INVESTIGATIVE STUDY OF PERIODIC YARN FAULTS AND

ITS REMOVAL BY USING GEARING ANALYSIS

A Thesis Submitted To

Bahauddin Zakariya University College of

Textile Engineering, Multan

By

MUHAMMAD RIZWAN 11-TE-13

MUHAMMAD MUNAWAR 11-TE-29

MUHAMMAD ASAD 11-TE-30

YASIR AKHTAR 11-TE-40

BAHAUDDIN ZAKARIYA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF TEXTILE

ENGINEERING, MULTAN

December, 2015

i
 CANDIDAT’s DECLARATION

We certify that the thesis entitled” Investigative Study Of Periodic Yarn Faults And Its
Removal By Gearing Analysis” submitted for the degree of B.sc Textile Engineering is
the result of our own research, except where otherwise acknowledged, and that this thesis in
whole or in part has now been submitted for an award, including a higher degree, to any
other university or institution.

Muhammad Rizwan
Signed: ---------------------- Date: 14/12/2015

Muhammad Munawar
Signed: ---------------------- Date:14/12/2015

Muhammad Asad
Signed: ---------------------- Date:14/12/2015

Yasir Akhtar
Signed: ---------------------- Date:14/12/2015

ii
 CERTIFICAT

It is to certify that this thesis entitled “Investigative Study of Periodic Yarn Faults
and Its Removal by Using Gearing Analysis” has been accepted as a partial
fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of B.sc Textile Engineering in
Bahauddin Zakariya University College of Textile Engineering Multan.

Associate Supervisor: -------------------- Principle Supervisor: ---------------------

Project Coordinator: --------------------- External Examiner: ----------------------

Vice Principal: ------------------------

iii
 DEDICATION

To our beloved parents and respected teachers

iv
 ACKNOWLEGEMENT

First of all we want to thank AL-MIGHTY ALLAH who made us able to do this.

We are thankful to our parents who like to see us successful in all fields of life and
pray for us to have a happy and long live.

We would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher Mr.

Muhammad Furqan Khurshid as well as our vise principal Mr. Tahir Bappi and Mr.
Ahsanullah (General Manager of Unit No.4, Fazal Cloth Mills, Fazal Nagar Jhang
Road, Muzaffargarh) who gave us the golden opportunity to do this wonderful
project on the topic ,“Investigative Study Of Periodic Yarn Faults And Its Removal
By Using Uster Quantum” which also helped using doing a lot of Research and we
came to know about so many new things. We are really thankful to them.

We want to thank administration and staff of Unit No.4, Fazal Cloth Mills, Fazal

Nagar Jhang Road, Muzaffargarh who were very kind and supportive to us.
Especially to Mr. Ahsanullah(General Manager of Unit No.4, Fazal Cloth Mills,

Fazal Nagar Jhang Road, Muzaffargarh) who helped us throughout the project and
gave free hand to perform our experiment.

We are thank full to our beloved senior Laal Khan, great teacher and again project
supervisor Mr. Furqan Khurshid, the guidance of whom has been always source of
light in darkness and he was always available to us. In difficult process of compiling
and writing of our project we are very thankful to him who told us the right way of
doing this.

v
 ABSTRACT

It has been widely reported that periodic faults in cotton yarn are one of the main
reasons of yarn rejection from weaving mill. This thesis has been undertaken to
study periodic faults produced in cotton ring spinning mill, its rectification and
prevention from occurring. The purpose of periodic yarn fault detection system was
to identify defective part in the machine. This system is suitable for identifying the
source of periodic fault on the machine. It was developed because spectral analysis
of machines with complex driving systems requires time and work-consuming
calculations, which make it considerably more difficult to quickly find the cause of
the detected periodicity in the stream of fibers.

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER # 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 1
1.1 Yarn ............................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Types of Yarn ................................................................................................. 1
1.2.1 Filament Yarn .......................................................................................... 1
1.2.2 Staple or Spun Yarn ................................................................................. 1
1.3 Manufacturing Process of Staple or Spun Yarn ............................................... 2
1.4 Brief Introduction of Departments .................................................................. 3
1.4.1 Blow Room Process ................................................................................. 3
1.4.2 Carding Process ....................................................................................... 3
1.4.3 Combing process...................................................................................... 4
1.4.4 Drawing frame Process ............................................................................ 4
1.4.5 Roving frame ........................................................................................... 5
1.4.6 Ring Spinning Process ............................................................................. 5
1.4.7 Cone Winding Process: ............................................................................ 7
1.5 Yarn Faults ..................................................................................................... 8
1.6 Yarn Faults Classification ............................................................................... 8
1.6.1 Classimat Faults ....................................................................................... 9
1.6.2 Deviation in Yarn Quality Faults .............................................................. 9
1.6.3 Periodic Yarn Faults ............................................................................... 16
CHAPTER #2 Materials and Method ................................................................. 26
2.1 Material ........................................................................................................ 26
2.2 Method ......................................................................................................... 28
2.2.1 Identify the periodic fault length by mass spectrogram ........................... 28
2.2.2 Analysis the Gearing System .................................................................. 29
2.2.3 Identify Origination Point of Yarn Fault ................................................. 30
2.2.4 Rectification of Yarn Faults ................................................................... 30
CHAPTER #3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................................. 31
3.1 Investigation and rustication of periodic faults at breaker.............................. 31
3.1.1 Identify the periodic fault length by mass spectrogram ........................... 31
3.1.2 Analysis the gearing system ................................................................... 32
3.1.3 Identify Origination Point of Yarn Fault ................................................. 33
3.1.4 Rectification of Yarn Faults ................................................................... 34

vii
 3.2 Investigation and rustication of periodic faults at Finisher............................. 35
3.2.1 Identify the periodic fault length by mass spectrogram ........................... 35
3.2.2 Analysis the Gearing System .................................................................. 36
3.2.3 Identify origination point of yarn fault .................................................... 37
3.3 Investigation and rustication of periodic faults at Simplex ............................ 39
3.3.1 Identify the periodic fault length by mass spectrogram ........................... 39
3.3.2 Analysis the Gearing System .................................................................. 40
3.3.3 Identify origination point of yarn fault .................................................... 42
3.3.4 Rectification of Yarn Faults ................................................................... 42
3.4 Investigation and rustication of periodic faults at Ring .................................. 43
3.4.1 Identify the periodic fault length by mass spectrogram ........................... 43
3.4.2 Analysis the Gearing System .................................................................. 44
3.4.3 Identify Origination Point of Yarn Fault ................................................. 45
3.4.4 Rectification of Yarn Faults ................................................................... 46
Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 47
References ............................................................................................................ 47

