory, thermal physics, fluid dynamics (particularly at high
Knudsen numbers), or plasma physics.
Although some problems in statistical physics can be solved analytically using approximations and expansions,
most current research utilizes the large processing power of modern computers to simulate or approximate
solutions. A common approach to statistical problems is to use a Monte Carlo simulation to yield insight into
the dynamics of a complex system.
Scientists and Universities

A significant contribution (at different times) in development of statistical physics was given by Satyendra
Nath Bose, James Clerk Maxwell, Ludwig Boltzmann, J. Willard Gibbs, Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi, Richard
Feynman, L. Landau, Vladimir Fock, Werner Heisenberg, Nikolay Bogolyubov, Benjamin Widom, Lars
Onsager, Benjamin and Jeremy Chubb (also inventors of the titanium sublimation pump), and others. Statistical
physics is studied in the nuclear center at Los Alamos. Also, Pentagon has organized a large department for the
study of turbulence at the University of Princeton. Work in this area is also being conducted by Saclay (Paris),
Max Planck Institute, Netherlands Institute for Atomic and Molecular Physics and other research centers.
Achievements
Statistical physics allowed us to explain and quantitatively describe superconductivity, superfluidity,
turbulence, collective phenomena in solids and plasma, and the structural features of liquid. It underlies the
modern astrophysics. It is statistical physics that helped us to create such intensively developing study of liquid
crystals and to construct a theory of Phase Transition and Critical phenomena. Many experimental studies of
matter are entirely based on the statistical description of a system. These include the scattering of cold neutrons,
X-ray, visible light, and more. Statistical physics plays a major role in Physics of Solid State Physics, Materials
Science, Nuclear Physics, Astrophysics, Chemistry, Biology and Medicine (eg study of the spread of infectious
diseases), Information Theory and Technique but also in those areas of technology owing to their development
in the evolution of Modern Physics. It still has important applications in theoretical sciences such as Sociology
and Linguistics and is useful for researchers in higher education, corporate governance and industry.
See also
Statistical ensemble
Statistical field theory
Mean sojourn time
Dynamics of Markovian particles
Complex network
Mathematical physics
Combinatorics and physics
Binomial distribution
Notes
1. This article presents a broader sense of the definition of statistical physics
References
1. Huang, Kerson. Introduction to Statistical Physics (2nd ed.). CRC Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-4200-7902-9.
Books
Thermal and Statistical Physics (lecture notes, Web draft 2001) (http://librarum.org/book/4456/1) by Mallett
M., Blumler P.
BASICS OF STATISTICAL PHYSICS: Second Edition (http://worldscibooks.wspc.com.sg/cgi-bin/wri_search.

cgi?bookcode=8709) by Harald J W Müller-Kirsten (University of Kaiserslautern, Germany)
Statistical physics (http://librarum.org/book/2997/1) by Kadanoff L.P.
Statistical Physics - Statics, Dynamics and Renormalization (http://librarum.org/book/815/1) by Kadanoff L.P.
History and outlook of statistical physics (http://xxx.lanl.gov/pdf/physics/9803005v1.pdf) by Dieter Flamm
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Statistical_physics&oldid=790964382"
Categories: Statistical mechanics Formal sciences

7/24/2017 Optics - Wikipedia
Optics
Optics is the branch of physics which involves the behaviour and

properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the
construction of instruments that use or detect it.[1] Optics usually
describes the behaviour of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared light.
Because light is an electromagnetic wave, other forms of
electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays, microwaves, and radio waves
exhibit similar properties.[1]
Most optical phenomena can be accounted for using the classical

electromagnetic description of light. Complete electromagnetic
descriptions of light are, however, often difficult to apply in practice.
Practical optics is usually done using simplified models. The most
common of these, geometric optics, treats light as a collection of rays
that travel in straight lines and bend when they pass through or reflect
from surfaces. Physical optics is a more comprehensive model of light,
which includes wave effects such as diffraction and interference that Optics includes study of dispersion of
cannot be accounted for in geometric optics. Historically, the ray-based light.
model of light was developed first, followed by the wave model of light.
Progress in electromagnetic theory in the 19th century led to the discovery that light waves were in fact
electromagnetic radiation.
Some phenomena depend on the fact that light has both wave-like and particle-like properties. Explanation of
these effects requires quantum mechanics. When considering light's particle-like properties, the light is
modelled as a collection of particles called "photons". Quantum optics deals with the application of quantum
mechanics to optical systems.
Optical science is relevant to and studied in many related disciplines including astronomy, various engineering
fields, photography, and medicine (particularly ophthalmology and optometry). Practical applications of optics
are found in a variety of technologies and everyday objects, including mirrors, lenses, telescopes, microscopes,
lasers, and fibre optics.
Contents
1 History
2 Classical optics
2.1 Geometrical optics
2.1.1 Approximations
2.1.2 Reflections
2.1.3 Refractions
2.1.3.1 Lenses
2.2 Physical optics
2.2.1 Modelling and design of optical systems using physical optics
2.2.2 Superposition and interference
2.2.3 Diffraction and optical resolution
2.2.4 Dispersion and scattering
2.2.5 Polarization
2.2.5.1 Changing polarization
2.2.5.2 Natural light
3 Modern optics
3.1 Lasers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optics 1/25
3.2 Kapitsa–Dirac effect

4 Applications
4.1 Human eye
4.1.1 Visual effects
4.1.2 Optical instruments
4.2 Photography
4.3 Atmospheric optics
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History
Optics began with the development of lenses by the ancient Egyptians
and Mesopotamians. The earliest known lenses, made from polished
crystal, often quartz, date from as early as 700 BC for Assyrian lenses
such as the Layard/Nimrud lens.[2] The ancient Romans and Greeks
filled glass spheres with water to make lenses. These practical
developments were followed by the development of theories of light
and vision by ancient Greek and Indian philosophers, and the
development of geometrical optics in the Greco-Roman world. The
word optics comes from the ancient Greek word ὀπτική (optikē),
meaning "appearance, look".[3]
Greek philosophy on optics broke down into two opposing theories on The Nimrud lens
how vision worked, the "intromission theory" and the "emission
theory".[4] The intro-mission approach saw vision as coming from
objects casting off copies of themselves (called eidola) that were captured by the eye. With many propagators
including Democritus, Epicurus, Aristotle and their followers, this theory seems to have some contact with
modern theories of what vision really is, but it remained only speculation lacking any experimental foundation.
Plato first articulated the emission theory, the idea that visual perception is accomplished by rays emitted by the
eyes. He also commented on the parity reversal of mirrors in Timaeus.[5] Some hundred years later, Euclid
wrote a treatise entitled Optics where he linked vision to geometry, creating geometrical optics.[6] He based his
work on Plato's emission theory wherein he described the mathematical rules of perspective and described the
effects of refraction qualitatively, although he questioned that a beam of light from the eye could
instantaneously light up the stars every time someone blinked.[7] Ptolemy, in his treatise Optics, held an
extramission-intromission theory of vision: the rays (or flux) from the eye formed a cone, the vertex being
within the eye, and the base defining the visual field. The rays were sensitive, and conveyed information back
to the observer’s intellect about the distance and orientation of surfaces. He summarised much of Euclid and
went on to describe a way to measure the angle of refraction, though he failed to notice the empirical
relationship between it and the angle of incidence.[8]
During the Middle Ages, Greek ideas about optics were resurrected and extended by writers in the Muslim
world. One of the earliest of these was Al-Kindi (c. 801–73) who wrote on the merits of Aristotelian and
Euclidean ideas of optics, favouring the emission theory since it could better quantify optical phenomena.[10] In
984, the Persian mathematician Ibn Sahl wrote the treatise "On burning mirrors and lenses", correctly
describing a law of refraction equivalent to Snell's law.[11] He used this law to compute optimum shapes for
lenses and curved mirrors. In the early 11th century, Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham) wrote the Book of Optics (Kitab
al-manazir) in which he explored reflection and refraction and proposed a new system for explaining vision
and light based on observation and experiment.[12][13][14][15][16] He rejected the "emission theory" of Ptolemaic
optics with its rays being emitted by the eye, and instead put forward the idea that light reflected in all
directions in straight lines from all points of the objects being viewed and then
entered the eye, although he was unable to correctly explain how the eye
captured the rays.[17] Alhazen's work was largely ignored in the Arabic world
but it was anonymously translated into Latin around 1200 A.D. and further
summarised and expanded on by the Polish monk Witelo[18] making it a
standard text on optics in Europe for the next 400 years.[19]
In the 13th century in medieval Europe, English bishop Robert Grosseteste

wrote on a wide range of scientific topics, and discussed light from four
different perspectives: an epistemology of light, a metaphysics or cosmogony of
light, an etiology or physics of light, and a theology of light,[20] basing it on the
works Aristotle and Platonism. Grosseteste's most famous disciple, Roger Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham),
Bacon, wrote works citing a wide range of recently translated optical and "the father of Optics"[9]
philosophical works, including those of Alhazen, Aristotle, Avicenna, Averroes,
Euclid, al-Kindi, Ptolemy, Tideus, and Constantine the African. Bacon was able
to use parts of glass spheres as magnifying glasses to demonstrate that light
reflects from objects rather than being released from them.
The first wearable eyeglasses were invented in Italy around 1286.[21] This was
the start of the optical industry of grinding and polishing lenses for these
"spectacles", first in Venice and Florence in the thirteenth century,[22] and later
in the spectacle making centres in both the Netherlands and Germany.[23]
Spectacle makers created improved types of lenses for the correction of vision
based more on empirical knowledge gained from observing the effects of the
lenses rather than using the rudimentary optical theory of the day (theory which
for the most part could not even adequately explain how spectacles
worked).[24][25] This practical development, mastery, and experimentation with Reproduction of a page of
lenses led directly to the invention of the compound optical microscope around Ibn Sahl's manuscript
1595, and the refracting telescope in 1608, both of which appeared in the showing his knowledge of
spectacle making centres in the Netherlands.[26][27] the law of refraction.
In the early 17th century Johannes Kepler expanded on geometric optics in his
writings, covering lenses, reflection by flat and curved mirrors, the principles of pinhole cameras, inverse-
square law governing the intensity of light, and the optical explanations of astronomical phenomena such as
lunar and solar eclipses and astronomical parallax. He was also able to correctly deduce the role of the retina as
the actual organ that recorded images, finally being able to scientifically quantify the effects of different types
of lenses that spectacle makers had been observing over the previous 300 years.[28] After the invention of the
telescope Kepler set out the theoretical basis on how they worked and described an improved version, known as
the Keplerian telescope, using two convex lenses to produce higher magnification.[29]
Optical theory progressed in the mid-17th century with treatises written by philosopher René Descartes, which
explained a variety of optical phenomena including reflection and refraction by assuming that light was emitted
by objects which produced it.[30] This differed substantively from the ancient Greek emission theory. In the late
1660s and early 1670s, Isaac Newton expanded Descartes' ideas into a corpuscle theory of light, famously
determining that white light was a mix of colours which can be separated into its component parts with a prism.
In 1690, Christiaan Huygens proposed a wave theory for light based on suggestions that had been made by
Robert Hooke in 1664. Hooke himself publicly criticised Newton's theories of light and the feud between the
two lasted until Hooke's death. In 1704, Newton published Opticks and, at the time, partly because of his
success in other areas of physics, he was generally considered to be the victor in the debate over the nature of
light.[30]
Newtonian optics was generally accepted until the early 19th century when
Thomas Young and Augustin-Jean Fresnel conducted experiments on the
interference of light that firmly established light's wave nature. Young's famous
double slit experiment showed that light followed the law of superposition,
which is a wave-like property not predicted by Newton's corpuscle theory. This
work led to a theory of diffraction for light and opened an entire area of study in
physical optics.[31] Wave optics was successfully unified with electromagnetic
theory by James Clerk Maxwell in the 1860s.[32]
The next development in optical theory came in 1899 when Max Planck
correctly modelled blackbody radiation by assuming that the exchange of
energy between light and matter only occurred in discrete amounts he called
quanta.[33] In 1905 Albert Einstein published the theory of the photoelectric
Cover of the first edition of
effect that firmly established the quantization of light itself.[34][35] In 1913 Newton's Opticks
Niels Bohr showed that atoms could only emit discrete amounts of energy, thus
explaining the discrete lines seen in emission and absorption spectra.[36] The
understanding of the interaction between light and matter which followed from these developments not only
formed the basis of quantum optics but also was crucial for the development of quantum mechanics as a whole.
The ultimate culmination, the theory of quantum electrodynamics, explains all optics and electromagnetic
processes in general as the result of the exchange of real and virtual photons.[37]
Quantum optics gained practical importance with the inventions of the maser in 1953 and of the laser in
1960.[38] Following the work of Paul Dirac in quantum field theory, George Sudarshan, Roy J. Glauber, and
Leonard Mandel applied quantum theory to the electromagnetic field in the 1950s and 1960s to gain a more
detailed understanding of photodetection and the statistics of light.
Classical optics
Classical optics is divided into two main branches: geometrical (or ray) optics and physical (or wave) optics. In
geometrical optics, light is considered to travel in straight lines, while in physical optics, light is considered as
an electromagnetic wave.
Geometrical optics can be viewed as an approximation of physical optics that applies when the wavelength of
the light used is much smaller than the size of the optical elements in the system being modelled.
Geometrical optics
Geometrical optics, or ray optics, describes the propagation of light

in terms of "rays" which travel in straight lines, and whose paths
are governed by the laws of reflection and refraction at interfaces
between different media.[39] These laws were discovered
empirically as far back as 984 AD[11] and have been used in the
design of optical components and instruments from then until the
present day. They can be summarised as follows:
When a ray of light hits the boundary between two transparent Geometry of reflection and refraction of
materials, it is divided into a reflected and a refracted ray. light rays
The law of reflection says that the reflected ray lies in the
plane of incidence, and the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence.
The law of refraction says that the refracted ray lies in the plane of incidence, and the sine of the angle of
refraction divided by the sine of the angle of incidence is a constant:
where n is a constant for any two materials and a given colour of light. If the first material is air or vacuum, n
is the refractive index of the second material.
The laws of reflection and refraction can be derived from Fermat's principle which states that the path taken
between two points by a ray of light is the path that can be traversed in the least time.[40]
Approximations
Geometric optics is often simplified by making the paraxial approximation, or "small angle approximation".
The mathematical behaviour then becomes linear, allowing optical components and systems to be described by
simple matrices. This leads to the techniques of Gaussian optics and paraxial ray tracing, which are used to
find basic properties of optical systems, such as approximate image and object positions and magnifications.[41]
Reflections
Reflections can be divided into two types: specular reflection and diffuse
reflection. Specular reflection describes the gloss of surfaces such as mirrors,
which reflect light in a simple, predictable way. This allows for production of
reflected images that can be associated with an actual (real) or extrapolated
(virtual) location in space. Diffuse reflection describes non-glossy materials,
such as paper or rock. The reflections from these surfaces can only be described
statistically, with the exact distribution of the reflected light depending on the
microscopic structure of the material. Many diffuse reflectors are described or
can be approximated by Lambert's cosine law, which describes surfaces that
have equal luminance when viewed from any angle. Glossy surfaces can give
both specular and diffuse reflection.
In specular reflection, the direction of the reflected ray is determined by the Diagram of specular
angle the incident ray makes with the surface normal, a line perpendicular to the reflection
surface at the point where the ray hits. The incident and reflected rays and the
normal lie in a single plane, and the angle between the reflected ray and the surface normal is the same as that
between the incident ray and the normal.[42] This is known as the Law of Reflection.
For flat mirrors, the law of reflection implies that images of objects are upright and the same distance behind
the mirror as the objects are in front of the mirror. The image size is the same as the object size. The law also
implies that mirror images are parity inverted, which we perceive as a left-right inversion. Images formed from
reflection in two (or any even number of) mirrors are not parity inverted. Corner reflectors[42] retroreflect light,
producing reflected rays that travel back in the direction from which the incident rays came.
Mirrors with curved surfaces can be modelled by ray tracing and using the law of reflection at each point on the
surface. For mirrors with parabolic surfaces, parallel rays incident on the mirror produce reflected rays that
converge at a common focus. Other curved surfaces may also focus light, but with aberrations due to the
diverging shape causing the focus to be smeared out in space. In particular, spherical mirrors exhibit spherical
aberration. Curved mirrors can form images with magnification greater than or less than one, and the
magnification can be negative, indicating that the image is inverted. An upright image formed by reflection in a
mirror is always virtual, while an inverted image is real and can be projected onto a screen.[42]
Refractions
Refraction occurs when light travels through an area of

space that has a changing index of refraction; this principle
allows for lenses and the focusing of light. The simplest
case of refraction occurs when there is an interface between
a uniform medium with index of refraction and another
medium with index of refraction . In such situations,
Snell's Law describes the resulting deflection of the light
ray:
Illustration of Snell's Law for the case n1 < n2, such

where and are the angles between the normal (to the as air/water interface
interface) and the incident and refracted waves,
respectively.[42]
The index of refraction of a medium is related to the speed, v, of light in that medium by
where c is the speed of light in vacuum.
Snell's Law can be used to predict the deflection of light rays as they pass through linear media as long as the
indexes of refraction and the geometry of the media are known. For example, the propagation of light through a
prism results in the light ray being deflected depending on the shape and orientation of the prism. In most
materials, the index of refraction varies with the frequency of the light. Taking this into account, Snell's Law
can be used to predict how a prism will disperse light into a spectrum. The discovery of this phenomenon when
passing light through a prism is famously attributed to Isaac Newton.[42]
Some media have an index of refraction which varies gradually with position and, thus, light rays in the
medium are curved. This effect is responsible for mirages seen on hot days: a change in index of refraction air
with height causes light rays to bend, creating the appearance of specular reflections in the distance (as if on the
surface of a pool of water). Optical materials with varying index of refraction are called gradient-index (GRIN)
materials. Such materials are used to make gradient-index optics.[43]
For light rays travelling from a material with a high index of refraction to a material with a low index of
refraction, Snell's law predicts that there is no when is large. In this case, no transmission occurs; all the
light is reflected. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection and allows for fibre optics technology. As
light travels down an optical fibre, it undergoes total internal reflection allowing for essentially no light to be
lost over the length of the cable.[42]
Lenses
A device which produces converging or diverging light rays due to refraction is known as a lens. Lenses are
characterized by their focal length: a converging lens has positive focal length, while a diverging lens has
negative focal length. Smaller focal length indicates that the lens has a stronger converging or diverging effect.
The focal length of a simple lens in air is given by the lensmaker's equation.[44]
Ray tracing can be used to show how images are formed by a lens. For a thin lens in air, the location of the
image is given by the simple equation
where is the distance from the object to the

lens, is the distance from the lens to the image,
and is the focal length of the lens. In the sign
convention used here, the object and image
distances are positive if the object and image are
on opposite sides of the lens.[44]
Incoming parallel rays are focused by a

converging lens onto a spot one focal length from
the lens, on the far side of the lens. This is called
the rear focal point of the lens. Rays from an
object at finite distance are focused further from
the lens than the focal distance; the closer the
object is to the lens, the further the image is from
the lens. A ray tracing diagram for a converging lens.
With diverging lenses, incoming parallel rays

diverge after going through the lens, in such a
way that they seem to have originated at a spot
one focal length in front of the lens. This is the
lens's front focal point. Rays from an object at
finite distance are associated with a virtual image
that is closer to the lens than the focal point, and
on the same side of the lens as the object. The
closer the object is to the lens, the closer the
virtual image is to the lens. As with mirrors,
upright images produced by a single lens are
virtual, while inverted images are real.[42]
Lenses suffer from aberrations that distort images.

Monochromatic aberrations occur because the
geometry of the lens does not perfectly direct rays from each object point to a single point on the image, while
chromatic aberration occurs because the index of refraction of the lens varies with the wavelength of the
light.[42]
Images of black letters in a thin convex lens of focal length f are shown in red.
Selected rays are shown for letters E, I and K in blue, green and orange, respectively.
Note that E (at 2f) has an equal-size, real and inverted image; I (at f) has its image at
infinity; and K (at f/2) has a double-size, virtual and upright image.
Physical optics
In physical optics, light is considered to propagate as a wave. This model predicts phenomena such as
interference and diffraction, which are not explained by geometric optics. The speed of light waves in air is
approximately 3.0×108 m/s (exactly 299,792,458 m/s in vacuum). The wavelength of visible light waves varies
between 400 and 700 nm, but the term "light" is also often applied to infrared (0.7–300 μm) and ultraviolet
radiation (10–400 nm).
The wave model can be used to make predictions about how an optical system will behave without requiring an
explanation of what is "waving" in what medium. Until the middle of the 19th century, most physicists believed
in an "ethereal" medium in which the light disturbance propagated.[45] The existence of electromagnetic waves
was predicted in 1865 by Maxwell's equations. These waves propagate at the speed of light and have varying
electric and magnetic fields which are orthogonal to one another, and also to the direction of propagation of the
waves.[46] Light waves are now generally treated as electromagnetic waves except when quantum mechanical
effects have to be considered.
Modelling and design of optical systems using physical optics
Many simplified approximations are available for analysing and designing optical systems. Most of these use a
single scalar quantity to represent the electric field of the light wave, rather than using a vector model with
orthogonal electric and magnetic vectors.[47] The Huygens–Fresnel equation is one such model. This was
derived empirically by Fresnel in 1815, based on Huygens' hypothesis that each point on a wavefront generates
a secondary spherical wavefront, which Fresnel combined with the principle of superposition of waves. The
Kirchhoff diffraction equation, which is derived using Maxwell's equations, puts the Huygens-Fresnel equation
on a firmer physical foundation. Examples of the application of Huygens–Fresnel principle can be found in the
sections on diffraction and Fraunhofer diffraction.
More rigorous models, involving the modelling of both electric and magnetic fields of the light wave, are
required when dealing with the detailed interaction of light with materials where the interaction depends on
their electric and magnetic properties. For instance, the behaviour of a light wave interacting with a metal
surface is quite different from what happens when it interacts with a dielectric material. A vector model must
also be used to model polarised light.
Numerical modeling techniques such as the finite element method, the boundary element method and the
transmission-line matrix method can be used to model the propagation of light in systems which cannot be
solved analytically. Such models are computationally demanding and are normally only used to solve small-
scale problems that require accuracy beyond that which can be achieved with analytical solutions.[48]
All of the results from geometrical optics can be recovered using the techniques of Fourier optics which apply
many of the same mathematical and analytical techniques used in acoustic engineering and signal processing.
Gaussian beam propagation is a simple paraxial physical optics model for the propagation of coherent radiation
such as laser beams. This technique partially accounts for diffraction, allowing accurate calculations of the rate
at which a laser beam expands with distance, and the minimum size to which the beam can be focused.
Gaussian beam propagation thus bridges the gap between geometric and physical optics.[49]
Superposition and interference
In the absence of nonlinear effects, the superposition principle can be used to predict the shape of interacting
waveforms through the simple addition of the disturbances.[50] This interaction of waves to produce a resulting
pattern is generally termed "interference" and can result in a variety of outcomes. If two waves of the same
wavelength and frequency are in phase, both the wave crests and wave troughs align. This results in
constructive interference and an increase in the amplitude of the wave, which for light is associated with a
brightening of the waveform in that location. Alternatively, if the two waves of the same wavelength and
frequency are out of phase, then the wave crests will align with wave troughs and vice versa. This results in
destructive interference and a decrease in the amplitude of the wave, which for light is associated with a
dimming of the waveform at that location. See below for an illustration of this effect.[50]
combined
waveform
wave 1
wave 2
Two waves 180° out
Two waves in phase
of phase
Since the Huygens–Fresnel principle states that every point

of a wavefront is associated with the production of a new
disturbance, it is possible for a wavefront to interfere with
itself constructively or destructively at different locations
producing bright and dark fringes in regular and predictable
patterns.[50] Interferometry is the science of measuring
these patterns, usually as a means of making precise
determinations of distances or angular resolutions.[51] The
Michelson interferometer was a famous instrument which
used interference effects to accurately measure the speed of
light.[52]
The appearance of thin films and coatings is directly

affected by interference effects. Antireflective coatings use
destructive interference to reduce the reflectivity of the When oil or fuel is spilled, colourful patterns are
surfaces they coat, and can be used to minimise glare and formed by thin-film interference.
unwanted reflections. The simplest case is a single layer
with thickness one-fourth the wavelength of incident light. The reflected wave from the top of the film and the
reflected wave from the film/material interface are then exactly 180° out of phase, causing destructive
interference. The waves are only exactly out of phase for one wavelength, which would typically be chosen to
be near the centre of the visible spectrum, around 550 nm. More complex designs using multiple layers can
achieve low reflectivity over a broad band, or extremely low reflectivity at a single wavelength.
Constructive interference in thin films can create strong reflection of light in a range of wavelengths, which can
be narrow or broad depending on the design of the coating. These films are used to make dielectric mirrors,
interference filters, heat reflectors, and filters for colour separation in colour television cameras. This
interference effect is also what causes the colourful rainbow patterns seen in oil slicks.[50]
Diffraction and optical resolution
Diffraction is the process by which light interference is

most commonly observed. The effect was first described in
1665 by Francesco Maria Grimaldi, who also coined the
term from the Latin diffringere, 'to break into pieces'.[53][54]
Later that century, Robert Hooke and Isaac Newton also
described phenomena now known to be diffraction in
Newton's rings[55] while James Gregory recorded his
observations of diffraction patterns from bird feathers.[56]
The first physical optics model of diffraction that relied on Diffraction on two slits separated by distance . The
the Huygens–Fresnel principle was developed in 1803 by bright fringes occur along lines where black lines
Thomas Young in his interference experiments with the intersect with black lines and white lines intersect
interference patterns of two closely spaced slits. Young with white lines. These fringes are separated by
showed that his results could only be explained if the two angle and are numbered as order .
slits acted as two unique sources of waves rather than
corpuscles.[57] In 1815 and 1818, Augustin-Jean Fresnel firmly established the mathematics of how wave
interference can account for diffraction.[44]
The simplest physical models of diffraction use equations that describe the angular separation of light and dark
fringes due to light of a particular wavelength (λ). In general, the equation takes the form
where is the separation between two wavefront sources (in the case of Young's experiments, it was two slits),
is the angular separation between the central fringe and the th order fringe, where the central maximum is
.[58]
This equation is modified slightly to take into account a variety of situations such as diffraction through a single
gap, diffraction through multiple slits, or diffraction through a diffraction grating that contains a large number
of slits at equal spacing.[58] More complicated models of diffraction require working with the mathematics of
Fresnel or Fraunhofer diffraction.[59]
X-ray diffraction makes use of the fact that atoms in a crystal have regular spacing at distances that are on the
order of one angstrom. To see diffraction patterns, x-rays with similar wavelengths to that spacing are passed
through the crystal. Since crystals are three-dimensional objects rather than two-dimensional gratings, the
associated diffraction pattern varies in two directions according to Bragg reflection, with the associated bright
spots occurring in unique patterns and being twice the spacing between atoms.[58]
Diffraction effects limit the ability for an optical detector to optically resolve separate light sources. In general,
light that is passing through an aperture will experience diffraction and the best images that can be created (as
described in diffraction-limited optics) appear as a central spot with surrounding bright rings, separated by dark
nulls; this pattern is known as an Airy pattern, and the central bright lobe as an Airy disk.[44] The size of such a
disk is given by
where θ is the angular resolution, λ is the wavelength of the light, and D is the diameter of the lens aperture. If
the angular separation of the two points is significantly less than the Airy disk angular radius, then the two
points cannot be resolved in the image, but if their angular separation is much greater than this, distinct images
of the two points are formed and they can therefore be resolved. Rayleigh defined the somewhat arbitrary
"Rayleigh criterion" that two points whose angular separation is equal to the Airy disk radius (measured to first
null, that is, to the first place where no light is seen) can be considered to be resolved. It can be seen that the
greater the diameter of the lens or its aperture, the finer the resolution.[58] Interferometry, with its ability to
mimic extremely large baseline apertures, allows for the greatest angular resolution possible.[51]
For astronomical imaging, the atmosphere prevents optimal resolution from being achieved in the visible
spectrum due to the atmospheric scattering and dispersion which cause stars to twinkle. Astronomers refer to
this effect as the quality of astronomical seeing. Techniques known as adaptive optics have been used to
eliminate the atmospheric disruption of images and achieve results that approach the diffraction limit.[60]
Dispersion and scattering
Refractive processes take place in the physical optics limit, where the
wavelength of light is similar to other distances, as a kind of scattering.
The simplest type of scattering is Thomson scattering which occurs
when electromagnetic waves are deflected by single particles. In the
limit of Thomson scattering, in which the wavelike nature of light is
evident, light is dispersed independent of the frequency, in contrast to
Compton scattering which is frequency-dependent and strictly a
quantum mechanical process, involving the nature of light as particles.
In a statistical sense, elastic scattering of light by numerous particles
much smaller than the wavelength of the light is a process known as
Conceptual animation of light
Rayleigh scattering while the similar process for scattering by particles
dispersion through a prism. High
that are similar or larger in wavelength is known as Mie scattering with
frequency (blue) light is deflected the
the Tyndall effect being a commonly observed result. A small
most, and low frequency (red) the
proportion of light scattering from atoms or molecules may undergo
least.
Raman scattering, wherein the frequency changes due to excitation of
the atoms and molecules. Brillouin scattering occurs when the
frequency of light changes due to local changes with time and movements of a dense material.[61]
Dispersion occurs when different frequencies of light have different phase velocities, due either to material
properties (material dispersion) or to the geometry of an optical waveguide (waveguide dispersion). The most
familiar form of dispersion is a decrease in index of refraction with increasing wavelength, which is seen in
most transparent materials. This is called "normal dispersion". It occurs in all dielectric materials, in
wavelength ranges where the material does not absorb light.[62] In wavelength ranges where a medium has
significant absorption, the index of refraction can increase with wavelength. This is called "anomalous
dispersion".[42][62]
The separation of colours by a prism is an example of normal dispersion. At the surfaces of the prism, Snell's
law predicts that light incident at an angle θ to the normal will be refracted at an angle arcsin(sin (θ) / n). Thus,
blue light, with its higher refractive index, is bent more strongly than red light, resulting in the well-known
rainbow pattern.[42]
Material dispersion is often

characterised by the Abbe
number, which gives a simple
measure of dispersion based on Dispersion: two sinusoids propagating at different speeds make a moving
the index of refraction at three interference pattern. The red dot moves with the phase velocity, and the green
specific wavelengths. Waveguide dots propagate with the group velocity. In this case, the phase velocity is twice
dispersion is dependent on the the group velocity. The red dot overtakes two green dots, when moving from the
left to the right of the figure. In effect, the individual waves (which travel with
propagation constant.[44] Both
the phase velocity) escape from the wave packet (which travels with the group
kinds of dispersion cause changes
velocity).
in the group characteristics of the
wave, the features of the wave
packet that change with the same frequency as the amplitude of the electromagnetic wave. "Group velocity
dispersion" manifests as a spreading-out of the signal "envelope" of the radiation and can be quantified with a
group dispersion delay parameter:
where is the group velocity.[63] For a uniform medium, the group velocity is
where n is the index of refraction and c is the speed of light in a vacuum.[64] This gives a simpler form for the
dispersion delay parameter:
If D is less than zero, the medium is said to have positive dispersion or normal dispersion. If D is greater than
zero, the medium has negative dispersion. If a light pulse is propagated through a normally dispersive medium,
the result is the higher frequency components slow down more than the lower frequency components. The
pulse therefore becomes positively chirped, or up-chirped, increasing in frequency with time. This causes the
spectrum coming out of a prism to appear with red light the least refracted and blue/violet light the most
refracted. Conversely, if a pulse travels through an anomalously (negatively) dispersive medium, high
frequency components travel faster than the lower ones, and the pulse becomes negatively chirped, or down-
chirped, decreasing in frequency with time.[65]
The result of group velocity dispersion, whether negative or positive, is ultimately temporal spreading of the
pulse. This makes dispersion management extremely important in optical communications systems based on
optical fibres, since if dispersion is too high, a group of pulses representing information will each spread in
time and merge, making it impossible to extract the signal.[63]
Polarization
Polarization is a general property of waves that describes the orientation of their oscillations. For transverse
waves such as many electromagnetic waves, it describes the orientation of the oscillations in the plane
perpendicular to the wave's direction of travel. The oscillations may be oriented in a single direction (linear
polarization), or the oscillation direction may rotate as the wave travels (circular or elliptical polarization).
Circularly polarised waves can rotate rightward or leftward in the direction of travel, and which of those two
rotations is present in a wave is called the wave's chirality.[66]
The typical way to consider polarization is to keep track of the orientation of the electric field vector as the
electromagnetic wave propagates. The electric field vector of a plane wave may be arbitrarily divided into two
perpendicular components labeled x and y (with z indicating the direction of travel). The shape traced out in the
x-y plane by the electric field vector is a Lissajous figure that describes the polarization state.[44] The following
figures show some examples of the evolution of the electric field vector (blue), with time (the vertical axes), at
a particular point in space, along with its x and y components (red/left and green/right), and the path traced by
the vector in the plane (purple): The same evolution would occur when looking at the electric field at a
particular time while evolving the point in space, along the direction opposite to propagation.
Linear Circular Elliptical polarization
In the leftmost figure above, the x and y components of the light wave are in phase. In this case, the ratio of
their strengths is constant, so the direction of the electric vector (the vector sum of these two components) is
constant. Since the tip of the vector traces out a single line in the plane, this special case is called linear
polarization. The direction of this line depends on the relative amplitudes of the two components.[66]
In the middle figure, the two orthogonal components have the same amplitudes and are 90° out of phase. In this
case, one component is zero when the other component is at maximum or minimum amplitude. There are two
possible phase relationships that satisfy this requirement: the x component can be 90° ahead of the y component
or it can be 90° behind the y component. In this special case, the electric vector traces out a circle in the plane,
so this polarization is called circular polarization. The rotation direction in the circle depends on which of the
two phase relationships exists and corresponds to right-hand circular polarization and left-hand circular
polarization.[44]
In all other cases, where the two components either do not have the same amplitudes and/or their phase
difference is neither zero nor a multiple of 90°, the polarization is called elliptical polarization because the
electric vector traces out an ellipse in the plane (the polarization ellipse). This is shown in the above figure on
the right. Detailed mathematics of polarization is done using Jones calculus and is characterised by the Stokes
parameters.[44]
Changing polarization
Media that have different indexes of refraction for different polarization modes are called birefringent.[66] Well
known manifestations of this effect appear in optical wave plates/retarders (linear modes) and in Faraday
rotation/optical rotation (circular modes).[44] If the path length in the birefringent medium is sufficient, plane
waves will exit the material with a significantly different propagation direction, due to refraction. For example,
this is the case with macroscopic crystals of calcite, which present the viewer with two offset, orthogonally
polarised images of whatever is viewed through them. It was this effect that provided the first discovery of
polarization, by Erasmus Bartholinus in 1669. In addition, the phase shift, and thus the change in polarization
state, is usually frequency dependent, which, in combination with dichroism, often gives rise to bright colours
and rainbow-like effects. In mineralogy, such properties, known as pleochroism, are frequently exploited for
the purpose of identifying minerals using polarization microscopes. Additionally, many plastics that are not
normally birefringent will become so when subject to mechanical stress, a phenomenon which is the basis of
photoelasticity.[66] Non-birefringent methods, to rotate the linear polarization of light beams, include the use of
prismatic polarization rotators which use total internal reflection in a prism set designed for efficient collinear
transmission.[67]
Media that reduce the amplitude of certain

polarization modes are called dichroic, with devices
that block nearly all of the radiation in one mode
known as polarizing filters or simply "polarisers".
Malus' law, which is named after Étienne-Louis
Malus, says that when a perfect polariser is placed
in a linear polarised beam of light, the intensity, I,
of the light that passes through is given by
where
I0 is the initial intensity,

and θi is the angle between the light's initial A polariser changing the orientation of linearly polarised
polarization direction and the axis of the light.
polariser.[66] In this picture, θ1 – θ0 = θi.
A beam of unpolarised light can be thought of as

containing a uniform mixture of linear polarizations at all possible angles. Since the average value of is
1/2, the transmission coefficient becomes
In practice, some light is lost in the polariser and the actual transmission of unpolarised light will be somewhat
lower than this, around 38% for Polaroid-type polarisers but considerably higher (>49.9%) for some
birefringent prism types.[44]
In addition to birefringence and dichroism in extended media, polarization effects can also occur at the
(reflective) interface between two materials of different refractive index. These effects are treated by the
Fresnel equations. Part of the wave is transmitted and part is reflected, with the ratio depending on angle of
incidence and the angle of refraction. In this way, physical optics recovers Brewster's angle.[44] When light
reflects from a thin film on a surface, interference between the reflections from the film's surfaces can produce
polarization in the reflected and transmitted light.
Natural light
Most sources of electromagnetic radiation

contain a large number of atoms or
molecules that emit light. The orientation of
the electric fields produced by these
emitters may not be correlated, in which
case the light is said to be unpolarised. If
there is partial correlation between the
emitters, the light is partially polarised. If
the polarization is consistent across the
spectrum of the source, partially polarised The effects of a polarising filter on the sky in a photograph. Left
light can be described as a superposition of picture is taken without polariser. For the right picture, filter was
a completely unpolarised component, and a adjusted to eliminate certain polarizations of the scattered blue light
completely polarised one. One may then from the sky.
describe the light in terms of the degree of
polarization, and the parameters of the
polarization ellipse.[44]
Light reflected by shiny transparent materials is partly or fully polarised, except when the light is normal
(perpendicular) to the surface. It was this effect that allowed the mathematician Étienne-Louis Malus to make
the measurements that allowed for his development of the first mathematical models for polarised light.
Polarization occurs when light is scattered in the atmosphere. The scattered light produces the brightness and
colour in clear skies. This partial polarization of scattered light can be taken advantage of using polarizing
filters to darken the sky in photographs. Optical polarization is principally of importance in chemistry due to
circular dichroism and optical rotation ("circular birefringence") exhibited by optically active (chiral)
molecules.[44]
Modern optics
Modern optics encompasses the areas of optical science and engineering that became popular in the 20th
century. These areas of optical science typically relate to the electromagnetic or quantum properties of light but
do include other topics. A major subfield of modern optics, quantum optics, deals with specifically quantum
mechanical properties of light. Quantum optics is not just theoretical; some modern devices, such as lasers,
have principles of operation that depend on quantum mechanics. Light detectors, such as photomultipliers and
channeltrons, respond to individual photons. Electronic image sensors, such as CCDs, exhibit shot noise
corresponding to the statistics of individual photon events. Light-emitting diodes and photovoltaic cells, too,
cannot be understood without quantum mechanics. In the study of these devices, quantum optics often overlaps
with quantum electronics.[68]
Specialty areas of optics research include the study of how light interacts with specific materials as in crystal
optics and metamaterials. Other research focuses on the phenomenology of electromagnetic waves as in
singular optics, non-imaging optics, non-linear optics, statistical optics, and radiometry. Additionally, computer
engineers have taken an interest in integrated optics, machine vision, and photonic computing as possible
components of the "next generation" of computers.[69]
Today, the pure science of optics is called optical science or optical physics to distinguish it from applied
optical sciences, which are referred to as optical engineering. Prominent subfields of optical engineering
include illumination engineering, photonics, and optoelectronics with practical applications like lens design,
fabrication and testing of optical components, and image processing. Some of these fields overlap, with
nebulous boundaries between the subjects terms that mean slightly different things in different parts of the
world and in different areas of industry. A professional community of researchers in nonlinear optics has
developed in the last several decades due to advances in laser technology.[70]
Lasers
A laser is a device that emits light (electromagnetic radiation) through a