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1.1: FLOW CHART OF SPUN YARN MANUFACTURING PROCESS ...................... 2

FIGURE 1.2: CLASSIFICATION OF YARN ..................................................................... 8
FIGURE 1.3: CLASSIFICATION MATRIX IN CLASSIMAT ................................................ 9
FIGURE 1.4: EFFECT OF COUNT VARIATION ON THE FABRIC SURFACE..................... 10
FIGURE 1.5: HAIRINESS ON THE SURFACE OF YARN ................................................ 14
FIGURE 1.6: DIFFERENCE IN PERIODICITY ................................................................ 17
FIGURE 1.7: MOIRÉ EFFECT..................................................................................... 18
FIGURE 1.8: AMPLITUDE OF PERIODIC FAULT .......................................................... 19
FIGURE 1.9: NORMAL MASS SPECTROGRAM ............................................................ 20
FIGURE 1.10: EXAMPLE OF SPECTROGRAM OF CHIMNEY FAULT .............................. 22
FIGURE 1.11: EFFECT OF CHIMNEY FAULT ON YARN .............................................. 22
FIGURE 1.12: EXAMPLE OF SPECTROGRAM OF HILL TYPE PERIODIC FAULT ............. 23
FIGURE 1.13: SPECTROGRAM AND YARN BOARD IMAGE OF A BAD OE YARN. ......... 25
FIGURE 2.1: SEQUENCE OF MACHINES FOR YARN PREPARATION ............................. 27
FIGURE 2.2: SPECTROGRAM REPRESENTING PERIODIC FAULT .................................. 28
FIGURE 2.3: DRAFTING ELEMENTS OF A RING SPINNING MACHINE WITH GEARING
DRIVE ............................................................................................................. 29
FIGURE 3.1: GEARING DIAGRAM OF DRAWING BREAKER ........................................ 32
FIGURE 3.2: GEARING DIAGRAM OF DRAWING FINISHER ......................................... 36
FIGURE 3.3: GEARING DIAGRAM OF SIMPLEX FL-100 .............................................. 40
FIGURE 3.4: GEARING DIAGRAM OF RING FRAME RX-240 ....................................... 44

ix
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 2.1: THE PROPERTIES OF COTTON ............................................................... 26

TABLE 2.2: PARAMETERS USED IN THE EXPERIMENTS ............................................. 27
TABLE 3.1: PERIODIC FAULT LENGTHS OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF BREAKER .............. 33
TABLE 3.2: PERIODIC FAULT LENGTHS OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF FINISHER ............... 37
TABLE 3.3: PERIODIC FAULT LENGTHS OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF SIMPLEX FL-100 .... 41
TABLE 3.4: PERIODIC FAULT LENGTHS OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF RING FRAME RX-240
....................................................................................................................... 45

x
Chapter: Introduction
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.1 Yarn
A yarn is defined as a product of substantial length and relatively small cross section
consisting of fiber and/or filament with or without twist.[1]

OR

A Yarn is long length continuous strand of twisted fibers of natural or synthetic

material, such as cotton, wool or nylon, used in weaving or knitting. [2]

The characteristics of spun yarn depend, in part, on the amount of twist given to the
fibers during spinning. A fairly high degree of twist produces strong yarn; a low
twist produces softer, more lustrous yarn; and a very tight twist produces crepe yarn.
Yarns are also classified by their number of parts. A single yarn is made from a
group of filament or staple fibers twisted together. Ply yarns are made by twisting
two or more single yarns. Cord yarns are made by twisting together two or more ply
yarns.

1.2 Types of Yarn

There are two classifications of yarns that will be produced by spinning which are
Filament and Staple yarns.[3]

1.2.1 Filament Yarn

These yarns are made from long, and continuous strands of fiber. Most of them from
synthetic and only silk represents for natural fibers in filament.

1.2.2 Staple or Spun Yarn

Staple or spun yarns in other hand are made from short length of fibers. It can be
found from natural fibers or can be produced using synthetic as staple filament
yarns. As it is short length, staple fibers need to be held together with others in order
to get the long and continuous yarns.

1
1.3 Manufacturing Process of Staple or Spun Yarn
Staple yarn manufacturing is a sequence of processes that convert raw cotton fibres
into yarn suitable for use in various end-products. A number of processes are
required to obtain the clean, strong, uniform yarns required in modern textile
markets. Beginning with a dense package of tangled fibres (cotton bale) containing
varying amounts of non-lint materials and unusable fibre (foreign matter, plant trash,
motes and so on), continuous operations of opening, blending, mixing, cleaning,
carding, drawing, roving and spinning are performed to transform the cotton fibres
into yarn.[3]

Figure 1.1: Flow Chart of Spun Yarn Manufacturing Process

2
1.4 Brief Introduction of Departments

1.4.1 Blow Room Process

Blow room is the initial stage in spinning process. The name blow room is given
because of the “air flow” And all process is done in blow room because of air flow.
Blow room is consisting of different machines to carry out the objectives of blow
room. In blow room the tuft size of cotton becomes smaller and smaller due to that
cleaning also done. Mixing of cotton is done separately as well as in blow room.
Compressed layer of bale is also open in blow room with the help of machine. Other
contamination in the cotton such as leaf, stone, iron particles, jute, poly
propylene, colored fibers, feather and other foreign material also remove from
cotton by opening and beating. Then open material feed to the next carding process
uniformly.[4]

1.4.2 Carding Process

Carding process is very important role in spinning mill. It helps us both way to open
the tuft into a single fiber and to remove the impurities and naps. Textile experts are
convinced for the accuracy of following statement.

“The card is the heart of spinning mill” and “well carded is well spun” (Vijykumar,
2007) [5]

Card feeding is done by two ways. One is manually and other is through chute feed
system. In manual case the lap which is produced in blow room and it is feed to the
card. In chute feed the material is feed through air flow system to card
machine. It is important to say that lower the feed variation better is the carding
quality. Lower the feed variation then draft variation will also be less. Then yarn
quality will be consistent. If the card is having auto leveler then nominal draft
should be selected properly. In some circumstances card also act as a cleaner
and remove a certain amount of short fiber. Approximately 90% cleaning
efficiency is achieved with the help of carding machine.[6]

3
1.4.3 Combing process
For getting high quality of yarn, one extra process is introduced which is called
combing process.

Combing is an operation in which dirt and short fibers are removed from sliver lap
by following ways. In a specially designed jaws, a narrow lap of fiber is
firmly gripped across its width. Closely spaced needles are passed through the fiber
projecting from jaws. Short fiber which we remove is called comber noil. The
comber noil can be recycled in the production of carded yarn. Yarn which is
get from comber sliver is called comber yarn. Carded sliver are combine into
comber lap in a single continuous process stage. Flat sheet of fiber which is get from
comber lap is fed into the comber in an intermediate.

There are different ways by which value of combing is used in the manufacturing of
cotton. By spinning point of view combing process makes more uniformity in the
yarn. Strength of yarn is also high because in combing process short fiber are
removed and only fiber having good strength remains. So it play very
important role for increasing the yarn strength. Because of straightened
condition of fibers combing makes possible spinning smoother and more
lustrous yarn. In combing process length of fiber are strong so it need less
twist produced then carded yarn. [7]

1.4.4 Drawing frame Process

Draw frame is simple and cheap machine. In spinning regarding to quality point of
view it play very important role .If its setting is not done properly then it affects yarn
strength and elongation. For improving quality draw frame is final process in the
spinning mill. It effects on quality especially on evenness of sliver. In the spinning
process there are chances of elimination of errors in draw frame machine. Draw
frame play very important role for the quality of yarn. Without it participation
quality can never be improved.[8]Drafting arrangement is the heart of the draw
frame. Drafting arrangement should be simple, stable design, should have
ability to produce high quality product. It should have high fiber control.

4
Auto leveler is also used to adjust and to improve the linear density of the
sliver. Without auto leveler it is very difficult to improve the quality of the draw
frame sliver.

1.4.5 Roving frame

It is an intermediate process in which fibers are converted into low twist lea called
roving. The sliver which is taken from draw frame is thicker so it is not suitable for
manufacturing of yarn. [7]

Its purpose is to prepare input package for next process. This package is to
prepare on a small compact package called bobbins. Roving machine is
complicated, liable to fault, causes defect adds to the production costs and
deliver the product. In this winding operation that makes us roving frame complex.
There are two main basic reasons for using roving frame. The roving sliver is thick
and untwisted. Because of it hairiness and fly is created. So draft is needed to
reduce the linear density of sliver. The ring drafting arrangement is not capable that
it may process the roving sliver to make the yarn.

Draw frame can represent the worst conceivable mode of transport and
presentation of feed material to the ring spinning frame.

1.4.6 Ring Spinning Process

Ring Spinning machine is used in textile industry to twist the staple fibers into a
yarn and wind on a bobbin for the winding section for more precise the yarn
to minimize the defects of end yarn. Ring machine is very important due to yarn
quality. Ring Spinning is the most costly step to convert fibers into yarn and
approximately 85% yarn produced in ring spinning frame all over the world. It is
made to draft the roving into a desired count and impart the desired twist to produce
the strength in the yarn. If twist is increased, yarn strength is also increased at
optimum limit.[2]

The input of ring frame is roving which comes from roving section this is final stage
where yarn is make. Here in this section need more drafting to reduce the liner
density of roving and more twist to make a yarn. The output of ring frame is yarn
which is wound on a ring bobbin which is used for next winding process.

5
1.4.6.1 Function of Ring Process
There is a different function of Ring Spinning process in which roving is
converted into yarn through passing different zone like drafting, twisting and
winding zone. There are three important zone of Ring processes below here. [9]

 Drafting Zone
 Twisting Zone
 Winding Zone

1.4.6.1.1 Drafting Zone

Drafting is the first zone of ring process and is very important part of machine and
mostly effects on the evenness and strength of yarn. In quality point of view, there
are many points which are related to the quality of drafting system.

 Type of the draft

 Selection of drafting parts like apron, rubber cots and spacer.
 Range of draft
 Draft designing and setting
 Service and maintenance
 Type of perforated drum

1.4.6.1.2 Twisting Zone

It is the second zone and is also very important part of Ring machine in which
the strands of fiber are converted into a yarn by the twist inserted. The strength of
yarn is depend upon the amount of twist which are given in twisting zone and it is
most important than other zone due to required strength of yarn. There are some
very important points related to quality point of view in twisting zone are;

 Material and type of traveler

 Wear resistance
 Lubrication of fiber
 Smooth running
 Spindle and Traveler Speed

6
1.4.6.1.3 Winding Zone

This is the last section of ring machine in which yarn is wound on the plastic bobbin
by the up and down movement of ring rail which is linked to a small motor. It is also
very important because the setting of ring rail makes coils of yarn on bobbin in such
a way that the Z-twist is not open during winding process. Some points are very
important during winding process. That’s are;

 Ring rail speed setting

 Bobbin material
 No. of coils per inch

1.4.6.2 Ring Spinning Effects on Quality

Ring spinning is the first stage of post spinning in which yarn produced from
the roving installed on the hanger on the ring machine. Ring process is the heart of
textile plant and there is lot of factors effect on the yarn quality. Speed of machine
makes a major role on the yarn quality, as the speed increase of ring
machine, the imperfection (Neps 200%, Thick +50, Thin -50) of yarn increase.
Hairiness is also affected in ring production process and mainly produced by
the movement of burnt traveler and high speed of machine.CV of count is also very
important and ring spinning process is the last stage of process where we can reduce
the CV of yarn count. Imperfection of yarn count in quality point of view is so
important that every customer required this quality standard, that imperfection
should be minimum as possible. [9]

1.4.7 Cone Winding Process:

It is the last section of yarn manufacturing process where auto cone machines are
installed and take an input material from ring spinning section as a yarn bobbin and
give a yarn on paper cone after passing detecting instrument as an output. In
winding section, there are lot of heads in auto cone machines use to wound the yarn
from ring bobbin yarn to paper cone yarn. Now days, there are some companies to
manufacturing these machines and Savio company is one of them which produce a
fully automatic machine for spinning industries. In quality point of view, it is a very
good machine and has also very low maintenance cost.

7
Winding department plays an important role in the production and quality of
yarn and causes direct effect on them. The yarn which made in ring section is not
finish yarn and can’t sell to customer. After making the yarn in ring process,
auto cone section made it more even yarn by passing through the optical
sensor and capacitor sensor which is installed in different heads of machine.
The yarn which is obtained from winding section is able to sell the customers.

1.5 Yarn Faults

Yarn faults may be defined as yarn irregularities that can lead to difficulties in
subsequent production stages, or to defects in fabric.