process called stimulated emission. The term laser is an acronym for
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.[71] Laser light
is usually spatially coherent, which means that the light either is emitted
in a narrow, low-divergence beam, or can be converted into one with the
help of optical components such as lenses. Because the microwave
equivalent of the laser, the maser, was developed first, devices that emit
microwave and radio frequencies are usually called masers.[72]
Experiments such as this one with
The first working laser was high-power lasers are part of the
demonstrated on 16 May 1960 modern optics research.
by Theodore Maiman at Hughes
Research Laboratories.[74]
When first invented, they were called "a solution looking for a
problem".[75] Since then, lasers have become a multibillion-dollar
industry, finding utility in thousands of highly varied applications. The
first application of lasers visible in the daily lives of the general
population was the supermarket barcode scanner, introduced in
VLT’s laser guided star.[73]
1974.[76] The laserdisc player, introduced in 1978, was the first
successful consumer product to include a laser, but the compact disc
player was the first laser-equipped device to become truly common in consumers' homes, beginning in
1982.[77] These optical storage devices use a semiconductor laser less than a millimetre wide to scan the
surface of the disc for data retrieval. Fibre-optic communication relies on lasers to transmit large amounts of
information at the speed of light. Other common applications of lasers include laser printers and laser pointers.
Lasers are used in medicine in areas such as bloodless surgery, laser eye surgery, and laser capture
microdissection and in military applications such as missile defence systems, electro-optical countermeasures
(EOCM), and lidar. Lasers are also used in holograms, bubblegrams, laser light shows, and laser hair
removal.[78]
Kapitsa–Dirac effect
The Kapitsa–Dirac effect causes beams of particles to diffract as the result of meeting a standing wave of light.
Light can be used to position matter using various phenomena (see optical tweezers).
Applications
Optics is part of everyday life. The ubiquity of visual systems in biology indicates the central role optics plays
as the science of one of the five senses. Many people benefit from eyeglasses or contact lenses, and optics are
integral to the functioning of many consumer goods including cameras. Rainbows and mirages are examples of
optical phenomena. Optical communication provides the backbone for both the Internet and modern telephony.
Human eye
The human eye functions by focusing light onto a layer of

photoreceptor cells called the retina, which forms the inner
lining of the back of the eye. The focusing is accomplished
by a series of transparent media. Light entering the eye
passes first through the cornea, which provides much of the
eye's optical power. The light then continues through the
fluid just behind the cornea—the anterior chamber, then
passes through the pupil. The light then passes through the
lens, which focuses the light further and allows adjustment
of focus. The light then passes through the main body of
fluid in the eye—the vitreous humour, and reaches the
retina. The cells in the retina line the back of the eye,
except for where the optic nerve exits; this results in a blind
spot.
There are two types of photoreceptor cells, rods and cones,

which are sensitive to different aspects of light.[79] Rod Model of a human eye. Features mentioned in this
cells are sensitive to the intensity of light over a wide article are 3. ciliary muscle, 6. pupil, 8. cornea, 10.
frequency range, thus are responsible for black-and-white lens cortex, 22. optic nerve, 26. fovea, 30. retina
vision. Rod cells are not present on the fovea, the area of
the retina responsible for central vision, and are not as
responsive as cone cells to spatial and temporal changes in light. There are, however, twenty times more rod
cells than cone cells in the retina because the rod cells are present across a wider area. Because of their wider
distribution, rods are responsible for peripheral vision.[80]
In contrast, cone cells are less sensitive to the overall intensity of light, but come in three varieties that are
sensitive to different frequency-ranges and thus are used in the perception of colour and photopic vision. Cone
cells are highly concentrated in the fovea and have a high visual acuity meaning that they are better at spatial
resolution than rod cells. Since cone cells are not as sensitive to dim light as rod cells, most night vision is
limited to rod cells. Likewise, since cone cells are in the fovea, central vision (including the vision needed to do
most reading, fine detail work such as sewing, or careful examination of objects) is done by cone cells.[80]
Ciliary muscles around the lens allow the eye's focus to be adjusted. This process is known as accommodation.
The near point and far point define the nearest and farthest distances from the eye at which an object can be
brought into sharp focus. For a person with normal vision, the far point is located at infinity. The near point's
location depends on how much the muscles can increase the curvature of the lens, and how inflexible the lens
has become with age. Optometrists, ophthalmologists, and opticians usually consider an appropriate near point
to be closer than normal reading distance—approximately 25 cm.[79]
Defects in vision can be explained using optical principles. As people age, the lens becomes less flexible and
the near point recedes from the eye, a condition known as presbyopia. Similarly, people suffering from
hyperopia cannot decrease the focal length of their lens enough to allow for nearby objects to be imaged on
their retina. Conversely, people who cannot increase the focal length of their lens enough to allow for distant
objects to be imaged on the retina suffer from myopia and have a far point that is considerably closer than
infinity. A condition known as astigmatism results when the cornea is not spherical but instead is more curved
in one direction. This causes horizontally extended objects to be focused on different parts of the retina than
vertically extended objects, and results in distorted images.[79]
All of these conditions can be corrected using corrective lenses. For presbyopia and hyperopia, a converging
lens provides the extra curvature necessary to bring the near point closer to the eye while for myopia a
diverging lens provides the curvature necessary to send the far point to infinity. Astigmatism is corrected with a
cylindrical surface lens that curves more strongly in one direction than in another, compensating for the non-
uniformity of the cornea.[81]
The optical power of corrective lenses is measured in diopters, a value equal to the reciprocal of the focal
length measured in metres; with a positive focal length corresponding to a converging lens and a negative focal
length corresponding to a diverging lens. For lenses that correct for astigmatism as well, three numbers are
given: one for the spherical power, one for the cylindrical power, and one for the angle of orientation of the
astigmatism.[81]
Visual effects
Optical illusions (also called visual illusions) are characterized by

visually perceived images that differ from objective reality. The
information gathered by the eye is processed in the brain to give a
percept that differs from the object being imaged. Optical illusions can
be the result of a variety of phenomena including physical effects that
create images that are different from the objects that make them, the
physiological effects on the eyes and brain of excessive stimulation (e.g.
brightness, tilt, colour, movement), and cognitive illusions where the
eye and brain make unconscious inferences.[82]
The Ponzo Illusion relies on the fact
Cognitive illusions include some which result from the unconscious that parallel lines appear to converge
misapplication of certain optical principles. For example, the Ames as they approach infinity.
room, Hering, Müller-Lyer, Orbison, Ponzo, Sander, and Wundt
illusions all rely on the suggestion of the appearance of distance by
using converging and diverging lines, in the same way that parallel light rays (or indeed any set of parallel
lines) appear to converge at a vanishing point at infinity in two-dimensionally rendered images with artistic
perspective.[83] This suggestion is also responsible for the famous moon illusion where the moon, despite
having essentially the same angular size, appears much larger near the horizon than it does at zenith.[84] This
illusion so confounded Ptolemy that he incorrectly attributed it to atmospheric refraction when he described it
in his treatise, Optics.[8]
Another type of optical illusion exploits broken patterns to trick the mind into perceiving symmetries or
asymmetries that are not present. Examples include the café wall, Ehrenstein, Fraser spiral, Poggendorff, and
Zöllner illusions. Related, but not strictly illusions, are patterns that occur due to the superimposition of
periodic structures. For example, transparent tissues with a grid structure produce shapes known as moiré
patterns, while the superimposition of periodic transparent patterns comprising parallel opaque lines or curves
produces line moiré patterns.[85]
Optical instruments
Single lenses have a variety of applications including photographic lenses, corrective lenses, and magnifying
glasses while single mirrors are used in parabolic reflectors and rear-view mirrors. Combining a number of
mirrors, prisms, and lenses produces compound optical instruments which have practical uses. For example, a
periscope is simply two plane mirrors aligned to allow for viewing around obstructions. The most famous
compound optical instruments in science are the microscope and the telescope which were both invented by the
Dutch in the late 16th century.[86]
Microscopes were first developed with just two lenses: an

objective lens and an eyepiece. The objective lens is
essentially a magnifying glass and was designed with a
very small focal length while the eyepiece generally has a
longer focal length. This has the effect of producing
magnified images of close objects. Generally, an additional
source of illumination is used since magnified images are
dimmer due to the conservation of energy and the
spreading of light rays over a larger surface area. Modern
microscopes, known as compound microscopes have many
lenses in them (typically four) to optimize the functionality
and enhance image stability.[86] A slightly different variety
of microscope, the comparison microscope, looks at side-
by-side images to produce a stereoscopic binocular view
that appears three dimensional when used by humans.[87]
The first telescopes, called refracting telescopes were also

developed with a single objective and eyepiece lens. In
contrast to the microscope, the objective lens of the
telescope was designed with a large focal length to avoid
optical aberrations. The objective focuses an image of a
distant object at its focal point which is adjusted to be at the
focal point of an eyepiece of a much smaller focal length.
The main goal of a telescope is not necessarily
magnification, but rather collection of light which is
determined by the physical size of the objective lens. Thus,
telescopes are normally indicated by the diameters of their Illustrations of various optical instruments from the
objectives rather than by the magnification which can be 1728 Cyclopaedia
changed by switching eyepieces. Because the magnification
of a telescope is equal to the focal length of the objective
divided by the focal length of the eyepiece, smaller focal-length eyepieces cause greater magnification.[86]
Since crafting large lenses is much more difficult than crafting large mirrors, most modern telescopes are
reflecting telescopes, that is, telescopes that use a primary mirror rather than an objective lens. The same
general optical considerations apply to reflecting telescopes that applied to refracting telescopes, namely, the
larger the primary mirror, the more light collected, and the magnification is still equal to the focal length of the
primary mirror divided by the focal length of the eyepiece. Professional telescopes generally do not have
eyepieces and instead place an instrument (often a charge-coupled device) at the focal point instead.[86]
Photography
The optics of photography involves both lenses and the medium in which the electromagnetic radiation is
recorded, whether it be a plate, film, or charge-coupled device. Photographers must consider the reciprocity of
the camera and the shot which is summarized by the relation
Exposure ∝ ApertureArea × ExposureTime × SceneLuminance[88]
In other words, the smaller the aperture (giving greater depth of focus), the less light coming in, so the length of
time has to be increased (leading to possible blurriness if motion occurs). An example of the use of the law of
reciprocity is the Sunny 16 rule which gives a rough estimate for the settings needed to estimate the proper
exposure in daylight.[89]
A camera's aperture is measured by a unitless number called the f-number or f-stop, f/#, often notated as ,
and given by
where is the focal length, and is the diameter of the

entrance pupil. By convention, "f/#" is treated as a single
symbol, and specific values of f/# are written by replacing
the number sign with the value. The two ways to increase
the f-stop are to either decrease the diameter of the entrance
pupil or change to a longer focal length (in the case of a
zoom lens, this can be done by simply adjusting the lens).
Higher f-numbers also have a larger depth of field due to
the lens approaching the limit of a pinhole camera which is Photograph taken with aperture f/32
able to focus all images perfectly, regardless of distance,
but requires very long exposure times.[90]
The field of view that the lens will provide changes with
the focal length of the lens. There are three basic
classifications based on the relationship to the diagonal size
of the film or sensor size of the camera to the focal length
of the lens:[91]
Normal lens: angle of view of about 50° (called

normal because this angle considered roughly
equivalent to human vision[91]) and a focal length
approximately equal to the diagonal of the film or
Photograph taken with aperture f/5
sensor.[92]
Wide-angle lens: angle of view wider than 60° and
focal length shorter than a normal lens.[93]
Long focus lens: angle of view narrower than a normal lens. This is any lens with a focal length longer
than the diagonal measure of the film or sensor.[94] The most common type of long focus lens is the
telephoto lens, a design that uses a special telephoto group to be physically shorter than its focal
length.[95]
Modern zoom lenses may have some or all of these attributes.
The absolute value for the exposure time required depends on how sensitive to light the medium being used is
(measured by the film speed, or, for digital media, by the quantum efficiency).[96] Early photography used
media that had very low light sensitivity, and so exposure times had to be long even for very bright shots. As
technology has improved, so has the sensitivity through film cameras and digital cameras.[97]
Other results from physical and geometrical optics apply to camera optics. For example, the maximum
resolution capability of a particular camera set-up is determined by the diffraction limit associated with the
pupil size and given, roughly, by the Rayleigh criterion.[98]
Atmospheric optics
The unique optical properties of the atmosphere cause a wide range of spectacular optical phenomena. The blue
colour of the sky is a direct result of Rayleigh scattering which redirects higher frequency (blue) sunlight back
into the field of view of the observer. Because blue light is scattered more easily than red light, the sun takes on
a reddish hue when it is observed through a thick atmosphere, as during a sunrise or sunset. Additional
particulate matter in the sky can scatter different colours at different angles creating colourful glowing skies at
dusk and dawn. Scattering off of ice crystals and other particles in the atmosphere are responsible for halos,
afterglows, coronas, rays of sunlight, and sun dogs. The variation in these kinds of phenomena is due to
different particle sizes and geometries.[99]
Mirages are optical phenomena in which light rays are bent

due to thermal variations in the refraction index of air,
producing displaced or heavily distorted images of distant
objects. Other dramatic optical phenomena associated with
this include the Novaya Zemlya effect where the sun
appears to rise earlier than predicted with a distorted shape.
A spectacular form of refraction occurs with a temperature
inversion called the Fata Morgana where objects on the
horizon or even beyond the horizon, such as islands, cliffs,
ships or icebergs, appear elongated and elevated, like "fairy
tale castles".[100]
Rainbows are the result of a combination of internal

reflection and dispersive refraction of light in raindrops. A A colourful sky is often due to scattering of light off
single reflection off the backs of an array of raindrops particulates and pollution, as in this photograph of a
produces a rainbow with an angular size on the sky that sunset during the October 2007 California wildfires.
ranges from 40° to 42° with red on the outside. Double
rainbows are produced by two internal reflections with angular size of 50.5° to 54° with violet on the outside.
Because rainbows are seen with the sun 180° away from the centre of the rainbow, rainbows are more
prominent the closer the sun is to the horizon.[66]
See also
Ion optics
Important publications in optics
List of optical topics
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Further reading
Born, Max; Wolf, Emil (2002). Principles of Optics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 1-139-64340-1.
Hecht, Eugene (2002). Optics (4 ed.). Addison-Wesley Longman, Incorporated. ISBN 0-8053-8566-5.
Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for scientists and engineers (6, illustrated ed.).
Belmont, CA: Thomson-Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-534-40842-7.
Tipler, Paul A.; Mosca, Gene (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light,
and Elementary Modern Physics. 2. W. H. Freeman. ISBN 978-0-7167-0810-0.
Lipson, Stephen G.; Lipson, Henry; Tannhauser, David Stefan (1995). Optical Physics. Cambridge
Fowles, Grant R. (1975). Introduction to Modern Optics. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-
65957-7.
External links
Relevant discussions
media related to Optics.
Optics (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00774t5) on In Our
Time at the BBC.
Textbooks and tutorials
Light and Matter (http://lightandmatter.com/lm/) – an open-source textbook, containing a treatment of

optics in ch. 28-32
Optics2001 (http://www.optics2001.com) – Optics library and community
Fundamental Optics (http://marketplace.idexop.com/store/SupportDocuments/Fundamental_Optics_Over
viewWEB.pdf) – Melles Griot Technical Guide
Physics of Light and Optics (http://optics.byu.edu/textbook.aspx) – Brigham Young University
Undergraduate Book
Wikibooks modules
Physics Study Guide/Optics Optics
Further reading
Optics and photonics: Physics enhancing our lives (http://www.iop.org/publications/iop/2009/page_3820

5.html) by Institute of Physics publications (http://www.iop.org/publications/iop/index.html)
Societies
European Optical Society – link (http://www.my European Photonics Industry Consortium – link
eos.org) (http://www.epic-assoc.com)
The Optical Society (OSA) – link (http://www.os Optical Society of India – link (http://www.osiin
a.org) dia.org)
SPIE – link (http://www.spie.org)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Optics&oldid=787431213"
Categories: Optics Electromagnetic radiation Applied and interdisciplinary physics Natural philosophy

7/19/2017 Solid-state physics - Wikipedia
Solid-state physics
Solid-state physics is the study of rigid matter, or solids, through methods such as quantum mechanics,
crystallography, electromagnetism, and metallurgy. It is the largest branch of condensed matter physics. Solid-
state physics studies how the large-scale properties of solid materials result from their atomic-scale properties.
Thus, solid-state physics forms a theoretical basis of materials science. It also has direct applications, for
example in the technology of transistors and semiconductors.
Contents
1 Background
2 History
3 Crystal structure and properties
4 Electronic properties
5 Modern research
6 See also
7 Further reading
8 References
Background
Solid materials are formed from densely packed atoms, which interact intensely. These interactions produce the
mechanical (e.g. hardness and elasticity), thermal, electrical, magnetic and optical properties of solids.
Depending on the material involved and the conditions in which it was formed, the atoms may be arranged in a
regular, geometric pattern (crystalline solids, which include metals and ordinary water ice) or irregularly (an
amorphous solid such as common window glass).
The bulk of solid-state physics, as a general theory, is focused on crystals. Primarily, this is because the
periodicity of atoms in a crystal — its defining characteristic — facilitates mathematical modeling. Likewise,
crystalline materials often have electrical, magnetic, optical, or mechanical properties that can be exploited for
engineering purposes.
The forces between the atoms in a crystal can take a variety of forms. For example, in a crystal of sodium
chloride (common salt), the crystal is made up of ionic sodium and chlorine, and held together with ionic
bonds. In others, the atoms share electrons and form covalent bonds. In metals, electrons are shared amongst
the whole crystal in metallic bonding. Finally, the noble gases do not undergo any of these types of bonding. In
solid form, the noble gases are held together with van der Waals forces resulting from the polarisation of the
electronic charge cloud on each atom. The differences between the types of solid result from the differences
between their bonding.
History
The physical properties of solids have been common subjects of scientific inquiry for centuries, but a separate
field going by the name of solid-state physics did not emerge until the 1940s, in particular with the
establishment of the Division of Solid State Physics (DSSP) within the American Physical Society. The DSSP
catered to industrial physicists, and solid-state physics became associated with the technological applications
made possible by research on solids. By the early 1960s, the DSSP was the largest division of the American
Physical Society.[1][2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_physics 1/3
Large communities of solid state physicists also emerged in Europe after World War II, in particular in
England, Germany, and the Soviet Union.[3] In the United States and Europe, solid state became a prominent
field through its investigations into semiconductors, superconductivity, nuclear magnetic resonance, and diverse
other phenomena. During the early Cold War, research in solid state physics was often not restricted to solids,
which led some physicists in the 1970s and 1980s to found the field of condensed matter physics, which
organized around common techniques used to investigate solids, liquids, plasmas, and other complex matter.[1]
Today, solid-state physics is broadly considered to be the subfield of condensed matter physics that focuses on
the properties of solids with regular crystal lattices.
Crystal structure and properties

Many properties of materials are affected by their crystal structure. This
structure can be investigated using a range of crystallographic techniques,
including X-ray crystallography, neutron diffraction and electron diffraction.
The sizes of the individual crystals in a crystalline solid material vary

depending on the material involved and the conditions when it was formed.
Most crystalline materials encountered in everyday life are polycrystalline,
with the individual crystals being microscopic in scale, but macroscopic
single crystals can be produced either naturally (e.g. diamonds) or
An example of a simple cubic
artificially.
lattice
Real crystals feature defects or irregularities in the ideal arrangements, and it
is these defects that critically determine many of the electrical and mechanical properties of real materials.
Electronic properties
Properties of materials such as electrical conduction and heat capacity are investigated by solid state physics.
An early model of electrical conduction was the Drude model, which applied kinetic theory to the electrons in a
solid. By assuming that the material contains immobile positive ions and an "electron gas" of classical, non-
interacting electrons, the Drude model was able to explain electrical and thermal conductivity and the Hall
effect in metals, although it greatly overestimated the electronic heat capacity.
Arnold Sommerfeld combined the classical Drude model with quantum mechanics in the free electron model
(or Drude-Sommerfeld model). Here, the electrons are modelled as a Fermi gas, a gas of particles which obey
the quantum mechanical Fermi–Dirac statistics. The free electron model gave improved predictions for the heat
capacity of metals, however, it was unable to explain the existence of insulators.
The nearly free electron model is a modification of the free electron model which includes a weak periodic
perturbation meant to model the interaction between the conduction electrons and the ions in a crystalline solid.
By introducing the idea of electronic bands, the theory explains the existence of conductors, semiconductors
and insulators.
The nearly free electron model rewrites the Schrödinger equation for the case of a periodic potential. The
solutions in this case are known as Bloch states. Since Bloch's theorem applies only to periodic potentials, and
since unceasing random movements of atoms in a crystal disrupt periodicity, this use of Bloch's theorem is only
an approximation, but it has proven to be a tremendously valuable approximation, without which most solid-
state physics analysis would be intractable. Deviations from periodicity are treated by quantum mechanical
perturbation theory.
Modern research
Research topics in solid state physics include:
High-temperature superconductivity
Quasicrystals
Spin glass
Strongly correlated materials
See also
Orbital magnetization
Further reading
Neil W. Ashcroft and N. David Mermin, Solid State Physics (Harcourt: Orlando, 1976).
Charles Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics (Wiley: New York, 2004).
H. M. Rosenberg, The Solid State (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1995).
Steven H. Simon, The Oxford Solid State Basics (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2013).
Out of the Crystal Maze. Chapters from the History of Solid State Physics, ed. Lillian Hoddeson, Ernest
Braun, Jürgen Teichmann, Spencer Weart (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).
M. A. Omar, Elementary Solid State Physics (Revised Printing, Addison-Wesley, 1993).
References
1. Martin, Joseph D. (2015). "What's in a Name Change? Solid State Physics, Condensed Matter Physics, and Materials
Science" (http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00016-014-0151-7). Physics in Perspective. 17 (1): 3–32.
Bibcode:2015PhP....17....3M (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PhP....17....3M). doi:10.1007/s00016-014-0151-7 (h
ttps://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00016-014-0151-7). Retrieved 20 April 2015.
2. Hoddeson, Lillian; et al. (1992). Out of the Crystal Maze: Chapters from The History of Solid State Physics (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=WCpPPHhMdRcC&pg=PA29). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195053296.
3. Hoffmann, Dieter (2013). "Fifty Years of Physica Status Solidi in Historical Perspective" (http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/pssb.201340126/abstract). Physica Status Solidi B. 250 (4): 871–887. doi:10.1002/pssb.201340126
(https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fpssb.201340126). Retrieved 22 April 2015.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solid- Wikimedia Commons has

media related to Solid state
state_physics&oldid=787548465"
physics.
Categories: Physics Condensed matter physics Metallurgy

7/24/2017 Mathematical physics - Wikipedia
Mathematical physics
Mathematical physics refers to development of

mathematical methods for application to problems in
physics. The Journal of Mathematical Physics defines the
field as "the application of mathematics to problems in
physics and the development of mathematical methods
suitable for such applications and for the formulation of
physical theories".[1] It is a branch of applied mathematics,
but deals with physical problems.
Contents
1 Scope
1.1 Classical mechanics
1.2 Partial differential equations
1.3 Quantum theory An example of mathematical physics: solutions of
1.4 Relativity and Quantum Relativistic Schrödinger's equation for quantum harmonic
Theories oscillators (left) with their amplitudes (right).
1.5 Statistical mechanics
2 Usage
2.1 Mathematical vs. theoretical physics
3 Prominent mathematical physicists
3.1 Before Newton
3.2 Newtonian and post Newtonian
3.3 Relativistic
3.4 Quantum
3.5 List of prominent mathematical
physicists in the 20th century
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 Further reading
7.1 Generic works
7.2 Textbooks for undergraduate studies
7.3 Textbooks for graduate studies
7.4 Other specialised subareas
Scope
There are several distinct branches of mathematical physics, and these roughly correspond to particular
historical periods.
Classical mechanics
The rigorous, abstract and advanced re-formulation of Newtonian mechanics adopting the Lagrangian
mechanics and the Hamiltonian mechanics even in the presence of constraints. Both formulations are embodied
in analytical mechanics. It leads, for instance, to discover the deep interplay of the notion of symmetry and that
of conserved quantities during the dynamical evolution, stated within the most elementary formulation of
Noether's theorem. These approaches and ideas can be and, in fact, have been extended to other areas of
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_physics 1/8
physics as statistical mechanics, continuum mechanics, classical field theory and quantum field theory.
Moreover, they have provided several examples and basic ideas in differential geometry (e.g. the theory of
vector bundles and several notions in symplectic geometry).
Partial differential equations
The theory of partial differential equations (and the related areas of variational calculus, Fourier analysis,
potential theory, and vector analysis) are perhaps most closely associated with mathematical physics. These
were developed intensively from the second half of the eighteenth century (by, for example, D'Alembert, Euler,
and Lagrange) until the 1930s. Physical applications of these developments include hydrodynamics, celestial
mechanics, continuum mechanics, elasticity theory, acoustics, thermodynamics, electricity, magnetism, and
aerodynamics.
Quantum theory
The theory of atomic spectra (and, later, quantum mechanics) developed almost concurrently with the
mathematical fields of linear algebra, the spectral theory of operators, operator algebras and more broadly,
functional analysis. Nonrelativistic quantum mechanics includes Schrödinger operators, and it has connections
to atomic and molecular physics. Quantum information theory is another subspecialty.
Relativity and Quantum Relativistic Theories
The special and general theories of relativity require a rather different type of mathematics. This was group
theory, which played an important role in both quantum field theory and differential geometry. This was,
however, gradually supplemented by topology and functional analysis in the mathematical description of
cosmological as well as quantum field theory phenomena. In this area both homological algebra and category
theory are important nowadays.
Statistical mechanics forms a separate field, which includes the theory of phase transitions. It relies upon the
Hamiltonian mechanics (or its quantum version) and it is closely related with the more mathematical ergodic
theory and some parts of probability theory. There are increasing interactions between combinatorics and
physics, in particular statistical physics.
Usage
The usage of the term "mathematical physics" is sometimes
idiosyncratic. Certain parts of mathematics that initially arose from the
development of physics are not, in fact, considered parts of
mathematical physics, while other closely related fields are. For
example, ordinary differential equations and symplectic geometry are
generally viewed as purely mathematical disciplines, whereas
dynamical systems and Hamiltonian mechanics belong to mathematical
physics.
Mathematical vs. theoretical physics
The term "mathematical physics" is sometimes used to denote research aimed at studying and solving problems
inspired by physics or thought experiments within a mathematically rigorous framework. In this sense,
mathematical physics covers a very broad academic realm distinguished only by the blending of pure
mathematics and physics. Although related to theoretical physics,[2] mathematical physics in this sense
emphasizes the mathematical rigour of the same type as found in mathematics.
On the other hand, theoretical physics emphasizes the links to observations and experimental physics, which
often requires theoretical physicists (and mathematical physicists in the more general sense) to use heuristic,
intuitive, and approximate arguments.[3] Such arguments are not considered rigorous by mathematicians. But
that is changing by the time.
Such mathematical physicists primarily expand and elucidate physical theories. Because of the required level of
mathematical rigour, these researchers often deal with questions that theoretical physicists have considered to
already be solved. However, they can sometimes show (but neither commonly nor easily) that the previous
solution was incomplete, incorrect, or simply, too naive. Issues about attempts to infer the second law of
thermodynamics from statistical mechanics are examples. Other examples concern the subtleties involved with
synchronisation procedures in special and general relativity (Sagnac effect and Einstein synchronisation)
The effort to put physical theories on a mathematically rigorous footing has inspired many mathematical
developments. For example, the development of quantum mechanics and some aspects of functional analysis
parallel each other in many ways. The mathematical study of quantum mechanics, quantum field theory and
quantum statistical mechanics has motivated results in operator algebras. The attempt to construct a rigorous
quantum field theory has also brought about progress in fields such as representation theory. Use of geometry
and topology plays an important role in string theory.
Prominent mathematical physicists

Before Newton
The roots of mathematical physics can be traced back to the likes of Archimedes in Greece, Ptolemy in Egypt,
Alhazen in Iraq, and Al-Biruni in Persia.
In the first decade of the 16th century, amateur astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus proposed heliocentrism, and
published a treatise on it in 1543. Not quite radical, Copernicus merely sought to simplify astronomy and
achieve orbits of more perfect circles, stated by Aristotelian physics to be the intrinsic motion of Aristotle's
fifth element—the quintessence or universal essence known in Greek as aither for the English pure air—that
was the pure substance beyond the sublunary sphere, and thus was celestial entities' pure composition. The
German Johannes Kepler [1571–1630], Tycho Brahe's assistant, modified Copernican orbits to ellipses,
however, formalized in the equations of Kepler's laws of planetary motion.
An enthusiastic atomist, Galileo Galilei in his 1623 book The Assayer asserted that the "book of nature" is
written in mathematics.[4] His 1632 book, upon his telescopic observations, supported heliocentrism.[5] Having
introduced experimentation, Galileo then refuted geocentric cosmology by refuting Aristotelian physics itself.
Galilei's 1638 book Discourse on Two New Sciences established law of equal free fall as well as the principles
of inertial motion, founding the central concepts of what would become today's classical mechanics.[5] By the
Galilean law of inertia as well as the principle Galilean invariance, also called Galilean relativity, for any object
experiencing inertia, there is empirical justification of knowing only its being at relative rest or relative motion
—rest or motion with respect to another object.
René Descartes adopted Galilean principles and developed a complete system of heliocentric cosmology,
anchored on the principle of vortex motion, Cartesian physics, whose widespread acceptance brought demise of
Aristotelian physics. Descartes sought to formalize mathematical reasoning in science, and developed Cartesian
coordinates for geometrically plotting locations in 3D space and marking their progressions along the flow of
time.[6]
Newtonian and post Newtonian
Isaac Newton [1642–1727] developed new mathematics, including calculus and several numerical methods
such as Newton's method to solve problems in physics. Newton's theory of motion, published in 1687, modeled
three Galilean laws of motion along with Newton's law of universal gravitation on a framework of absolute
space—hypothesized by Newton as a physically real entity of Euclidean geometric structure extending

infinitely in all directions—while presuming absolute time, supposedly justifying knowledge of absolute
motion, the object's motion with respect to absolute space. The principle Galilean invariance/relativity was
merely implicit in Newton's theory of motion. Having ostensibly reduced Keplerian celestial laws of motion as
well as Galilean terrestrial laws of motion to a unifying force, Newton achieved great mathematic rigor if
theoretical laxity.[7]
In the 18th century, the Swiss Daniel Bernoulli [1700–1782] made contributions to fluid dynamics, and
vibrating strings. The Swiss Leonhard Euler [1707–1783] did special work in variational calculus, dynamics,
fluid dynamics, and other areas. Also notable was the Italian-born Frenchman, Joseph-Louis Lagrange [1736–
1813] for work in analytical mechanics (he formulated Lagrangian mechanics) and variational methods. A
major contribution to the formulation of Analytical Dynamics called Hamiltonian dynamics was also made by
the Irish physicist, astronomer and mathematician, William Rowan Hamilton [1805-1865]. Hamiltonian
dynamics had played an important role in the formulation of modern theories in physics including field theory
and quantum mechanics. The French mathematical physicist Joseph Fourier [1768 – 1830] introduced the
notion of Fourier series to solve the heat equation giving rise to a new approach to handle partial differential
equations by means of integral transforms.
Into the early 19th century, the French Pierre-Simon Laplace [1749–1827] made paramount contributions to
mathematical astronomy, potential theory, and probability theory. Siméon Denis Poisson [1781–1840] worked
in analytical mechanics and potential theory. In Germany, Carl Friedrich Gauss [1777–1855] made key
contributions to the theoretical foundations of electricity, magnetism, mechanics, and fluid dynamics. In
England, George Green [1793-1841] published An Essay on the Application of Mathematical Analysis to the
Theories of Electricity and Magnetism in 1828, which in addition to its significant contributions to mathematics
made early progress towards laying down the mathematical foundations of electricity and magnetism.
A couple of decades ahead of Newton's publication of a particle theory of light, the Dutch Christiaan Huygens
[1629–1695] developed the wave theory of light, published in 1690. By 1804, Thomas Young's double-slit
experiment revealed an interference pattern as though light were a wave, and thus Huygens's wave theory of
light, as well as Huygens's inference that light waves were vibrations of the luminiferous aether was accepted.
Jean-Augustin Fresnel modeled hypothetical behavior of the aether. Michael Faraday introduced the theoretical
concept of a field—not action at a distance. Mid-19th century, the Scottish James Clerk Maxwell [1831–1879]
reduced electricity and magnetism to Maxwell's electromagnetic field theory, whittled down by others to the
four Maxwell's equations. Initially, optics was found consequent of Maxwell's field. Later, radiation and then
today's known electromagnetic spectrum were found also consequent of this electromagnetic field.
The English physicist Lord Rayleigh [1842–1919] worked on sound. The Irishmen William Rowan Hamilton
[1805–1865], George Gabriel Stokes [1819–1903] and Lord Kelvin [1824–1907] produced several major
works: Stokes was a leader in optics and fluid dynamics; Kelvin made substantial discoveries in
thermodynamics; Hamilton did notable work on analytical mechanics finding out a new and powerful approach
nowadays known as Hamiltonian mechanics. Very relevant contributions to this approach are due to his
German colleague Carl Gustav Jacobi [1804–1851] in particular referring to canonical transformations. The
German Hermann von Helmholtz [1821–1894] is greatly contributed to electromagnetism, waves, fluids, and
sound. In the United States, the pioneering work of Josiah Willard Gibbs [1839–1903] became the basis for
statistical mechanics. Fundamental theoretical results in this area were achieved by the German Ludwig
Boltzmann [1844-1906]. Together, these individuals laid the foundations of electromagnetic theory, fluid
dynamics, and statistical mechanics.
Relativistic
By the 1880s, prominent was the paradox that an observer within Maxwell's electromagnetic field measured it
at approximately constant speed regardless of the observer's speed relative to other objects within the
electromagnetic field. Thus, although the observer's speed was continually lost relative to the electromagnetic
field, it was preserved relative to other objects in the electromagnetic field. And yet no violation of Galilean
invariance within physical interactions among objects was detected. As Maxwell's electromagnetic field was
modeled as oscillations of the aether, physicists inferred that motion within the aether resulted in aether drift,
shifting the electromagnetic field, explaining the observer's missing speed relative to it. Physicists'
mathematical process to translate the positions in one reference frame to predictions of positions in another
reference frame, all plotted on Cartesian coordinates, had been the Galilean transformation, which was newly
replaced with Lorentz transformation, modeled by the Dutch Hendrik Lorentz [1853–1928].
In 1887, experimentalists Michelson and Morley failed to detect aether drift, however. It was hypothesized that
motion into the aether prompted aether's shortening, too, as modeled in the Lorentz contraction. Hypotheses at
the aether thus kept Maxwell's electromagnetic field aligned with the principle Galilean invariance across all
inertial frames of reference, while Newton's theory of motion was spared.
In the 19th century, Gauss's contributions to non-Euclidean geometry, or geometry on curved surfaces, laid the
groundwork for the subsequent development of Riemannian geometry by Bernhard Riemann [1826–1866].
Austrian theoretical physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach criticized Newton's postulated absolute space.
Mathematician Jules-Henri Poincaré [1854–1912] questioned even absolute time. In 1905, Pierre Duhem
published a devastating criticism of the foundation of Newton's theory of motion.[7] Also in 1905, Albert
Einstein [1879–1955] published special theory of relativity, newly explaining both the electromagnetic field's
invariance and Galilean invariance by discarding all hypotheses at aether, including aether itself. Refuting the
framework of Newton's theory—absolute space and absolute time—special relativity states relative space and
relative time, whereby length contracts and time dilates along the travel pathway of an object experiencing
kinetic energy.
In 1908, Einstein's former professor Hermann Minkowski modeled 3D space together with the 1D axis of time
by treating the temporal axis like a fourth spatial dimension—altogether 4D spacetime—and declared the
imminent demise of the separation of space and time. Einstein initially called this "superfluous learnedness",
but later used Minkowski spacetime to great elegance in general theory of relativity,[8] extending invariance to
all reference frames—whether perceived as inertial or as accelerated—and thanked Minkowski, by then
deceased. General relativity replaces Cartesian coordinates with Gaussian coordinates, and replaces Newton's
claimed empty yet Euclidean space traversed instantly by Newton's vector of hypothetical gravitational force—
an instant action at a distance—with a gravitational field. The gravitational field is Minkowski spacetime itself,
the 4D topology of Einstein aether modeled on a Lorentzian manifold that "curves" geometrically, according to
the Riemann curvature tensor, in the vicinity of either mass or energy. (By special relativity—a special case of
general relativity—even massless energy exerts gravitational effect by its mass equivalence locally "curving"
the geometry of the four, unified dimensions of space and time.)
Quantum
Another revolutionary development of the twentieth century has been quantum theory, which emerged from the
seminal contributions of Max Planck [1856–1947] (on black body radiation) and Einstein's work on the
photoelectric effect. This was, at first, followed by a heuristic framework devised by Arnold Sommerfeld
[1868–1951] and Niels Bohr [1885–1962], but this was soon replaced by the quantum mechanics developed by
Max Born [1882–1970], Werner Heisenberg [1901–1976], Paul Dirac [1902–1984], Erwin Schrödinger [1887–
1961], Satyendra Nath Bose [1894 –1974], and Wolfgang Pauli [1900–1958]. This revolutionary theoretical
framework is based on a probabilistic interpretation of states, and evolution and measurements in terms of self-
adjoint operators on an infinite dimensional vector space. That is called Hilbert space, introduced in its
elementary form by David Hilbert [1862–1943] and Frigyes Riesz [1880-1956], and rigorously defined within
the axiomatic modern version by John von Neumann in his celebrated book Mathematical Foundations of
Quantum Mechanics, where he built up a relevant part of modern functional analysis on Hilbert spaces, the
spectral theory in particular. Paul Dirac used algebraic constructions to produce a relativistic model for the
electron, predicting its magnetic moment and the existence of its antiparticle, the positron.
List of prominent mathematical physicists in the 20th century
Prominent contributors to the 20th century's mathematical physics (although the list contains some typically
theoretical, not mathematical, physicists and leaves many contributors out; please also note that since the page
can be edited by anyone, sometimes less deserved mentions can pop up in the list) include, ordered by birth
date, William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) [1824–1907], Oliver Heaviside [1850–1925], Jules Henri Poincaré
[1854–1912] , David Hilbert [1862–1943], Arnold Sommerfeld [1868–1951], Constantin Caratheodory [1873–
1950], Albert Einstein [1879–1955], Max Born [1882–1970], George David Birkhoff [1884-1944], Niels Bohr
[1885–1962], Hermann Weyl [1885–1955], Satyendra Nath Bose [1894–1974], Norbert Wiener [1894–1964],
Wolfgang Pauli [1900–1958], Werner Heisenberg [1901–1976], Paul Dirac [1902–1984], Eugene Wigner
[1902–1995], Lars Onsager [1903-1976], John von Neumann [1903–1957], Sin-Itiro Tomonaga [1906–1979],
Hideki Yukawa [1907–1981], Lev Davidovich Landau [1908–1968], Nikolay Nikolayevich Bogolyubov
[1909–1992], Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar [1910-1995], Mark Kac [1914–1984], Julian Schwinger [1918–
1994], Richard Phillips Feynman [1918–1988], Irving Ezra Segal [1918–1998], Arthur Strong Wightman
[1922–2013], Chen-Ning Yang [1922– ], Rudolf Haag [1922–2016], Freeman Dyson [1923– ], Martin
Gutzwiller [1925–2014], Abdus Salam [1926–1996], Jürgen Moser [1928–1999], Michael Francis Atiyah
[1929– ], Joel Louis Lebowitz [1930– ], Roger Penrose [1931– ], Elliott Hershel Lieb [1932– ], Sheldon Lee
Glashow [1932– ], Steven Weinberg [1933– ], Ludvig D. Faddeev [1934–2017], David Ruelle [1935– ], Yakov
Grigorevich Sinai [1935– ], Vladimir Igorevich Arnold [1937–2010], Arthur Jaffe [1937– ], Roman Wladimir
Jackiw [1939– ], Leonard Susskind [1940– ], Rodney James Baxter [1940– ], Michael Victor Berry [1941- ],
Giovanni Gallavotti [1941- ], Stephen William Hawking [1942– ], Jerrold Eldon Marsden [1942–2010],
Alexander Markovich Polyakov [1945– ], Barry Martin Simon [1946– ], Gerardus 't Hooft [1946– ], John L.
Cardy [1947– ], Giorgio Parisi [1948– ], Edward Witten [1951– ], Herbert Spohn [1951?– ], Ashoke Sen
[1956-] and Juan Martín Maldacena [1968– ].
See also
International Association of Mathematical Physics
Notable publications in mathematical physics
List of mathematical physics journals
Notes
1. Definition from the Journal of Mathematical Physics. http://jmp.aip.org/jmp/staff.jsp
2. Quote: " ... a negative definition of the theorist refers to his inability to make physical experiments, while a positive
one.. implies his encyclopaedic knowledge of physics combined with possessing enough mathematical armament.
Depending on the ratio of these two components, the theorist may be nearer either to the experimentalist or to the
mathematician. In the latter case, he is usually considered as a specialist in mathematical physics.", Ya. Frenkel, as
related in A.T. Filippov, The Versatile Soliton, pg 131. Birkhauser, 2000.
3. Quote: "Physical theory is something like a suit sewed for Nature. Good theory is like a good suit. ... Thus the
theorist is like a tailor." Ya. Frenkel, as related in Filippov (2000), pg 131.
4. Peter Machamer "Galileo Galilei" (http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2010/entries/galileo)—sec 1 "Brief
biography", in Zalta EN, ed, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Spring 2010 edn
5. Antony G Flew, Dictionary of Philosophy, rev 2nd edn (New York: St Martin's Press, 1984), p 129 (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=MmJHVU9Rv3YC&pg=PA129)
6. Antony G Flew, Dictionary of Philosophy, rev 2nd edn (New York: St Martin's Press, 1984), p 89 (https://books.goog
le.com/books?id=MmJHVU9Rv3YC&pg=PA89&dq=mathematical+reasoning)
7. Imre Lakatos, auth, Worrall J & Currie G, eds, The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes: Volume 1:
Philosophical Papers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), pp 213–214 (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=RRniFBI8Gi4C&pg=PA213), 220 (https://books.google.com/books?id=RRniFBI8Gi4C&pg=PA220)
8. Salmon WC & Wolters G, eds, Logic, Language, and the Structure of Scientific Theories (Pittsburgh: University of
Pittsburgh Press, 1994), p 125 (https://books.google.com/books?id=Z9K8llQufcMC&pg=PA125&dq=superfluous+le
arnedness+Einstein+Minkowski+general+relativity)
References
Zalsow, Eric (2005), Physmatics, Bibcode:2005physics...6153Z (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005physi