1.6 Yarn Faults Classification

YARN FAULTS

CLASSIMATE Physical PERIODIC

SELDOM
COUNT CV PERIODIC
OCCURING

RANDOM
U% NON PERIODIC
OCCURING

HARINESS

CONTAMINATION

IPI

STRENGTH

Figure 1.2: Classification of Yarn

8
1.6.1 Classimate Faults
The position of the frequent yarn faults (imperfections) in comparison to the position of
the seldom-occurring yarn faults in the classification matrix are shown in the figure. It
becomes clear, that both types of yarn faults differ from each other clearly by their size
and thus, cannot be compared with each other. In addition, the areas of the clearer
settings N, S, L, T, CCp and CCm are indicated in Fig. This shows where the settings are
effective. [16]

Figure 1.3: Classification matrix in Classimat

1.6.2 Deviation in Yarn Quality Faults

 COUNT CV
 IRREGULARITY
 HARINESS
 IMPERFECTIONS
 STRENGTH

1.6.2.1 Count Variation

This is usually expressed in terms of CV between hank length such as 100 or 50
meter. In case of drawn and spun yarns, long term irregularity arises from variation
either between groups, between bobbins or within bobbins. Between groups
variation represents the difference between spinning frames, frame sides and times
of spinning, whereas between[11][12]

9
 Figure 1.4: Effect Of Count Variation On The Fabric Surface
(Combed cotton 100%, Nec 30, Nm 50, 20 Tex)

1.6.2.1.1 Within Bobbins Count Variation

 High card sliver & comber sliver U%

 High tension draft or improper coils in bobbins variations
 Irregular drafting &n stretching on speed frame.
 Retching in roving
 Use of separator plates at high spindle speeds.
 Excessive pinion changes in ring spinning
 Defective draw frame is a single major cause for with in bobbins variation,
such as excessive creel or web tension, roller slippage in drawing and
adverse humidity conditions in hair the draw frame drafting leading to within
bobbins variations.
 Low humidity

1.6.2.1.2 Between Bobbin Count Variation

 Variation in average lap weight over long intervals (e.g. half shift) including
allowance to variation in humidity
 High cm to cm variation in lap

10
  Excessive variation in tuft size
 Draft to waste difference between groups of cads or at combers.
 Hank differences between D.F slivers
 Stretch in the D.F slivers fed to roving
 Use of one passage post comber D.F
 Row to row differences in hank roving.
 Draft differences between roving frame
 Marked changes in hank roving over a roving frame bobbins caused by
irregular bobbins speed control
 Draft differences between ring frame
 Frequent changes of pinion in drawing and ring spinning
 Creel draft variation and bobbin holders clogging with waste
 Variation in top roller pressure
 Variation in bare bobbins diameter
 Spindle variation in ring finish
 High variation in RH% age

At several stages in spinning process stretch take place and become a source of great
hidden menace as it not only undesirable variation (between bobbins and within
bobbins) but also results in high end breakages excessive wastes and lower the
quality of end product.

1.6.2.2 Yarn Irregularity

All spun yarns are to some extent irregular it is the degree of irregularity which
determines whether it is acceptable or not for a particular end use. Appearance of
many fabrics is influenced by yarn irregularity hence this is frequently regarded as
one the most important yarn characteristics. Yarn irregularity is usually taken to
means the variations of mass per unit length variations in twist and strength and the
diameters are to large extent secondary or tertiary effects of variations in mass per
unit length. Gross variation (yarn faults) are the abnormal variations in the yarn
thickness, Yarns produced from very short fibers may contain short variation in
thickness. Fibers with the greater variation of their diameter have more irregular
yarn.

11
Yarn unevenness is much affected by roving and draft conditions. Long irregularity
is related to fore spinning process of middle roller of ring frame while short term
irregularity mainly process after middle roller of ring frame. Main factors involved
in the formation of short term irregularity are: limited irregularity due to random
fiber arrangement, imperfect fiber control which in roller drafting leads to drafting
waves varying in amplitude and length; and mechanical defects. The pattern of
irregularity in drawn and spun yarn is complex combination of wave length
introduced at each stage of drawing and in spinning. The most important wave is the
one with the shortest wavelength-introduced at the spinning frame. Long term count
variation may be influenced by the no. of doublings used during drawing and
spinning, short term irregularity is hardly influenced by this factor.[13]

There reasons are given below

 Faulty roving
 Faulty rotation of skewers
 Wrong guiding of roving in creel
 Chocking of trumpet
 Faulty working of traverse bar
 Wrong roller setting
 Inadequate pressure on top roller
 Eccentricity of rollers
 Roller lapping & sticking
 Defective & worn gears & bearings
 Uneven dia. of rubber cots
 Non alignment of apron
 Worn & damaged aprons
 Accumulation of lint under apron
 Incorrect gap between aprons
 Wider gauge in front drafting zone
 Incorrect setting of lappet & spindle
 Rough surface of separators
 Defective spindles

12
  Damaged & worn rings
 Light travelers
 Close setting of traveler cleaner
 Erratic ring rail traverse

The mathematical statistics offer 2 methods to represent yarn irregularity as

following;

1.6.2.2.1 Mean Variation U%

It is the percentage mass deviation of unit length of material and is caused by

uneven fiber distribution along the length of the strand. U% is mostly measure in cut
length of 1 cm that indicated as Um (this is the U value you would have got from
cutting the yarn into approximately 1 cm sections and weighing those short
sections.).The irregularity U% is proportional to the intensity of the mass variations
around the mean value. The U% is independent of the evaluating time or tested
material length with homogeneously distributed mass variation.

1.6.2.2.2 Coefficient Of Variation C.V. %

The standard deviation of the linear densities over which unevenness is measured
expressed as a percentage of the average linear density for the total length within
which unevenness is measured. C.V of irregularity can be measure using following
parameters;[14][15]

CVm: Coefficient of variation of mass with a cut length of approximately 1 cm. This
is the CV most often quoted in yarn specification and commercial transactions.

CVm (1m): Coefficient of variation of mass with a cut length of 1 m, simulating the
CV you would have got from cutting the yarn into 1 m sections and weighing those
sections. The same applies to CVm (10m) and CVm (100m). It should be noted that
as the cut length increases, the irregularity reduces.

1.6.2.3 Yarn Hairiness

Is a measure of the amount of fibers protruding from the structure of the yarn? Yarn
hairiness has many different effects on subsequent processing steps and on the
appearance of woven and knitted fabrics. . [15]

13
  During the weaving process, high hairiness can lead to entanglements of
warp threads.
 Hairiness is high for low twist and vice versa.
 Yarn winding will increase the yarn hairiness whereby the increase will
depend on the raw material, on the yarn twist and on the winding speed.
 In uni-colored fabric, hairiness variations exceeding 1.5 between yarns lying
next to each other can be detected by the human eye.
 The higher the hairiness, the softer a fabric.