cs...6153Z), arXiv:physics/0506153 (https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0506153)
Further reading
Generic works
Abraham, Ralph; Marsden, Jerrold E. (2008), Foundations of mechanics: a mathematical exposition of

classical mechanics with an introduction to the qualitative theory of dynamical systems (2nd ed.),
Providence: AMS Chelsea Pub., ISBN 978-0-8218-4438-0
Arnold, Vladimir I.; Vogtmann, K.; Weinstein, A. (tr.) (1997), Mathematical methods of classical
mechanics / [Matematicheskie metody klassicheskoĭ mekhaniki] (2nd ed.), New York: Springer-Verlag,
ISBN 0-387-96890-3
Courant, Richard; Hilbert, David (1989), Methods of Mathematical Physics, New York: Interscience
Publishers
Glimm, James; Jaffe, Arthur (1987), Quantum physics: a functional integral point of view (2nd ed.), New
York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-96477-0 (pbk.)
Haag, Rudolf (1996), Local quantum physics: fields, particles, algebras (2nd rev. & enl. ed.), Berlin;
New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 3-540-61049-9 (softcover)
Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F. R. (1973), The large scale structure of space-time, Cambridge,
[England]: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-20016-4
Kato, Tosio (1995), Perturbation theory for linear operators (2nd repr. ed.), Berlin: Springer-Verlag,
ISBN 3-540-58661-X (This is a reprint of the second (1980) edition of this title.)
Margenau, Henry; Murphy, George Moseley (1976), The mathematics of physics and chemistry (2nd repr.
ed.), Huntington: R. E. Krieger Pub. Co., ISBN 0-88275-423-8 (This is a reprint of the 1956 second
edition.)
Morse, Philip McCord; Feshbach, Herman (1999), Methods of theoretical physics (repr. ed.), Boston:
McGraw Hill, ISBN 0-07-043316-X (This is a reprint of the original (1953) edition of this title.)
von Neumann, John; Beyer, Robert T. (tr.) (1955), Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics,
Princeton: Princeton University Press
Reed, Michael C.; Simon, Barry (1972–1977), Methods of modern mathematical physics, 4, New York
City: Academic Press, ISBN 0-12-585001-8
Sneed, Joseph. The Logical Structure of Mathematical Physics.
Titchmarsh, Edward Charles (1939), The theory of functions (2nd ed.), London: Oxford University Press
(This tome was reprinted in 1985.)
Thirring, Walter E.; Harrell, Evans M. (tr.) (1978–1983), A course in mathematical physics / [Lehrbuch
der mathematischen Physik] (4 vol.), New York: Springer-Verlag
Weyl, Hermann; Robertson, H. P. (tr.) (1931), The theory of groups and quantum mechanics /
[Gruppentheorie und Quantenmechanik], London: Methuen & Co.
Whittaker, Edmund Taylor; Watson, George Neville (1927), A course of modern analysis: an
introduction to the general theory of infinite processes and of analytic functions, with an account of the
principal transcendental functions (1st AMS ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-
521-58807-2
Textbooks for undergraduate studies
Arfken, George B.; Weber, Hans J. (1995), Mathematical methods for physicists (4th ed.), San Diego:
Academic Press, ISBN 0-12-059816-7 (pbk.)
Boas, Mary L. (2006), Mathematical Methods in the Physical Sciences (3rd ed.), Hoboken: John Wiley &
Sons, ISBN 978-0-471-19826-0
Butkov, Eugene (1968), Mathematical physics, Reading: Addison-Wesley
Jeffreys, Harold; Swirles Jeffreys, Bertha (1956), Methods of mathematical physics (3rd rev. ed.),
Cambridge, [England]: Cambridge University Press
Kusse, Bruce R. (2006), Mathematical Physics: Applied Mathematics for Scientists and Engineers (2nd
ed.), Germany: Wiley-VCH, ISBN 3-527-40672-7
Joos, Georg; Freeman, Ira M. (1987), Theoretical Physics, Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-65227-0
Mathews, Jon; Walker, Robert L. (1970), Mathematical methods of physics (2nd ed.), New York: W. A.
Benjamin, ISBN 0-8053-7002-1
Menzel, Donald Howard (1961), Mathematical Physics, Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-60056-4
Stakgold, Ivar (c. 2000), Boundary value problems of mathematical physics (2 vol.), Philadelphia:
Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, ISBN 0-89871-456-7 (set : pbk.)
Textbooks for graduate studies

Hassani, Sadri (1999), Mathematical Physics: A Modern Introduction to Its Foundations, Berlin,
[Germany]: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-98579-4
Reed, M.; Simon, B. (1972–1977). Methods of Mathematical Physics. Vol 1-4. Academic Press.
Teschl, G. (2009). Mathematical Methods in Quantum Mechanics; With Applications to Schrödinger
Operators (http://www.mat.univie.ac.at/~gerald/ftp/book-schroe/). Providence: American Mathematical
Society. ISBN 978-0-8218-4660-5.
Moretti, V. (2013). Spectral Theory and Quantum Mechanics; With an Introduction to the Algebraic
Formulation. Berlin, Milan: Springer. ISBN 978-88-470-2834-0.
Other specialised subareas
Baez, John C.; Muniain, Javier P. (1994), Gauge fields, knots, and gravity, Singapore ; River Edge:
World Scientific, ISBN 981-02-2034-0 (pbk.)
Geroch, Robert (1985), Mathematical physics, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-
28862-5 (pbk.)
Polyanin, Andrei D. (2002), Handbook of linear partial differential equations for engineers and
scientists, Boca Raton: Chapman & Hall / CRC Press, ISBN 1-58488-299-9
Polyanin, Alexei D.; Zaitsev, Valentin F. (2004), Handbook of nonlinear partial differential equations,
Boca Raton: Chapman & Hall / CRC Press, ISBN 1-58488-355-3
Szekeres, Peter (2004), A course in modern mathematical physics: groups, Hilbert space and differential
geometry, Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-53645-6 (pbk.)
Yndurain, Francisco J (2006), Theoretical and Mathematical Physics. The Theory of Quark and Gluon
Interactions, Berlin: Springer, ISBN 978-3642069741 (pbk.)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mathematical_physics&oldid=786660196"
Categories: Mathematical physics

7/24/2017 Computational physics - Wikipedia
Computational physics
Computational physics is the study and implementation of numerical analysis to solve problems in physics for
which a quantitative theory already exists.[1] Historically, computational physics was the first application of
modern computers in science, and is now a subset of computational science.
It is sometimes regarded as a subdiscipline (or offshoot) of theoretical physics, but others consider it an
intermediate branch between theoretical and experimental physics, a third way that supplements theory and
experiment.[2]
Contents
1 Overview
1.1 Status in physics
2 Challenges in computational physics
3 Methods and algorithms
4 Divisions
5 Applications
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Overview
In physics, different theories based on mathematical models provide
very precise predictions on how systems behave. Unfortunately, it is
often the case that solving the mathematical model for a particular
system in order to produce a useful prediction is not feasible. This can
occur, for instance, when the solution does not have a closed-form
expression, or is too complicated. In such cases, numerical
approximations are required. Computational physics is the subject that
deals with these numerical approximations: the approximation of the
solution is written as a finite (and typically large) number of simple
mathematical operations (algorithm), and a computer is used to perform
these operations and compute an approximated solution and respective
error.[1]
A representation of the
multidisciplinary nature of
Status in physics computational physics both as an
overlap of physics, applied
There is a debate about the status of computation within the scientific
mathematics, and computer science
method.[4]
and as a bridge among them.[3]
Sometimes it is regarded as more akin to theoretical physics; some
others regard computer simulation as "computer experiments",[4] yet still others consider it an intermediate or
different branch between theoretical and experimental physics, a third way that supplements theory and
experiment. While computers can be used in experiments for the measurement and recording (and storage) of
data, this clearly does not constitute a computational approach.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_physics 1/4
Challenges in computational physics

Physics problems are in general very difficult to solve exactly. This is due to several (mathematical) reasons:
lack of algebraic and/or analytic solubility, complexity, and chaos.
For example, - even apparently simple problems, such as calculating the wavefunction of an electron orbiting
an atom in a strong electric field (Stark effect), may require great effort to formulate a practical algorithm (if
one can be found); other cruder or brute-force techniques, such as graphical methods or root finding, may be
required. On the more advanced side, mathematical perturbation theory is also sometimes used (a working is
shown for this particular example here).
In addition, the computational cost and computational complexity for many-body problems (and their classical
counterparts) tend to grow quickly. A macroscopic system typically has a size of the order of constituent
particles, so it is somewhat of a problem. Solving quantum mechanical problems is generally of exponential
order in the size of the system and for classical N-body it is of order N-squared.
Finally, many physical systems are inherently nonlinear at best, and at worst chaotic: this means it can be
difficult to ensure any numerical errors do not grow to the point of rendering the 'solution' useless.[5]
Methods and algorithms

Because computational physics uses a broad class of problems, it is generally divided amongst the different
mathematical problems it numerically solves, or the methods it applies. Between them, one can consider:
root finding (using e.g. Newton-Raphson method)

system of linear equations (using e.g. LU decomposition)
ordinary differential equations (using e.g. Runge–Kutta methods)
integration (using e.g. Romberg method and Monte Carlo integration)
partial differential equations (using e.g. finite difference method and relaxation method)
matrix eigenvalue problem (using e.g. Jacobi eigenvalue algorithm and power iteration)
All these methods (and several others) are used to calculate physical properties of the modeled systems.
Computational physics also borrows a number of ideas from computational chemistry - for example, the
density functional theory used by computational solid state physicists to calculate properties of solids is
basically the same as that used by chemists to calculate the properties of molecules.
Furthermore, computational physics encompasses the tuning of the software/hardware structure to solve the
problems (as the problems usually can be very large, in processing power need or in memory requests).
Divisions
It is possible to find a corresponding computational branch for every major field in physics, for example
computational mechanics and computational electrodynamics. Computational mechanics consists of
computational fluid dynamics (CFD), computational solid mechanics and computational contact mechanics.
One subfield at the confluence between CFD and electromagnetic modelling is computational
magnetohydrodynamics. The quantum many-body problem leads naturally to the large and rapidly growing
field of computational chemistry.
Computational solid state physics is a very important division of computational physics dealing directly with
material science.
A field related to computational condensed matter is computational statistical mechanics, which deals with the
simulation of models and theories (such as percolation and spin models) that are difficult to solve otherwise.
Computational statistical physics makes heavy use of Monte Carlo-like methods. More broadly, (particularly
through the use of agent based modeling and cellular automata) it also concerns itself with (and finds
application in, through the use of its techniques) in the social sciences, network theory, and mathematical
models for the propagation of disease (most notably, the SIR Model) and the spread of forest fires.
On the more esoteric side, numerical relativity is a (relatively) new field interested in finding numeric solutions
to the field equations of general (and special) relativity, and computational particle physics deals with problems
motivated by particle physics.
Computational astrophysics is the application of these techniques and methods to astrophysical problems and
phenomena.
Applications
Due to the broad class of problems computational physics deals, it is an essential component of modern
research in different areas of physics, namely: accelerator physics, astrophysics, fluid mechanics
(computational fluid dynamics), lattice field theory/lattice gauge theory (especially lattice quantum
chromodynamics), plasma physics (see plasma modeling), simulating physical systems (using e.g. molecular
dynamics), protein structure prediction, weather prediction, solid state physics, soft condensed matter physics,
hypervelocity impact physics etc.
Computational solid state physics, for example, uses density functional theory to calculate properties of solids,
a method similar to that used by chemists to study molecules. Other quantities of interest in solid state physics,
such as the electronic band structure, magnetic properties and charge densities can be calculated by this and
several methods, including the Luttinger-Kohn/k.p method and ab-initio methods.
See also
Advanced Simulation Library
CECAM - Centre européen de calcul atomique et moléculaire
Computational fluid mechanics
Division of Computational Physics (DCOMP) of the American Physical Society
Important publications in computational physics
Mathematical and theoretical physics
Open Source Physics, computational physics libraries and pedagogical tools
Timeline of computational physics
Computational_thermodynamics
References
1. Thijssen, Joseph (2007). Computational Physics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521833469.
2. Landau, Rubin H.; Páez, Manuel J.; Bordeianu, Cristian C. (2015). Computational Physics: Problem Solving with
Python (http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-3527413154.html). John Wiley & Sons.
3. Landau, Rubin H.; Paez, Jose; Bordeianu, Cristian C. (2011). A survey of computational physics: introductory
computational science (http://press.princeton.edu/titles/8704.html). Princeton University Press.
4. A molecular dynamics primer (http://www.fisica.uniud.it/~ercolessi/md/md/), Furio Ercolessi, University of Udine,
Italy. Article PDF (http://www.fisica.uniud.it/~ercolessi/md/md.pdf).
5. "How Long Do Numerical Chaotic Solutions Remain Valid?". Bibcode:1997PhRvL..79...59S (http://adsabs.harvard.e
du/abs/1997PhRvL..79...59S). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.79.59 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.79.59).
Further reading
A.K. Hartmann, Practical Guide to Computer Simulations (http://www.worldscibooks.com/physics/6988.

html), World Scientific (2009)
International Journal of Modern Physics C (IJMPC): Physics and Computers (http://www.worldscinet.co
m/ijmpc/ijmpc.shtml), World Scientific
Steven E. Koonin, Computational Physics, Addison-Wesley (1986)
T. Pang, An Introduction to Computational Physics, Cambridge University Press (2010)
B. Stickler, E. Schachinger, Basic concepts in computational physics, Springer Verlag (2013). ISBN
9783319024349.
E. Winsberg, Science in the Age of Computer Simulation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010.
External links
C20 IUPAP Commission on Computational Physics (http://phycomp.technion.ac.il/~C20)
Applied Physical Society: Division of Computational Physics (http://www.aps.org/units/dcomp/index.cf
m)
Institute of Physics: Computational Physics Group (http://www.iop.org/activity/groups/subject/comp/inde
x.html)
SciDAC: Scientific Discovery through Advanced Computing (http://www.scidac.gov/physics/physics.ht
ml)
Open Source Physics (http://www.compadre.org/OSP/)
SCINET Scientific Software Framework (http://www.obacs.com)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computational_physics&oldid=783536142"
Categories: Computational physics Computational fields of study Subfields of physics

7/24/2017 Acoustics - Wikipedia
Acoustics
Acoustics is the interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of all
mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids including topics such as
vibration, sound, ultrasound and infrasound. A scientist who works in the field
of acoustics is an acoustician while someone working in the field of acoustics
technology may be called an acoustical engineer. The application of acoustics
is present in almost all aspects of modern society with the most obvious being
the audio and noise control industries.
Artificial omni-directional sound
Hearing is one of the most crucial means of survival in the animal world, and
source in an anechoic chamber
speech is one of the most distinctive characteristics of human development and
culture. Accordingly, the science of acoustics spreads across many facets of
human society—music, medicine, architecture, industrial production, warfare and more. Likewise, animal species
such as songbirds and frogs use sound and hearing as a key element of mating rituals or marking territories. Art, craft,
science and technology have provoked one another to advance the whole, as in many other fields of knowledge.
Robert Bruce Lindsay's 'Wheel of Acoustics' is a well accepted overview of the various fields in acoustics.[1]
The word "acoustic" is derived from the Greek word ἀκουστικός (akoustikos), meaning "of or for hearing, ready to
hear"[2] and that from ἀκουστός (akoustos), "heard, audible",[3] which in turn derives from the verb ἀκούω (akouo), "I
hear".[4]
The Latin synonym is "sonic", after which the term sonics used to be a synonym for acoustics[5] and later a branch of
acoustics.[6] Frequencies above and below the audible range are called "ultrasonic" and "infrasonic", respectively.
Contents
1 History
1.1 Early research in acoustics
1.2 Age of Enlightenment and onward
2 Fundamental concepts of acoustics
2.1 Definition
2.2 Wave propagation: pressure levels
2.3 Wave propagation: frequency
2.4 Transduction in acoustics
3 Acoustician
3.1 Education
4 Subdisciplines
4.1 Archaeoacoustics
4.2 Aeroacoustics
4.3 Acoustic signal processing
4.4 Architectural acoustics
4.5 Bioacoustics
4.6 Electroacoustics
4.7 Environmental noise and soundscapes
4.8 Musical acoustics
4.9 Psychoacoustics
4.10 Speech
4.11 Ultrasonics
4.12 Underwater acoustics
4.13 Vibration and dynamics
5 Professional societies
6 Academic journals
7 See also
8 Notes and references
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustics 1/9
9 Further reading
10 External links
History
Early research in acoustics
In the 6th century BC, the ancient Greek philosopher Pythagoras wanted to
know why some combinations of musical sounds seemed more beautiful than
others, and he found answers in terms of numerical ratios representing the
harmonic overtone series on a string. He is reputed to have observed that when
the lengths of vibrating strings are expressible as ratios of integers (e.g. 2 to 3,
3 to 4), the tones produced will be harmonious, and the smaller the integers the
more harmonious the sounds. If, for example, a string of a certain length
would sound particularly harmonious with a string of twice the length (other
factors being equal). In modern parlance, if a string sounds the note C when
plucked, a string twice as long will sound a C an octave lower. In one system
of musical tuning, the tones in between are then given by 16:9 for D, 8:5 for E,
3:2 for F, 4:3 for G, 6:5 for A, and 16:15 for B, in ascending order.[7]
The fundamental and the first 6
Aristotle (384-322 BC) understood that sound consisted of compressions and overtones of a vibrating string. The
rarefactions of air which "falls upon and strikes the air which is next to it...",[8] earliest records of the study of this
a very good expression of the nature of wave motion. phenomenon are attributed to the
philosopher Pythagoras in the 6th
In about 20 BC, the Roman architect and engineer Vitruvius wrote a treatise on century BC.
the acoustic properties of theaters including discussion of interference, echoes,
and reverberation—the beginnings of architectural acoustics.[9] In Book V of his De architectura (The Ten Books of
Architecture) Vitruvius describes sound as a wave comparable to a water wave extended to three dimensions, which,
when interrupted by obstructions, would flow back and break up following waves. He described the ascending seats in
ancient theaters as designed to prevent this deterioration of sound and also recommended bronze vessels of
appropriate sizes be placed in theaters to resonate with the fourth, fifth and so on, up to the double octave, in order to
resonate with the more desirable, harmonious notes.[10][11][12]
The physical understanding of acoustical processes advanced rapidly during

and after the Scientific Revolution. Mainly Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) but
also Marin Mersenne (1588–1648), independently, discovered the complete
laws of vibrating strings (completing what Pythagoras and Pythagoreans had
started 2000 years earlier). Galileo wrote "Waves are produced by the
vibrations of a sonorous body, which spread through the air, bringing to the
tympanum of the ear a stimulus which the mind interprets as sound", a
remarkable statement that points to the beginnings of physiological and
psychological acoustics. Experimental measurements of the speed of sound in
air were carried out successfully between 1630 and 1680 by a number of
Principles of acoustics have been
investigators, prominently Mersenne. Meanwhile, Newton (1642–1727)
applied since ancient times : A
derived the relationship for wave velocity in solids, a cornerstone of physical
Roman theatre in the city of Amman.
acoustics (Principia, 1687).
Age of Enlightenment and onward
The eighteenth century saw major advances in acoustics as mathematicians applied the new techniques of calculus to
elaborate theories of sound wave propagation. In the nineteenth century the major figures of mathematical acoustics
were Helmholtz in Germany, who consolidated the field of physiological acoustics, and Lord Rayleigh in England,
who combined the previous knowledge with his own copious contributions to the field in his monumental work The
Theory of Sound (1877). Also in the 19th century, Wheatstone, Ohm, and Henry developed the analogy between
electricity and acoustics.
The twentieth century saw a burgeoning of technological applications of the large body of scientific knowledge that
was by then in place. The first such application was Sabine’s groundbreaking work in architectural acoustics, and
many others followed. Underwater acoustics was used for detecting submarines in the first World War. Sound
recording and the telephone played important roles in a global transformation of society. Sound measurement and
analysis reached new levels of accuracy and sophistication through the use of electronics and computing. The
ultrasonic frequency range enabled wholly new kinds of application in medicine and industry. New kinds of
transducers (generators and receivers of acoustic energy) were invented and put to use.
Fundamental concepts of acoustics

Definition Jay Pritzker Pavilion
Acoustics is defined by ANSI/ASA S1.1-2013 as "(a) Science of

sound, including its production, transmission, and effects, including
biological and psychological effects. (b) Those qualities of a room
that, together, determine its character with respect to auditory
effects."
The study of acoustics revolves around the generation, propagation

and reception of mechanical waves and vibrations. At Jay Pritzker Pavilion, a LARES system is
combined with a zoned sound reinforcement
system, both suspended on an overhead steel
trellis, to synthesize an indoor acoustic
environment outdoors.
The steps shown in the above diagram can be found in any acoustical event or process. There are many kinds of cause,
both natural and volitional. There are many kinds of transduction process that convert energy from some other form
into sonic energy, producing a sound wave. There is one fundamental equation that describes sound wave propagation,
the acoustic wave equation, but the phenomena that emerge from it are varied and often complex. The wave carries
energy throughout the propagating medium. Eventually this energy is transduced again into other forms, in ways that
again may be natural and/or volitionally contrived. The final effect may be purely physical or it may reach far into the
biological or volitional domains. The five basic steps are found equally well whether we are talking about an
earthquake, a submarine using sonar to locate its foe, or a band playing in a rock concert.
The central stage in the acoustical process is wave propagation. This falls within the domain of physical acoustics. In
fluids, sound propagates primarily as a pressure wave. In solids, mechanical waves can take many forms including
longitudinal waves, transverse waves and surface waves.
Acoustics looks first at the pressure levels and frequencies in the sound wave and how the wave interacts with the
environment. This interaction can be described as either a diffraction, interference or a reflection or a mix of the three.
If several media are present, a refraction can also occur. Transduction processes are also of special importance to
acoustics.
Wave propagation: pressure levels
In fluids such as air and water, sound waves propagate as disturbances in the ambient pressure level. While this
disturbance is usually small, it is still noticeable to the human ear. The smallest sound that a person can hear, known
as the threshold of hearing, is nine orders of magnitude smaller than the ambient pressure. The loudness of these
disturbances is related to the sound pressure level (SPL) which is measured on a logarithmic scale in decibels.
Wave propagation: frequency
Physicists and acoustic engineers tend to discuss sound pressure levels in

terms of frequencies, partly because this is how our ears interpret sound. What
we experience as "higher pitched" or "lower pitched" sounds are pressure
vibrations having a higher or lower number of cycles per second. In a common
technique of acoustic measurement, acoustic signals are sampled in time, and
then presented in more meaningful forms such as octave bands or time
frequency plots. Both of these popular methods are used to analyze sound and
better understand the acoustic phenomenon.
The entire spectrum can be divided into three sections: audio, ultrasonic, and Spectrogram of a young girl saying
infrasonic. The audio range falls between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. This range is "oh, no"
important because its frequencies can be detected by the human ear. This range
has a number of applications, including speech communication and music. The ultrasonic range refers to the very high
frequencies: 20,000 Hz and higher. This range has shorter wavelengths which allow better resolution in imaging
technologies. Medical applications such as ultrasonography and elastography rely on the ultrasonic frequency range.
On the other end of the spectrum, the lowest frequencies are known as the infrasonic range. These frequencies can be
used to study geological phenomena such as earthquakes.
Analytic instruments such as the spectrum analyzer facilitate visualization and measurement of acoustic signals and
their properties. The spectrogram produced by such an instrument is a graphical display of the time varying pressure
level and frequency profiles which give a specific acoustic signal its defining character.
Transduction in acoustics
A transducer is a device for converting one form of energy into another. In an

electroacoustic context, this means converting sound energy into electrical
energy (or vice versa). Electroacoustic transducers include loudspeakers,
microphones, hydrophones and sonar projectors. These devices convert a
sound pressure wave to or from an electric signal. The most widely used
transduction principles are electromagnetism, electrostatics and
piezoelectricity.
The transducers in most common loudspeakers (e.g. woofers and tweeters), are
electromagnetic devices that generate waves using a suspended diaphragm
driven by an electromagnetic voice coil, sending off pressure waves. Electret An inexpensive low fidelity 3.5 inch
microphones and condenser microphones employ electrostatics—as the sound driver, typically found in small
wave strikes the microphone's diaphragm, it moves and induces a voltage radios
change. The ultrasonic systems used in medical ultrasonography employ
piezoelectric transducers. These are made from special ceramics in which mechanical vibrations and electrical fields
are interlinked through a property of the material itself.
Acoustician
An acoustician is an expert in the science of sound.[13]
Education
There are many types of acoustician, but they usually have a Bachelor's degree or higher qualification. Some possess a
degree in acoustics, while others enter the discipline via studies in fields such as physics or engineering. Much work
in acoustics requires a good grounding in Mathematics and science. Many acoustic scientists work in research and
development. Some conduct basic research to advance our knowledge of the perception (e.g. hearing, psychoacoustics
or neurophysiology) of speech, music and noise. Other acoustic scientists advance understanding of how sound is
affected as it moves through environments, e.g. Underwater acoustics, Architectural acoustics or Structural acoustics.
Others areas of work are listed under subdisciplines below. Acoustic scientists work in government, university and
private industry laboratories. Many go on to work in Acoustical Engineering. Some positions, such as Faculty
(academic staff) require a Doctor of Philosophy.
Subdisciplines
These subdisciplines are a slightly modified list from the PACS (Physics and Astronomy Classification Scheme)
coding used by the Acoustical Society of America.[14]
Archaeoacoustics
Archaeoacoustics is the study of sound within archaeology. This typically

involves studying the acoustics of archaeological sites and artefacts.[15]
Aeroacoustics
Aeroacoustics is the study of noise generated by air movement, for instance

via turbulence, and the movement of sound through the fluid air. This
knowledge is applied in acoustical engineering to study how to quieten
aircraft. Aeroacoustics is important to understanding how wind musical
instruments work.[16]
Acoustic signal processing
Acoustic signal processing is the electronic manipulation of acoustic signals.

Applications include: active noise control; design for hearing aids or cochlear
implants; echo cancellation; music information retrieval, and perceptual
coding (e.g. MP3 or Opus).[17]
The Divje Babe flute
Architectural acoustics
Architectural acoustics (also known as building acoustics) involves the

scientific understanding of how to achieve a good sound within a
building.[18] It typically involves the study of speech intelligibility, speech
privacy and music quality in the built environment.[19]
Bioacoustics
Bioacoustics is the scientific study of the hearing and calls of animal calls,
as well as how animals are affected by the acoustic and sounds of their
habitat.[20]
Symphony Hall Boston where auditorium
Electroacoustics acoustics began
This subdiscipline is concerned with the recording, manipulation and

reproduction of audio using electronics.[21] This might include products such as mobile phones, large scale public
address systems or virtual reality systems in research laboratories.
Environmental noise and soundscapes
Environmental acoustics is concerned with noise and vibration caused by railways,[22] road traffic, aircraft, industrial
equipment and recreational activities.[23] The main aim of these studies is to reduce levels of environmental noise and
vibration. Research work now also has a focus on the positive use of sound in urban environments: soundscapes and
tranquility.[24]
Musical acoustics
Musical acoustics is the study of the physics of acoustic instruments; the

audio signal processing used in electronic music; the computer analysis of
music and composition, and the perception and cognitive neuroscience of
music.[25]
Psychoacoustics
Psychoacoustics explains how humans respond to sounds.[26]
The primary auditory cortex is one of the

Speech
main areas associated with superior pitch
resolution.
Acousticians study the production, processing and perception of speech.
Speech recognition and Speech synthesis are two important areas of
speech processing using computers. The subject also overlaps with the disciplines of physics, physiology, psychology,
and linguistics.[27]
Ultrasonics
Ultrasonics deals with sounds at frequencies too high to be heard by humans.