Figure 1.5: Hairiness on the surface of yarn

1.6.2.4 Imperfections (Thin places, Thick places and Neps)

Thin places, thick places and neps are part of yarn unevenness. Deviations of the
mass from the average yarn body exceeding ±50% are counted as thin and thick
places. Neps are short thick places resulting from fiber entanglements of frequently
immature fibers or seed coat fragments. Imperfections in the cross-section of yarn
will heavily increase with higher yarn count, i.e. with fewer fibers in the cross-
section.

The higher the short fiber content, the higher the number of imperfections. Frequent
imperfections can be very disturbing in a fabric. Fiber entanglement often results
from immature fibers which cannot absorb dyestuff and, therefore, remain white.

14
1.6.2.4.1 Thin place (-50%)

Number of places that have mass reductions of 50% or more with respect to the
mean value. Note that (-50%) is the standard sensitivity level used in the test. If a
different sensitivity level (-40%, -40%, -60%) is used, the result would have been
different. These thin places have a length of approx. 40 cm.

1.6.2.4.2 Thick place (+50%)

These are number of places that have mass increases of 50% or more with respect to
the mean value. Note that (+50%) is the standard sensitivity level used in the test. If
a different sensitivity level (+35%, +70%, +100%) is used, the result would have
been different. These thick places have a length of approx. 40 cm.

1.6.2.4.3 Neps (+200%)

Number of places that have mass increases of +200% or more with respect to the
mean value and a reference length of 1mm. Note that +200% is the sensitivity level
normally used in the test. These short thick places in a yarn are often the results of
vegetable matter or entangled fibers.

1.6.2.5 Strength
Yarn strength is measure in tensile strength, which is defined as:-

The variation of maximum tensile strength is a measure for strength variations from
bobbin to bobbin. The causes of lack in fiber strength are
 Fiber strength
 Fiber growth
 Fiber damaging in the spinning process( inadequate roller gauge)
 Excessive rubber cots hardness
 Excessive top roller pressure
 Loose spindle tape
 RH%
 Singles (when using double roving)

15
  Stretched roving due to improper regulation of bobbin speed on roving frame
and
 poor handling of roving bobbins during transportation
 Excessive twist
 Defective piecing
 Excessive short fibers content
 Use of soft waste on mixing
 Roving

1.6.3 Periodic Yarn Faults

The variation in mass per unit length of yarn comprises three basic types, namely (i)
irregularity of a completely random nature, (ii) irregularity of a markedly periodic
nature, (iii) irregularity of a quasi-periodic nature. Purely random irregularity forms
an unavoidable component of total irregularity, so that a minimum achievable
random irregularity can be acceptable for apparel usage. Periodic yarn faults are
thick and thin places, which always occur with the same distance from each other.
Such faults are caused in the spinning process, when yarn guiding elements are
defective. The periodic irregularities which are found in the spun yarns may be the
result of machinery defects such as eccentric drafting rollers, variability in the
covering of drafting rollers, inaccurately cut or worn-out drafting rollers and the
vibration of drafting rollers. Yarns which are affected by any of these defects
occurring in the drafting prior to spinning can appreciably affect the yarn and the
resulting fabric. An eccentric front roller of the ring spinning machine leads to a
periodic fault with a wavelength of 8 cm, as this roller always causes faulty drafts in
the draw-box within the same time intervals. The size of each individual fault is
mostly not disturbing. But as a series of yarn faults, they can very well be disturbing.
In most cases, disturbing periodic faults are formed at the ring-spinning machine.
Widely known are defects caused by cuts and pressure marks on the take-off
cylinder. By this, the continuous distribution of the fibers is disturbed, which results
in thin- and thick places. The size of the fault corresponds to an alteration/shift of all
fibers of about 30-50%. The fault length depends on the dimension of the defective
machine part. The distance between the single events corresponds to the
circumference of the roller, e.g. at the front roller of a draw-box. A further reason for

16
periodic faults can be pressure marks on the top roller. If a spinning position or the
whole spinning frame is stopped and the pressure is not taken from the top roller, it
can lead to pressure marks on the top rollers after longer stops and thus to periodic
defects in the yarn.

Figure 1.6: Difference in periodicity

The distance between the single events corresponds to the circumference of the
cylinders. With soft, even lapping can lead to moiré pattern. Furthermore can a
missing bottom belt rubber coating of the top roller also lead to periodic faults.
There are many possibilities for the origin of periodic defects when spinning
compact yarns. The reasons depend strongly on the spinning method. For regular
ring spun yarns, the reasons are mostly pure mechanical insufficiencies, which lead
to periodic faults in the yarn. For compact yarns, the reasons can be found in the
contamination with fibers and dirt. This dirt can build up for an uncertain time,
which makes it much more difficult to find the reasons. Therefore, the monitoring of
periodic defects in compact yarns is essential.

17
 Figure 1.7: Moiré Effect
Mass variation in yarn can adversely affect many properties of textile materials such
as shade variations and strength. Mass variation can be attributed to the properties of
raw materials, inherent short comings in yarn making and preparatory machines,
mechanically defective machinery and/or external causes as a result of working
conditions and improper housekeeping.
Periodic mass variations in yarn can cause weft bars, diamond barring effects, moiré
effects, and weft stripes or rings in the resulting fabric. Hence, periodic irregularity
should not be permitted at all, since it greatly affects the appearance of fabric and
must be controlled. However, the presently available tools used to measure the
periodicity of mass per unit length variation have limitations. The spectrogram is
more reliable compared to other tools for determining periodicity; it works on the
principle of Fourier analysis, which sets out any function in a series of sine curves.
The actual mass variation will be resolved into different sinusoidal waves with
different amplitudes and wavelengths. Hence, spectrogram gives only the resolved
mass variation, which may not be present in the final yarn when different faults are
superimposed.
The spectrogram measures the periodic mass variations in a yarn by analyzing the
frequencies at which faults occur electronically. From the speed at which the yarn is
running the frequencies are converted to wavelengths and slotted into a finite
number of discrete wavelength steps. The result is a histogram as shown in Fig

18
where the amplitude is a measure of the number of times a fault of that repeat length
occurs owing to the fiber length having an effect on the distribution of repeats
around that Length the background level of the spectrogram is not flat but a
periodically repeating fault will show a level much greater than the background as is
shown in the figure. As a general rule the height of a peak in the spectrogram should
not be more than 50% of the basic spectrogram height at that wave length.[10]

Figure 1.8: Amplitude of Periodic Fault

The wavelength of the fault gives an indication of its cause and therefore allows it to
be traced to such mechanical problems as drafting waves, eccentric or oval rollers in
the spinning plant or in earlier preparation stages. The wavelength can also
correspond to the diameter of the yarn package, in which case it will vary between
the full and empty package. The wavelength of a fault that occurs before the drafting
in the spinning process will be multiplied by the drafting ratio.
"DIAGRAM" is a representation of the mass variations in the time domain.
Whereas, spectrogram is a representation of the mass variation in the frequency
domain. Spectrogram helps to recognize and analyze the periodic fault in the sliver,
roving and yarn.