Specialisms include medical ultrasonics (including medical ultrasonography),
sonochemistry, material characterisation and underwater acoustics (Sonar).[28]
Underwater acoustics
Underwater acoustics is the scientific study of natural and man-made sounds

underwater. Applications include sonar to locate submarines, underwater
communication by whales, climate change monitoring by measuring sea
temperatures acoustically, sonic weapons,[29] and marine bioacoustics.[30] Ultrasound image of a fetus in the
womb, viewed at 12 weeks of
Vibration and dynamics pregnancy (bidimensional-scan)
This is the study of how mechanical systems vibrate and interact with their
surroundings. Applications might include: ground vibrations from railways; vibration isolation to reduce vibration in
operating theatres; studying how vibration can damage health (vibration white finger); vibration control to protect a
building from earthquakes, or measuring how structure-borne sound moves through buildings.[31]
Professional societies
The Acoustical Society Of America (ASA)
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
Institute of Acoustics (IoA UK)
The Audio Engineering Society (AES)
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Noise Control and Acoustics Division (ASME-NCAD)
International Commission for Acoustics (ICA)
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Aeroacoustics (AIAA)
International Computer Music Association (ICMA)
Academic journals
Acta Acustica united with Acustica
Applied Acoustics
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America (JASA)
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Express Letters (JASA-EL)
Journal of the Audio Engineering Society
Journal of Sound and Vibration (JSV)
Journal of Vibration and Acoustics American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Ultrasonics (journal)
See also
Acoustic attenuation Longitudinal wave
Acoustic emission Music therapy
Acoustic engineering Noise pollution
Acoustic impedance Phonon
Acoustic levitation Picosecond ultrasonics
Acoustic location Rayleigh wave
Acoustic phonetics Shock wave
Acoustic streaming Seismology
Acoustic tags Sonification
Acoustic thermometry Sonochemistry
Acoustic wave Soundproofing
Audiology Soundscape
Auditory illusion Sonic boom
Diffraction Sonoluminescence
Doppler effect Surface acoustic wave
Fisheries acoustics Thermoacoustics
Helioseismology Transverse wave
Lamb wave Wave equation
Linear elasticity
The Little Red Book of Acoustics (in the UK)
Longitudinal wave
Notes and references
1. What is acoustics? (http://www.physics.byu.edu/research/acoustics/what_is_acoustics.aspx), retrieved 2010-07-29
2. Akoustikos (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%233396)
Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus
3. Akoustos (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%233397)
Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus
4. Akouo (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%233399) Henry
George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus
5. Kenneth Neville Westerman (1947) (https://books.google.com/books?id=xNQrAAAAMAAJ&q=catacoustics+sonics&dq=c
atacoustics+sonics&hl=en&ei=dCJ_TOO9BJH2tgPo94WSCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC8Q
6AEwAQ)
6. Theodor F. Hueter, Richard H. Bolt (1955) (https://books.google.com/books?id=1po8AAAAIAAJ&q=sonics&dq=sonics&h
l=en&ei=qiF_TMfRHYqisQPjhLH1Cg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA)
7. C. Boyer and U. Merzbach. A History of Mathematics. Wiley 1991, p. 55.
8. "How Sound Propagates" (http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9912.pdf) (PDF). Princeton University Press. Retrieved
9 February 2016. (quoting from Aristotle's Treatise on Sound and Hearing)
9. ACOUSTICS, Bruce Lindsay, Dowden – Hutchingon Books Publishers, Chapter 3
10. Vitruvius Pollio, Vitruvius, the Ten Books on Architecture (https://books.google.com/books?id=wYhAAAAAYAAJ) (1914)
Tr. Morris Hickey Morgan BookV, Sec.6-8
11. Vitruvius article @Wikiquote
12. Ernst Mach, Introduction to The Science of Mechanics: A Critical and Historical Account of its Development (1893, 1960)
Tr. Thomas J. McCormack
13. Schwarz, C (1991). Chambers concise dictionary.
14. Acoustical Society of America. "PACS 2010 Regular Edition—Acoustics Appendix" (http://www.aip.org/pacs/pacs2010/ind
ividuals/pacs2010_regular_edition/reg_acoustics_appendix.htm). Retrieved 22 May 2013.
15. Scarre, Christopher (2006). Archaeoacoustics. McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research. ISBN 978-1902937359.
16. da Silva, Andrey Ricardo (2009). Aeroacoustics of Wind Instruments: Investigations and Numerical Methods. VDM Verlag.
ISBN 978-3639210644.
17. Slaney, Malcolm; Patrick A. Naylor (2011). "Trends in Audio and Acoustic Signal Processing". ICASSP.
18. Morfey, Christopher (2001). Dictionary of Acoustics. Academic Press. p. 32.
19. Templeton, Duncan (1993). Acoustics in the Built Environment: Advice for the Design Team. Architectural Press. ISBN 978-
0750605380.
20. "Bioacoustics - the International Journal of Animal Sound and its Recording" (http://www.bioacoustics.info/). Taylor &
Francis. Retrieved 31 July 2012.
21. Acoustical Society of America. "Acoustics and You (A Career in Acoustics?)" (http://asaweb.devcloud.acquia-sites.com/edu
cation_outreach/careers_in_acoustics). Retrieved 21 May 2013.
22. Krylov, V.V. (Ed.) (2001). Noise and Vibration from High-speed Trains. Thomas Telford. ISBN 9780727729637.
23. World Health Organisation (2011). Burden of disease from environmental noise (http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_
file/0008/136466/e94888.pdf) (PDF). WHO. ISBN 978 92 890 0229 5.
24. Kang, Jian (2006). Urban Sound Environment. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0415358576.
25. Technical Committee on Musical Acoustics (TCMU) of the Acoustical Society of America (ASA). "ASA TCMU Home
Page" (http://www.public.coe.edu/~jcotting/tcmu/). Retrieved 22 May 2013.
26. Pohlmann, Ken (2010). Principles of Digital Audio, Sixth Edition. McGraw Hill Professional. p. 336.
ISBN 9780071663472.
27. Speech Communication Technical Committee. "Speech Communication" (http://acosoc.org/TechComm/SCTC/). Acoustical
Society of America. Retrieved 22 May 2013.
28. Ensminger, Dale (2012). Ultrasonics: Fundamentals, Technologies, and Applications. CRC Press. pp. 1–2.
29. D. Lohse, B. Schmitz & M. Versluis (2001). "Snapping shrimp make flashing bubbles" (http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v413/n6855/abs/413477a0.html). Nature. 413 (6855): 477–478. Bibcode:2001Natur.413..477L (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/
abs/2001Natur.413..477L). PMID 11586346 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11586346). doi:10.1038/35097152 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1038%2F35097152).
30. ASA Underwater Acoustics Technical Committee. "Underwater Acoustics" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130730104616/h
ttp://www.apl.washington.edu/projects/ASA-UATC/index.php). Archived from the original (http://www.apl.washington.edu/
projects/ASA-UATC/index.php) on 30 July 2013. Retrieved 22 May 2013.
31. Structural Acoustics & Vibration Technical Committee. "Structural Acoustics & Vibration Technical Committee" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20131103180745/http://fubini.swarthmore.edu/~bbard/savtc.html). Archived from the original (http://fubi
ni.swarthmore.edu/~bbard/savtc.html) on 3 November 2013. Retrieved 22 May 2013.
Further reading
Benade, Arthur H (1976). Fundamentals of Musical Acoustics. New York: Oxford University Press.
S.V. Biryukov, Y.V. Gulyaev, V.V. Krylov and V.P. Plessky (1995). Surface Acoustic Waves in Inhomogeneous
Media (https://books.google.com/books/about/Surface_acoustic_waves_in_inhomogeneous.html?id=WR-jfwM
nDYYC&redir_esc=y), Springer.
M. Crocker (editor), 1994. Encyclopedia of Acoustics (Interscience).
Falkovich, G. (2011). Fluid Mechanics, a short course for physicists (http://www.weizmann.ac.il/complex/falko
vich/fluid-mechanics). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-00575-4.
F. Fahy and P. Gardonio (2007). Sound and Structural Vibration: Radiation, Transmission and Response (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=caelfFmWC28C&printsec=frontcover&dq=F+Fahy&hl=en&sa=X&ei=JTb-U4
DzK-zo7AbEqoCwAg&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=F%20Fahy&f=false), 2nd Edition, Academic
Press.
M.C. Junger and D. Feit (1986). Sound, Structures and Their Interaction (http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/sound-s
tructures-and-their-interaction), 2nd Edition, MIT Press.
L. E. Kinsler, A. R. Frey, A. B. Coppens, and J. V. Sanders, 1999. Fundamentals of Acoustics, fourth edition
(Wiley).
Mason W.P., Thurston R.N. Physical Acoustics (https://web.archive.org/web/20131225161706/http://librarum.or
g/book/2513/1) (1981)
Philip M. Morse and K. Uno Ingard, 1986. Theoretical Acoustics (Princeton University Press). ISBN 0-691-
08425-4
Allan D. Pierce, 1989. Acoustics: An Introduction to its Physical Principles and Applications (Acoustical
Society of America). ISBN 0-88318-612-8
D. R. Raichel, 2006. The Science and Applications of Acoustics, second edition (Springer). ISBN 0-387-30089-
9
Rayleigh, J. W. S. (1894). The Theory of Sound. New York: Dover. ISBN 0-8446-3028-4.
E. Skudrzyk, 1971. The Foundations of Acoustics: Basic Mathematics and Basic Acoustics (Springer).
Stephens, R. W. B.; Bate, A. E. (1966). Acoustics and Vibrational Physics (2nd ed.). London: Edward Arnold.
Wilson, Charles E. (2006). Noise Control (Revised ed.). Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Company. ISBN 1-
57524-237-0. OCLC 59223706 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/59223706).
External links
Acoustical Society of America (http://acousticalsociety.org/)
Institute of Acoustic in UK (http://www.ioa.org.uk/) Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Acoustics.
National Council of Acoustical Consultants (http://www.ncac.com/)
International Commission for Acoustics (http://www.icacommission.or
g/) Wikisource has original
Institute of Noise Control Engineers (http://www.inceusa.org/) text related to this article:

Laboratoire d'Acoustique de l'Université du Maine (http://laum.univ-lem Acoustics
ans.fr/fr/index.html)
the topic of: Acoustics
title=Acoustics&oldid=788834138"
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7/24/2017 Simulation - Wikipedia
Simulation
Simulation is the imitation of the operation of a real-world process

or system over time.[1] The act of simulating something first requires
that a model be developed; this model represents the key
characteristics, behaviors and functions of the selected physical or
abstract system or process. The model represents the system itself,
whereas the simulation represents the operation of the system over
time.
Simulation is used in many contexts, such as simulation of

technology for performance optimization, safety engineering, testing, 3D simulation of a Grain Terminal
training, education, and video games. Often, computer experiments Model.
are used to study simulation models. Simulation is also used with
scientific modelling of natural systems or human systems to gain
insight into their functioning,[2] as in economics. Simulation can be used to show the eventual real effects of
alternative conditions and courses of action. Simulation is also used when the real system cannot be engaged,
because it may not be accessible, or it may be dangerous or unacceptable to engage, or it is being designed but
not yet built, or it may simply not exist.[3]
Key issues in simulation include acquisition of valid source information about the relevant selection of key
characteristics and behaviours, the use of simplifying approximations and assumptions within the simulation,
and fidelity and validity of the simulation outcomes. Procedures and protocols for model verification and
validation are an ongoing field of academic study, refinement, research and development in simulations
technology or practice, particularly in the field of computer simulation.
Contents
1 Classification and terminology
2 Computer simulation
2.1 Computer science
3 Simulation in education and training
4 Common user interaction systems for virtual simulations
4.1 Virtual simulation input hardware
4.1.1 Current research into user input systems
4.2 Virtual simulation output hardware
5 Clinical healthcare simulators
5.1 Improving patient safety
5.2 History of simulation in healthcare
5.3 Type of models
5.3.1 Active models
5.3.2 Interactive models
5.3.3 Computer simulators
6 Simulation in entertainment
6.1 History of visual simulation in film and games
6.1.1 Early history (1940s and 1950s)
6.1.2 1970s and early 1980s
6.1.3 Pre-virtual cinematography era (early 1980s to 1990s)
6.1.4 Virtual cinematography (early 2000s–present)
6.2 Examples of non-film entertainment simulation
6.2.1 Simulation games
6.2.2 Theme park rides
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation 1/24
7 Simulation and manufacturing

8 More examples of simulation
8.1 Automobiles
8.2 Biomechanics
8.3 City and urban
8.4 Classroom of the future
8.5 Communication satellites
8.6 Digital Lifecycle
8.7 Disaster preparedness
8.8 Economics
8.9 Engineering, technology, and processes
8.10 Equipment
8.11 Ergonomics
8.12 Finance
8.13 Flight
8.14 Marine
8.15 Military
8.16 Payment and securities settlement system
8.17 Project management
8.18 Robotics
8.19 Production
8.20 Sales process
8.21 Sports
8.22 Space shuttle countdown
8.23 Satellite navigation
8.24 Weather
9 Simulation games
10 Historical usage
11 See also
12 References
13 External links
Classification and terminology

Historically, simulations used in different fields developed largely independently, but 20th century studies of
systems theory and cybernetics combined with spreading use of computers across all those fields have led to
some unification and a more systematic view of the concept.
Physical simulation refers to simulation in which physical objects are substituted for the real thing (some
circles[4] use the term for computer simulations modelling selected laws of physics, but this article does not).
These physical objects are often chosen because they are smaller or cheaper than the actual object or system.
Interactive simulation is a special kind of physical simulation, often referred to as a human in the loop
simulation, in which physical simulations include human operators, such as in a flight simulator or a driving
simulator.
Simulation Fidelity is used to describe the accuracy of a simulation and how closely it imitates the real-life
counterpart. Fidelity is broadly classified as 1 of 3 categories: low, medium, and high. Specific descriptions of
fidelity levels are subject to interpretation but the following generalization can be made:
Low - the minimum simulation required for a system to respond to accept inputs and provide outputs
Medium - responds automatically to stimuli, with limited accuracy
High - nearly indistinguishable or as close as possible to the real system
Human in the loop simulations can include a computer simulation as a so-called synthetic environment.[5]
Simulation in failure analysis refers to simulation in which we create

environment/conditions to identify the cause of equipment failure. This
was the best and fastest method to identify the failure cause.
Computer simulation
A computer simulation (or "sim") is an attempt to model a real-life or
hypothetical situation on a computer so that it can be studied to see how
the system works. By changing variables in the simulation, predictions
may be made about the behaviour of the system. It is a tool to virtually
investigate the behaviour of the system under study.[1]
Computer simulation has become a useful part of modeling many

natural systems in physics, chemistry and biology,[6] and human
systems in economics and social science (e.g., computational sociology)
as well as in engineering to gain insight into the operation of those
systems. A good example of the usefulness of using computers to
simulate can be found in the field of network traffic simulation. In such
simulations, the model behaviour will change each simulation according Human-in-the-loop simulation of
to the set of initial parameters assumed for the environment. outer space
Traditionally, the formal modeling of systems has been via a

mathematical model, which attempts to find analytical solutions
enabling the prediction of the behaviour of the system from a set of
parameters and initial conditions. Computer simulation is often used as
an adjunct to, or substitution for, modeling systems for which simple
closed form analytic solutions are not possible. There are many
different types of computer simulation, the common feature they all
share is the attempt to generate a sample of representative scenarios for
Visualization of a direct numerical
a model in which a complete enumeration of all possible states would simulation model.
be prohibitive or impossible.
Several software packages exist for running computer-based simulation modeling (e.g. Monte Carlo simulation,
stochastic modeling, multimethod modeling) that makes all the modeling almost effortless.
Modern usage of the term "computer simulation" may encompass virtually any computer-based representation.
Computer science
In computer science, simulation has some specialized meanings: Alan Turing used the term "simulation" to
refer to what happens when a universal machine executes a state transition table (in modern terminology, a
computer runs a program) that describes the state transitions, inputs and outputs of a subject discrete-state
machine. The computer simulates the subject machine. Accordingly, in theoretical computer science the term
simulation is a relation between state transition systems, useful in the study of operational semantics.
Less theoretically, an interesting application of computer simulation is to simulate computers using computers.
In computer architecture, a type of simulator, typically called an emulator, is often used to execute a program
that has to run on some inconvenient type of computer (for example, a newly designed computer that has not
yet been built or an obsolete computer that is no longer available), or in a tightly controlled testing environment
(see Computer architecture simulator and Platform virtualization). For example, simulators have been used to
debug a microprogram or sometimes commercial application programs, before the program is downloaded to
the target machine. Since the operation of the computer is simulated, all of the information about the computer's
operation is directly available to the programmer, and the speed and execution of the simulation can be varied
at will.
Simulators may also be used to interpret fault trees, or test VLSI logic designs before they are constructed.
Symbolic simulation uses variables to stand for unknown values.
In the field of optimization, simulations of physical processes are often used in conjunction with evolutionary
computation to optimize control strategies.
Simulation in education and training

Simulation is extensively used for educational purposes. It is frequently used by way of adaptive hypermedia.
Simulation is often used in the training of civilian and military personnel.[7] This usually occurs when it is
prohibitively expensive or simply too dangerous to allow trainees to use the real equipment in the real world. In
such situations they will spend time learning valuable lessons in a "safe" virtual environment yet living a
lifelike experience (or at least it is the goal). Often the convenience is to permit mistakes during training for a
safety-critical system. There is a distinction, though, between simulations used for training and Instructional
simulation.
Training simulations typically come in one of three categories:[8]
"live" simulation (where actual players use genuine systems in a real environment);
"virtual" simulation (where actual players use simulated systems in a synthetic environment[5]), or
"constructive" simulation (where simulated players use simulated systems in a synthetic environment).
Constructive simulation is often referred to as "wargaming" since it bears some resemblance to table-top
war games in which players command armies of soldiers and equipment that move around a board.
In standardized tests, "live" simulations are sometimes called "high-fidelity", producing "samples of likely
performance", as opposed to "low-fidelity", "pencil-and-paper" simulations producing only "signs of possible
performance",[9] but the distinction between high, moderate and low fidelity remains relative, depending on the
context of a particular comparison.
Simulations in education are somewhat like training simulations. They focus on specific tasks. The term
'microworld' is used to refer to educational simulations which model some abstract concept rather than
simulating a realistic object or environment, or in some cases model a real world environment in a simplistic
way so as to help a learner develop an understanding of the key concepts. Normally, a user can create some sort
of construction within the microworld that will behave in a way consistent with the concepts being modeled.
Seymour Papert was one of the first to advocate the value of microworlds, and the Logo programming
environment developed by Papert is one of the most famous microworlds. As another example, the Global
Challenge Award online STEM learning web site uses microworld simulations to teach science concepts related
to global warming and the future of energy. Other projects for simulations in educations are Open Source
Physics, NetSim etc.
Project Management Simulation is increasingly used to train students and professionals in the art and science of
project management. Using simulation for project management training improves learning retention and
enhances the learning process.[10][11]
Social simulations may be used in social science classrooms to illustrate social and political processes in
anthropology, economics, history, political science, or sociology courses, typically at the high school or
university level. These may, for example, take the form of civics simulations, in which participants assume
roles in a simulated society, or international relations simulations in which participants engage in negotiations,
alliance formation, trade, diplomacy, and the use of force. Such simulations might be based on fictitious
political systems, or be based on current or historical events. An example of the latter would be Barnard
College's Reacting to the Past series of historical educational games.[12] The National Science Foundation has
also supported the creation of reacting games that address science and math education.[13]
In recent years, there has been increasing use of social simulations for staff training in aid and development
agencies. The Carana simulation, for example, was first developed by the United Nations Development
Programme, and is now used in a very revised form by the World Bank for training staff to deal with fragile and
conflict-affected countries.[14]
Common user interaction systems for virtual simulations

Virtual simulations represent a specific category of simulation that utilizes simulation equipment to create a
simulated world for the user. Virtual simulations allow users to interact with a virtual world. Virtual worlds
operate on platforms of integrated software and hardware components. In this manner, the system can accept
input from the user (e.g., body tracking, voice/sound recognition, physical controllers) and produce output to
the user (e.g., visual display, aural display, haptic display) .[15] Virtual Simulations use the aforementioned
modes of interaction to produce a sense of immersion for the user.
Virtual simulation input hardware
There is a wide variety of input hardware available to

accept user input for virtual simulations. The following list
briefly describes several of them:
Body tracking: The motion capture method is often used

to record the user's movements and translate the captured
data into inputs for the virtual simulation. For example, if a
user physically turns their head, the motion would be
captured by the simulation hardware in some way and
translated to a corresponding shift in view within the
simulation.
Capture suits and/or gloves may be used to capture

movements of users body parts. The systems may Motorcycle simulator of Bienal do Automóvel
have sensors incorporated inside them to sense exhibition, in Belo Horizonte, Brazil.
movements of different body parts (e.g., fingers).
Alternatively, these systems may have exterior
tracking devices or marks that can be detected by external ultrasound, optical receivers or
electromagnetic sensors. Internal inertial sensors are also available on some systems. The units may
transmit data either wirelessly or through cables.
Eye trackers can also be used to detect eye movements so that the system can determine precisely where
a user is looking at any given instant.
Physical controllers: Physical controllers provide input to the simulation only through direct manipulation by
the user. In virtual simulations, tactile feedback from physical controllers is highly desirable in a number of
simulation environments.
Omnidirectional treadmills such as the Wizdish RoVR, Virtuix Omni & Cyberith Virtualizer can be used
to capture the users locomotion as they walk or run.
High fidelity instrumentation such as instrument panels in virtual aircraft cockpits provides users with
actual controls to raise the level of immersion. For example, pilots can use the actual global positioning
system controls from the real device in a simulated cockpit to help them practice procedures with the
actual device in the context of the integrated cockpit system.
Voice/sound recognition: This form of interaction may be used either to interact with agents within the
simulation (e.g., virtual people) or to manipulate objects in the simulation (e.g., information). Voice interaction
presumably increases the level of immersion for the user.
Users may use headsets with boom microphones, lapel microphones or the room may be equipped with
strategically located microphones.
Current research into user input systems
Research in future input systems hold a great deal of promise for virtual simulations. Systems such as brain–
computer interfaces (BCIs) offer the ability to further increase the level of immersion for virtual simulation
users. Lee, Keinrath, Scherer, Bischof, Pfurtscheller[16] proved that naïve subjects could be trained to use a BCI
to navigate a virtual apartment with relative ease. Using the BCI, the authors found that subjects were able to
freely navigate the virtual environment with relatively minimal effort. It is possible that these types of systems
will become standard input modalities in future virtual simulation systems.
Virtual simulation output hardware
There is a wide variety of output hardware available to deliver stimulus to users in virtual simulations. The
following list briefly describes several of them:
Visual display: Visual displays provide the visual stimulus to the user.
Stationary displays can vary from a conventional desktop display to 360-degree wrap around screens to
stereo three-dimensional screens. Conventional desktop displays can vary in size from 15 to 60+ inches.
Wrap around screens are typically utilized in what is known as a cave automatic virtual environment
(CAVE). Stereo three-dimensional screens produce three-dimensional images either with or without
special glasses—depending on the design.
Head-mounted displays (HMDs) have small displays that are mounted on headgear worn by the user.
These systems are connected directly into the virtual simulation to provide the user with a more
immersive experience. Weight, update rates and field of view are some of the key variables that
differentiate HMDs. Naturally, heavier HMDs are undesirable as they cause fatigue over time. If the
update rate is too slow, the system is unable to update the displays fast enough to correspond with a quick
head turn by the user. Slower update rates tend to cause simulation sickness and disrupt the sense of
immersion. Field of view or the angular extent of the world that is seen at a given moment field of view
can vary from system to system and has been found to affect the users sense of immersion.
Aural display: Several different types of audio systems exist to help the user hear and localize sounds spatially.
Special software can be used to produce 3D audio effects 3D audio to create the illusion that sound sources are
placed within a defined three-dimensional space around the user.
Stationary conventional speaker systems may be used provide dual or multi-channel surround sound.
However, external speakers are not as effective as headphones in producing 3D audio effects.[15]
Conventional headphones offer a portable alternative to stationary speakers. They also have the added
advantages of masking real world noise and facilitate more effective 3D audio sound effects.[15]
Haptic display: These displays provide sense of touch to the user (haptic technology). This type of output is
sometimes referred to as force feedback.
Tactile tile displays use different types of actuators such as inflatable bladders, vibrators, low frequency
sub-woofers, pin actuators and/or thermo-actuators to produce sensations for the user.
End effector displays can respond to users inputs with resistance and force.[15] These systems are often
used in medical applications for remote surgeries that employ robotic instruments.[17]
Vestibular display: These displays provide a sense of motion to the user (motion simulator). They often
manifest as motion bases for virtual vehicle simulation such as driving simulators or flight simulators. Motion
bases are fixed in place but use actuators to move the simulator in ways that can produce the sensations
pitching, yawing or rolling. The simulators can also move in such a way as to produce a sense of acceleration
on all axes (e.g., the motion base can produce the sensation of falling).
Clinical healthcare simulators

Medical simulators are increasingly being developed and deployed to teach therapeutic and diagnostic
procedures as well as medical concepts and decision making to personnel in the health professions. Simulators
have been developed for training procedures ranging from the basics such as blood draw, to laparoscopic
surgery[18] and trauma care. They are also important to help on prototyping new devices[19] for biomedical
engineering problems. Currently, simulators are applied to research and develop tools for new therapies,[20]
treatments[21] and early diagnosis[22] in medicine.
Many medical simulators involve a computer connected to a plastic simulation of the relevant anatomy.
Sophisticated simulators of this type employ a life size mannequin that responds to injected drugs and can be
programmed to create simulations of life-threatening emergencies. In other simulations, visual components of
the procedure are reproduced by computer graphics techniques, while touch-based components are reproduced
by haptic feedback devices combined with physical simulation routines computed in response to the user's
actions. Medical simulations of this sort will often use 3D CT or MRI scans of patient data to enhance realism.
Some medical simulations are developed to be widely distributed (such as web-enabled simulations[23] and
procedural simulations[24] that can be viewed via standard web browsers) and can be interacted with using
standard computer interfaces, such as the keyboard and mouse.
Another important medical application of a simulator—although, perhaps, denoting a slightly different meaning
of simulator—is the use of a placebo drug, a formulation that simulates the active drug in trials of drug efficacy
(see Placebo (origins of technical term)).
Improving patient safety
Patient safety is a concern in the medical industry. Patients have been known to suffer injuries and even death
due to management error, and lack of using best standards of care and training. According to Building a
National Agenda for Simulation-Based Medical Education (Eder-Van Hook, Jackie, 2004), "a health care
provider's ability to react prudently in an unexpected situation is one of the most critical factors in creating a
positive outcome in medical emergency, regardless of whether it occurs on the battlefield, freeway, or hospital
emergency room." Eder-Van Hook (2004) also noted that medical errors kill up to 98,000 with an estimated
cost between $37 and $50 million and $17 to $29 billion for preventable adverse events dollars per year.
Innovative simulation training solutions are now being used to train medical professionals in an attempt to
reduce the number of safety concerns that have adverse effects on the patients. However, according to the
article "Does Simulation Improve Patient Safety? Self-efficacy, Competence, Operational Performance, and
Patient Safety" (Nishisaki A., Keren R., and Nadkarni, V., 2007), the value of simulations is still debatable. As
Nishisaki states, "there is agood evidence that simulation training improves provider and team self-efficacy and
competence on manikins. There is also good evidence that procedural simulation improves actual operational
performance in clinical settings."[25] However, there is little evidence yet shows that crew resource
management training through simulation, despite its promise, improves team operational performance at the
bedside. Although evidence that simulation-based training actually improves patient outcome has been slow to
accrue, today the ability of simulation to provide hands-on experience that translates to the operating room is
no longer in doubt.[26][27][28])
One such attempt to improve patient safety through the use of simulations training is pediatric care to deliver
just-in-time service or/and just-in-place. This training consists of 20 minutes of simulated training just before
workers report to shift. It is hoped that the recentness of the training will increase the positive and reduce the
negative results that have generally been associated with the procedure. The purpose of this study is to
determine if just-in-time training improves patient safety and operational performance of orotracheal intubation
and decrease occurrences of undesired associated events and "to test the hypothesis that high fidelity simulation
may enhance the training efficacy and patient safety in simulation settings." The conclusion as reported in
"Abstract P38: Just-In-Time Simulation Training Improves ICU Physician Trainee Airway Resuscitation
Participation without Compromising Procedural Success or Safety" (Nishisaki A., 2008), were that simulation
training improved resident participation in real cases; but did not sacrifice the quality of service. It could be
therefore hypothesized that by increasing the number of highly trained residents through the use of simulation
training, that the simulation training does in fact increase patient safety. This hypothesis would have to be
researched for validation and the results may or may not generalize to other situations. Additionally, simulation
has been used in nursing research to examine nursing safety-oriented behaviors during times such as change-of-
shift report.[29]
History of simulation in healthcare
The first medical simulators were simple models of human patients.[30]
Since antiquity, these representations in clay and stone were used to demonstrate clinical features of disease
states and their effects on humans. Models have been found from many cultures and continents. These models
have been used in some cultures (e.g., Chinese culture) as a "diagnostic" instrument, allowing women to
consult male physicians while maintaining social laws of modesty. Models are used today to help students learn
the anatomy of the musculoskeletal system and organ systems.[30]
In 2002, the Society for Simulation in Healthcare (SSH) was formed to become a leader in international
interprofessional advances the application of medical simulation in healthcare[31]
The need for a "uniform mechanism to educate, evaluate, and certify simulation instructors for the health care
profession" was recognized by McGaghie et al. in their critical review of simulation-based medical education
research.[32] In 2012 the SSH piloted two new certifications to provide recognition to educators in an effort to
meet this need.[33]
Type of models
Active models
Active models that attempt to reproduce living anatomy or physiology are recent developments. The famous
"Harvey" mannequin was developed at the University of Miami and is able to recreate many of the physical
findings of the cardiology examination, including palpation, auscultation, and electrocardiography.[34]
Interactive models
More recently, interactive models have been developed that respond to actions taken by a student or
physician.[34] Until recently, these simulations were two dimensional computer programs that acted more like a
textbook than a patient. Computer simulations have the advantage of allowing a student to make judgments,
and also to make errors. The process of iterative learning through assessment, evaluation, decision making, and
error correction creates a much stronger learning environment than passive instruction.
Computer simulators
Simulators have been proposed as an ideal tool for assessment of students for clinical skills.[35] For patients,
"cybertherapy" can be used for sessions simulating traumatic experiences, from fear of heights to social
anxiety.[36]
Programmed patients and simulated clinical situations, including mock disaster drills, have been used
extensively for education and evaluation. These "lifelike" simulations are expensive, and lack reproducibility. A
fully functional "3Di" simulator would be the most specific tool available for teaching and measurement of
clinical skills. Gaming platforms have been applied to create these

virtual medical environments to create an interactive method for
learning and application of information in a clinical context.[37][38]
Immersive disease state simulations allow a doctor or HCP to

experience what a disease actually feels like. Using sensors and
transducers symptomatic effects can be delivered to a participant
allowing them to experience the patients disease state.
Such a simulator meets the goals of an objective and standardized

examination for clinical competence.[39] This system is superior to 3DiTeams learner is percussing the
examinations that use "standard patients" because it permits the patient's chest in virtual field hospital
quantitative measurement of competence, as well as reproducing the
same objective findings.[40]
Simulation in entertainment
Simulation in entertainment encompasses many large and popular industries such as film, television, video
games (including serious games) and rides in theme parks. Although modern simulation is thought to have its
roots in training and the military, in the 20th century it also became a conduit for enterprises which were more
hedonistic in nature.
History of visual simulation in film and games
Early history (1940s and 1950s)
The first simulation game may have been created as early as 1947 by Thomas T. Goldsmith Jr. and Estle Ray
Mann. This was a straightforward game that simulated a missile being fired at a target. The curve of the missile
and its speed could be adjusted using several knobs. In 1958, a computer game called "Tennis for Two" was
created by Willy Higginbotham which simulated a tennis game between two players who could both play at the
same time using hand controls and was displayed on an oscilloscope.[41] This was one of the first electronic
video games to use a graphical display.
1970s and early 1980s
Computer-generated imagery was used in film to simulate objects as early as 1972 in the A Computer
Animated Hand, parts of which were shown on the big screen in the 1976 film Futureworld. Many will
remember the "targeting computer" that young Skywalker turns off in the 1977 film Star Wars.
The film Tron (1982) was the first film to use computer-generated imagery for more than a couple of
minutes.[42]
Advances in technology in the 1980s caused 3D simulation to become more widely used and it began to appear
in movies and in computer-based games such as Atari's Battlezone (1980) and Acornsoft's Elite (1984), one of
the first wire-frame 3D graphics games for home computers.
Pre-virtual cinematography era (early 1980s to 1990s)
Advances in technology in the 1980s made the computer more affordable and more capable than they were in
previous decades,[43] which facilitated the rise of computer such as the Xbox gaming. The first video game
consoles released in the 1970s and early 1980s fell prey to the industry crash in 1983, but in 1985, Nintendo
released the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) which became one of the best selling consoles in video
game history.[44] In the 1990s, computer games became widely popular with the release of such game as The
Sims and Command & Conquer and the still increasing power of desktop computers. Today, computer
simulation games such as World of Warcraft are played by millions of people around the world.
In 1993, the film Jurassic Park became the first popular film to use computer-generated graphics extensively,
integrating the simulated dinosaurs almost seamlessly into live action scenes.
This event transformed the film industry; in 1995, the film Toy Story was the first film to use only computer-
generated images and by the new millennium computer generated graphics were the leading choice for special
effects in films.[45]
Virtual cinematography (early 2000s–present)
The advent of virtual cinematography in the early 2000s (decade) has led to an explosion of movies that would
have been impossible to shoot without it. Classic examples are the digital look-alikes of Neo, Smith and other
characters in the Matrix sequels and the extensive use of physically impossible camera runs in The Lord of the
Rings (film series) trilogy.
The terminal in the Pan Am (TV series) no longer existed during the filming of this 2011-2012 aired series,
which was no problem as they created it in virtual cinematography utilising automated viewpoint finding and
matching in conjunction with compositing real and simulated footage, which has been the bread and butter of
the movie artist in and around film studios since the early 2000s.
Computer-generated imagery is "the application of the field of 3D computer graphics to special effects". This
technology is used for visual effects because they are high in quality, controllable, and can create effects that
would not be feasible using any other technology either because of cost, resources or safety.[46] Computer-
generated graphics can be seen in many live action movies today, especially those of the action genre. Further,
computer generated imagery has almost completely supplanted hand-drawn animation in children's movies
which are increasingly computer-generated only. Examples of movies that use computer-generated imagery
include Finding Nemo, 300 and Iron Man.
Examples of non-film entertainment simulation
Simulation games
Simulation games, as opposed to other genres of video and computer games, represent or simulate an
environment accurately. Moreover, they represent the interactions between the playable characters and the
environment realistically. These kinds of games are usually more complex in terms of game play.[47]
Simulation games have become incredibly popular among people of all ages.[48] Popular simulation games
include SimCity and Tiger Woods PGA Tour. There are also flight simulator and driving simulator games.
Theme park rides
Simulators have been used for entertainment since the Link Trainer in the 1930s.[49] The first modern simulator
ride to open at a theme park was Disney's Star Tours in 1987 soon followed by Universal's The Funtastic World
of Hanna-Barbera in 1990 which was the first ride to be done entirely with computer graphics.[50]
Simulator rides are the progeny of military training simulators and commercial simulators, but they are
different in a fundamental way. While military training simulators react realistically to the input of the trainee
in real time, ride simulators only feel like they move realistically and move according to prerecorded motion
scripts.[50] One of the first simulator rides, Star Tours, which cost $32 millon, used a hydraulic motion based
cabin. The movement was programmed by a joystick. Today's simulator rides, such as The Amazing
Adventures of Spider-Man include elements to increase the amount of immersion experienced by the riders
such as: 3D imagery, physical effects (spraying water or producing scents), and movement through an
environment.[51] Examples of simulation rides include Mission Space and The Simpsons Ride. There are many
simulation rides at themeparks like Disney, Universal etc., Examples are Flint Stones, Earth Quake, Time
Machine, King Kong.
Simulation and manufacturing

Manufacturing represents one of the most important applications of simulation. This technique represents a
valuable tool used by engineers when evaluating the effect of capital investment in equipment and physical
facilities like factory plants, warehouses, and distribution centers. Simulation can be used to predict the
performance of an existing or planned system and to compare alternative solutions for a particular design
problem.[52]
Another important goal of Simulation in Manufacturing Systems is to quantify system performance. Common
measures of system performance include the following:[53]
Throughput under average and peak loads;

System cycle time (how long it takes to produce one part);
Utilization of resource, labor, and machines;
Bottlenecks and choke points;
Queuing at work locations;
Queuing and delays caused by material-handling devices and systems;
WIP storages needs;
Staffing requirements;
Effectiveness of scheduling systems;
Effectiveness of control systems.
More examples of simulation

Automobiles
An automobile simulator provides an opportunity to reproduce the

characteristics of real vehicles in a virtual environment. It replicates the
external factors and conditions with which a vehicle interacts enabling a
driver to feel as if they are sitting in the cab of their own vehicle.
Scenarios and events are replicated with sufficient reality to ensure that
drivers become fully immersed in the experience rather than simply
viewing it as an educational experience.
The simulator provides a constructive experience for the novice driver

and enables more complex exercises to be undertaken by the more
mature driver. For novice drivers, truck simulators provide an Car racing simulator
opportunity to begin their career by applying best practice. For mature
drivers, simulation provides the ability to enhance good driving or to detect poor practice and to suggest the
necessary steps for remedial action. For companies, it provides an opportunity to educate staff in the driving
skills that achieve reduced maintenance costs, improved productivity and, most importantly, to ensure the
safety of their actions in all possible situations.
Biomechanics
An open-source simulation platform for creating dynamic mechanical models built from combinations of rigid
and deformable bodies, joints, constraints, and various force actuators. It is specialized for creating
biomechanical models of human anatomical structures, with the intention to study their function and eventually
assist in the design and planning of medical treatment.
A biomechanics simulator is used to analyze walking dynamics, study

sports performance, simulate surgical procedures, analyze joint loads,
design medical devices, and animate human and animal movement.
A neuromechanical simulator that combines biomechanical and

biologically realistic neural network simulation. It allows the user to test
hypotheses on the neural basis of behavior in a physically accurate 3-D
virtual environment.
City and urban A soldier tests out a heavy-wheeled-

vehicle driver simulator.
A city simulator can be a city-building game but can also be a tool used
by urban planners to understand how cities are likely to evolve in
response to various policy decisions. AnyLogic is an example of modern, large-scale urban simulators designed
for use by urban planners. City simulators are generally agent-based simulations with explicit representations
for land use and transportation. UrbanSim and LEAM are examples of large-scale urban simulation models that
are used by metropolitan planning agencies and military bases for land use and transportation planning.
Classroom of the future
The "classroom of the future" will probably contain several kinds of simulators, in addition to textual and visual
learning tools. This will allow students to enter the clinical years better prepared, and with a higher skill level.
The advanced student or postgraduate will have a more concise and comprehensive method of retraining—or of
incorporating new clinical procedures into their skill set—and regulatory bodies and medical institutions will
find it easier to assess the proficiency and competency of individuals.
The classroom of the future will also form the basis of a clinical skills unit for continuing education of medical
personnel; and in the same way that the use of periodic flight training assists airline pilots, this technology will
assist practitioners throughout their career.
The simulator will be more than a "living" textbook, it will become an integral a part of the practice of
medicine. The simulator environment will also provide a standard platform for curriculum development in
institutions of medical education.
Communication satellites
Modern satellite communications systems (SatCom) are often large and complex with many interacting parts
and elements. In addition, the need for broadband connectivity on a moving vehicle has increased dramatically
in the past few years for both commercial and military applications. To accurately predict and deliver high
quality of service, satcom system designers have to factor in terrain as well as atmospheric and meteorological
conditions in their planning. To deal with such complexity, system designers and operators increasingly turn
towards computer models of their systems to simulate real world operational conditions and gain insights into
usability and requirements prior to final product sign-off. Modeling improves the understanding of the system
by enabling the SatCom system designer or planner to simulate real world performance by injecting the models
with multiple hypothetical atmospheric and environmental conditions. Simulation is often used in the training
of civilian and military personnel. This usually occurs when it is prohibitively expensive or simply too
dangerous to allow trainees to use the real equipment in the real world. In such situations they will spend time
learning valuable lessons in a "safe" virtual environment yet living a lifelike experience (or at least it is the
goal). Often the convenience is to permit mistakes during training for a safety-critical system.
Digital Lifecycle
Simulation solutions are being increasingly integrated with CAx (CAD, CAM, CAE....) solutions and
processes. The use of simulation throughout the product lifecycle, especially at the earlier concept and design
stages, has the potential of providing substantial benefits. These benefits range from direct cost issues such as
reduced prototyping and shorter time-to-market, to better performing

products and higher margins. However, for some companies, simulation
has not provided the expected benefits.
The research firm Aberdeen Group has found that nearly all best-in-
class manufacturers use simulation early in the design process as
compared to 3 or 4 laggards who do not.
The successful use of simulation, early in the lifecycle, has been largely
driven by increased integration of simulation tools with the entire CAD, Simulation of airflow over an engine
CAM and PLM solution-set. Simulation solutions can now function
across the extended enterprise in a multi-CAD environment, and include
solutions for managing simulation data and processes and ensuring that simulation results are made part of the
product lifecycle history. The ability to use simulation across the entire lifecycle has been enhanced through
improved user interfaces such as tailorable user interfaces and "wizards" which allow all appropriate PLM
participants to take part in the simulation process.
Disaster preparedness
Simulation training has become a method for preparing people for disasters. Simulations can replicate
emergency situations and track how learners respond thanks to a lifelike experience. Disaster preparedness
simulations can involve training on how to handle terrorism attacks, natural disasters, pandemic outbreaks, or
other life-threatening emergencies.
One organization that has used simulation training for disaster preparedness is CADE (Center for Advancement
of Distance Education). CADE[54] has used a video game to prepare emergency workers for multiple types of
attacks. As reported by News-Medical.Net, "The video game is the first in a series of simulations to address
bioterrorism, pandemic flu, smallpox and other disasters that emergency personnel must prepare for.[55]"
Developed by a team from the University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC), the game allows learners to practice
their emergency skills in a safe, controlled environment.
The Emergency Simulation Program (ESP) at the British Columbia Institute of Technology (BCIT), Vancouver,
British Columbia, Canada is another example of an organization that uses simulation to train for emergency
situations. ESP uses simulation to train on the following situations: forest fire fighting, oil or chemical spill
response, earthquake response, law enforcement, municipal fire fighting, hazardous material handling, military
training, and response to terrorist attack [56] One feature of the simulation system is the implementation of
"Dynamic Run-Time Clock," which allows simulations to run a 'simulated' time frame, "'speeding up' or
'slowing down' time as desired"[56] Additionally, the system allows session recordings, picture-icon based
navigation, file storage of individual simulations, multimedia components, and launch external applications.
At the University of Québec in Chicoutimi, a research team at the outdoor research and expertise laboratory
(Laboratoire d'Expertise et de Recherche en Plein Air – LERPA) specializes in using wilderness backcountry
accident simulations to verify emergency response coordination.
Instructionally, the benefits of emergency training through simulations are that learner performance can be
tracked through the system. This allows the developer to make adjustments as necessary or alert the educator
on topics that may require additional attention. Other advantages are that the learner can be guided or trained on
how to respond appropriately before continuing to the next emergency segment—this is an aspect that may not
be available in the live-environment. Some emergency training simulators also allows for immediate feedback,
while other simulations may provide a summary and instruct the learner to engage in the learning topic again.
In a live-emergency situation, emergency responders do not have time to waste. Simulation-training in this
environment provides an opportunity for learners to gather as much information as they can and practice their
knowledge in a safe environment. They can make mistakes without risk of endangering lives and be given the
opportunity to correct their errors to prepare for the real-life emergency.
Economics
In economics and especially macroeconomics, the effects of proposed policy actions, such as fiscal policy
changes or monetary policy changes, are simulated to judge their desirability. A mathematical model of the
economy, having been fitted to historical economic data, is used as a proxy for the actual economy; proposed
values of government spending, taxation, open market operations, etc. are used as inputs to the simulation of
the model, and various variables of interest such as the inflation rate, the unemployment rate, the balance of
trade deficit, the government budget deficit, etc. are the outputs of the simulation. The simulated values of these
variables of interest are compared for different proposed policy inputs to determine which set of outcomes is
most desirable.
Engineering, technology, and processes
Simulation is an important feature in engineering systems or any system that involves many processes. For
example, in electrical engineering, delay lines may be used to simulate propagation delay and phase shift
caused by an actual transmission line. Similarly, dummy loads may be used to simulate impedance without
simulating propagation, and is used in situations where propagation is unwanted. A simulator may imitate only
a few of the operations and functions of the unit it simulates. Contrast with: emulate.[57]
Most engineering simulations entail mathematical modeling and computer assisted investigation. There are
many cases, however, where mathematical modeling is not reliable. Simulation of fluid dynamics problems
often require both mathematical and physical simulations. In these cases the physical models require dynamic
similitude. Physical and chemical simulations have also direct realistic uses, rather than research uses; in
chemical engineering, for example, process simulations are used to give the process parameters immediately
used for operating chemical plants, such as oil refineries. Simulators are also used for plant operator training. It
is called Operator Training Simulator (OTS) and has been widely adopted by many industries from chemical to
oil&gas and to power industry. This created a safe and realistic virtual environment to train board operators and
engineers. Mimic is capable of providing high fidelity dynamic models of nearly all chemical plants for
operator training and control system testing.
Equipment
Due to the dangerous and expensive nature of training on heavy equipment, simulation has become a common
solution across many industries. Types of simulated equipment include cranes, mining reclaimers and
construction equipment, among many others. Often the simulation units will include pre-built scenarios by
which to teach trainees, as well as the ability to customize new scenarios. Such equipment simulators are
intended to create a safe and cost effective alternative to training on live equipment.[58]
Ergonomics
Ergonomic simulation involves the analysis of virtual products or manual tasks within a virtual environment. In
the engineering process, the aim of ergonomics is to develop and to improve the design of products and work
environments.[59] Ergonomic simulation utilizes an anthropometric virtual representation of the human,
commonly referenced as a mannequin or Digital Human Models (DHMs), to mimic the postures, mechanical
loads, and performance of a human operator in a simulated environment such as an airplane, automobile, or
manufacturing facility. DHMs are recognized as evolving and valuable tool for performing proactive
ergonomics analysis and design.[60] The simulations employ 3D-graphics and physics-based models to animate
the virtual humans. Ergonomics software uses inverse kinematics (IK) capability for posing the DHMs.[59]
Several ergonomic simulation tools have been developed including Jack, SAFEWORK, RAMSIS, and
SAMMIE.
The software tools typically calculate biomechanical properties including individual muscle forces, joint forces
and moments. Most of these tools employ standard ergonomic evaluation methods such as the NIOSH lifting
equation and Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA). Some simulations also analyze physiological measures
including metabolism, energy expenditure, and fatigue limits Cycle time studies, design and process validation,
user comfort, reachability, and line of sight are other human-factors that may be examined in ergonomic
simulation packages.[61]
Modeling and simulation of a task can be performed by manually manipulating the virtual human in the
simulated environment. Some ergonomics simulation software permits interactive, real-time simulation and
evaluation through actual human input via motion capture technologies. However, motion capture for
ergonomics requires expensive equipment and the creation of props to represent the environment or product.
Some applications of ergonomic simulation in include analysis of solid waste collection, disaster management
tasks, interactive gaming,[62] automotive assembly line,[63] virtual prototyping of rehabilitation aids,[64] and
aerospace product design.[65] Ford engineers use ergonomics simulation software to perform virtual product
design reviews. Using engineering data, the simulations assist evaluation of assembly ergonomics. The
company uses Siemen's Jack and Jill ergonomics simulation software in improving worker safety and
efficiency, without the need to build expensive prototypes.[66]
Finance
In finance, computer simulations are often used for scenario planning. Risk-adjusted net present value, for
example, is computed from well-defined but not always known (or fixed) inputs. By imitating the performance
of the project under evaluation, simulation can provide a distribution of NPV over a range of discount rates and
other variables.
Simulations are frequently used in financial training to engage participants in experiencing various historical as
well as fictional situations. There are stock market simulations, portfolio simulations, risk management
simulations or models and forex simulations. Such simulations are typically based on stochastic asset models.
Using these simulations in a training program allows for the application of theory into a something akin to real
life. As with other industries, the use of simulations can be technology or case-study driven.
Flight
Flight Simulation Training Devices (FSTD) are used to train pilots on the ground. In comparison to training in
an actual aircraft, simulation based training allows for the training of maneuvers or situations that may be
impractical (or even dangerous) to perform in the aircraft, while keeping the pilot and instructor in a relatively
low-risk environment on the ground. For example, electrical system failures, instrument failures, hydraulic
system failures, and even flight control failures can be simulated without risk to the pilots or an aircraft.
Instructors can also provide students with a higher concentration of training tasks in a given period of time than
is usually possible in the aircraft. For example, conducting multiple instrument approaches in the actual aircraft
may require significant time spent repositioning the aircraft, while in a simulation, as soon as one approach has
been completed, the instructor can immediately preposition the simulated aircraft to an ideal (or less than ideal)
location from which to begin the next approach.
Flight simulation also provides an economic advantage over training in an actual aircraft. Once fuel,
maintenance, and insurance costs are taken into account, the operating costs of an FSTD are usually
substantially lower than the operating costs of the simulated aircraft. For some large transport category
airplanes, the operating costs may be several times lower for the FSTD than the actual aircraft.
Some people who use simulator software, especially flight simulator software, build their own simulator at
home. Some people—to further the realism of their homemade simulator—buy used cards and racks that run
the same software used by the original machine. While this involves solving the problem of matching hardware
and software—and the problem that hundreds of cards plug into many different racks—many still find that
solving these problems is well worthwhile. Some are so serious about realistic simulation that they will buy real
aircraft parts, like complete nose sections of written-off aircraft, at aircraft boneyards. This permits people to
simulate a hobby that they are unable to pursue in real life.
Marine
Bearing resemblance to flight simulators, marine simulators train ships' personnel. The most common marine
simulators include:
Ship's bridge simulators

Engine room simulators
Cargo handling simulators
Communication / GMDSS simulators
ROV simulators
Simulators like these are mostly used within maritime colleges, training institutions and navies. They often
consist of a replication of a ships' bridge, with operating console(s), and a number of screens on which the
virtual surroundings are projected.
Military
Military simulations, also known informally as war games, are models in which theories of warfare can be
tested and refined without the need for actual hostilities. They exist in many different forms, with varying
degrees of realism. In recent times, their scope has widened to include not only military but also political and
social factors (for example, the NationLab series of strategic exercises in Latin America).[67] While many
governments make use of simulation, both individually and collaboratively, little is known about the model's
specifics outside professional circles.
Payment and securities settlement system
Simulation techniques have also been applied to payment and securities settlement systems. Among the main
users are central banks who are generally responsible for the oversight of market infrastructure and entitled to
contribute to the smooth functioning of the payment systems.
Central banks have been using payment system simulations to evaluate things such as the adequacy or
sufficiency of liquidity available ( in the form of account balances and intraday credit limits) to participants
(mainly banks) to allow efficient settlement of payments.[68][69] The need for liquidity is also dependent on the
availability and the type of netting procedures in the systems, thus some of the studies have a focus on system
comparisons.[70]
Another application is to evaluate risks related to events such as communication network breakdowns or the
inability of participants to send payments (e.g. in case of possible bank failure).[71] This kind of analysis falls
under the concepts of stress testing or scenario analysis.
A common way to conduct these simulations is to replicate the settlement logics of the real payment or
securities settlement systems under analysis and then use real observed payment data. In case of system
comparison or system development, naturally also the other settlement logics need to be implemented.
To perform stress testing and scenario analysis, the observed data needs to be altered, e.g. some payments
delayed or removed. To analyze the levels of liquidity, initial liquidity levels are varied. System comparisons
(benchmarking) or evaluations of new netting algorithms or rules are performed by running simulations with a
fixed set of data and varying only the system setups.
Inference is usually done by comparing the benchmark simulation results to the results of altered simulation
setups by comparing indicators such as unsettled transactions or settlement delays.
Project management
Project management simulation is simulation used for project management training and analysis. It is often
used as training simulation for project managers. In other cases it is used for what-if analysis and for supporting
decision-making in real projects. Frequently the simulation is conducted using software tools.
Robotics
A robotics simulator is used to create embedded applications for a specific (or not) robot without being
dependent on the 'real' robot. In some cases, these applications can be transferred to the real robot (or rebuilt)
without modifications. Robotics simulators allow reproducing situations that cannot be 'created' in the real
world because of cost, time, or the 'uniqueness' of a resource. A simulator also allows fast robot prototyping.
Many robot simulators feature physics engines to simulate a robot's dynamics.
Production
Simulations of production systems is used mainly to examine the effect of improvements or investments in a
production system. Most often this is done using a static spreadsheet with process times and transportation
times. For more sophisticated simulations Discrete Event Simulation (DES) is used with the advantages to
simulate dynamics in the production system. A production system is very much dynamic depending on
variations in manufacturing processes, assembly times, machine set-ups, breaks, breakdowns and small
stoppages.[72] There are lots of software commonly used for discrete event simulation. They differ in usability
and markets but do often share the same foundation.
Sales process
Simulations are useful in modeling the flow of transactions through business processes, such as in the field of
sales process engineering, to study and improve the flow of customer orders through various stages of
completion (say, from an initial proposal for providing goods/services through order acceptance and
installation). Such simulations can help predict the impact of how improvements in methods might impact
variability, cost, labor time, and the quantity of transactions at various stages in the process. A full-featured
computerized process simulator can be used to depict such models, as can simpler educational demonstrations
using spreadsheet software, pennies being transferred between cups based on the roll of a die, or dipping into a
tub of colored beads with a scoop.[73]
Sports
In sports, computer simulations are often done to predict the outcome of events and the performance of
individual sportspeople. They attempt to recreate the event through models built from statistics. The increase in
technology has allowed anyone with knowledge of programming the ability to run simulations of their models.
The simulations are built from a series of mathematical algorithms, or models, and can vary with accuracy.
Accuscore, which is licensed by companies such as ESPN, is a well known simulation program for all major
sports. It offers detailed analysis of games through simulated betting lines, projected point totals and overall
probabilities.
With the increased interest in fantasy sports simulation models that predict individual player performance have
gained popularity. Companies like What If Sports and StatFox specialize in not only using their simulations for
predicting game results, but how well individual players will do as well. Many people use models to determine
who to start in their fantasy leagues.
Another way simulations are helping the sports field is in the use of biomechanics. Models are derived and
simulations are run from data received from sensors attached to athletes and video equipment. Sports
biomechanics aided by simulation models answer questions regarding training techniques such as: the effect of
fatigue on throwing performance (height of throw) and biomechanical factors of the upper limbs (reactive
strength index; hand contact time).[74]
Computer simulations allow their users to take models which before were too complex to run, and give them
answers. Simulations have proven to be some of the best insights into both play performance and team
predictability.
Space shuttle countdown
Simulation is used at Kennedy Space Center (KSC) to train

and certify Space Shuttle engineers during simulated
launch countdown operations. The Space Shuttle
engineering community participates in a launch countdown
integrated simulation before each shuttle flight. This
simulation is a virtual simulation where real people interact
with simulated Space Shuttle vehicle and Ground Support
Equipment (GSE) hardware. The Shuttle Final Countdown
Phase Simulation, also known as S0044, involves
countdown processes that integrate many of the Space
Shuttle vehicle and GSE systems. Some of the Shuttle
systems integrated in the simulation are the main Firing Room 1 configured for space shuttle
propulsion system, main engines, solid rocket boosters, launches
ground liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, external tank,
flight controls, navigation, and avionics.[75] The high-level
objectives of the Shuttle Final Countdown Phase Simulation are:
To demonstrate Firing Room final countdown phase operations.

To provide training for system engineers in recognizing, reporting and evaluating system problems in a
time critical environment.
To exercise the launch team's ability to evaluate, prioritize and respond to problems in an integrated
manner within a time critical environment.
To provide procedures to be used in performing failure/recovery testing of the operations performed in
the final countdown phase.[76]
The Shuttle Final Countdown Phase Simulation takes place at the Kennedy Space Center Launch Control
Center Firing Rooms. The firing room used during the simulation is the same control room where real launch
countdown operations are executed. As a result, equipment used for real launch countdown operations is
engaged. Command and control computers, application software, engineering plotting and trending tools,
launch countdown procedure documents, launch commit criteria documents, hardware requirement documents,
and any other items used by the engineering launch countdown teams during real launch countdown operations
are used during the simulation. The Space Shuttle vehicle hardware and related GSE hardware is simulated by
mathematical models (written in Shuttle Ground Operations Simulator (SGOS) modeling language [77]) that
behave and react like real hardware. During the Shuttle Final Countdown Phase Simulation, engineers
command and control hardware via real application software executing in the control consoles – just as if they
were commanding real vehicle hardware. However, these real software applications do not interface with real
Shuttle hardware during simulations. Instead, the applications interface with mathematical model
representations of the vehicle and GSE hardware. Consequently, the simulations bypass sensitive and even
dangerous mechanisms while providing engineering measurements detailing how the hardware would have
reacted. Since these math models interact with the command and control application software, models and
simulations are also used to debug and verify the functionality of application software.[78]
Satellite navigation
The only true way to test GNSS receivers (commonly known as Sat-Nav's in the commercial world) is by using
an RF Constellation Simulator. A receiver that may for example be used on an aircraft, can be tested under
dynamic conditions without the need to take it on a real flight. The test conditions can be repeated exactly, and
there is full control over all the test parameters. this is not possible in the 'real-world' using the actual signals.
For testing receivers that will use the new Galileo (satellite navigation) there is no alternative, as the real
signals do not yet exist.
Weather
Predicting weather conditions by extrapolating/interpolating previous data is one of the real use of simulation.
Most of the weather forecasts use this information published by Weather buereaus. This kind of simulations
help in predicting and forewarning about extreme weather conditions like the path of an active
hurricane/cyclone. Numerical weather prediction for forecasting involves complicated numeric computer
models to predict weather accurately by taking many parameters into account.
Simulation games
Strategy games—both traditional and modern—may be viewed as simulations of abstracted decision-making
for the purpose of training military and political leaders (see History of Go for an example of such a tradition,
or Kriegsspiel for a more recent example).
Many other video games are simulators of some kind. Such games can simulate various aspects of reality, from
business, to government, to construction, to piloting vehicles (see above).
Historical usage
Historically, the word had negative connotations:
…therefore a general custom of simulation (which is this last degree) is a vice, using either of a
natural falseness or fearfulness…
— Francis Bacon, Of Simulation and Dissimulation, 1597
…for Distinction Sake, a Deceiving by Words, is commonly called a Lye, and a Deceiving by
Actions, Gestures, or Behavior, is called Simulation…
— Robert South, South, 1697, p.525
However, the connection between simulation and dissembling later faded out and is now only of linguistic
interest.[79]
See also
Computational astrophysics Grey box model
Computational chemistry High-level emulation
Computational physics Illustris project
Computer experiment In silico
Dissimulation Lifelike experience
Emulator List of computer simulation software
Futures studies List of discrete event simulation software
Mathematical model Roleplay simulation

Merger simulation Rule-based modeling
Microarchitecture simulation Similitude (model)
Mining simulator Simulated reality
Model Simulation language
Molecular dynamics System identification
Network simulation Training simulation
Pharmacokinetics simulation Virtual training
Placebo Web-based simulation
Project management simulation
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79. South, in the passage quoted, was speaking of the differences between a falsehood and an honestly mistaken
statement; the difference being that in order for the statement to be a lie the truth must be known, and the opposite of
the truth must have been knowingly uttered. And, from this, to the extent to which a lie involves deceptive words, a
simulation involves deceptive actions, deceptive gestures, or deceptive behavior. Thus, it would seem, if a
simulation is false, then the truth must be known (in order for something other than the truth to be presented in its
stead); and, for the simulation to simulate. Because, otherwise, one would not know what to offer up in simulation.
Bacon's essay Of Simulation and Dissimulation (http://www.authorama.com/essays-of-francis-bacon-7.html)
expresses somewhat similar views; it is also significant that Samuel Johnson thought so highly of South's definition,
that he used it in the entry for simulation in his Dictionary of the English Language.
External links
Bibliographies containing more references (http://www.unice.fr/s
g/resources/bibliographies.htm) to be found on the website of the Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Simulation.
journal Simulation & Gaming (http://www.unice.fr/sg/).
A further description and examples of applying discrete event
simulation modeling to industry may be seen at Production Look up simulation in
Design and Simulation (http://www.simutech.com.au/production- Wiktionary, the free
design-and-simulation/). dictionary.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Simulation&oldid=791444389"
Categories: Operations research Simulation Mathematical and quantitative methods (economics)
7/24/2017 Science - Wikipedia
Science
Science (from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge")[1][2]:58 is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes
knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.[a]
Contemporary science is typically subdivided into the natural sciences, which study the material universe; the
social sciences, which study people and societies; and the formal sciences, which study logic and mathematics.
The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations.[3] Disciplines which
use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences.[4]
From classical antiquity through the 19th century, science as a type of knowledge was more closely linked to
philosophy than it is now, and in the Western world the term "natural philosophy" once encompassed fields of
study that are today associated with science, such as astronomy, medicine, and physics.[5][b] However, during
the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the scientific method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of
Optics.[6][7][8][9][10] While the classification of the material world by the ancient Indians and Greeks into air,
earth, fire and water was more philosophical, medieval Middle Easterns used practical and experimental
observation to classify materials.[11]
In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws.
Over the course of the 19th century, the word "science" became increasingly associated with the scientific
method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines
such as biology, chemistry, and physics reached their modern shapes. That same time period also included the
origin of the terms "scientist" and "scientific community", the founding of scientific institutions, and the
increasing significance of their interactions with society and other aspects of culture.[12][13]
Contents
1 History
1.1 Antiquity
1.2 Medieval science
1.3 Renaissance and early modern
science
1.4 Age of Enlightenment
1.5 19th century
1.6 20th century and beyond
1.7 Scientific method
1.8 Mathematics and formal
sciences
2 Scientific community
The scale of the universe mapped to the branches of science,
2.1 Branches and fields
2.2 Institutions with formal sciences as the foundation.[14]: Vol.1, Chaps.1,2,&3.
2.3 Literature
3 Science and society
3.1 Women in science
3.2 Science policy
3.3 Media perspectives
3.4 Political usage
3.5 Science and the public
4 Philosophy of science
4.1 Certainty and science
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science 1/24
4.2 Fringe science, pseudoscience,

and junk science
5 Scientific practice
5.1 Basic and applied research
5.2 Research in practice
5.3 Practical impacts of scientific
research
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Sources
10 Further reading
11 External links
History
Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations.[c] Modern science
is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, so it now defines what science is in the strictest sense of
the term.[15]
Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit
of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other
and share. For example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded
history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of complex
calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible, and buildings such as the Pyramids. However, no
consistent conscientious distinction was made between knowledge of such things, which are true in every
community, and other types of communal knowledge, such as mythologies and legal systems.
Antiquity
Before the invention or discovery of the concept of "nature" (ancient

Greek phusis) by the Pre-Socratic philosophers, the same words tend
to be used to describe the natural "way" in which a plant grows,[16]
and the "way" in which, for example, one tribe worships a particular
god. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first
philosophers in the strict sense, and also the first people to clearly
distinguish "nature" and "convention."[17]:209 Science was therefore
distinguished as the knowledge of nature and things which are true
for every community, and the name of the specialized pursuit of such
Maize, known in some English-speaking knowledge was philosophy — the realm of the first philosopher-
countries as corn, is a large grain plant physicists. They were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly
domesticated by indigenous peoples in interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of
Mesoamerica in prehistoric times nature to imitate nature (artifice or technology, Greek technē) was
seen by classical scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower
class artisans.[18] A clear-cut distinction between formal (eon) and
empirical science (doxa) was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides (fl. late sixth or early fifth
century BCE). Although his work Peri Physeos (On Nature) is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological
essay on method in natural science. Parmenides' ἐὸν may refer to a formal system or calculus which can
describe nature more precisely than natural languages. "Physis" may be identical to ἐὸν.[19]
A major turning point in the history of early philosophical science was the
controversial but successful attempt by Socrates to apply philosophy to the
study of human things, including human nature, the nature of political
communities, and human knowledge itself. He criticized the older type of study
of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was
particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it
could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in
terms of motion and matter. The study of human things had been the realm of
mythology and tradition, however, so Socrates was executed as a heretic.[21]: 30e
Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic
philosophy which was teleological and human-centred. He rejected many of the
conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes
around the earth, and many things have it as part of their nature that they are for
humans. Each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational Aristotle, 384–322 BCE, one
cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials of the early figures in the
already in things, according to what types of things they are. While the development of the scientific
Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical method[20]
question of the best way to live for a human being (a study Aristotle divided
into ethics and political philosophy), they did not argue for any other types of
applied science.
Aristotle maintained the sharp distinction between science and the practical knowledge of artisans, treating
theoretical speculation as the highest type of human activity, practical thinking about good living as something
less lofty, and the knowledge of artisans as something only suitable for the lower classes. In contrast to modern
science, Aristotle's influential emphasis was upon the "theoretical" steps of deducing universal rules from raw
data and did not treat the gathering of experience and raw data as part of science itself.[d]
Medieval science
During late antiquity and the early

Middle Ages, the Aristotelian approach
to inquiries on natural phenomena was
used. Some ancient knowledge was lost,
or in some cases kept in obscurity,
during the fall of the Roman Empire and
periodic political struggles. However,
the general fields of science (or "natural
philosophy" as it was called) and much
of the general knowledge from the
ancient world remained preserved
through the works of the early Latin
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), encyclopedists like Isidore of Seville. In
965–1039 Basra, Buyid the Byzantine empire, many Greek
Emirate. The Muslim scholar science texts were preserved in Syriac
who is considered by some translations done by groups such as the
to be the father of modern
Nestorians and Monophysites.[24] Many De potentiis anime sensitive, Gregor
scientific methodology due
of these were later on translated into Reisch (1504) Margarita
to his emphasis on
Arabic under the Caliphate, during philosophica. Medieval science
experimental data and
reproducibility of its
which many types of classical learning postulated a ventricle of the brain as
were preserved and in some cases the location for our common
results.[23][e]
improved upon.[24][f] sense,[22] where the forms from our
sensory systems commingled.
The House of Wisdom was established in Abbasid-era Baghdad, Iraq.[25] It is considered to have been a major
intellectual center during the Islamic Golden Age, where Muslim scholars such as al-Kindi and Ibn Sahl in
Baghdad and Ibn al-Haytham in Cairo flourished from the ninth to the thirteenth centuries until the Mongol
sack of Baghdad. Ibn al-Haytham, known later to the West as Alhazen, furthered the Aristotelian viewpoint[26]
by emphasizing experimental data.[g][27]
In the later medieval period, as demand for translations grew (for example, from the Toledo School of
Translators), western Europeans began collecting texts written not only in Latin, but also Latin translations
from Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew. In particular, the texts of Aristotle, Ptolemy,[h] and Euclid, preserved in the
Houses of Wisdom, were sought amongst Catholic scholars. In Europe, the Latin translation of Alhazen's Book
of Optics directly influenced Roger Bacon (13th century) in England, who argued for more experimental
science as demonstrated by Alhazen. By the late Middle Ages, a synthesis of Catholicism and Aristotelianism
known as Scholasticism was flourishing in western Europe, which had become a new geographic center of
science, but all aspects of scholasticism were criticized in the 15th and 16th centuries.
Renaissance and early modern science
Medieval science carried on the views of the Hellenist civilization of

Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, as shown by Alhazen's lost work A Book
in which I have Summarized the Science of Optics from the Two Books
of Euclid and Ptolemy, to which I have added the Notions of the First
Discourse which is Missing from Ptolemy's Book from Ibn Abi Usaibia's
catalog, as cited in (Smith 2001).:91(vol.1), p. xv Alhazen conclusively
disproved Ptolemy's theory of vision, but he retained Aristotle's
ontology; Roger Bacon, Vitello, and John Peckham each built up a
scholastic ontology upon Alhazen's Book of Optics, a causal chain
beginning with sensation, perception, and finally apperception of the
individual and universal forms of Aristotle.[28] This model of vision
became known as Perspectivism, which was exploited and studied by
the artists of the Renaissance.
Galen (129–c. 216) noted the optic
chiasm is X-shaped. (Engraving from A. Mark Smith points out the perspectivist theory of vision, which
Vesalius, 1543) pivots on three of Aristotle's four causes, formal, material, and final, "is
remarkably economical, reasonable, and coherent."[30] Although
Alhacen knew that a scene imaged through an aperture is inverted, he
argued that vision is about perception. This was overturned by
Kepler,[31]:102 who modelled the eye as a water-filled glass sphere with
an aperture in front of it to model the entrance pupil. He found that all
the light from a single point of the scene was imaged at a single point at
the back of the glass sphere. The optical chain ends on the retina at the
back of the eye and the image is inverted.[i]
Copernicus formulated a heliocentric model of the solar system unlike

the geocentric model of Ptolemy's Almagest.
Galileo made innovative use of experiment and mathematics. However,

he became persecuted after Pope Urban VIII blessed Galileo to write
about the Copernican system. Galileo had used arguments from the
Pope and put them in the voice of the simpleton in the work "Dialogue
Concerning the Two Chief World Systems," which greatly offended
Galileo Galilei, father of modern
him.[32]
science.[29]: Vol. 24, No. 1, p. 36
In Northern Europe, the new technology of the printing press was widely used to publish many arguments,
including some that disagreed widely with contemporary ideas of nature. René Descartes and Francis Bacon
published philosophical arguments in favor of a new type of non-Aristotelian science. Descartes argued that
mathematics could be used in order to study nature, as Galileo had done, and Bacon emphasized the importance
of experiment over contemplation. Bacon questioned the Aristotelian concepts of formal cause and final cause,
and promoted the idea that science should study the laws of "simple" natures, such as heat, rather than
assuming that there is any specific nature, or "formal cause," of each complex type of thing. This new modern
science began to see itself as describing "laws of nature". This updated approach to studies in nature was seen
as mechanistic. Bacon also argued that science should aim for the first time at practical inventions for the
improvement of all human life.
Age of Enlightenment
In the 17th and 18th centuries, the project of modernity, as had been
promoted by Bacon and Descartes, led to rapid scientific advance and
the successful development of a new type of natural science,
mathematical, methodically experimental, and deliberately innovative.
Newton and Leibniz succeeded in developing a new physics, now
referred to as classical mechanics, which could be confirmed by
experiment and explained using mathematics. Leibniz also incorporated
terms from Aristotelian physics, but now being used in a new non-
teleological way, for example, "energy" and "potential" (modern
versions of Aristotelian "energeia and potentia"). In the style of Bacon,
he assumed that different types of things all work according to the same
general laws of nature, with no special formal or final causes for each
type of thing. It is during this period that the word "science" gradually
became more commonly used to refer to a type of pursuit of a type of
knowledge, especially knowledge of nature — coming close in meaning
to the old term "natural philosophy."
Isaac Newton, shown here in a 1689 19th century

portrait, made seminal contributions
to classical mechanics, gravity, and Both John Herschel and William
optics. Newton shares credit with Whewell systematized methodology:
Gottfried Leibniz for the development
the latter coined the term scientist.[33]
of calculus.
When Charles Darwin published On
the Origin of Species he established
evolution as the prevailing explanation of biological complexity. His theory of
natural selection provided a natural explanation of how species originated, but
this only gained wide acceptance a century later. John Dalton developed the
idea of atoms. The laws of thermodynamics and the electromagnetic theory
were also established in the 19th century, which raised new questions which
could not easily be answered using Newton's framework. The phenomena that
would allow the deconstruction of the atom were discovered in the last decade
of the 19th century: the discovery of X-rays inspired the discovery of
radioactivity. In the next year came the discovery of the first subatomic Charles Darwin in 1854, by
particle, the electron. then working towards
publication of On the Origin
20th century and beyond of Species
Einstein's theory of relativity and the development of quantum mechanics led

to the replacement of classical mechanics with a new physics which contains two parts that describe different
types of events in nature.
In the first half of the century, the

development of artificial fertilizer made
global human population growth possible. At
the same time, the structure of the atom and
its nucleus was discovered, leading to the
release of "atomic energy" (nuclear power).
In addition, the extensive use of scientific
innovation stimulated by the wars of this
century led to antibiotics and increased life
expectancy, revolutions in transportation
(automobiles and aircraft), the development A simulated event in the CMS
of ICBMs, a space race, and a nuclear arms detector of the Large Hadron
race, all giving a widespread public Collider, featuring a possible
appreciation of the importance of modern appearance of the Higgs boson
Combustion and chemical
science.
reactions were studied by
Michael Faraday and reported Widespread use of integrated circuits in the last quarter of the 20th century
in his lectures before the combined with communications satellites led to a revolution in information
Royal Institution: The technology and the rise of the global internet and mobile computing, including
Chemical History of a Candle, smartphones.
1861
More recently, it has been argued that the ultimate purpose of science is to
make sense of human beings and our nature. For example, in his book Consilience, E. O. Wilson said: "The
human condition is the most important frontier of the natural sciences".[2]:334
Scientific method
The scientific method seeks to explain the events

of nature in a reproducible way.[j] An explanatory Nature timeline
thought experiment or hypothesis is put forward as view • discuss •
explanation using principles such as parsimony 0— ←Earliest humans
(also known as "Occam's Razor") and are Land life
– ←Cambrian explosion
generally expected to seek consilience—fitting
-1 — Multicellular
well with other accepted facts related to the ←Earliest sexual
– life reproduction
phenomena.[2] This new explanation is used to L
-2 — i
make falsifiable predictions that are testable by
– f ←Atmospheric oxygen
experiment or observation. The predictions are to e
-3 — photosynthesis
be posted before a confirming experiment or
observation is sought, as proof that no tampering – ←Earliest oxygen
has occurred. Disproof of a prediction is evidence -4 — Single-celled life
←Earliest life
of progress.[k][l] This is done partly through – water
←Earliest Earth (−4.54)
Solar System
observation of natural phenomena, but also -5 —
through experimentation that tries to simulate –
natural events under controlled conditions as -6 — cosmic speed-up
appropriate to the discipline (in the observational – ←Alpha Centauri forms
sciences, such as astronomy or geology, a -7 —
predicted observation might take the place of a –P
controlled experiment). Experimentation is r
-8 — i
especially important in science to help establish Dark matter
–m Dark energy
causal relationships (to avoid the correlation o ←Milky Way Galaxy
-9 — r
fallacy). spiral arms form
–d
i
-10 — a ←Andromeda Galaxy
l forms
-11 —– cosmic expansion

-11 —– cosmic expansion
When a hypothesis proves unsatisfactory, it is
– ←Omega Centauri
either modified or discarded.[34] If the hypothesis forms
-12 —
survived testing, it may become adopted into the
–
framework of a scientific theory, a logically
reasoned, self-consistent model or framework for -13 — ←Earliest quasar
Earliest light
←Earliest galaxy
describing the behavior of certain natural Earliest gravity
←Earliest universe
phenomena. A theory typically describes the Axis scale: billions of years.
(−13.80)
behavior of much broader sets of phenomena than Also see: Human timeline and Life timeline
a hypothesis; commonly, a large number of
hypotheses can be logically bound together by a single theory. Thus a theory is a hypothesis explaining various
other hypotheses. In that vein, theories are formulated according to most of the same scientific principles as
hypotheses. In addition to testing hypotheses, scientists may also generate a model, an attempt to describe or
depict the phenomenon in terms of a logical, physical or mathematical representation and to generate new
hypotheses that can be tested, based on observable phenomena.[35]
While performing experiments to test hypotheses, scientists may have a preference for one outcome over
another, and so it is important to ensure that science as a whole can eliminate this bias.[36][37] This can be
achieved by careful experimental design, transparency, and a thorough peer review process of the experimental
results as well as any conclusions.[38][39] After the results of an experiment are announced or published, it is
normal practice for independent researchers to double-check how the research was performed, and to follow up
by performing similar experiments to determine how dependable the results might be.[40] Taken in its entirety,
the scientific method allows for highly creative problem solving while minimizing any effects of subjective
bias on the part of its users (especially the confirmation bias).[41]
Mathematics and formal sciences
Mathematics is essential to the sciences. One important function of

mathematics in science is the role it plays in the expression of scientific
models. Observing and collecting measurements, as well as
hypothesizing and predicting, often require extensive use of
mathematics. For example, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry,
and calculus are all essential to physics. Virtually every branch of
mathematics has applications in science, including "pure" areas such as
number theory and topology.
Statistical methods, which are mathematical techniques for A Venn diagram illustrating the
summarizing and analyzing data, allow scientists to assess the level of intersection of two sets.
reliability and the range of variation in experimental results. Statistical
analysis plays a fundamental role in many areas of both the natural
sciences and social sciences.
Computational science applies computing power to simulate real-world situations, enabling a better
understanding of scientific problems than formal mathematics alone can achieve. According to the Society for
Industrial and Applied Mathematics, computation is now as important as theory and experiment in advancing
scientific knowledge.[42]
A great amount of interest was taken in the study of formal logic in the early 20th century among
mathematicians and philosophers with the rise of set theory and its use for the foundations of mathematics.
Notable mathematicians and philosophers who contributed to this field include: Gottlob Frege, Giuseppe
Peano, George Boole, Ernst Zermelo, Abraham Fraenkel, David Hilbert, Bertrand Russell, and Alfred
Whitehead among many others. Various axiomatic systems such as Peano arithmetic, the Zermelo–Fraenkel
system of set theory, as well as the system in Principia Mathematica, were thought by many to prove the
foundations of math. However, in 1931, with the publication of Kurt Gödel's incompleteness theorem, much of
their efforts were undermined.[43] Formal logic is still studied today at universities by students of mathematics,
philosophy, and computer science. For example, boolean algebra is employed by all modern computers to
function, and thus is an extremely useful branch of knowledge for programmers.
Whether mathematics itself is properly classified as science has been a matter of some debate. Some thinkers
see mathematicians as scientists, regarding physical experiments as inessential or mathematical proofs as
equivalent to experiments. Others do not see mathematics as a science because it does not require an
experimental test of its theories and hypotheses. Mathematical theorems and formulas are obtained by logical
derivations which presume axiomatic systems, rather than the combination of empirical observation and logical
reasoning that has come to be known as the scientific method. In general, mathematics is classified as formal
science, while natural and social sciences are classified as empirical sciences.[44]
Scientific community
The scientific community is the group of all interacting scientists. It includes many sub-communities working
on particular scientific fields, and within particular institutions; interdisciplinary and cross-institutional
activities are also significant.
Branches and fields
Scientific fields are commonly divided into two major groups: natural
sciences, which study natural phenomena (including biological life),
and social sciences, which study human behavior and societies. These
are both empirical sciences, which means their knowledge must be
based on observable phenomena and capable of being tested for its
validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.[45]
There are also related disciplines that are grouped into interdisciplinary
applied sciences, such as engineering and medicine. Within these
The somatosensory system is located categories are specialized scientific fields that can include parts of other
throughout our bodies but is scientific disciplines but often possess their own nomenclature and
integrated in the brain. expertise.[46]
Mathematics, which is classified as a formal science,[47][48] has both

similarities and differences with the empirical sciences (the natural and social sciences). It is similar to
empirical sciences in that it involves an objective, careful and systematic study of an area of knowledge; it is
different because of its method of verifying its knowledge, using a priori rather than empirical methods.[49] The
formal sciences, which also include statistics and logic, are vital to the empirical sciences. Major advances in
formal science have often led to major advances in the empirical sciences. The formal sciences are essential in
the formation of hypotheses, theories, and laws,[50] both in discovering and describing how things work
(natural sciences) and how people think and act (social sciences).
Apart from its broad meaning, the word "science" sometimes may specifically refer to fundamental sciences
(maths and natural sciences) alone. Science schools or faculties within many institutions are separate from
those for medicine or engineering, each of which is an applied science.
Institutions
Learned societies for the communication and promotion of scientific thought and experimentation have existed
since the Renaissance period.[51] The oldest surviving institution is the Italian Accademia dei Lincei which was
established in 1603.[52] The respective National Academies of Science are distinguished institutions that exist
in a number of countries, beginning with the British Royal Society in 1660[53] and the French Académie des
Sciences in 1666.[54]
International scientific organizations, such as the International Council for Science, have since been formed to
promote cooperation between the scientific communities of different nations. Many governments have
dedicated agencies to support scientific research. Prominent scientific organizations include the National
Science Foundation in the U.S., the National Scientific and Technical Research Council in Argentina, CSIRO
in Australia, Centre national de la recherche scientifique in France, the Max Planck Society and Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft in Germany, and CSIC in Spain.
Literature
An enormous range of scientific literature is published.[55] Scientific journals communicate and document the
results of research carried out in universities and various other research institutions, serving as an archival
record of science. The first scientific journals, Journal des Sçavans followed by the Philosophical
Transactions, began publication in 1665. Since that time the total number of active periodicals has steadily
increased. In 1981, one estimate for the number of scientific and technical journals in publication was
11,500.[56] The United States National Library of Medicine currently indexes 5,516 journals that contain
articles on topics related to the life sciences. Although the journals are in 39 languages, 91 percent of the
indexed articles are published in English.[57]
Most scientific journals cover a single scientific field and publish the research within that field; the research is
normally expressed in the form of a scientific paper. Science has become so pervasive in modern societies that
it is generally considered necessary to communicate the achievements, news, and ambitions of scientists to a
wider populace.
Science magazines such as New Scientist, Science & Vie, and Scientific American cater to the needs of a much
wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable
discoveries and advances in certain fields of research. Science books engage the interest of many more people.
Tangentially, the science fiction genre, primarily fantastic in nature, engages the public imagination and
transmits the ideas, if not the methods, of science.
Recent efforts to intensify or develop links between science and non-scientific disciplines such as literature or
more specifically, poetry, include the Creative Writing Science resource developed through the Royal Literary
Fund.[58]
Science and society