19
 Figure 1.9: Normal Mass Spectrogram

For textile application, the frequency spectrum is not practical. A representation

which makes reference to the wavelength is preferred. Wavelength indicates directly
at which distance the periodic faults repeat. The more correct indication of the curve
produced by the spectrograph is the wave-length spectrum. Frequency and
wavelength are related as follows frequency = (wavelength)/(material speed)

In the spectrogram, the X-axis represents the wavelength. In order to cover a

maximum range of wavelengths, a logarithmic scale is used for the wavelength
representation. The y-axis is without scale but represents the amplitude of the faults
in yarn.

The spectrogram consists of shaded and non-shaded areas. If a periodic fault passes
through the measuring head for a minimum of 25 times, then it is considered as
significant and it is shown in the shaded area. Wavelength ranges which are not
statistically significant are not shaded. In this range the faults are displayed but not
hatched. This happens when a fault repeats for about 6 to 25 times within the tests
length of the material. As far as those faults in the un-shaded area is concerned, it is
recommended to first confirm the seriousness of the fault before proceeding with the
corrective action. This can be done by testing a longer length of yarn. Faults which
occur less than 6 times will not appear in the spectrogram. A spectrogram starts at
1.1 cm if the testing speed is 25 to 200 m/min. It starts at 2.0cm if the testing speed
is 400 m/min and it starts at 4 cm if the speed is 800m.min. For spun material the
maximum wavelength range is 1.28 km. Maximum number of channels is 80.
Depending upon the wavelength of the periodic fault, the mass variations are
classified as

Short-Term Variation (wavelength ranges from 1 cm to 50cm)

20
Medium-Term Variation (wavelength ranges from 50cm to 5 m)

Long-Term Variation (wavelength longer than 5 m)

Periodic variations in the range of 1 cm to 50 cm are normally repeated a number of

times within the woven or knitted fabric width, which results in the fact periodic
thick places or thin places, will lie near to each other. This produces, in most cases, a
"MOIRE EFFECT". This effect is particularly intensive for the naked eyes if the
finished product is observed at a distance of approx. 50 cm to 1m.

Periodic mass variations in the range of 50cm to 5m are not recognizable in every
case. Faults in this range are particularly effective if the single or double weave
width or the length of the stretched out yarn one circumference of the knitted fabric,
is an integral number of wave-lengths of the periodic fault, or is near to an integral
number of wave-lengths. In such cases, it is to be expected that weft stripes will
appear in the woven fabric or rings in the Knitted fabric.

Periodic mass variations with wave-lengths longer than 5m can result in quite
distinct cross-stripes in woven and knitted fabrics, because the wave-length of the
periodic fault will be longer than the width of the woven fabric or the circumference
of the knitted fabric. The longer the wavelength, the wider will be the width of the
cross-stripes. Such faults are quite easily recognizable in the finished product,
particularly when this is observed from distances further away than 1 m.

A periodic mass variation in a fiber assembly does not always result in a statistically
significant difference in the U/V value. Nevertheless, such a fault will result in a
woven or knitted fabric and deteriorate the quality of the fabric. Such patterning in
the finished product can become intensified after dyeing. This is particularly the
case with uni-colored products and products consisting of synthetic fiber filament
yarns. The degree to which a periodic fault can affect the finished product is not
only dependent on its intensity but also on the width and type of the woven or
knitted fabric, on the fiber material, on the yarn count, on the dye up-take of the
fiber, etc. A considerable number of trials have shown that the height of the peak
above the basic spectrum should not overstep 50% of the basic spectrum height at
the wavelength position where the peak is available.

21
1.6.3.1 Chimney Type Faults:
The eccentricity roller results in a sinusoidal mass variation whereby the periodicity
corresponds to full circumference of the roller. With one complete revolution of an
OVAL roller, a sinusoidal mass variation also results, but 2 periodic faults are
available. Chimney type of faults are mainly due to -mechanical faults -eccentric
rollers, gears etc -improper meshing of gears -missing gear teeth -missing teeth in
the timing belts -damaged bearings etc
Example of a chimney:

Figure 1.10: Example Of Spectrogram Of Chimney Fault

Figure 1.11: Effect of Chimney Fault On Yarn

1.6.3.2 Hill Type Faults:

These faults are due to drafting waves caused by -improper draft zone settings -
improper top roller pressure -too many short fibers in the material, etc numerous
measurements of staple-fiber materials have shown that there are rules for the
correlation between the appearance of drafting waves in the spectrogram and the
mean staple length. It is given below
Yarn: 2.75 x fiber length
Roving: 3.5 x fiber length

22
Combed Sliver: 4.0 x fiber length
Draw Frame Sliver: 4.0 x fiber length
A periodic fault which occurs at some stage or another in the spinning process is
lengthened by subsequent drafting. If the front roller of the second draw-frame is
eccentric, then by knowing the various drafts in the further processes, the position of
the peak in the spectrogram of the yarn measurement can be calculated. The
wavelength of a defective part is calculated by multiplying the circumference of the
part and the draft up-to that part. The wavelength of a defective part can be
calculated if the rotational speed of the defective part and the production speed are
known. Doubling is no suitable means of eliminating periodic faults. Elimination is
only possible in exceptional cases. In most cases, doubling can, under the best
conditions, only reduce the periodic faults. The influence of periodic mass variation
is proportional to the draft. Due to the quadratic addition of the partial irregularities,
the overall irregularity of staple-fiber yarns increases due to the periodic faults only
to an unimportant amount.
1.6.3.2.1 Drafting Faults

Another type of irregularity which is clearly visible in spectrograms is a drafting

fault. It is an exaggerated crest (hill) which results from poor fiber control in a
drafting zone.

Figure 1.12: Example of Spectrogram of hill type periodic Fault

Drafting faults are created and influenced by non-optimal settings of one or several
of the following factors:
- Gauge distance between the drafting rollers (Nip)
- Roller Pressure

23
- State of the roller’s surfaces
- Humidity of material and surrounding climate
When searching to eliminate drafting faults, one would look for the main cause in
one of those factors first. In many cases though, a compromise has to be found, since
certain materials are more critical. Example: Combed cotton draw frame slivers,
where the fibers are highly parallel and thus slippery and difficult to draft optimally
at a reasonable speed. A drafting fault hill is to be found at a wavelength of about
2.8 × average fiber length. If the drafting fault hill does not lie around 2.8 × average
fiber length, one has to divide the wavelength λ of the hill crest by 2.8 × average
fiber length in order to get the approximate draft factor back to the origin of the
fault.

hill crest
Formula: Draft ratio 
2. 8  average fiber length

1.6.3.3 Multiple Periods

In very many cases, a single periodic material fault produces multiple chimneys.
Multiple chimneys are the result of a periodic yarn mass variation which is not
evenly shaped, i.e. not sine-shaped. A multiple periodic fault consists of a base
wavelength and of so-called harmonic wavelengths. The harmonics are usually to
be found at factor 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, etc. of the base wavelength.

Example:

24
 Figure 1.13: Spectrogram and Yarn Board Image of a Bad OE Yarn.
The 10cm moiré was caused by a dirty Rotor groove.
The reason for the appearance of multiple chimneys lies in the behavior of wave signals.
Mathematically, it is complex (Fourier transformation), but graphically, it becomes quite
evident:

25
Chapter: Materials and Method
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.1 Material
Four outputs from Breaker, Finisher, Roving and Ring were chosen as raw material
for investigation of periodic yarn faults. These products were processed on the
standard spinning machinery with Pakistani Cotton. The properties of this cotton are
given in the table.

Table 2.1: The Properties Of Cotton

Parameter Mean
Cotton Type Carded Combed
SCI 126.69 132.75
Mic 4.35 4.64
Mat 0.88 0.9
Length (Inch) 1.078 1.106
Unf. 82.66 83.5
SFI (%) 7.61 7.14
Str. (g/tex) 29.81 31.01
Trash 7.77 6.91
Moist. (%) 8.84 9.12
Rd. 72.61 73.52
+b 8.66 8.23

All samples from breaker sliver, finisher sliver, simplex roving and ring yarn were
prepared in “Fazal Cloth Mills, Unit # 4” by using Automatic Bale Opener Blow room
setup of Trutzschler Company, Trutzschler TC-03 card, Draw frame breaker Reiter
Rsb-2, Finisher Reiter RSB-D 40, speed frame Fl-100 and ring frame RX-240. The
sequence of machines is shown in the figure 2.1. Parameter, that were used for the
preparation of breaker sliver, finisher sliver, simplex roving and ring yarn on each
machine are in the Table 2.2.

The linear densities of the prepared breaker sliver, finished sliver, and roving were
68 grains/yard, 65 grains/yard, and 0.74 hanks respectively. Yarn samples of and

26
21/1 Nec were prepared from rovings at a spindle speed of 21500 rpm with a twist
multiplier of 3.75 respectively.

Figure 2.1: Sequence of Machines for Yarn Preparation

Table 2.2: Parameters Used In the Experiments

27
2.2 Method
Before testing, all the prepared yarn samples were conditioned in the laboratory
under standard atmospheric conditions of 21±1°C and a relative humidity of 65±2.
The periodic faults at breaker sliver, finisher sliver, simplex roving and ring yarn
were investigated and analyzed and rectified by following steps.

1. Identify the periodic fault length by mass spectrogram.

2. Analysis the gearing system
3. Identify origination point of yarn fault
4. Rectification of yarn faults

2.2.1 Identify the Periodic Fault Length By Mass Spectrogram

When sliver, roving or yarn is tested by UT-4, it provides us mass spectrogram of
material. In the spectrogram, the X-axis represents the wavelength. In order to cover
a maximum range of wavelengths, a logarithmic scale is used for the wavelength
representation. The y-axis is without scale but represents the amplitude of the faults
in yarn.

Figure 2.2: Spectrogram Representing Periodic Fault

The spectrogram consists of shaded and non-shaded areas. If a periodic fault passes
through the measuring head for a minimum of 25 times, then it is considered as
significant and it is shown in the shaded area. Wavelength ranges which are not
statistically significant are not shaded. In this range the faults are displayed but not
hatched. This happens when a fault repeats for about 6 to 25 times within the tests

28
length of the material. As far as those faults in the un-shaded area is concerned, it is
recommended to first confirm the seriousness of the fault before proceeding with the
corrective action. This can be done by testing a longer length of yarn. Faults which
occur less than 6 times will not appear in the spectrogram.

2.2.2 Analysis the Gearing System

Gearing diagrams and their relative wavelengths are analyzed by using following
principle. Suppose a machine have following diagram.

Figure 2.3: Drafting Elements of a Ring Spinning Machine with Gearing Drive

Periodicity of front roller (λ 1) = λ 1 = DFR x π = 2.54 x π ≈ 8 cm

Periodicity of Z2 Gear = λ2 = λ1 x =8x = 88 cm

If the gear Z3 is defective, then the effect in the fiber material is the same as that
produced with the gear Z2, because both gears are on the same shaft.

Periodicity of Z4 Gear = λ3 = λ1 x x =8x x = 8.33 = 264 cm

= 2.64 m

The front roller, therefore, turns 33 times until the defect at Z4is repeated. A defect
of the gear Z4 directly affects the back roller BR because this gear is on the same
shaft. The influence on the back roller, multiplied by the total draft, results in the

29
same wave-length as the influence of Z4on the front roller: Circumference of the
back roller

UBR = DBR x π = 2.54 x π ≈ 8 cm

Wave-length at the output of the draw-box: λ 4 = UBR x Vtot = 8.33 = 264 cm

= 2.64 m

Here, Vtot = total draft

A defect of the gear Z4 affects the middle roller MR in the following manner
(Z4 and Z5 are on the same shaft):

λ`5 = UMR x x = 2.3 x π x x = 8.89 cm

Wave-length at the output of the draw-box: λ5 = D2 x λ`5 = 29.6 x 8.89 ≈ 263cm

= 2.63 m

So, using above principle, we analyze the gearing systems of Breaker, Finisher,
Simplex and Ring. The gearing diagrams along with wave length of each part are
given below.

2.2.3 Identify Origination Point of Yarn Fault

When searching the origin of the periodicity, the first step is to remember that the
fault is caused by a moving machine part, usually a rotating one. It can be directly
touching the material (rollers, coiling, etc.) or in the machine drive (gears, pulleys,
etc.). By using above analysis, location of periodic fault is identified by comparing
the wave calculating from the gearing system with mass spectrogram.

2.2.4 Rectification of Yarn Faults

Once the yarn fault and defective part is localized, then that defective part is
replaced by taking suitable measures or it is eliminating from the yarn by using
classimate setting termed as PC.