Women in science
Science has historically been a male-dominated field, with some notable exceptions.[m] Women faced
considerable discrimination in science, much as they did in other areas of male-dominated societies, such as
frequently being passed over for job opportunities and denied credit for their work.[n] For example, Christine
Ladd (1847–1930) was able to enter a PhD program as "C. Ladd"; Christine "Kitty" Ladd completed the
requirements in 1882, but was awarded her degree only in 1926, after a career which spanned the algebra of
logic (see truth table), color vision, and psychology. Her work preceded notable researchers like Ludwig
Wittgenstein and Charles Sanders Peirce. The achievements of women in science have been attributed to their
defiance of their traditional role as laborers within the domestic sphere.[60]
In the late 20th century, active recruitment of women and elimination of institutional discrimination on the
basis of sex greatly increased the number of women scientists, but large gender disparities remain in some
fields; over half of new biologists are female, while 80% of PhDs in physics are given to men. Feminists claim
this is the result of culture rather than an innate difference between the sexes, and some experiments have
shown that parents challenge and explain more to boys than girls, asking them to reflect more deeply and
logically.[61]: 258–61. In the early part of the 21st century, in America, women earned 50.3% bachelor's degrees,
45.6% master's degrees, and 40.7% of PhDs in science and engineering fields with women earning more than
half of the degrees in three fields: Psychology (about 70%), Social

Sciences (about 50%), and Biology (about 50-60%). However, when it
comes to the Physical Sciences, Geosciences, Math, Engineering, and
Computer Science, women earned less than half the degrees.[62]
However, lifestyle choice also plays a major role in female engagement
in science; women with young children are 28% less likely to take
tenure-track positions due to work-life balance issues,[63] and female
graduate students' interest in careers in research declines dramatically
over the course of graduate school, whereas that of their male
colleagues remains unchanged.[64]
Science policy
Science policy is an area of public policy concerned with the policies

that affect the conduct of the scientific enterprise, including research
funding, often in pursuance of other national policy goals such as
Marie Curie was the first person to be
technological innovation to promote commercial product development,
awarded two Nobel Prizes: Physics in
weapons development, health care and environmental monitoring.
Science policy also refers to the act of applying scientific knowledge 1903 and Chemistry in 1911[59]
and consensus to the development of public policies. Science policy
thus deals with the entire domain of issues that involve the natural
sciences. In accordance with public policy being concerned about the
well-being of its citizens, science policy's goal is to consider how
science and technology can best serve the public.
State policy has influenced the funding of public works and science for
thousands of years, dating at least from the time of the Mohists, who
inspired the study of logic during the period of the Hundred Schools of
Thought, and the study of defensive fortifications during the Warring
States period in China. In Great Britain, governmental approval of the President Clinton meets the 1998
Royal Society in the 17th century recognized a scientific community U.S. Nobel Prize winners in the
which exists to this day. The professionalization of science, begun in the White House
19th century, was partly enabled by the creation of scientific
organizations such as the National Academy of Sciences, the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute, and state funding of
universities of their respective nations. Public policy can directly affect the funding of capital equipment and
intellectual infrastructure for industrial research by providing tax incentives to those organizations that fund
research. Vannevar Bush, director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development for the United States
government, the forerunner of the National Science Foundation, wrote in July 1945 that "Science is a proper
concern of government."[65]
Science and technology research is often funded through a competitive process in which potential research
projects are evaluated and only the most promising receive funding. Such processes, which are run by
government, corporations, or foundations, allocate scarce funds. Total research funding in most developed
countries is between 1.5% and 3% of GDP.[66] In the OECD, around two-thirds of research and development in
scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10% respectively by universities and
government. The government funding proportion in certain industries is higher, and it dominates research in
social science and humanities. Similarly, with some exceptions (e.g. biotechnology) government provides the
bulk of the funds for basic scientific research. In commercial research and development, all but the most
research-oriented corporations focus more heavily on near-term commercialisation possibilities rather than
"blue-sky" ideas or technologies (such as nuclear fusion).
Media perspectives
The mass media face a number of pressures that can prevent them from accurately depicting competing
scientific claims in terms of their credibility within the scientific community as a whole. Determining how
much weight to give different sides in a scientific debate may require considerable expertise regarding the
matter.[67] Few journalists have real scientific knowledge, and even beat reporters who know a great deal about
certain scientific issues may be ignorant about other scientific issues that they are suddenly asked to
cover.[68][69]
Political usage
Many issues damage the relationship of science to the media and the use of science and scientific arguments by
politicians. As a very broad generalisation, many politicians seek certainties and facts whilst scientists typically
offer probabilities and caveats. However, politicians' ability to be heard in the mass media frequently distorts
the scientific understanding by the public. Examples in the United Kingdom include the controversy over the
MMR inoculation, and the 1988 forced resignation of a Government Minister, Edwina Currie, for revealing the
high probability that battery farmed eggs were contaminated with Salmonella.[70]
John Horgan, Chris Mooney, and researchers from the US and Canada have described Scientific Certainty
Argumentation Methods (SCAMs), where an organization or think tank makes it their only goal to cast doubt
on supported science because it conflicts with political agendas.[71][72][73][74] Hank Campbell and
microbiologist Alex Berezow have described "feel-good fallacies" used in politics, especially on the left, where
politicians frame their positions in a way that makes people feel good about supporting certain policies even
when scientific evidence shows there is no need to worry or there is no need for dramatic change on current
programs.[75]: Vol. 78, No. 1. 2–38
Science and the public
Various activities are developed to facilitate communication between the general public and science/scientists,
such as science outreach, public awareness of science, science communication, science festivals, citizen
science, science journalism, public science, and popular science. See Science and the public for related
concepts.
Science is represented by the 'S' in STEM fields.
Philosophy of science
Working scientists usually take for granted a set of basic assumptions that are needed to justify the scientific
method: (1) that there is an objective reality shared by all rational observers; (2) that this objective reality is
governed by natural laws; (3) that these laws can be discovered by means of systematic observation and
experimentation.[15] Philosophy of science seeks a deep understanding of what these underlying assumptions
mean and whether they are valid.
The belief that scientific theories should and do represent metaphysical reality is known as realism. It can be
contrasted with anti-realism, the view that the success of science does not depend on it being accurate about
unobservable entities such as electrons. One form of anti-realism is idealism, the belief that the mind or
consciousness is the most basic essence, and that each mind generates its own reality.[o] In an idealistic world
view, what is true for one mind need not be true for other minds.
There are different schools of thought in philosophy of science. The most popular position is empiricism,[p]
which holds that knowledge is created by a process involving observation and that scientific theories are the
result of generalizations from such observations.[76] Empiricism generally encompasses inductivism, a position
that tries to explain the way general theories can be justified by the finite number of observations humans can
make and hence the finite amount of empirical evidence available to confirm scientific theories. This is
necessary because the number of predictions those theories make is infinite, which means that they cannot be
known from the finite amount of evidence using

deductive logic only. Many versions of empiricism exist,
with the predominant ones being Bayesianism[77] and the
hypothetico-deductive method.[78]:236
Empiricism has stood in contrast to rationalism, the

position originally associated with Descartes, which holds
that knowledge is created by the human intellect, not by
observation.[78]:20 Critical rationalism is a contrasting
20th-century approach to science, first defined by
Austrian-British philosopher Karl Popper. Popper rejected
The Sand Reckoner is a work by Archimedes in the way that empiricism describes the connection between
which he sets out to determine an upper bound for the theory and observation. He claimed that theories are not
number of grains of sand that fit into the universe. In generated by observation, but that observation is made in
order to do this, he had to estimate the size of the the light of theories and that the only way a theory can be
universe according to the contemporary model, and affected by observation is when it comes in conflict with
invent a way to analyze extremely large numbers. it.[78]:63–67 Popper proposed replacing verifiability with
falsifiability as the landmark of scientific theories and
replacing induction with falsification as the empirical
method. [78]:68 Popper further claimed that there is actually only one universal method, not specific to science:
the negative method of criticism, trial and error.[79] It covers all products of the human mind, including science,
mathematics, philosophy, and art.[80]
Another approach, instrumentalism, colloquially termed "shut up and multiply,"[81] emphasizes the utility of
theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena.[82] It views scientific theories as black boxes
with only their input (initial conditions) and output (predictions) being relevant. Consequences, theoretical
entities, and logical structure are claimed to be something that should simply be ignored and that scientists
shouldn't make a fuss about (see interpretations of quantum mechanics). Close to instrumentalism is
constructive empiricism, according to which the main criterion for the success of a scientific theory is whether
what it says about observable entities is true.
Paul Feyerabend advanced the idea of epistemological anarchism, which holds that there are no useful and
exception-free methodological rules governing the progress of science or the growth of knowledge and that the
idea that science can or should operate according to universal and fixed rules are unrealistic, pernicious and
detrimental to science itself.[83] Feyerabend advocates treating science as an ideology alongside others such as
religion, magic, and mythology, and considers the dominance of science in society authoritarian and
unjustified. He also contended (along with Imre Lakatos) that the demarcation problem of distinguishing
science from pseudoscience on objective grounds is not possible and thus fatal to the notion of science running
according to fixed, universal rules.[83] Feyerabend also stated that science does not have evidence for its
philosophical precepts, particularly the notion of uniformity of law and process across time and space.[84]
Finally, another approach often cited in debates of scientific skepticism against controversial movements like
"creation science" is methodological naturalism. Its main point is that a difference between natural and
supernatural explanations should be made and that science should be restricted methodologically to natural
explanations.[q] That the restriction is merely methodological (rather than ontological) means that science
should not consider supernatural explanations itself, but should not claim them to be wrong either. Instead,
supernatural explanations should be left a matter of personal belief outside the scope of science.
Methodological naturalism maintains that proper science requires strict adherence to empirical study and
independent verification as a process for properly developing and evaluating explanations for observable
phenomena.[85] The absence of these standards, arguments from authority, biased observational studies and
other common fallacies are frequently cited by supporters of methodological naturalism as characteristic of the
non-science they criticize.
Certainty and science
A scientific theory is empirical[p][86] and is always open to falsification if new

evidence is presented. That is, no theory is ever considered strictly certain as
science accepts the concept of fallibilism.[r] The philosopher of science Karl
Popper sharply distinguished truth from certainty. He wrote that scientific
knowledge "consists in the search for truth," but it "is not the search for
certainty ... All human knowledge is fallible and therefore uncertain."[87]:4
New scientific knowledge rarely results in vast changes in our understanding.

According to psychologist Keith Stanovich, it may be the media's overuse of
words like "breakthrough" that leads the public to imagine that science is
constantly proving everything it thought was true to be false.[88]:119–38 While
there are such famous cases as the theory of relativity that required a complete
reconceptualization, these are extreme exceptions. Knowledge in science is
gained by a gradual synthesis of information from different experiments by
various researchers across different branches of science; it is more like a
climb than a leap.[88]:123 Theories vary in the extent to which they have been
tested and verified, as well as their acceptance in the scientific community.[s] The DNA double helix is a
For example, heliocentric theory, the theory of evolution, relativity theory, molecule that encodes the
and germ theory still bear the name "theory" even though, in practice, they are genetic instructions used in the
considered factual. [89] Philosopher Barry Stroud adds that, although the best development and functioning
definition for "knowledge" is contested, being skeptical and entertaining the of all known living organisms
possibility that one is incorrect is compatible with being correct. Ironically, and many viruses.
then, the scientist adhering to proper scientific approaches will doubt
themselves even once they possess the truth.[90] The fallibilist C. S. Peirce
argued that inquiry is the struggle to resolve actual doubt and that merely quarrelsome, verbal, or hyperbolic
doubt is fruitless[91]—but also that the inquirer should try to attain genuine doubt rather than resting
uncritically on common sense.[92] He held that the successful sciences trust not to any single chain of inference
(no stronger than its weakest link) but to the cable of multiple and various arguments intimately connected.[93]
Stanovich also asserts that science avoids searching for a "magic bullet"; it avoids the single-cause fallacy. This
means a scientist would not ask merely "What is the cause of ...", but rather "What are the most significant
causes of ...". This is especially the case in the more macroscopic fields of science (e.g. psychology, physical
cosmology).[88]:141–47 Of course, research often analyzes few factors at once, but these are always added to the
long list of factors that are most important to consider.[88]:141–47 For example, knowing the details of only a
person's genetics, or their history and upbringing, or the current situation may not explain a behavior, but a
deep understanding of all these variables combined can be very predictive.
Fringe science, pseudoscience, and junk science
An area of study or speculation that masquerades as science in an attempt to claim a legitimacy that it would
not otherwise be able to achieve is sometimes referred to as pseudoscience, fringe science, or junk science.[t]
Physicist Richard Feynman coined the term "cargo cult science" for cases in which researchers believe they are
doing science because their activities have the outward appearance of science but actually lack the "kind of
utter honesty" that allows their results to be rigorously evaluated.[94] Various types of commercial advertising,
ranging from hype to fraud, may fall into these categories.
There can also be an element of political or ideological bias on all sides of scientific debates. Sometimes,
research may be characterized as "bad science," research that may be well-intended but is actually incorrect,
obsolete, incomplete, or over-simplified expositions of scientific ideas. The term "scientific misconduct" refers
to situations such as where researchers have intentionally misrepresented their published data or have purposely
given credit for a discovery to the wrong person.[95]
Scientific practice
Although encyclopedias such as Pliny's (fl. 77 AD) Natural History offered
purported fact, they proved unreliable. A skeptical point of view, demanding a
method of proof, was the practical position taken to deal with unreliable
knowledge. As early as 1000 years ago, scholars such as Alhazen (Doubts
Concerning Ptolemy), Roger Bacon, Witelo, John Pecham, Francis Bacon
(1605), and C. S. Peirce (1839–1914) provided the community to address these
points of uncertainty. In particular, fallacious reasoning can be exposed, such as
"affirming the consequent."
"If a man will begin with certainties, he shall end in doubts; but if
he will be content to begin with doubts, he shall end in certainties."
— Francis Bacon, "The Advancement of Learning", Book 1, v,

8
Astronomy became much
more accurate after Tycho
The methods of inquiry into a problem have been known for thousands of
Brahe devised his scientific
years,[96] and extend beyond theory to practice. The use of measurements, for instruments for measuring
example, is a practical approach to settle disputes in the community. angles between two celestial
bodies, before the invention
John Ziman points out that intersubjective pattern recognition is fundamental to
of the telescope. Brahe's
the creation of all scientific knowledge.[97]:44 Ziman shows how scientists can observations were the basis
identify patterns to each other across centuries; he refers to this ability as for Kepler's laws.
"perceptual consensibility."[98]:46 He then makes consensibility, leading to
consensus, the touchstone of reliable knowledge.[98]:104
Basic and applied research
Although some scientific research is applied research into specific

problems, a great deal of our understanding comes from the curiosity-
driven undertaking of basic research. This leads to options for
technological advance that were not planned or sometimes even
imaginable. This point was made by Michael Faraday when allegedly in
response to the question "what is the use of basic research?" he
responded: "Sir, what is the use of a new-born child?".[99] For example,
research into the effects of red light on the human eye's rod cells did not
seem to have any practical purpose; eventually, the discovery that our
night vision is not troubled by red light would lead search and rescue
teams (among others) to adopt red light in the cockpits of jets and Anthropogenic pollution has an effect
on the Earth's environment and
helicopters.[88]:106–10 In a nutshell, basic research is the search for
climate
knowledge and applied research is the search for solutions to practical
problems using this knowledge. Finally, even basic research can take
unexpected turns, and there is some sense in which the scientific method is built to harness luck.
Research in practice
Due to the increasing complexity of information and specialization of scientists, most of the cutting-edge
research today is done by well-funded groups of scientists, rather than individuals.[100] D.K. Simonton notes
that due to the breadth of very precise and far reaching tools already used by researchers today and the amount
of research generated so far, creation of new disciplines or revolutions within a discipline may no longer be
possible as it is unlikely that some phenomenon that merits its own discipline has been overlooked. Hybridizing
of disciplines and finessing knowledge is, in his view, the future of science.[100]
Practical impacts of scientific research
Discoveries in fundamental science can be world-changing. For example:
Research Impact
All electric appliances, dynamos, electric power stations,
modern electronics, including electric lighting, television,
Static electricity and magnetism (c. 1600)
electric heating, transcranial magnetic stimulation, deep
Electric current (18th century)
brain stimulation, magnetic tape, loudspeaker, and the
compass and lightning rod.
Optics, hence fiber optic cable (1840s), modern
Diffraction (1665)
intercontinental communications, and cable TV and internet
Hygiene, leading to decreased transmission of infectious
Germ theory (1700) diseases; antibodies, leading to techniques for disease
diagnosis and targeted anticancer therapies.
Leading to the elimination of most infectious diseases from
Vaccination (1798) developed countries and the worldwide eradication of
smallpox.
Solar cells (1883), hence solar power, solar powered
Photovoltaic effect (1839)
watches, calculators and other devices.
The strange orbit of Mercury (1859) and other research Satellite-based technology such as GPS (1973), satnav and
leading to special (1905) and general relativity (1916) satellite communications[u]
Radio had become used in innumerable ways beyond its
better-known areas of telephony, and broadcast television
(1927) and radio (1906) entertainment. Other uses
included – emergency services, radar (navigation and
Radio waves (1887)
weather prediction), medicine, astronomy, wireless
communications, geophysics, and networking. Radio waves
also led researchers to adjacent frequencies such as
microwaves, used worldwide for heating and cooking food.
Cancer treatment (1896), Radiometric dating (1905),
nuclear reactors (1942) and weapons (1945), mineral
Radioactivity (1896) and antimatter (1932)
exploration, PET scans (1961), and medical research (via
isotopic labeling)
X-rays (1896) Medical imaging, including computed tomography
Semiconductor devices (1906), hence modern computing
and telecommunications including the integration with
Crystallography and quantum mechanics (1900)
wireless devices: the mobile phone[u], LED lamps and
lasers.
Starting with Bakelite, many types of artificial polymers for
Plastics (1907)
numerous applications in industry and daily life
Antibiotics (1880s, 1928) Salvarsan, Penicillin, doxycycline etc.
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1946), magnetic
Nuclear magnetic resonance (1930s) resonance imaging (1971), functional magnetic resonance
imaging (1990s).
See also
Antiquarian science books Pathological science

Criticism of science Protoscience
Human timeline
Index of branches of science Science wars
Life timeline Scientific dissent
Normative science Sociology of scientific knowledge
Outline of science
Notes
a. "... modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly
enough to be described by laws and even by mathematics; and required invention to devise the techniques,
abstractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions."—
Heilbron 2003, p. vii
"science" (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science). Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-
Webster, Inc. Retrieved October 16, 2011. "3 a: knowledge or a system of knowledge covering general truths or the
operation of general laws especially as obtained and tested through scientific method b: such knowledge or such a
system of knowledge concerned with the physical world and its phenomena."
b. Isaac Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687), for example, is translated "Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy", and reflects the then-current use of the words "natural philosophy", akin to
"systematic study of nature"
c. "The historian ... requires a very broad definition of "science" — one that ... will help us to understand the modern
scientific enterprise. We need to be broad and inclusive, rather than narrow and exclusive ... and we should expect
that the farther back we go [in time] the broader we will need to be." — David Pingree (1992), "Hellenophilia versus
the History of Science" Isis 83 554–63, as cited in (Lindberg 2007, p. 3), The beginnings of Western science: the
European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context, Second ed. Chicago: Univ. of
Chicago Press ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7
See Grant, Edward (1 January 1997). "History of Science: When Did Modern Science Begin?". The American
Scholar. 66 (1): 105–13. JSTOR 41212592 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/41212592).
History of science#Early cultures
History of science#Ancient Near East, Mesopotamia
History of science#Ancient Near East, Egypt
History of Science in China
History of science#India
d. "... [A] man knows a thing scientifically when he possesses a conviction arrived at in a certain way, and when the
first principles on which that conviction rests are known to him with certainty—for unless he is more certain of his
first principles than of the conclusion drawn from them he will only possess the knowledge in question
accidentally." — Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3
A1999.01.0054%3Abekker%20page%3D1139b) (H. Rackham, ed. ed.).
e. Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa (2010). Mind, Brain, and Education Science: A Comprehensive Guide to the New Brain-
Based Teaching. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-393-70607-9. "Alhazen (or Al-Haytham; 965–1039
C.E.) was perhaps one of the greatest physicists of all times and a product of the Islamic Golden Age or Islamic
Renaissance (7th–13th centuries). He made significant contributions to anatomy, astronomy, engineering,
mathematics, medicine, ophthalmology, philosophy, physics, psychology, and visual perception and is primarily
attributed as the inventor of the scientific method, for which author Bradley Steffens (2006) describes him as the
"first scientist"."
f. Alhacen had access to the optics books of Euclid and Ptolemy, as is shown by the title of his lost work A Book in
which I have Summarized the Science of Optics from the Two Books of Euclid and Ptolemy, to which I have added
the Notions of the First Discourse which is Missing from Ptolemy's Book From Ibn Abi Usaibia's catalog, as cited in
(Smith 2001):91(vol .1), p. xv
g. "[Ibn al-Haytham] followed Ptolemy's bridge building ... into a grand synthesis of light and vision. Part of his effort
consisted in devising ranges of experiments, of a kind probed before but now undertaken on larger scale."— Cohen
2010, p. 59
h. The translator, Gerard of Cremona (c. 1114–87), inspired by his love of the Almagest, came to Toledo, where he
knew he could find the Almagest in Arabic. There he found Arabic books of every description, and learned Arabic in
order to translate these books into Latin, being aware of 'the poverty of the Latins'. —As cited by Charles Burnett
(2001) "The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century", pp. 250, 255,
257, Science in Context 14(1/2), 249–88 (2001). doi:10.1017/0269889701000096 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1017%2F026
9889701000096)
i. Kepler, Johannes (1604) Ad Vitellionem paralipomena, quibus astronomiae pars opticae traditur (Supplements to
Witelo, in which the optical part of astronomy is treated) as cited in Smith, A. Mark (1 January 2004). "What Is the
History of Medieval Optics Really about?" (http://www.jstor.org/stable/1558283?seq=13). Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society. 148 (2): 180–94.
The full title translation is from p. 60 of James R. Voelkel (2001) Johannes Kepler and the New Astronomy
Oxford University Press. Kepler was driven to this experiment after observing the partial solar eclipse at Graz,
July 10, 1600. He used Tycho Brahe's method of observation, which was to project the image of the sun on a
piece of paper through a pinhole aperture, instead of looking directly at the sun. He disagreed with Brahe's
conclusion that total eclipses of the sun were impossible, because there were historical accounts of total
eclipses. Instead he deduced that the size of the aperture controls the sharpness of the projected image (the
larger the aperture, the more accurate the image — this fact is now fundamental for optical system design).
Voelkel, p. 61, notes that Kepler's experiments produced the first correct account of vision and the eye,
because he realized he could not accurately write about astronomical observation by ignoring the eye.
j. di Francia 1976, p. 13: "The amazing point is that for the first time since the discovery of mathematics, a method has
been introduced, the results of which have an intersubjective value!" (Author's punctuation)
k. di Francia 1976, pp. 4–5: "One learns in a laboratory; one learns how to make experiments only by experimenting,
and one learns how to work with his hands only by using them. The first and fundamental form of experimentation in
physics is to teach young people to work with their hands. Then they should be taken into a laboratory and taught to
work with measuring instruments — each student carrying out real experiments in physics. This form of teaching is
indispensable and cannot be read in a book."
l. Fara 2009, p. 204: "Whatever their discipline, scientists claimed to share a common scientific method that ...
distinguished them from non-scientists."
m. Women in science have included:
Hypatia (c. 350–415 CE), of the Library of Alexandria.
Trotula of Salerno, a physician c. 1060 CE.
Caroline Herschel, one of the first professional astronomers of the 18th and 19th centuries.
Christine Ladd-Franklin, a doctoral student of C. S. Peirce, who published Wittgenstein's proposition 5.101 in
her dissertation, 40 years before Wittgenstein's publication of Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus.
Henrietta Leavitt, a professional human computer and astronomer, who first published the significant
relationship between the luminosity of Cepheid variable stars and their distance from Earth. This allowed
Hubble to make the discovery of the expanding universe, which led to the Big Bang theory.
Emmy Noether, who proved the conservation of energy and other constants of motion in 1915.
Marie Curie, who made discoveries relating to radioactivity along with her husband, and for whom Curium is
named.
Rosalind Franklin, who worked with X-ray diffraction.
n. Nina Byers, Contributions of 20th Century Women to Physics (http://cwp.library.ucla.edu/) which provides details on
83 female physicists of the 20th century. By 1976, more women were physicists, and the 83 who were detailed were
joined by other women in noticeably larger numbers.
o. This realization is the topic of intersubjective verifiability, as recounted, for example, by Max Born (1949, 1965)
Natural Philosophy of Cause and Chance (https://archive.org/stream/naturalphilosoph032159mbp/naturalphilosoph0
32159mbp_djvu.txt), who points out that all knowledge, including natural or social science, is also subjective. p.
162: "Thus it dawned upon me that fundamentally everything is subjective, everything without exception. That was a
shock."
p. In his investigation of the law of falling bodies, Galileo (1638) serves as example for scientific investigation: Two
New Sciences "A piece of wooden moulding or scantling, about 12 cubits long, half a cubit wide, and three finger-
breadths thick, was taken; on its edge was cut a channel a little more than one finger in breadth; having made this
groove very straight, smooth, and polished, and having lined it with parchment, also as smooth and polished as
possible, we rolled along it a hard, smooth, and very round bronze ball. Having placed this board in a sloping
position, by lifting one end some one or two cubits above the other, we rolled the ball, as I was just saying, along the
channel, noting, in a manner presently to be described, the time required to make the descent. We . . . now rolled the
ball only one-quarter the length of the channel; and having measured the time of its descent, we found it precisely
one-half of the former. Next we tried other distances, comparing the time for the whole length with that for the half,
or with that for two-thirds, or three-fourths, or indeed for any fraction; in such experiments, repeated many, many,
times." Galileo solved the problem of time measurement by weighing a jet of water collected during the descent of
the bronze ball, as stated in his Two New Sciences.
q. Godfrey-Smith 2003, p. 151 credits Willard Van Orman Quine (1969) "Epistemology Naturalized" Ontological
Relativity and Other Essays New York: Columbia University Press, as well as John Dewey, with the basic ideas of
naturalism — Naturalized Epistemology, but Godfrey-Smith diverges from Quine's position: according to Godfrey-
Smith, "A naturalist can think that science can contribute to answers to philosophical questions, without thinking that
philosophical questions can be replaced by science questions.".
r. "No amount of experimentation can ever prove me right; a single experiment can prove me wrong." —Albert
Einstein, noted by Alice Calaprice (ed. 2005) The New Quotable Einstein Princeton University Press and Hebrew
University of Jerusalem, ISBN 0-691-12074-9 p. 291. Calaprice denotes this not as an exact quotation, but as a
paraphrase of a translation of A. Einstein's "Induction and Deduction". Collected Papers of Albert Einstein 7
Document 28. Volume 7 is The Berlin Years: Writings, 1918–1921. A. Einstein; M. Janssen, R. Schulmann, et al.,
eds.
s. Fleck, Ludwik (1979). Trenn, Thaddeus J.; Merton, Robert K, eds. Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-25325-2. Claims that before a specific fact "existed", it had to be
created as part of a social agreement within a community. Steven Shapin (1980) "A view of scientific thought"
Science ccvii (Mar 7, 1980) 1065–66 states "[To Fleck,] facts are invented, not discovered. Moreover, the appearance
of scientific facts as discovered things is itself a social construction: a made thing. "
t. "Pseudoscientific – pretending to be scientific, falsely represented as being scientific", from the Oxford American
Dictionary, published by the Oxford English Dictionary; Hansson, Sven Ove (1996)."Defining Pseudoscience",
Philosophia Naturalis, 33: 169–176, as cited in "Science and Pseudo-science" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pseud
o-science/#NonSciPosSci) (2008) in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The Stanford article states: "Many writers
on pseudoscience have emphasized that pseudoscience is non-science posing as science. The foremost modern
classic on the subject (Gardner 1957) bears the title Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science. According to Brian
Baigrie (1988, 438), "[w]hat is objectionable about these beliefs is that they masquerade as genuinely scientific
ones." These and many other authors assume that to be pseudoscientific, an activity or a teaching has to satisfy the
following two criteria (Hansson 1996): (1) it is not scientific, and (2) its major proponents try to create the
impression that it is scientific".
For example, Hewitt et al. Conceptual Physical Science Addison Wesley; 3 edition (July 18, 2003) ISBN 0-
321-05173-4, Bennett et al. The Cosmic Perspective 3e Addison Wesley; 3 edition (July 25, 2003) ISBN 0-
8053-8738-2; See also, e.g., Gauch HG Jr. Scientific Method in Practice (2003).
A 2006 National Science Foundation report on Science and engineering indicators quoted Michael Shermer's
(1997) definition of pseudoscience: '"claims presented so that they appear [to be] scientific even though they
lack supporting evidence and plausibility"(p. 33). In contrast, science is "a set of methods designed to describe
and interpret observed and inferred phenomena, past or present, and aimed at building a testable body of
knowledge open to rejection or confirmation"(p. 17)'.Shermer M. (1997). Why People Believe Weird Things:
Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions of Our Time. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.
ISBN 0-7167-3090-1. as cited by National Science Board. National Science Foundation, Division of Science
Resources Statistics (2006). "Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding". Science and
engineering indicators 2006 (https://web.archive.org/web/20130201220040/http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/sein
d06/c7/c7s2.htm). Archived from the original (http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind06/c7/c7s2.htm) on February
1, 2013.
"A pretended or spurious science; a collection of related beliefs about the world mistakenly regarded as being
based on scientific method or as having the status that scientific truths now have," from the Oxford English
Dictionary, second edition 1989.
u. Evicting Einstein (https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2004/26mar_einstein), March 26, 2004,
NASA. "Both [relativity and quantum mechanics] are extremely successful. The Global Positioning System (GPS),
for instance, wouldn't be possible without the theory of relativity. Computers, telecommunications, and the Internet,
meanwhile, are spin-offs of quantum mechanics."
References
1. Harper, Douglas. "science" (http://www.etymonline.com/?term=science). Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved
September 20, 2014.
2. Wilson, Edward (1999). Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge. New York: Vintage. ISBN 0-679-76867-X.
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achievement in the development of scientific method."
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www.en.argentina.ar/_en/science-and-education/)
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ml;chunk.id=dv1-57;toc.depth=1;toc.id=dv1-57;brand=default) in Dictionary of the History of Ideas.
(Dictionary's new electronic format is badly botched, entries after "Design" are inaccessible. Internet
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DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-57)).
"Nature of Science" (https://web.archive.org/web/20061010084037/http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/
nature/index.shtml) University of California Museum of Paleontology
United States Science Initiative (http://www.science.gov/) Selected science information provided by US
Government agencies, including research & development results
How science works (http://undsci.berkeley.edu/index.php) University of California Museum of
Paleontology
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Science&oldid=792014780"
Categories: Science

7/24/2017 Scientific literature - Wikipedia
Scientific literature
For a broader class of literature, see Academic literature.
Scientific literature comprises scholarly publications that report original empirical and theoretical work in the
natural and social sciences, and within an academic field, often abbreviated as the literature. Academic
publishing is the process of contributing the results of one's research into the literature, which often requires a
peer-review process. Original scientific research published for the first time in scientific journals is called the
primary literature. Patents and technical reports, for minor research results and engineering and design work
(including computer software), can also be considered primary literature. Secondary sources include review
articles (which summarize the findings of published studies to highlight advances and new lines of research)
and books (for large projects or broad arguments, including compilations of articles). Tertiary sources might
include encyclopedias and similar works intended for broad public consumption.
Contents
1 Types of scientific publications
2 Scientific article
2.1 Preparation
2.2 Clear communication and impact factor
2.3 Structure and Style
3 Peer review
4 Ethics
5 History
6 Footnotes
7 See also
8 References
Types of scientific publications

Scientific literature can include the following kinds of publications:
scientific articles published in scientific journals

patents specialized for science and technology (for example, biological patents and chemical patents)
books wholly written by one or a small number of co-authors
edited volumes, where each chapter is the responsibility of a different author or set of authors, while the
editor is responsible for determining the scope of the project, keeping the work on schedule, and ensuring
consistency of style and content
presentations at academic conferences, especially those organized by learned societies
government reports such as a forensic investigation conducted by a government agency such as the
NTSB
scientific publications on the World Wide Web
books, technical reports, pamphlets, and working papers issued by individual researchers or research
organizations on their own initiative; these are sometimes organised into a series
blogs and science forums
The significance of these different components of the literature varies between disciplines and has changed
over time. As of 2006, peer-reviewed journal articles remain the predominant publication type, and have the
highest prestige. However, journals vary enormously in their prestige and importance, and their status can
influence the visibility and impact of the studies they publish. The significance of books, also called research
monographs, depends on the subject. Generally books published by university presses are usually considered
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literature 1/5
more prestigious than those published by commercial presses. The status of working papers and conference
proceedings depends on the discipline; they are typically more important in the applied sciences. The value of
publication as a preprint or scientific report on the web has in the past been low, but in some subjects, such as
mathematics or high energy physics, it is now an accepted alternative.
Scientific article
For a broader class or articles, see Scholarly article.
Preparation
The actual day-to-day records of scientific information are kept in research notebooks or logbooks. These are
usually kept indefinitely as the basic evidence of the work, and are often kept in duplicate, signed, notarized,
and archived. The purpose is to preserve the evidence for scientific priority, and in particular for priority for
obtaining patents. They have also been used in scientific disputes. Since the availability of computers, the
notebooks in some data-intensive fields have been kept as database records, and appropriate software is
commercially available.[1]
The work on a project is typically published as one or more technical reports, or articles. In some fields both
are used, with preliminary reports, working papers, or preprints followed by a formal article. Articles are
usually prepared at the end of a project, or at the end of components of a particularly large one. In preparing
such an article vigorous rules for scientific writing have to be followed.
Clear communication and impact factor
Often, career advancement depends upon publishing in high-impact journals, which, especially in hard and
applied sciences, are usually published in English. Consequently, scientists with poor English writing skills are
at a disadvantage when trying to publish in these journals, regardless of the quality of the scientific study
itself.[2] Yet many international universities require publication in these high-impact journals by both their
students and faculty. One way that some international authors are beginning to overcome this problem is by
contracting with freelance medical copy editors who are native speakers of English and specialize in ESL
(English as a second language) editing to polish their manuscripts' English to a level that high-impact journals
will accept.
Structure and Style
A scientific article has a standardized structure, which varies only slightly in different subjects. Although the
IMRAD structure emphasizes the organization of content and in scientific journal articles, each section
(Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion) has unique conventions for scientific writing style.[3]
Ultimately, it is not the format that is important, but what lies behind it--the content. However, several key
formatting requirements need to be met:
1. The title attracts readers' attention and informs them about the contents of the article.[4] Titles are
distinguished into three main types: declarative titles (state the main conclusion), descriptive titles
(describe a paper's content), and interrogative titles (challenge readers with a question that is answered in
the text).[5] Some journals indicate, in their instructions to authors, the type (and length) of permitted
titles.
2. The names and affiliations of all authors are given. In the wake of some scientific misconduct cases,
publishers often require that all co-authors know and agree on the content of the article.[6]
3. An abstract summarizes the work (in a single paragraph or in several short paragraphs) and is intended to
represent the article in bibliographic databases and to furnish subject metadata for indexing services.
4. The context of previous scientific investigations should be presented, by citation relevant documents in
the existing literature, usually in a section called an "Introduction".
5. Empirical techniques, laid out in a section usually called "Materials and Methods", should be described
in such a way that a subsequent scientist, with appropriate knowledge of and experience in the relevant
field, should be able to repeat the observations and know whether he or she has obtained the same result.
This naturally varies between subjects, and does not apply to mathematics and related subjects.
6. Similarly, the results of the investigation, in a section usually called "Results", data should be presented
in tabular or graphic form (image, chart, schematic, diagram or drawing). These display elements should
be accompanied by a caption and discussed in the text of the article.
7. Interpretation of the meaning of the results is usually addressed in a "Discussion" or "Conclusions"
section. The conclusions drawn should be based on the new empirical results while taking established
knowledge into consideration, in such a way that any reader with knowledge of the field can follow the
argument and confirm that the conclusions are sound. That is, acceptance of the conclusions must not
depend on personal authority, rhetorical skill, or faith.
8. Finally, a "References" or "Literature Cited" section lists the sources cited by the authors.
Peer review
Though peer review and the learned journal format are not themselves an essential part of scientific literature,
they are both convenient ways of ensuring that the above fundamental criteria are met. They are essentially a
means of quality control, a term which also encompasses other means towards the same goal.
The "quality" being referred to here is the scientific one, which consists of transparency and repeatability of the
research for independent verification, the validity of the conclusions and interpretations drawn from the
reported data, overall importance for advance within a given field of knowledge, novelty, and in certain fields
applicability as well. The lack of peer review is what makes most technical reports and World Wide Web
publications unacceptable as contributions to the literature. The relatively weak peer review often applied to
books and chapters in edited books means that their status is also second-tier, unless an author's personal
standing is so high that prior achievement and a continued stake in one's reputation within the scientific
community signals a clear expectation of quality.
The emergence of institutional digital repositories where scholars can post their work as it is submitted to a
print-based journal has taken formal peer review into a state of flux. Though publicizing a preprint online does
not prevent it from being peer reviewed, it does allow an unreviewed copy to be widely circulated. On the
positive side this change has led to faster dissemination of novel work within the scientific community; on the
negative it has made it more difficult to discern a valid scientific contribution from the unmeritorious.
Increasing reliance on abstracting services, especially on those available electronically, means that the effective
criterion for whether a publication format forms part of the established, trusted literature is whether it is
covered by these services; in particular, by the specialised service for the discipline concerned such as
Chemical Abstracts Service, and by the major interdisciplinary services such as those marketed by the Institute
for Scientific Information.
Ethics
The transfer of copyright from author to publisher, used by some journals, can be controversial because many
authors want to propagate their ideas more widely and re-use their material elsewhere without the need for
permission. Usually an author or authors circumvent that problem by rewriting an article and using other
pictures. Some publishers may also want publicity for their journal so will approve facsimile reproduction
unconditionally; other publishers are more resistant.
In terms of research publications, a number of key issues include and are not restricted to:[7]
Honesty. Honesty and integrity is a duty of each author and person, expert-reviewer and member of
journal editorial boards.
Review process. The peer-review process contributes to the quality control and it is an essential step to
ascertain the standing and originality of the research.[8]
Ethical standards. Recent journal editorials presented some experience of unscrupulous activities.[9][10]
Authorship. Who may claim a right to authorship?[7] In which order should the authors be listed?
History
The first recorded editorial pre-publication peer-review occurred in 1665 by the founding editor of
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Henry Oldenburg.[11][12]
Technical and scientific books were a specialty of David Van Nostrand, and his Engineering Magazine re-
published contemporary scientific articles.
Footnotes
1. Talbott, T.; M. Peterson; J. Schwidder; J.D. Myers (2005). "Adapting the electronic laboratory notebook for the
semantic era". International Symposium on Collaborative Technologies and Systems. 0. Los Alamitos, CA, USA:
IEEE Computer Society. pp. 136–143. ISBN 0-7695-2387-0. doi:10.1109/ISCST.2005.1553305 (https://doi.org/10.1
109%2FISCST.2005.1553305).
2. Pan, Z; Gao, J (2006). "Crossing the language limitations" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC157633
4). PLOS Medicine. 3 (9): E410. PMC 1576334 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1576334) .
PMID 17002510 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17002510). doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030410 (https://doi.
org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.0030410).
3. Mogull, Scott A. (2017). Scientific And Medical Communication: A Guide For Effective Practice (https://www.routle
dge.com/Scientific-And-Medical-Communication-A-Guide-For-Effective-Practice/Mogull/p/book/9781138842557).
New York: Routledge. ISBN 9781138842557.
4. Langdon-Neuner, Elise (2007). "Titles in medical articles: What do we know about them?" (http://www.emwa.org/m
embers/indevelopment/neuner.pd). The Write Stuff. 16 (4): 158–160. Retrieved 25 February 2013.
5. Vasilev, Martin. "How to write a good title for journal articles" (http://jeps.efpsa.org/blog/2012/09/01/how-to-write-a
-good-title-for-journal-articles/). JEPS Bulletin. European Federation of Psychology Students’ Associations.
Retrieved 25 February 2013.
6. Scientific fraud#Responsibility of authors and of coauthors
7. Hubert Chanson (2008). Digital Publishing, Ethics and Hydraulic Engineering: The Elusive or "Boring" Bore? (htt
p://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:159099). In: Stefano Pagliara 2nd International Junior Researcher and
Engineer Workshop on Hydraulic Structures (IJREW'08), Pisa, Italy, Keynote, pp. 3-13, 30 July-1 August 2008.
ISBN 978-88-8492-568-8.
8. Hubert Chanson (2007). "Research Quality, Publications and Impact in Civil Engineering into the 21st Century.
Publish or Perish, Commercial versus Open Access, Internet versus Libraries ?" (http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/vie
w/UQ:124078). Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering. 34 (8): 946–951. doi:10.1169/L07-027 (inactive 2017-04-
28).
9. D. Mavinic (2006). "The "Art" of Plagiarism". Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering. 33 (3): iii–vi.
10. "Publication Ethical Standards: Guidelines and Procedures". AIAA Journal. 45 (8): 1794. 2007.
Bibcode:2007AIAAJ..45.1794. (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007AIAAJ..45.1794.). doi:10.2514/1.32639 (https://d
oi.org/10.2514%2F1.32639).
11. Wagner (2006) p. 220-1
12. Select Committee on Science and Technology. "The Origin of the Scientific Journal and the Process of Peer Review"
(http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/263105/1/399we23.htm). Parliament of the United Kingdom. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
See also
Acknowledgment index
Citation index media related to Scientific
Digital object identifier literature.
Open access (publishing)
Grey literature
UKSG E-Resources Management Handbook
Scientific communication
References
Robert G. Bartle (1990) "A brief history of the mathematical literature" (http://www.ams.org/publication
s/60ann/BartleHistory.pdf) from American Mathematical Society.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scientific_literature&oldid=791523431"
Categories: Academic literature Technical communication Information science Scientific works

7/24/2017 Scientific journal - Wikipedia
Scientific journal
In academic publishing, a scientific journal is a periodical publication

intended to further the progress of science, usually by reporting new
research. There are thousands of scientific journals in publication, and
many more have been published at various points in the past (see list of
scientific journals). Most journals are highly specialized, although some
of the oldest journals such as Nature publish articles and scientific
papers across a wide range of scientific fields. Scientific journals
contain articles that have been peer reviewed, in an attempt to ensure
that articles meet the journal's standards of quality, and scientific
validity. If the journal's editor considers the paper appropriate, at least
two researchers preferably from the same field check the paper for
soundness of its scientific argument, and must agree to publish it.
Although scientific journals are superficially similar to professional
magazines, they are actually quite different. Issues of a scientific journal
are rarely read casually, as one would read a magazine. The publication
of the results of research is an essential part of the scientific method. If
they are describing experiments or calculations, they must supply
enough details that an independent researcher could repeat the
experiment or calculation to verify the results. Each such journal article Cover of the first issue of Nature, 4
becomes part of the permanent scientific record. November 1869
The history of scientific journals dates from 1665, when the French
Journal des sçavans and the English Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society first began systematically
publishing research results. Over a thousand, mostly ephemeral, were founded in the 18th century, and the
number has increased rapidly after that.[1]
Articles in scientific journals can be used in research and higher education. Scientific articles allow researchers
to keep up to date with the developments of their field and direct their own research. An essential part of a
scientific article is citation of earlier work. The impact of articles and journals is often assessed by counting
citations (citation impact). Some classes are partially devoted to the explication of classic articles, and seminar
classes can consist of the presentation by each student of a classic or current paper. Schoolbooks and textbooks
have been written usually only on established topics, while the latest research and more obscure topics are only
accessible through scientific articles. In a scientific research group or academic department it is usual for the
content of current scientific journals to be discussed in journal clubs. Academic credentials for promotion into
academic ranks are established in large part by the number and impact of scientific articles published, and many
doctoral programs allow for thesis by publication, where the candidate is required to publish a certain number
of scientific articles.
The standards that a journal uses to determine publication can vary widely. Some journals, such as Nature,
Science, PNAS, and Physical Review Letters, have a reputation of publishing articles that mark a fundamental
breakthrough in their respective fields. In many fields, a formal or informal hierarchy of scientific journals
exists; the most prestigious journal in a field tends to be the most selective in terms of the articles it will select
for publication, and usually will also have the highest impact factor. In some countries, journal rankings can be
utilized for funding decisions[2] and even evaluation of individual researchers, although they are poorly suited
for that purpose.[3]
It is also common for journals to have a regional focus, specializing in publishing papers from a particular
country or other geographic region, like African Invertebrates.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_journal 1/6
Articles tend to be highly technical, representing the latest theoretical research and experimental results in the
field of science covered by the journal. They are often incomprehensible to anyone except for researchers in the
field and advanced students. In some subjects this is inevitable given the nature of the content. Usually,
rigorous rules of scientific writing are enforced by the editors; however, these rules may vary from journal to
journal, especially between journals from different publishers. Articles are usually either original articles
reporting completely new results or reviews of current literature. There are also scientific publications that
bridge the gap between articles and books by publishing thematic volumes of chapters from different authors.
Contents
1 Types of articles
2 Electronic publishing
3 Cost
4 Copyright
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Types of articles
There are several types of journal articles; the exact terminology and
definitions vary by field and specific journal, but often include:
Letters (also called communications, and not to be confused with

letters to the editor) are short descriptions of important current
research findings that are usually fast-tracked for immediate
publication because they are considered urgent.
Research notes are short descriptions of current research findings
that are considered less urgent or important than Letters.
Articles are usually between five and twenty pages and are
complete descriptions of current original research findings, but
there are considerable variations between scientific fields and
journals – 80-page articles are not rare in mathematics or
theoretical computer science.
Supplemental articles contain a large volume of tabular data that
is the result of current research and may be dozens or hundreds of
pages with mostly numerical data. Some journals now only
publish this data electronically on the Internet.
Review articles do not cover original research but rather
accumulate the results of many different articles on a particular Cover of the first volume of the
topic into a coherent narrative about the state of the art in that Philosophical Transactions of the
field. Review articles provide information about the topic and Royal Society, the first journal in the
also provide journal references to the original research. Reviews world exclusively devoted to science
may be entirely narrative, or may provide quantitative summary
estimates resulting from the application of meta-analytical
methods.
Data papers are articles dedicated to describe datasets. This type of article is becoming popular and
journals exclusively dedicated to them have been established, e.g. Scientific Data and Earth System
Science Data.
Video papers are a recent addition to practice of scientific publications. They most often combine an
online video demonstration of a new technique or protocol combined with a rigorous textual
description.[4][5]
The formats of journal articles vary, but many follow the general IMRAD scheme recommended by the
International Committee of Medical Journal Editors. Such articles begin with an abstract, which is a one-to-
four-paragraph summary of the paper. The introduction describes the background for the research including a
discussion of similar research. The materials and methods or experimental section provides specific details of
how the research was conducted. The results and discussion section describes the outcome and implications of
the research, and the conclusion section places the research in context and describes avenues for further
exploration.
In addition to the above, some scientific journals such as Science will include a news section where scientific
developments (often involving political issues) are described. These articles are often written by science
journalists and not by scientists. In addition, some journals will include an editorial section and a section for
letters to the editor. While these are articles published within a journal, in general they are not regarded as
scientific journal articles because they have not been peer-reviewed.
Electronic publishing
Electronic publishing is a new area of information dissemination. One definition of electronic publishing is in
the context of the scientific journal. It is the presentation of scholarly scientific results in only an electronic
(non-paper) form. This is from its first write-up, or creation, to its publication or dissemination. The electronic
scientific journal is specifically designed to be presented on the internet. It is defined as not being previously
printed material adapted, or re-tooled, and then delivered electronically.[6][7]
Electronic publishing will exist alongside paper publishing, because printed paper publishing is not expected to
disappear in the future. Output to a screen is important for browsing and searching but is not well adapted for
extensive reading. Paper copies of selected information will definitely be required. Therefore, the article has to
be transmitted electronically to the reader's local printer. Formats suitable both for reading on paper, and for
manipulation by the reader's computer will need to be integrated.[6][7] Many journals are electronically
available in formats readable on screen via web browsers, as well as in portable document format PDF, suitable
for printing and storing on a local desktop or laptop computer. New tools such as JATS and Utopia Documents
provide a 'bridge' to the 'web-versions' in that they connect the content in PDF versions directly to the
WorldWideWeb via hyperlinks that are created 'on-the-fly'. The PDF version of an article is usually seen as the
version of record, but the matter is subject to some debate.[8]
Electronic counterparts of established print journals already promote and deliver rapid dissemination of peer
reviewed and edited, "published" articles. Other journals, whether spin-offs of established print journals, or
created as electronic only, have come into existence promoting the rapid dissemination capability, and
availability, on the Internet. In tandem with this is the speeding up of peer review, copyediting, page makeup,
and other steps in the process to support rapid dissemination.[9]
Other improvements, benefits and unique values of electronically publishing the scientific journal are easy
availability of supplementary materials (data, graphics and video), lower cost, and availability to more people,
especially scientists from non-developed countries. Hence, research results from more developed nations are
becoming more accessible to scientists from non-developed countries.[6]
Moreover, electronic publishing of scientific journals has been accomplished without compromising the
standards of the refereed, peer review process.[6][7]
One form is the online equivalent of the conventional paper journal. By 2006, almost all scientific journals
have, while retaining their peer-review process, established electronic versions; a number have moved entirely
to electronic publication. In similar manner, most academic libraries buy the electronic version, and purchase a
paper copy only for the most important or most-used titles.
There is usually a delay of several months after an article is written before it is published in a journal, making
paper journals not an ideal format for announcing the latest research. Many journals now publish the final
papers in their electronic version as soon as they are ready, without waiting for the assembly of a complete
issue, as is necessary with paper. In many fields in which even greater speed is wanted, such as physics, the role
of the journal at disseminating the latest research has largely been replaced by preprint databases such as
arXiv.org. Almost all such articles are eventually published in traditional journals, which still provide an
important role in quality control, archiving papers, and establishing scientific credit.
Cost
Many scientists and librarians have long protested the cost of journals, especially as they see these payments
going to large for-profit publishing houses. To allow their researchers online access to journals, many
universities purchase site licenses, permitting access from anywhere in the university, and, with appropriate
authorization, by university-affiliated users at home or elsewhere. These may be quite expensive, sometimes
much more than the cost for a print subscription, although this may reflect the number of people who will be
using the license - while a print subscription is the cost for one person to receive the journal; a site-license can
allow thousands of people to gain access.
Publications by scholarly societies, also known as not-for-profit-publishers, usually cost less than commercial
publishers, but the prices of their scientific journals are still usually several thousand dollars a year. In general,
this money is used to fund the activities of the scientific societies that run such journals, or is invested in
providing further scholarly resources for scientists; thus, the money remains in and benefits the scientific
sphere.
Despite the transition to electronic publishing, the serials crisis persists.[10]
Concerns about cost and open access have led to the creation of free-access journals such as the Public Library
of Science (PLoS) family and partly open or reduced-cost journals such as the Journal of High Energy Physics.
However, professional editors still have to be paid, and PLoS still relies heavily on donations from foundations
to cover the majority of its operating costs; smaller journals do not often have access to such resources.
Based on statistical arguments, it has been shown that electronic publishing online, and to some extent open
access, both provide wider dissemination and increase the average number of citations an article receives.[11]
Copyright
Traditionally, the author of an article was required to transfer the copyright to the journal publisher. Publishers
claimed this was necessary in order to protect authors' rights, and to coordinate permissions for reprints or other
use. However, many authors, especially those active in the open access movement, found this unsatisfactory,[12]
and have used their influence to effect a gradual move towards a license to publish instead. Under such a
system, the publisher has permission to edit, print, and distribute the article commercially, but the authors retain
the other rights themselves.
Even if they retain the copyright to an article, most journals allow certain rights to their authors. These rights
usually include the ability to reuse parts of the paper in the author's future work, and allow the author to
distribute a limited number of copies. In the print format, such copies are called reprints; in the electronic
format, they are called postprints. Some publishers, for example the American Physical Society, also grant the
author the right to post and update the article on the author's or employer's website and on free e-print servers,
to grant permission to others to use or reuse figures, and even to reprint the article as long as no fee is
charged.[13] The rise of open access journals, in which the author retains the copyright but must pay a
publication charge, such as the Public Library of Science family of journals, is another recent response to
copyright concerns.
See also
List of scientific journals
Academic authorship
Academic conference
Citation index
Copyright policies of scientific publishers
Mega journal
Open access journal
Publish or perish
Scientific writing
San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment
References
1. D. A. Kronick, History of Scientific and Technical Periodicals, 2nd ed. Scarecrow, 1976
2. http://julkaisufoorumi.fi/en/publication-forum/background
3. http://julkaisufoorumi.fi/en/evaluations/faq
4. http://www.jove.com/
5. "Научный журнал "Видеонаука" " (http://videonauka.ru/). Scientific journal "Videonauka".
6. Heller, Stephen, R. (1998). "Electronic Publishing of Scientific Manuscripts" (http://www.hellers.com/steve/resume/
p146.html). Encyclopedia of Computational Chemistry. 02. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 871–875. Retrieved 2010-06-16.
7. Boyce, Peter B.; Heather Dalterio (January 1996). "Electronic Publishing of Scientific Journals" (http://aas.org/~pbo
yce/epubs/pt-art.htm#list) (Article available to the public in HTML.). Physics Today. American Institute of Physics. 49 (1):
42. Bibcode:1996PhT....49a..42B (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996PhT....49a..42B). doi:10.1063/1.881598 (http
s://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.881598).
8. Pettifer, S.; McDermott, P.; Marsh, J.; Thorne, D.; Villeger, A.; Attwood, T.K. (2011). "Ceci n'est pas un hamburger:
modelling and representing the scholarly article" (http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/alpsp/lp/2011/00000024/0
0000003/art00009). Learned Publishing. 24 (3): 207–220. doi:10.1087/20110309 (https://doi.org/10.1087%2F20110
309).
9. Swygart-Hobaugh, Rob Kling, Amanda J. "The Internet and the Velocity of Scholarly Journal Publishing" (https://sc
holarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2022/148/WP02-12B.html;jsessionid=8E99F087A1E6FFEC3DBC59015
C33BAF1). scholarworks.iu.edu. Retrieved 2016-10-26.
10. Sample, Ian (24 April 2012). "Harvard University says it can't afford journal publishers' prices" (https://www.theguar
dian.com/science/2012/apr/24/harvard-university-journal-publishers-prices). The Guardian.
11. Lawrence, Steve. "Online Or Invisible?" (http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/online-nature01/). NEC Research Institute.
12. Di Cosmo, Roberto (June 2006). "The Role of Public Administrations in The ICT Era" (http://www.cepis.org/upgrad
e/files/full-III-06.pdf) (PDF). UPGRADE: the European Journal for the Informatics Professional. 7 (3): 41–8.
ISSN 1684-5285 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1684-5285).
13. "APS Copyright Policies and Frequently Asked Questions" (http://forms.aps.org/author/copyfaq.html).
A.J. Meadows, ed. The Scientific Journal. London : Aslib, c1979. ISBN 0-85142-118-0
R.E. Abel et al. "Scholarly Publishing: Books Journals, Publishers, and Libraries in the Twentieth Century" N.Y.:
Wiley, 2002. ISBN 0-471-21929-0
D.W. King et al. "Scientific Journals in the United States: their Production, Use, and Economics. Stroudsberg, PA:
Hutchinson-Ross, 1981 ISBN 0-87933-380-4
External links
The cost of publishing in a scientific journal, some examples and recommended reading (http://openwetw
are.org/wiki/Publication_fees) from OpenWetWare life scientists' wiki
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scientific_journal&oldid=788133886"
Categories: Technical communication Scientific journals

7/24/2017 Academic journal - Wikipedia
Academic journal
An academic or scholarly journal is a periodical

publication in which scholarship relating to a particular
academic discipline is published. Academic journals serve
as permanent and transparent forums for the presentation,
scrutiny and discussion of research. They are usually peer-
reviewed or refereed.[1] Content typically takes the form of
articles presenting original research, review articles, and
book reviews. The purpose of an academic journal,
according to the first editor of the world's oldest academic
journal Henry Oldenburg, is to give researchers a venue to
"impart their knowledge to one another, and contribute
what they can to the Grand design of improving natural
knowledge, and perfecting all Philosophical Arts, and
Sciences."[2]
Different types of peer-reviewed research journals;
The term academic journal applies to scholarly these specific publications are about economics
publications in all fields; this article discusses the aspects
common to all academic field journals. Scientific journals and journals of the quantitative social sciences vary
in form and function from journals of the humanities and qualitative social sciences; their specific aspects are
separately discussed.
Contents
1 Scholarly articles
2 Reviewing
2.1 Review articles
2.2 Book reviews
3 Prestige and ranking
4 Costs
5 New developments
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Scholarly articles
There are two kinds of article or paper submissions in academia: solicited, where an individual has been invited
to submit work either through direct contact or through a general submissions call, and unsolicited, where an
individual submits a work for potential publication without directly being asked to do so.[3] Upon receipt of a
submitted article, editors at the journal determine whether to reject the submission outright or begin the process
of peer review. In the latter case, the submission becomes subject to review by outside scholars of the editor's
choosing who typically remain anonymous. The number of these peer reviewers (or "referees") varies
according to each journal's editorial practice — typically, no fewer than two, though sometimes three or more,
experts in the subject matter of the article produce reports upon the content, style, and other factors, which
inform the editors' publication decisions. Though these reports are generally confidential, some journals and
publishers also practice public peer review. The editors either choose to reject the article, ask for a revision and
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_journal 1/5
resubmission, or accept the article for publication. Even accepted articles are often subjected to further
(sometimes considerable) editing by journal editorial staff before they appear in print. The peer review can take
from several weeks to several months.[4]
Reviewing
Review articles
Review articles, also called "reviews of progress," are checks on the research published in journals. Some
journals are devoted entirely to review articles, some contain a few in each issue, and others do not publish
review articles. Such reviews often cover the research from the preceding year, some for longer or shorter
terms; some are devoted to specific topics, some to general surveys. Some journals are enumerative, listing all
significant articles in a given subject, others are selective, including only what they think worthwhile. Yet
others are evaluative, judging the state of progress in the subject field. Some journals are published in series,
each covering a complete subject field year, or covering specific fields through several years. Unlike original
research articles, review articles tend to be solicited submissions, sometimes planned years in advance. They
are typically relied upon by students beginning a study in a given field, or for current awareness of those
already in the field.[5]
Book reviews
Reviews of scholarly books are checks upon the research books published by scholars; unlike articles, book
reviews tend to be solicited. Journals typically have a separate book review editor determining which new
books to review and by whom. If an outside scholar accepts the book review editor's request for a book review,
he or she generally receives a free copy of the book from the journal in exchange for a timely review.
Publishers send books to book review editors in the hope that their books will be reviewed. The length and
depth of research book reviews varies much from journal to journal, as does the extent of textbook and trade
book review.[6]
Prestige and ranking

An academic journal's prestige is established over time, and can reflect many factors, some but not all of which
are expressible quantitatively. In each academic discipline there are dominant journals that receive the largest
number of submissions, and therefore can be selective in choosing their content. Yet, not only the largest
journals are of excellent quality.[7]
In the natural sciences and in the "hard" social sciences, the impact factor is a convenient proxy, measuring the
number of later articles citing articles already published in the journal. There are other, possible quantitative
factors, such as the overall number of citations, how quickly articles are cited, and the average "half-life" of
articles. There also is the question of whether or not any quantitative factor can reflect true prestige; natural
science journals are categorized and ranked in the Science Citation Index, social science journals in the Social
Sciences Citation Index.[7]
In the Anglo-American humanities, there is no tradition (as there is in the sciences) of giving impact-factors
that could be used in establishing a journal's prestige. Recent moves have been made by the European Science
Foundation (ESF) to change the situation, resulting in the publication of preliminary lists for the ranking of
academic journals in the Humanities.[7] These rankings have been severely criticized, notably by history and
sociology of science British journals that have published a common editorial entitled "Journals under
Threat."[8] Though it did not prevent ESF and some national organizations from proposing journal rankings, it
largely prevented their use as evaluation tools.[9]
In some disciplines such as knowledge management/intellectual capital, the lack of a well-established journal
ranking system is perceived by academics as "a major obstacle on the way to tenure, promotion and
achievement recognition".[10] Conversely a significant number of scientists and organizations consider the
pursuit of impact factor calculations as inimical to the goals of science, and have signed the San Francisco
Declaration on Research Assessment to limit its use.
The categorization of journal prestige in some subjects has been attempted, typically using letters to rank their
academic world importance.
Three categories of techniques have developed to assess journal quality and create journal rankings:[11]
stated preference;
revealed preference; and
publication power approaches[12]
Costs
Many academic journals are subsidized by universities or professional organizations, and do not exist to make a
profit. However, they often accept advertising, page and image charges from authors to pay for production
costs. On the other hand, some journals are produced by commercial publishers who do make a profit by
charging subscriptions to individuals and libraries. They may also sell all of their journals in discipline-specific
collections or a variety of other packages.[13]
Journal editors tend to have other professional responsibilities, most often as teaching professors. In the case of
the largest journals, there are paid staff assisting in the editing. The production of the journals is almost always
done by publisher-paid staff. Humanities and social science academic journals are usually subsidized by
universities or professional organization.[14]
New developments
The Internet has revolutionized the production of, and access to, academic journals, with their contents
available online via services subscribed to by academic libraries. Individual articles are subject-indexed in
databases such as Google Scholar. Some of the smallest, most specialized journals are prepared in-house, by an
academic department, and published only online—such form of publication has sometimes been in the blog
format. Currently, there is a movement in higher education encouraging open access, either via self archiving,
whereby the author deposits a paper in a disciplinary or institutional repository where it can be searched for and
read, or via publishing it in a free open access journal, which does not charge for subscriptions, being either
subsidized or financed by a publication fee. Given the goal of sharing scientific research to speed advances,
open access has affected science journals more than humanities journals. Commercial publishers are
experimenting with open access models, but are trying to protect their subscription revenues.[15]
The much lower entry cost of on-line publishing has also raised concerns of an increase in publication of "junk"
journals with lower publishing standards. These journals, often with names chosen as similar to well-
established publications, solicit articles via e-mail and then charge the author to publish an article, often with no
sign of actual review. A research librarian at the University of Colorado has compiled a list of what he
considers to be "predatory" journals; the list numbered over 300 journals as of April 2013, but he estimates that
there may be thousands.[16] The OMICS Publishing Group, which publishes a number of the journals on this
list, has threatened to sue the librarian who developed the list.
See also
Academic authorship Academic library
Academic conference Academic publishing
Academic writing Scientific journal

Healthcare journal Journal ranking
Journal Citation Reports Publish or perish
Law Review arXiv
List of academic databases and search engines IMRAD
Lists of academic journals
References
1. Gary Blake; Robert W. Bly (1993). The Elements of Technical Writing. Macmillan Publishers. p. 113. ISBN 0-02-
013085-6.
2. The Royal Society: Royal Society journal archive made permanently free to access (https://royalsociety.org/news/201
1/Royal-Society-journal-archive-made-permanently-free-to-access/), 26 October 2011.
3. Gwen Meyer Gregory (2005). The successful academic librarian: Winning strategies from library leaders.
Information Today. pp. 36–37. ISBN 978-1-57387-232-4.
4. Michèle Lamont (2009). How professors think: Inside the curious world of academic judgment. Harvard University
Press. pp. 1–14. ISBN 978-0-674-05733-3.
5. Deborah E. De Lange (2011). Research Companion to Green International Management Studies: A Guide for Future
Research, Collaboration and Review Writing. Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 1–5. ISBN 978-1-84980-727-2.
6. Rita James Simon; Linda Mahan (1969). "A Note on the Role of Book Review Editor as Decision Maker". The
Library Quarterly. 39 (4): 353–356. JSTOR 4306026 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/4306026). doi:10.1086/619794 (h
ttps://doi.org/10.1086%2F619794).
7. Rowena Murray (2009). Writing for Academic Journals (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 42–45. ISBN 978-0-
335-23458-5.
8. "Journals under Threat: A Joint Response from History of Science, Technology and Medicine Editors" (https://www.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629173). Medical History. 53 (1): 1–4. 2009. PMC 2629173 (https://www.ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629173) . PMID 19190746 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19190746).
9. Pontille, David; Torny, Didier (2010). "The controversial policies of journal ratings: Evaluating social sciences and
humanities". Research Evaluation. 19 (5): 347. doi:10.3152/095820210X12809191250889 (https://doi.org/10.3152%
2F095820210X12809191250889).
10. Nick Bontis; Alexander Serenko (2009). "A follow-up ranking of academic journals". Journal of Knowledge
Management. 13 (1): 17. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.178.6943 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.178.
6943) . doi:10.1108/13673270910931134 (https://doi.org/10.1108%2F13673270910931134).
11. Paul Benjamin Lowry; Sean LaMarc Humpherys; Jason Malwitz; Joshua Nix (2007). "A scientometric study of the
perceived quality of business and technical communication journals". IEEE Transactions on Professional
Communication. 50 (4): 352–378. SSRN 1021608 (https://ssrn.com/abstract=1021608) .
doi:10.1109/TPC.2007.908733 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTPC.2007.908733).
12. Alexander Serenko; Changquan Jiao (2011). "Investigating Information Systems Research in Canada" (http://www.as
erenko.com/papers/Serenko_Jiao_IS_Research_Canada.pdf) (PDF). Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences. 29
(1): 3–24. doi:10.1002/cjas.214 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fcjas.214).
13. Theodore C. Bergstrom (2001). "Free Labor for Costly Journals?" (http://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1257/jep.1
5.4.183). Journal of Economic Perspectives. 15 (3): 183–198. doi:10.1257/jep.15.4.183 (https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fj
ep.15.4.183).
14. Robert A. Day; Barbara Gastel (2011). How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper (7th ed.). ABC-CLIO. pp. 122–
124. ISBN 978-0-313-39195-8.
15. James Hendler (2007). "Reinventing Academic Publishing-Part 1". IEEE Intelligent Systems. 22 (5): 2–3.
doi:10.1109/MIS.2007.4338485 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMIS.2007.4338485).
16. Kolata, Gina (April 7, 2013). "Scientific Articles Accepted (Personal Checks, Too)" (https://www.nytimes.com/2013/
04/08/health/for-scientists-an-exploding-world-of-pseudo-academia.html). New York Times. Retrieved 23 September
2013.
Further reading
Bakkalbasi, N; Bauer, K; Glover, J; Wang, L (2006). "Three options for citation tracking: Google
Scholar, Scopus and Web of Science" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1533854).
Biomedical Digital Libraries. 3: 7. PMC 1533854 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1533
854) . PMID 16805916 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16805916). doi:10.1186/1742-5581-3-7
(https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1742-5581-3-7).
Bontis, Nick; Serenko, A. (2009). "A follow-up ranking of academic journals". Journal of Knowledge
Management. 13 (1): 16–26. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.178.6943 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?
doi=10.1.1.178.6943) . doi:10.1108/13673270910931134 (https://doi.org/10.1108%2F13673270910931
134).
Hendler, James (2007). "Reinventing Academic Publishing – Part 1". IEEE Intelligent Systems. 22 (5):
2–3. doi:10.1109/MIS.2007.93 (inactive 2017-03-13).
Paul Benjamin Lowry; Sean LaMarc Humpherys; Jason Malwitz; Joshua Nix (2007). "A scientometric
study of the perceived quality of business and technical communication journals". IEEE Transactions on
Professional Communication. 50 (4): 352–378. SSRN 1021608 (https://ssrn.com/abstract=1021608) .
doi:10.1109/TPC.2007.908733 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTPC.2007.908733).
Waller, A.C. (2001). Editorial Peer Review Its Strengths and Weaknesses. ASIST monograph series.
Information Today. ISBN 1-57387-100-1.
Serenko, Alexander; Jiao, C. (2011). "Investigating information systems research in Canada" (http://ww
w.aserenko.com/papers/Serenko_Jiao_IS_Research_Canada.pdf) (PDF). Canadian Journal of
Administrative Sciences. 29 (1): 3–24. doi:10.1002/CJAS.214 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2FCJAS.214).
External links
Journal Collection (https://archive.org/details/journals) on the
Wikisource has several
Internet Archive
original texts related to:
ERIH 'Initial' lists (http://www.esf.org/research-areas/humanities/r Research articles
esearch-infrastructures-including-erih/erih-initial-lists.html),
European Science Foundation
JournalSeek - A Searchable Database of Online Scholarly Journals (http://journalseek.net/)
Master Journal List (https://web.archive.org/web/20110717051909/http://science.thomsonreuters.com/cgi
-bin/jrnlst/jlresults.cgi?PC=MASTER) (Thomson Reuters), a list of selected, and notable academic
journals in the arts, humanities, sciences, and social sciences.
Links to electronic journals (http://www.e-journals.org)
JURN directory of Arts & Humanities ejournals (http://www.jurn.org/directory/)
Academic Journals: What are They? (http://jerz.setonhill.edu/writing/academic/sources/journals/index.ht
ml) and Academic Journals Compared to Magazines (http://jerz.setonhill.edu/writing/academic/sources/j
ournals/vs_magazines.htm). Academic Writing. Dennis G. Jerz. Seton Hill University. 2001-08-2001.
Peer reviewed articles (http://library.sdsu.edu/reference/research/peer-reviewed-articles). San Diego State
University.
Directory of Open Access Journals (https://doaj.org/)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Academic_journal&oldid=788544717"
Categories: Academic publishing Academic journals Scholarly communication Peer review

7/24/2017 Academic publishing - Wikipedia
Academic publishing
Academic publishing is the subfield of publishing which distributes academic research and scholarship. Most
academic work is published in academic journal article, book or thesis form. The part of academic written
output that is not formally published but merely printed up or posted on the Internet is often called "grey
literature". Most scientific and scholarly journals, and many academic and scholarly books, though not all, are
based on some form of peer review or editorial refereeing to qualify texts for publication. Peer review quality
and selectivity standards vary greatly from journal to journal, publisher to publisher, and field to field.
Most established academic disciplines have their own journals and other outlets for publication, although many
academic journals are somewhat interdisciplinary, and publish work from several distinct fields or subfields.
There is also a tendency for existing journals to divide into specialized sections as the field itself becomes more
specialized. Along with the variation in review and publication procedures, the kinds of publications that are
accepted as contributions to knowledge or research differ greatly among fields and subfields.
Academic publishing is undergoing major changes, as it makes the transition from the print to the electronic
format. Business models are different in the electronic environment. Since the early 1990s, licensing of
electronic resources, particularly journals, has been very common. Currently, an important trend, particularly
with respect to journals in the sciences, is open access via the Internet. In open access publishing, a journal
article is made available free for all on the web by the publisher at the time of publication. It is typically made
possible after the author pays hundreds or thousands of dollars in publication fees, thereby shifting the costs
from the reader to the researcher or their funder. The Internet has facilitated open access self-archiving, in
which authors themselves make a copy of their published articles available free for all on the web.[1][2]
Contents
1 History
2 Publishers and business aspects
2.1 Crisis
2.2 Academic journal publishing reform
3 Scholarly paper
3.1 Categories of papers
4 Peer review
5 Publishing process
6 Citations
7 Publishing by discipline
7.1 Natural sciences
7.2 Social sciences
7.3 Humanities
8 Open access journals
9 Academic publishing growth
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
History
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_publishing 1/10
The Journal des sçavans (later spelled Journal des savants), established by Denis de Sallo, was the earliest
academic journal published in Europe. Its content included obituaries of famous men, church history, and legal
reports.[3] The first issue appeared as a twelve-page quarto pamphlet[4] on Monday, 5 January 1665,[5] shortly
before the first appearance of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, on 6 March 1665.[6]
At that time, the act of publishing academic inquiry was controversial and widely ridiculed. It was not at all
unusual for a new discovery to be announced as an anagram, reserving priority for the discoverer, but
indecipherable for anyone not in on the secret: both Isaac Newton and Leibniz used this approach. However,
this method did not work well. Robert K. Merton, a sociologist, found that 92% of cases of simultaneous
discovery in the 17th century ended in dispute. The number of disputes dropped to 72% in the 18th century,
59% by the latter half of the 19th century, and 33% by the first half of the 20th century.[7] The decline in
contested claims for priority in research discoveries can be credited to the increasing acceptance of the
publication of papers in modern academic journals, with estimates suggesting that around 50 million journal
articles[8] have been published since the first appearance of the Philosophical Transactions. The Royal Society
was steadfast in its not-yet-popular belief that science could only move forward through a transparent and open
exchange of ideas backed by experimental evidence.
Early scientific journals embraced serveral models: some were run by a single individual who exerted editorial
control over the contents, often simply publishing extracts from colleagues' letters, while others employed a
group decision making process, more closely aligned to modern peer review. It wasn't until the middle of the
20th century that peer review became the standard.[9]
Publishers and business aspects