30
Chapter: Results and Discussion
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.1 Investigation and Rectification of Periodic Faults at Breaker

3.1.1 Identify the Periodic Fault Length By Mass Spectrogram

31
3.1.2 Analysis the Gearing System

Figure 3.1: Gearing Diagram of Drawing Breaker

32
 Table 3.1: Periodic Fault lengths of Different Parts of Breaker

3.1.3 Identify Origination Point of Yarn Fault

As you can see from the spectrogram chart peak of unacceptable length is shown in red
color approximately at 61~62cm, which cause periodic variation in yarn and can create
difficulties in subsequent processes. On the basis of analysis of the gearing system, λd2 is
the faulty middle roller which produces this peak.

33
3.1.4 Rectification of Yarn Faults
When medium roller was checked, there was a cut in the top medium roller. So,
medium roller was changed and hence fault was removed. And UT4 report after
removal of fault is given below.

Hence it proves that our periodic fault detection system was working properly.

34
3.2 Investigation and Rectification of Periodic Faults at Finisher

3.2.1 Identify the periodic fault length by mass spectrogram

35
3.2.2 Analysis the Gearing System

Figure 3.2: Gearing Diagram of Drawing Finisher

36
 Table 3.2: Periodic Fault lengths of Different Parts of Finisher

3.2.3 Identify Origination Point Of Yarn Fault

From this fig it is seen clear that peak is higher than acceptable limits so by
matching the values of spectrogram with PERIODIC FAULT DETECTION
SYSTEM. We can compare the value of λ. By comparing it is noted that this peak is
equal to λ NW1 (58.206 cm). Peak which shows that λNW1 gear is faulty.
3.2.4 Rectification of Yarn Faults

When gearing system was checked, there was a problem in λNW1. So, λ NW1 was
changed and hence fault was removed. And UT4 report after removal of fault is
given below.

37
38
3.3 Investigation and Rectification of Periodic Faults at Simplex

3.3.1 Identify the Periodic Fault Length by Mass Spectrogram

39
3.3.2 Analysis the Gearing System

Figure 3.3: Gearing Diagram of Simplex Fl-100

40
Table 3.3: Periodic Fault lengths of Different Parts of Simplex Fl-100

41
3.3.3 Identify Origination Point of Yarn Fault
From this fig it is seen clear that peak is higher than acceptable limits so by
matching the values of spectrogram with PERIODIC FAULT DETECTION
SYSTEM. We can compare the value of λ. By comparing it is noted that this peak is
equal to λ d(36 tooth gear of Simplex). Peak which shows that λd gear is faulty.

3.3.4 Rectification of Yarn Faults

When roller in the gearing named as d roller was checked, there was a damaged
tooth in that roller. So, roller was changed and hence fault was removed. And UT4
report after removal of fault is given below.

42
3.4 Investigation and Rectification of Periodic Faults at Ring

3.4.1 Identify the Periodic Fault Length by Mass Spectrogram

43
3.4.2 Analysis the Gearing System

Figure 3.4: Gearing Diagram of Ring Frame RX-240

44
 Table 3.4: Periodic Fault lengths of Different Parts of Ring Frame RX-240

3.4.3 Identify Origination Point Of Yarn Fault

From this fig it is seen clear that peak is higher than acceptable limits so by
matching the values of spectrogram with PERIODIC FAULT DETECTION
SYSTEM. We can compare the value of λ. By comparing it is noted that this peak is
equal to λFR (Front Roll in the Ring). Peak which shows that λFR gear is faulty.

45
3.4.4 Rectification of Yarn Faults
When front roller was checked, there was a cut in the top front roller. So, front roller
was changed and hence fault was removed. And UT4 report after removal of fault is
given below.

46
Conclusions

In this work, periodic yarn fault detection system was developed. It is suitable for
identifying the source of periodic fault on the machine. It was developed because
spectral analysis of machines with complex driving systems requires time and work-
consuming calculations, which make it considerably more difficult to quickly find
the cause of the detected periodicity in the stream of fibers. The result shows that
this system is helpful to eliminate periodic yarn faults of breaker, finisher simplex
and ring machines.

47
References

[1] C. A. Lawrence, Advance in yarn Spinning technology. Philadelphia: oodhead

Publishing Limited, 2010, pp. 2 –4.

[2] Werner Klein, Manual Of Textile Technology (Short Staple Spinning Series ).
The Textile Institute, p. Volume 4 (1–45).

[3] Carl A. Lawrence, SPUN YARN TECHNOLOGY Library of Congress

Cataloging-in-Publication Data. Washington D.C.: CRC PRESS, 2003.

[4] P. R. Lord, Handbook of Yarn Production: Technology, Science and

Economics. CRC Press; 1 edition, 2003.

[5] T. Vijykumar, “Report on experience with the Rieter C 60 CARD. Link, 51.,”
Rieter, vol. 19, pp. 3–6, Dec-2007.

[6] Angelfire.(n.d.), “Carding. Retrieved from Angelfire.”

Available: http://www.angelfire.com/jazz/pakspinning/CARDING.htm.

[7] Peter R.Loard., The Economies, Science and Technology of Yarn Production.
Manchester, England: CRC Press; 1 edition, 1981, pp. chap.12, page149–171.

[8] Angelfire. (n.d.)., “Draw Frame. Retrieved from Angelfire,” 2010.

Available: http://www.angelfire.com/jazz/pakspinning/DRAWING
PROCESS.htm.

[9] Muhammad Adnan Abid, “How to minimize the defects rate of final product
in textile plant by the implementation of DMAIC tool of Six Sigma,”
University of Boras, 2010.

[10] B P Saville, Physical testing of textile. New York: Woodhead Publishing

Limited, 1999, pp. ch#4 (77–108), ch#5 (142–145), ch#11 (296–300).

48
[11] T. P. A. T k Pattabhiram, Essential Facts Of Practical Cotton Spinning.
Mahajan, 1979.

[12] E. Oxtoby, Spun Yarn Technology. Boston, Lomdon: Butterworth-

Heinemann.

[13] Muhammad Furqan Khurshid, “Study of yarn faults and their identification,
reasons, rectification and impact on subsequent process,” Bahauddin Zakariya
University College of Textile Engineering & Technology Multan, 2009.

[14] USTER®, “Description of all quality parameters measured by Uster

Technologies fiber and yarn testing equipment,” vol. 3, no. July. pp. 10–13,
2010.

[15] USTER®, “USTER® STATISTICS Aplication Handbook,” no. January. pp.

12–29, 2013.

[16] Application Manual Of Uster Quantum Chapter 1 Uster Technologies Ag

Switzerland

[17] AUTEX Research Journal, Vol. 9, No4, December 2009 © AUTEX p: 103 -
105

[18] USTER TESTER 5 application hand book 4-32

49