In the 1960s and 1970s, commercial publishers began to selectively acquire "top-quality" journals which were
previously published by nonprofit academic societies. Due to the inelastic demand for these journals, the
commercial publishers lost little of the market when they raised the prices significantly. Although there are over
2,000 publishers, as of 2013, five for-profit companies (Reed Elsevier, Springer Science+Business Media,
Wiley-Blackwell, Taylor & Francis, and Sage) accounted for 50% of articles published.[10][11] (Since 2013,
Springer Science+Business Media has undergone a merger to form an even bigger company named Springer
Nature.) Available data indicate that these companies have high profit margins, especially compared to the
smaller publishers which likely operate with low margins.[12] These factors have contributed to the "serials
crisis" – from 1986 to 2005, the number of serials purchased has increased an average of 1.9% per year while
total expenditures on serials have increased 7.6% per year.[13]
Unlike most industries, in academic publishing the two most important inputs are provided "virtually free of
charge".[12] These are the articles and the peer review process. Publishers argue that they add value to the
publishing process through support to the peer review group, including stipends, as well as through typesetting,
printing, and web publishing. Investment analysts, however, have been skeptical of the value added by for-
profit publishers, as exemplified by a 2005 Deutsche Bank analysis which stated that "we believe the publisher
adds relatively little value to the publishing process... We are simply observing that if the process really were as
complex, costly and value-added as the publishers protest that it is, 40% margins wouldn't be available."[12][14]
Crisis
A crisis in academic publishing is "widely perceived";[15] the apparent crisis has to do with the combined
pressure of budget cuts at universities and increased costs for journals (the serials crisis).[16] The university
budget cuts have reduced library budgets and reduced subsidies to university-affiliated publishers. The
humanities have been particularly affected by the pressure on university publishers, which are less able to
publish monographs when libraries can't afford to purchase them. For example, the ARL found that in "1986,
libraries spent 44% of their budgets on books compared with 56% on journals; twelve years later, the ratio had
skewed to 28% and 72%."[15] Meanwhile, monographs are increasingly expected for tenure in the humanities.
The Modern Language Association has expressed hope that electronic publishing will solve the issue.[15]
In 2009 and 2010, surveys and reports found that libraries faced continuing budget cuts, with one survey in
2009 finding that one-third of libraries had their budgets cut by 5% or more.[17]
Academic journal publishing reform
Several models are being investigated such as open publication models or adding community-oriented
features.[18] It is also considered that "Online scientific interaction outside the traditional journal space is
becoming more and more important to academic communication".[19] In addition, experts have suggested
measures to make the publication process more efficient in disseminating new and important findings by
evaluating the worthiness of publication on the basis of the significance and novelty of the research finding.[20]
Scholarly paper
In academic publishing, a paper is an academic work that is usually published in an academic journal. It
contains original research results or reviews existing results. Such a paper, also called an article, will only be
considered valid if it undergoes a process of peer review by one or more referees (who are academics in the
same field) who check that the content of the paper is suitable for publication in the journal. A paper may
undergo a series of reviews, revisions, and re-submissions before finally being accepted or rejected for
publication. This process typically takes several months. Next, there is often a delay of many months (or in
some subjects, over a year) before an accepted manuscript appears. This is particularly true for the most
popular journals where the number of accepted articles often outnumbers the space for printing. Due to this,
many academics self-archive a 'pre-print' copy of their paper for free download from their personal or
institutional website.
Some journals, particularly newer ones, are now published in electronic form only. Paper journals are now
generally made available in electronic form as well, both to individual subscribers, and to libraries. Almost
always these electronic versions are available to subscribers immediately upon publication of the paper version,
or even before; sometimes they are also made available to non-subscribers, either immediately (by open access
journals) or after an embargo of anywhere from two to twenty-four months or more, in order to protect against
loss of subscriptions. Journals having this delayed availability are sometimes called delayed open access
journals. Ellison has reported that in economics the dramatic increase in opportunities to publish results online
has led to a decline in the use of peer-reviewed articles.[21]
Categories of papers
An academic paper typically belongs to some particular category such as:[22]
Research paper
Case report or Case series
Position paper
Review article or Survey paper
Species paper
Technical paper
Note: Law review is the generic term for a journal of legal scholarship in the United States, often operating by
rules radically different from those for most other academic journals.
Peer review
Peer review is a central concept for most academic publishing; other scholars in a field must find a work
sufficiently high in quality for it to merit publication. A secondary benefit of the process is an indirect guard
against plagiarism since reviewers are usually familiar with the sources consulted by the author(s). The origins
of routine peer review for submissions dates to 1752 when the Royal Society of London took over official
responsibility for Philosophical Transactions. However, there were some earlier examples.[23]
While journal editors largely agree the system is essential to quality control in terms of rejecting poor quality
work, there have been examples of important results that are turned down by one journal before being taken to
others. Rena Steinzor wrote:
Perhaps the most widely recognized failing of peer review is its inability to ensure the
identification of high-quality work. The list of important scientific papers that were initially
rejected by peer-reviewed journals goes back at least as far as the editor of Philosophical
Transaction's 1796 rejection of Edward Jenner's report of the first vaccination against smallpox.[24]
"Confirmatory bias" is the unconscious tendency to accept reports which support the reviewer's views and to
downplay those which do not. Experimental studies show the problem exists in peer reviewing.[25]
Publishing process
The process of academic publishing, which begins when authors submit a manuscript to a publisher, is divided
into two distinct phases: peer review and production.
The process of peer review is organized by the journal editor and is complete when the content of the article,
together with any associated images or figures, are accepted for publication. The peer review process is
increasingly managed online, through the use of proprietary systems, commercial software packages, or open
source and free software. A manuscript undergoes one or more rounds of review; after each round, the author(s)
of the article modify their submission in line with the reviewers' comments; this process is repeated until the
editor is satisfied and the work is accepted.
The production process, controlled by a production editor or publisher, then takes an article through copy
editing, typesetting, inclusion in a specific issue of a journal, and then printing and online publication.
Academic copy editing seeks to ensure that an article conforms to the journal's house style, that all of the
referencing and labelling is correct, and that the text is consistent and legible; often this work involves
substantive editing and negotiating with the authors.[26] Because the work of academic copy editors can overlap
with that of authors' editors,[27] editors employed by journal publishers often refer to themselves as “manuscript
editors”.[26]
In much of the 20th century, such articles were photographed for printing into proceedings and journals, and
this stage was known as camera-ready copy. With modern digital submission in formats such as PDF, this
photographing step is no longer necessary, though the term is still sometimes used.
The author will review and correct proofs at one or more stages in the production process. The proof correction
cycle has historically been labour-intensive as handwritten comments by authors and editors are manually
transcribed by a proof reader onto a clean version of the proof. In the early 21st century, this process was
streamlined by the introduction of e-annotations in Microsoft Word, Adobe Acrobat, and other programs, but it
still remained a time-consuming and error-prone process. The full automation of the proof correction cycles has
only become possible with the onset of online collaborative writing platforms, such as Authorea, Google Docs,
and various others, where a remote service oversees the copy-editing interactions of multiple authors and
exposes them as explicit, actionable historic events.
Citations
Academic authors cite sources they have used, in order to support their assertions and arguments and to help
readers find more information on the subject. It also gives credit to authors whose work they use and helps
avoid plagiarism.
Each scholarly journal uses a specific format for citations (also known as references). Among the most
common formats used in research papers are the APA, CMS, and MLA styles.
The American Psychological Association (APA) style is often used in the social sciences. The Chicago Manual
of Style (CMS) is used in business, communications, economics, and social sciences. The CMS style uses
footnotes at the bottom of page to help readers locate the sources. The Modern Language Association (MLA)
style is widely used in the humanities.
Publishing by discipline
Natural sciences
Scientific, technical, and medical (STM) literature is a large industry which generated $23.5 billion in revenue;
$9.4 billion of that was specifically from the publication of English-language scholarly journals.[28] Most
scientific research is initially published in scientific journals and considered to be a primary source. Technical
reports, for minor research results and engineering and design work (including computer software), round out
the primary literature. Secondary sources in the sciences include articles in review journals (which provide a
synthesis of research articles on a topic to highlight advances and new lines of research), and books for large
projects, broad arguments, or compilations of articles. Tertiary sources might include encyclopedias and similar
works intended for broad public consumption or academic libraries.
A partial exception to scientific publication practices is in many fields of applied science, particularly that of
U.S. computer science research. An equally prestigious site of publication within U.S. computer science are
some academic conferences.[29] Reasons for this departure include a large number of such conferences, the
quick pace of research progress, and computer science professional society support for the distribution and
archiving of conference proceedings.[30]
Social sciences
Publishing in the social sciences is very different in different fields. Some fields, like economics, may have
very "hard" or highly quantitative standards for publication, much like the natural sciences. Others, like
anthropology or sociology, emphasize field work and reporting on first-hand observation as well as quantitative
work. Some social science fields, such as public health or demography, have significant shared interests with
professions like law and medicine, and scholars in these fields often also publish in professional magazines.[31]
Humanities
Publishing in the humanities is in principle similar to publishing elsewhere in the academy; a range of journals,
from general to extremely specialized, are available, and university presses issue many new humanities books
every year. The arrival of online publishing opportunities has radically transformed the economics of the field
and the shape of the future is controversial.[32] Unlike science, where timeliness is critically important,
humanities publications often take years to write and years more to publish. Unlike the sciences, research is
most often an individual process and is seldom supported by large grants. Journals rarely make profits and are
typically run by university departments.[33]
The following describes the situation in the United States. In many fields, such as literature and history, several
published articles are typically required for a first tenure-track job, and a published or forthcoming book is now
often required before tenure. Some critics complain that this de facto system has emerged without thought to its
consequences; they claim that the predictable result is the publication of much shoddy work, as well as
unreasonable demands on the already limited research time of young scholars. To make matters worse, the
circulation of many humanities journals in the 1990s declined to almost untenable levels, as many libraries
cancelled subscriptions, leaving fewer and fewer peer-reviewed outlets for publication; and many humanities
professors' first books sell only a few hundred copies, which often does not pay for the cost of their printing.
Some scholars have called for a publication subvention of a few thousand dollars to be associated with each
graduate student fellowship or new tenure-track hire, in order to alleviate the financial pressure on journals.
Open access journals

An alternative to the subscription model of journal publishing is the open access journal model, which typically
involves a publication charge being paid by the author.[34] Prestige journals typically charge several thousand
dollars. Oxford University Press, with over 300 journals, has fees ranging from £1000-£2500, with discounts of
50% to 100% to authors from developing countries.[35] Wiley Blackwell has 700 journals available, and they
charge a flat $US3000 open access fee.[36] Springer, with over 2600 journals, charges US$3000 or EUR 2200
(excluding VAT).[37]
The online distribution of individual articles and academic journals then takes place without charge to readers
and libraries. Most open access journals remove all the financial, technical, and legal barriers (http://openacces
s.eprints.org/index.php?/archives/442-guid.html) that limit access to academic materials to paying customers.
The Public Library of Science and BioMed Central are prominent examples of this model.
Open access has been criticized on quality grounds, as the desire to maximize publishing fees could cause some
journals to relax the standard of peer review. It may be criticized on financial grounds as well because the
necessary publication fees have proven to be higher than originally expected. Open access advocates generally
reply that because open access is as much based on peer reviewing as traditional publishing, the quality should
be the same (recognizing that both traditional and open access journals have a range of quality). It has also been
argued that good science done by academic institutions who cannot afford to pay for open access might not get
published at all, but most open access journals permit the waiver of the fee for financial hardship or authors in
underdeveloped countries. In any case, all authors have the option of self-archiving their articles in their
institutional repositories in order to make them open access, whether or not they publish them in a journal.
If they publish in a Hybrid open access journal, authors pay a subscription journal a publication fee to make
their individual article open access. The other articles in such hybrid journals are either made available after a
delay or remain available only by subscription. Most traditional publishers (including Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford
University Press, and Springer Science+Business Media) have already introduced such a hybrid option, and
more are following. Proponents of open access suggest that such moves by corporate publishers illustrate that
open access, or a mix of open access and traditional publishing, can be financially viable, and evidence to that
effect is emerging. The fraction of the authors of a hybrid open access journal that make use of its open access
option can, however, be small. It also remains unclear whether this is practical in fields outside the sciences,
where there is much less availability of outside funding. In 2006, several funding agencies, including the
Wellcome Trust and several divisions of the Research Councils in the UK announced the availability of extra
funding to their grantees for such open access journal publication fees.
In May 2016, the Council for the European Union agreed that from 2020 all scientific publications as a result of
publicly funded research must be freely available. It also must be able to optimally reuse research data. To
achieve that, the data must be made accessible, unless there are well-founded reasons for not doing so, for
example, intellectual property rights or security or privacy issues.[38][39]
Academic publishing growth

In recent decades there has been a growth in academic publishing in developing countries as they become more
advanced in science and technology. Although the large majority of scientific output and academic documents
are produced in developed countries, the rate of growth in these countries has stabilized and is much smaller
than the growth rate in some of the developing countries. The fastest scientific output growth rate over the last
two decades has been in the Middle East and Asia with Iran leading with an 11-fold increase followed by the
Republic of Korea, Turkey, Cyprus, China, and Oman.[40] In comparison, the only G8 countries in top 20
ranking with fastest performance improvement are, Italy which stands at tenth and Canada at 13th
globally.[41][42]
By 2004, it was noted that the output of scientific papers originating from the European Union had a larger
share of the world's total from 36.6 to 39.3 percent and from 32.8 to 37.5 per cent of the "top one per cent of
highly cited scientific papers". However, the United States' output dropped 52.3 to 49.4 per cent of the world's
total, and its portion of the top one percent dropped from 65.6 to 62.8 per cent.[43]
Iran, China, India, Brazil, and South Africa were the only developing countries among the 31 nations that
produced 97.5% of the most cited scientific articles in a study published in 2004. The remaining 162 countries
contributed less than 2.5%.[43] The Royal Society in a 2011 report stated that in share of English scientific
research papers the United States was first followed by China, the UK, Germany, Japan, France, and Canada.
The report predicted that China would overtake the United States sometime before 2020, possibly as early as
2013. China's scientific impact, as measured by other scientists citing the published papers the next year, is
smaller although also increasing.[44]
See also
Academic authorship
Acknowledgment index
arXiv
AuthorAID
Council of Science Editors
European Association of Science Editors
EASE Guidelines for Authors and Translators of Scientific Articles
IMRAD
Library publishing
List of academic databases and search engines
Monographic series
Preprints
Proceedings
Rankings of academic publishers
Scientific method
Serials, periodicals and journals
References
1. Harnad, S., Brody, T., Vallieres, F., Carr, L., Hitchcock, S., Gingras, Y, Oppenheim, C., Stamerjohanns, H., & Hilf, E.
(2004) The green and the gold roads to Open Access (http://www.nature.com/nature/focus/accessdebate/21.html).
Nature Web Focus.
2. Jeffery, Keith G. (2006) Open Access: An Introduction (http://www.ercim.eu/publication/Ercim_News/enw64/jeffer
y.html). ERCIM News 64. January 2006
3. The Amsterdam printing of the Journal des sçavans (http://www.sil.si.edu/libraries/Dibner/newacq_2000.htm),
Dibner Library of the Smithsonian Institution
4. Brown, 1972, p. 368
5. Hallam, 1842, p. 406.
6. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Vol. 1, Issue 1, is dated March 6, 1665. See also History of the
Journal (http://publishing.royalsociety.org/index.cfm?page=1244)
7. Merton, Robert K. (December 1963). "Resistance to the Systematic Study of Multiple Discoveries in Science" (http
s://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-journal-of-sociology-archives-europeennes-de-sociologie/article/resis
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European Journal of Sociology / Archives Européennes de Sociologie. 4 (2): 237–282. ISSN 1474-0583 (https://ww
w.worldcat.org/issn/1474-0583). doi:10.1017/S0003975600000801 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS000397560000080
1).
8. Jinha, A. E. (2010). "Article 50 million: An estimate of the number of scholarly articles in existence" (http://www.we
bcitation.org/67sSymMQy?url=http://www.stratongina.net/files/50millionArifJinhaFinal.pdf) (PDF). Learned
Publishing. 23 (3): 258–263. doi:10.1087/20100308 (https://doi.org/10.1087%2F20100308). Archived from the
original (http://www.stratongina.net/files/50millionArifJinhaFinal.pdf) (PDF) on 2012-05-23.
9. "The History of Scientific Publishing: An interview with Aileen Fyfe" (http://blogs.plos.org/plospodcasts/2016/04/1
8/the-history-of-scientific-publishing-an-interview-with-aileen-fyfe/) (Podcast). 2016.
10. "Five companies control more than half of academic publishing" (http://phys.org/news/2015-06-companies-academic
-publishing.html). Phys.org. 10 June 2015.
11. Larivière, Vincent; Haustein, Stefanie; Mongeon, Philippe (10 June 2015). "The oligopoly of academic publishers in
the digital era" (http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0127502). PLoS ONE. 10 (6):
e0127502. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1027502L (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PLoSO..1027502L). PMC 4465327
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4465327) . PMID 26061978 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubm
ed/26061978). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0127502 (https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0127502). Retrieved
12 May 2016.
12. McGuigan GS, Russell RD. (2008). The Business of Academic Publishing: A Strategic Analysis of the Academic
Journal Publishing Industry and its Impact on the Future of Scholarly Publishing (http://southernlibrarianship.icaap.o
rg/content/v09n03/mcguigan_g01.html). E-JASL: The Electronic Journal of Academic and Special Librarianship.
ICAAP.
13. Association of Research Libraries, ARL Statistics: 2004-2005 (http://www.arl.org/bm~doc/arlstat05.pdf). As cited in
McGuigan & Russell 2008.
14. "Is the staggeringly profitable business of scientific publishing bad for science?" (https://www.theguardian.com/scien
ce/2017/jun/27/profitable-business-scientific-publishing-bad-for-science?CMP=share_btn_tw). The Guardian. 2017-
06-27. ISSN 0261-3077 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077). Retrieved 2017-07-02.
15. Modern Language Association. Report from the Ad Hoc Committee on the Future of Scholarly Publishing (http://ww
w.mla.org/resources/documents/issues_scholarly_pub/repview_future_pub) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0060923103330/http://www.mla.org/resources/documents/issues_scholarly_pub/repview_future_pub) 2006-09-23 at
the Wayback Machine..
16. Sample, Ian (24 April 2012). "Harvard University says it can't afford journal publishers' prices" (https://www.theguar
dian.com/science/2012/apr/24/harvard-university-journal-publishers-prices). The Guardian.
17. Seeking the New Normal: Periodicals Price Survey 2010 (http://www.libraryjournal.com/article/CA6725256.html)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20100928002826/http://www.libraryjournal.com/article/CA6725256.html)
2010-09-28 at the Wayback Machine.. LibraryJournal.com.
18. Hendler, James (2007). "Reinventing Academic Publishing -Part 1" (http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1304510).
IEEE Intelligent Systems. 22 (5). doi:10.1109/MIS.2007.93 (inactive 2017-03-13).
19. Hendler, James (2008). "Reinventing Academic Publishing -Part 3" (http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1339822.1
339965). IEEE Intelligent Systems. 23 (1): 2–3. doi:10.1109/MIS.2008.12 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMIS.2008.12).
20. J. Scott Armstrong (1997). "Peer Review for Journals: Evidence on Quality Control, Fairness, and Innovation" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20100620222543/http://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/ideas/pdf/armstrong2/peerpaper.pdf)
(PDF). Energy & Environment. 3: 63–84. doi:10.1007/s11948-997-0017-3 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11948-997-00
17-3). Archived from the original (http://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/ideas/pdf/armstrong2/peerpaper.pdf) (PDF) on
2010-06-20.
21. Glenn Ellison, "Is Peer Review in Decline?" Economic Inquiry (July 2011) 49#3 pp 635–657, doi:10.1111/j.1465-
7295.2010.00261.x (https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1465-7295.2010.00261.x)
22. Concept Paper:
"Brief: How to Write a Concept Paper" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130626122605/http://www.wit.edu/ins
titutional-research/grants/docs/Write-Concept-Paper.pdf) (PDF). Hanover Grants. 2011. Archived from the
original (http://www.wit.edu/institutional-research/grants/docs/Write-Concept-Paper.pdf) (PDF download) on
2013-06-26. Retrieved 2013-07-04. "Funders often ask for brief 1- to 5-page concept papers (also called
“white papers” in the government contracting sector) prior to submission of a full proposal."
"Format for a Concept paper" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130705143404/http://www.gerberfoundation.or
g/pd-research/research-awards/concept-paper-format). The Gerber Foundation. 2012. Archived from the
original (http://www.gerberfoundation.org/pd-research/research-awards/concept-paper-format) on 2013-07-
05. Retrieved 2013-07-04.
23. David A. Kronick, "Peer review in 18th-century scientific journalism." JAMA (1990) 263#10 pp: 1321-1322.
24. Rescuing Science from Politics: Regulation and the Distortion of Scientific ... - Google Books (https://books.google.c
om/?id=VZ1axrolCpkC&pg=PA224). Books.google.com. 2006-07-24. ISBN 9780521855204. Retrieved
2012-08-07.
25. Mahoney, Michael J. "Publication prejudices: An experimental study of confirmatory bias in the peer review
system." Cognitive therapy and research (1977) 1#2 pp: 161-175.
26. Iverson, Cheryl (2004). " "Copy editor" vs. "manuscript editor" vs...: venturing onto the minefield of titles" (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20101203093821/http://www.councilscienceeditors.org/files/scienceeditor/v27n2p039-041.pdf)
(PDF). Science Editor. 27 (2): 39–41. Archived from the original (http://www.councilscienceeditors.org/files/sciencee
ditor/v27n2p039-041.pdf) (PDF) on 3 December 2010. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
27. de Jager, Marije. Journal copy-editing in a non-anglophone environment. In: Matarese, Valerie (ed) (2013).
Supporting Research Writing: Roles and challenges in multilingual settings. Oxford: Chandos. pp. 157–171.
ISBN 1843346664.
28. Ware, Mark and Michael Wabe. (2012) [1] (http://www.stm-assoc.org/2012_12_11_STM_Report_2012.pdf) The
STM Report: An Overview of Scientific and Scholarly Publishing. Outsell and the International Association of
Scientific, Technical and Medical PublishersNovember 2012.
29. Patterson, David (University of California, Berkeley); Snyder, Lawrence; Ullma, Jeffrey (August 1999). "Evaluating
Computer Scientists and Engineers For Promotion and Tenure" (http://www.cra.org/uploads/documents/resources/bp
memos/tenure_review.pdf) (Free PDF download). Computing Research News. Computing Research Association.
30. Grudin, Jonathan (April 2–7, 2005). "Why CHI Fragmented" (http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1056808.1056822). CHI
'05 extended abstracts on Human factors in computing systems. Portland, Oregon: ACM Press. pp. 1083–1084.
31. Joel Best, "Following the Money Across the Landscape of Sociology Journals." The American Sociologist (2015): 1-
16.
32. Cathy Davidson, "The futures of scholarly publishing." Journal of Scholarly Publishing (2015).
33. Toby Miller, Blow Up the Humanities (2012)
34. For typical policies see UC Berkeley Library, "Selective List of Open Access Fees" (http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/sch
olarlycommunication/oa_fees.html)
35. See Oxford Open Pricing (http://www.oxfordjournals.org/oxfordopen/charges.html#Optional%20Author%20Publicat
ion%20Charges)
36. See Author Services (http://authorservices.wiley.com/bauthor/onlineopen.asp)
37. See "Open Choice" (http://www.springer.com/gp/open-access/springer-open-choice)
38. Zaken, Ministerie van Buitenlandse. "All European scientific articles to be freely accessible by 2020" (http://english.
eu2016.nl/latest/news/2016/05/27/all-european-scientific-articles-to-be-freely-accessible-by-2020).
english.eu2016.nl. Retrieved 2016-05-28.
39. "Competitiveness Council, 26-27/05/2016 - Consilium" (http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/meetings/compet/2016/
05/26-27/). www.consilium.europa.eu. Retrieved 2016-05-28.
40. MacKenzie, Debora (2010-02-18). "Iran showing fastest scientific growth of any country" (http://www.newscientist.
com/article/dn18546-iran-showing-fastest-scientific-growth-of-any-country.html#.UdXcAOHD8dV). Science in
Society. New Scientist (online magazine). Retrieved 2012-08-07.
S. M. J. Mortazavi, and Z. Hashemi (June 2011). "Tiger or Rabbit does not Matter: a New Look into the
Recent Great Achievements of Iranian Scientists" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140110091219/http://ijorb.i
nformaticspublishing.com/index.php/indjst/article/view/30096). Indian Journal of Science and Technology. 4
(6): 716–716. Archived from the original (http://ijorb.informaticspublishing.com/index.php/indjst/article/vie
w/30096) on 2014-01-10.
41. "2005 OST PSA report" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120721130426/http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file27330.pdf)
(PDF). Archived from the original (http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file27330.pdf) (PDF) on 2012-07-21. Retrieved
2012-10-02.
42. "Bulletin Board - Which nation's scientific output is rising fastest?" (http://www.ipm.ac.ir/ViewNewsInfo.jsp?NTID=
236). IPM. Retrieved 2012-08-07.
43. David Dickson (2004-07-16). "China, Brazil and India lead southern science output" (http://www.scidev.net/en/news/
china-brazil-and-india-lead-southern-science-outp.html). SciDev.Net. Retrieved 2012-08-07.
44. China poised to overhaul US as biggest publisher of scientific papers (https://www.theguardian.com/science/2011/ma
r/28/china-us-publisher-scientific-papers), Alok Jha, Monday 28 March 2011, The Guardian,
Further reading
Belcher, Wendy Laura. “Writing Your Journal Article in Twelve Weeks: A Guide to Academic Publishing
Success.” ISBN 9781412957014
Best, Joel. "Following the Money Across the Landscape of Sociology Journals." The American
Sociologist (2015): 1-16.
Brienza, Casey (2012). "Opening the wrong gate? The academic spring and scholarly publishing in the
humanities and social sciences". Publishing research quarterly. 28 (3): 159–171. doi:10.1007/s12109-
012-9272-5 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12109-012-9272-5).
Culler, Jonathan, and Kevin Lamb. Just being difficult? : academic writing in the public arena Stanford,
Calif. : Stanford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8047-4709-1
Germano, William. Getting It Published, 2nd Edition: A Guide for Scholars and Anyone Else Serious
About Serious Books. ISBN 978-0-226-28853-6. Read a chapter (http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Ch
icago/288447.html).
Greco, Albert N (2015). "Academic Libraries and the Economics of Scholarly Publishing in the Twenty-
First Century: Portfolio Theory, Product Differentiation, Economic Rent, Perfect Price Discrimination,
and the Cost of Prestige". Journal of Scholarly Publishing. 47 (1): 1–43. doi:10.3138/jsp.47.1.01 (https://
doi.org/10.3138%2Fjsp.47.1.01).
Nelson, Cary and Stephen Watt. "Scholarly Books" and "Peer Review" in Academic Keywords: A Devil's
Dictionary for Higher Education. ISBN 0-415-92203-8.
Tenopir, Carol and Donald King. "Towards Electronic Journals: Realities for Librarians and Publishers.
SLA, 2000. ISBN 0-87111-507-7.
Wellington, J. J. Getting published : a guide for lecturers and researcher (RoutledgeFalmer, 2003). ISBN
0-415-29847-4
Yang, Rui. "Scholarly publishing, knowledge mobility and internationalization of Chinese universities."
in Tara Fenwick and Lesley Farrell, eds. Knowledge mobilization and educational research: Politics,
languages and responsibilities (2012): 185-167.
External links
Journal of Scholarly Publishing (https://www.utpjournals.com/Journal-of-Scholarly-Publishing.html)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Academic_publishing&oldid=791007376"
Categories: Academic publishing

7/24/2017 Web of Science - Wikipedia
Web of Science
Web of Science (previously known as Web of Knowledge)

is an online subscription-based scientific citation indexing Web of Science
service originally produced by the Institute for Scientific
Information (ISI), now maintained by Clarivate Analytics
(previously the Intellectual Property and Science business of
Thomson Reuters), that provides a comprehensive citation
search. It gives access to multiple databases that reference
cross-disciplinary research, which allows for in-depth
exploration of specialized sub-fields within an academic or
Producer Clarivate Analytics (United States)
scientific discipline.[1]
Coverage
Disciplines Science, social science, arts, humanities
(supports 256 disciplines)
Contents
Record Citation indexing, author, topic title,
1 Background and history depth subject keywords, abstract, periodical
1.1 Search and analysis title, author's address, publication year
2 Coverage
Format Full text articles, reviews, editorials,
3 Citation databases
3.1 Regional databases coverage chronologies, abstracts, proceedings
3.2 Contents (journals and book-based ), technical
3.3 Abstracting and indexing papers
4 Limitations in the use of citation analysis
Temporal 1900 to present
5 See also
6 References coverage
7 External links No. of 90 million +
records
Links
Background and history
Website (http://ipscience.thomsonreuters.co
A citation index is built on the fact that citations in science m/product/web-of-science/)
serve as linkages between similar research items, and lead to
matching or related scientific literature, such as journal
articles, conference proceedings, abstracts, etc. In addition, literature which shows the greatest impact in a
particular field, or more than one discipline, can be easily located through a citation index. For example, a
paper's influence can be determined by linking to all the papers that have cited it. In this way, current trends,
patterns, and emerging fields of research can be assessed. Eugene Garfield, the "father of citation indexing of
academic literature,"[2] who launched the Science Citation Index (SCI), which in turn led to the Web of
Science,[3] wrote:
Citations are the formal, explicit linkages between papers that have particular points in common. A
citation index is built around these linkages. It lists publications that have been cited and identifies
the sources of the citations. Anyone conducting a literature search can find from one to dozens of
additional papers on a subject just by knowing one that has been cited. And every paper that is
found provides a list of new citations with which to continue the search.
The simplicity of citation indexing is one of its main strengths.[4]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_of_Science 1/5
Search and analysis
Web of Science is described as a unifying research tool which enables the user to acquire, analyze, and
disseminate database information in a timely manner. This is accomplished because of the creation of a
common vocabulary, called ontology, for varied search terms and varied data. Moreover, search terms generate
related information across categories.
Acceptable content for Web of Science is determined by an evaluation and selection process based on the
following criteria: impact, influence, timeliness, peer review, and geographic representation.[5]
Web of Science employs various search and analysis capabilities. First, citation indexing is employed, which is
enhanced by the capability to search for results across disciplines. The influence, impact, history, and
methodology of an idea can be followed from its first instance, notice, or referral to the present day. This
technology points to a deficiency with the keyword-only method of searching.
Second, subtle trends and patterns relevant to the literature or research of interest, become apparent. Broad
trends indicate significant topics of the day, as well as the history relevant to both the work at hand, and
particular areas of study.
Third, trends can be graphically represented.[5][6]
Coverage
Expanding the coverage of Web of Science, in November 2009
Thomson Reuters introduced Century of Social Sciences. This service
contains files which trace social science research back to the beginning
of the 20th century,[7][8] and Web of Science now has indexing coverage
from the year 1900 to the present.[9][10] As of 3 September 2014, the
multidisciplinary coverage of the Web of Science encompasses over
50,000 scholarly books, 12,000 journals and 160,000 conference
proceedings.[11] The selection is made on the basis of impact
evaluations and comprise open-access journals, spanning multiple
academic disciplines. The coverage includes: the sciences, social
Entering a search query on Web of
sciences, arts, and humanities, and goes across disciplines.[9][12]
Science.
However, Web of Science does not index all journals, and its coverage
in some fields is less complete than in others.
Furthermore, as of September 3, 2014 the total file count of the Web of Science was 90 million records, which
included over a billion cited references. This citation service on average indexes around 65 million items per
year, and it is described as the largest accessible citation database.[12]
Titles of foreign-language publications are translated into English and so cannot be found by searches in the
original language.[13]
Citation databases
Web of Science consist of seven online databases:[14][15]
Conference Proceedings Citation Index covers more than 160,000 conference titles in the Sciences
starting from 1990 to the present day
Science Citation Index Expanded covers more than 8,500 notable journals encompassing 150 disciplines.
Coverage is from the year 1900 to the present day.
Social Sciences Citation Index covers more than 3,000 journals in

social science disciplines. Range of coverage is from the year
1900 to the present day.
Arts & Humanities Citation Index covers more than 1,700 arts
and humanities journals starting from 1975. In addition, 250
major scientific and social sciences journals are also covered.
Index Chemicus lists more than 2.6 million compounds. The time
of coverage is from 1993 to present day.
Web of Science databases.
Current Chemical Reactions indexes over one million reactions,
and the range of coverage is from 1986 to present day. The INPI
archives from 1840 to 1985 are also indexed in this database.
Book Citation Index covers more than 60,000 editorially selected books starting from 2005.
Regional databases
Since 2008, the Web of Science hosts a number of regional citation indices. The Chinese Science Citation
Database, produced in partnership with the Chinese Academy of Sciences, was the first one in a language other
than English.[16] It was followed in 2013 by the SciELO Citation Index, covering Brazil, Spain, Portugal, the
Caribbean and South Africa, and more 12 countries of Latin America;[17] by the Korea Citation Index (KCI) in
2014, with updates from the South Korean National Research Foundation.,[18] and by the Russian Science
Citation index in 2015.[19]
Contents
The seven citation indices listed above contain references which have been cited by other articles. One may use
them to undertake cited reference search, that is, locating articles that cite an earlier, or current publication. One
may search citation databases by topic, by author, by source title, and by location. Two chemistry databases,
Index Chemicus and Current Chemical Reactions allow for the creation of structure drawings, thus enabling
users to locate chemical compounds and reactions.
Abstracting and indexing
The following types of literature are indexed: scholarly books, peer reviewed journals, original research
articles, reviews, editorials, chronologies, abstracts, as well as other items. Disciplines included in this index
are agriculture, biological sciences, engineering, medical and life sciences, physical and chemical sciences,
anthropology, law, library sciences, architecture, dance, music, film, and theater. Seven citation databases
encompasses coverage of the above disciplines.[10][11][14]
Limitations in the use of citation analysis

As with other scientific approaches, scientometrics and bibliometrics have their own limitations. Recently, a
criticism was voiced pointing toward certain deficiencies of the journal impact factor (JIF) calculation process,
based on Thomson Reuters Web of Science, such as: journal citation distributions usually are highly skewed
towards established journals; journal impact factor properties are field-specific and can be easily manipulated
by editors, or even by changing the editorial policies; this makes the entire process essentially non-
transparent.[20]
Regarding the more objective journal metrics, there is a growing view that for greater accuracy it must be
supplemented with article-level metrics and peer-review.[20] Thomson Reuters replied to criticism in general
terms by stating that "no one metric can fully capture the complex contributions scholars make to their
disciplines, and many forms of scholarly achievement should be considered."[21]
See also
CSA databases PASCAL database
Dialog (online database) PubMed Central
Energy Citations Database ResearchGate
Energy Science and Technology Database SciELO
ETDEWEB Scopus
Google Scholar VINITI Database RAS
h-index Open Citations Corpus
List of academic journal search engines
Materials Science Citation Index
PASCAL database
References
1. Drake, Miriam A. Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. New York, N.Y.: Marcel Dekker, 2004.
2. Jacso, Peter. The impact of Eugene Garfield through the prizm of Web of Science. Annals of Library and Information
Studies, Vol. 57, September 2010, P. 222. PDF (http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/10235/4/ALIS%205
7%283%29%20222-247.pdf)
3. Garfield, Eugene, Blaise Cronin, and Helen Barsky Atkins. The Web of Knowledge: A Festschrift in Honor of
Eugene Garfield. Medford, N.J.: Information Today, 2000.
4. Garfield, Garfield, Eugene. Citation indexing: Its theory and application in science, technology, and humanities. New
York: Wiley, 1979, P. 1. PDF (http://garfield.library.upenn.edu/ci/chapter1.PDF)
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Web of Knowledge. Thomson Reuters. 2010. Accessed on 2010-06-24
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(Discussion of finding literature manually. Description of citation indexing, and Web of Science.). The University of Oklahoma
Libraries. Retrieved 2010-06-23.
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connection/realfacts/#regional). Retrieved 10 December 2016.
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of Harvard College. December 3, 2009. Retrieved 2010-06-23.
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15. Jo Yong-Hak. Web of Science. Thomson Reuters, 2013 (http://wokinfo.com/media/pdf/WoSFS_08_7050.pdf)
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cholarly-search-and-discovery/chinese-science-citation-database.html).
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esearch-centers-within-web-of-knowledge.html).
18. "Thomson Reuters Collaborates with National Research Foundation of Korea to Showcase the Region's Research in
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n-of-korea.html).
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rsci/). Retrieved 10 December 2016.
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2012 (http://am.ascb.org/dora/)
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External links
About Web of Science (http://wokinfo.com/)
Web of Science (http://webofknowledge.com)
Searching the Citation Indexes (Web of Science) (https://web.archive.org/web/20110521161422/http://hc
l.harvard.edu/research/guides/citationindex/) Harvard College Library. 2010. (archive)
MIT Web of Science video tutorial (http://video.mit.edu/watch/web-of-science-12339/). 2008.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Web_of_Science&oldid=787550640"
Categories: Bibliographic databases and indexes Online databases Thomson Reuters Citation indices


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Capítulo 1

Do Atomismo à Física Moderna

1.2 Evolução do Conceito do Átomo e a Tabela Periódica

1.3 Ligações Químicas e Moléculas: Compostos Inorgânicos, Orgânicos, Biomoléculas e Nano

1.4 Física Clássica X Física Moderna

1.5 Mecânica Quântica, Relatividade e Física Nuclear

1.6 Física Experimental X Física Teórica X Applied Physics

1.8 Divulgação & Publicação em Física e Bases de Dados

The scientific method is a body of

The scientific method is the process by which science is carried out.[18] As in

current method is based on a hypothetico-deductive model[28] formulated in the

The overall process involves making conjectures (hypotheses), deriving

A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on knowledge obtained while formulating the

This is an investigation of whether the real world behaves as predicted by the

as the carrier of genetic information by the Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment in 1944,[33] but

Data recording and sharing

Properties of scientific inquiry

Beliefs and biases

Elements of the scientific method

Four essential elements[56][57][58] of the scientific method[59] are iterations,[60][61] recursions,[62]

Characterizations (observations,[63] definitions, and measurements of the subject of inquiry)

3. Form an explanatory hypothesis

— Andreas Vesalius, (1546)[73]

Another example: precession of Mercury

The characterization element can require extended and extensive study,

A hypothesis is a suggested explanation of a phenomenon, or alternately a reasoned proposal suggesting a

William Glen observes that

Predictions from the hypothesis

Another example: general relativity

Einstein's theory of General Relativity makes several specific predictions

Evaluation and improvement

Models of scientific inquiry

Communication and community

Peer review evaluation

Documentation and replication

The primary constraints on contemporary science are:

Publication, i.e. Peer review

Philosophy and sociology of science

Role of chance in discovery

Mathematical method Scientific method

Relationship with statistics

History, philosophy, sociology

Epistemology Normal science Sociology of scientific

10. Gauch, Hugh G. (2003). Scientific Method in Practice (https://books.google.com/?id=iVkugqNG9dAC) (Reprint

23. Taleb contributes a brief description of anti-fragility, http://www.edge.org/q2011/q11_3.html

42. Reconstruction of Galileo Galilei's experiment – the inclined plane (http://www.fyysika.ee/vorgustik/wp-content/uplo

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&oldid=791869994"

Categories: Scientific method Scientific revolution Philosophy of science

This page was last edited on 23 July 2017, at 00:22.

An atom is the smallest constituent unit of ordinary

Atoms are small enough that attempting to predict their

Every atom is composed of a nucleus and one or more

History of atomic theory

First evidence-based theory

Discovery of the electron

Discovery of the nucleus

While experimenting with the products of radioactive decay, in 1913

In 1913 the physicist Niels Bohr proposed a model in which the

Chemical bonding explained

Chemical bonds between atoms were now explained, by Gilbert Newton

Discovery of the neutron

Fission, high-energy physics and condensed matter

All the bound protons and neutrons in an atom

The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus can be