EQ Note

A READING MANUAL ON
INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING (BEG 454 CI)
PREPARED BY: ER. SUSHMA ARAYAL BHATTARAI

BE CIVIL / ME E.Q ENGG / PGDDM
AN
INTRODUCTION
TO
EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING
1
A Manual on “An Introduction to Earthquake Engineering” for PU: BE CIVIL IV/I (BEG 454 CI)
CHAPTER 1.0
Introduction
Earthquakes are one of the most destructive natural phenomenon and their occurrence is beyond
the human control but their results are manmade. This, man is responsible to provide protection
measures against earthquake, by way of providing earthquake resistant structure design and safety
measures which is a part of earthquake engineering.
Earthquake engineering deals with the effects of earthquakes on people and their environment and
with methods of reducing those effects. The hazards associated with earthquakes are commonly
referred as Seismic Hazard. The practice of earthquake engineering involves the identification &
mitigation of Seismic Hazards.
Today 100s of millions of people throughout the world live with a significant risk to their life &
property from earthquake damage. The health of many local people, regional & even national
economy are at risk from earthquake. These risk are not unique to United States, Japan, and India,
Nepal or any other country. Earthquake are global phenomenon and a global problem.
Earthquakes have occurred for millions of years & will continue in the future as they have in part.
It is impossible to prevent earthquakes from occurring but it is possible to mitigate the effects of
strong earthquake shaking: to reduce loss of life, injurious & damage.
Effects of Earthquakes
Earthquakes are major hazards and can cause catastrophic damage. They have two types of effects
– direct and indirect. Direct effects causes damages directly & include ground motion and faulting.
Indirect effects cause damages indirectly as a result of the processes set in motion by an
earthquake.
Direct effects: The direct effects of earthquakes are as follows:
a) Seismic waves, especially surface waves, through surface rock layers & regolith result
in ground motion. Such motion can damage and sometimes completely destroy
buildings. If a structure, such as a building or a road straddles a fault, then the ground
displacement that occurs during an earthquake will seriously damage or rip apart that
structure.
b) In regions consisting of hill & steep slopes, earthquake vibration may cause. Landslides
& mudslides of cliffs to collapse, which can damage building & lead to lass of life.
c) Soil vibration can either state a building off its foundations modify its supports, or cause
its foundations to disintegrate.
d) Ground shaking may compound the problem in areas with very wet ground – in filled
land, near the coast, or in locations that have a high water table. This problem is known
as liquefaction when an earthquake shakes wet soil, the soil particles may be jarred
apart, allowing water to seep in between them. This greatly reduces the friction between
soil particles, which is responsible for the strength of soil and the ground then behaves
like quicksand. When this happens, buildings start to lean and can just topple over or
partially sink into the liquefied soil, the soil has no strength to support them. However
as the soil consolidates after the earthquakes, further damage to buildings can occur as
a result of further settlements & sand soil eruptions. Liquefaction can also cause an
increased lateral pressure on retaining walls, resulting in their displacement.
PREPARED BY: ER. SUSHMA ARAYAL BHATTARAI (BE CIVIL / ME EQ ENGG / PGDDM)
P a g e 1 | 168
2
e) Strong surface seismic waves make the ground heave & lurch, and damage the
structures.
Indirect or consequential effects
The following are indirect effects of an earthquake:
a) Following violent movement of the seafloor, series of sea waves with extremely long
time periods occur. These waves are called tsunamis. These usually take place along
the subduction zone and are very common in the Pacific Ocean.
b) Scieches, similar to small tsunamis, occur as a result of the sloshing of enclosed water
in reservoirs, lakes & harbors shaken by earthquakes.
c) Earthquakes can cause fire by damaging gas lines & snapping electric wires.
d) Earthquakes can rupture dams & levees causing floods, resulting in damage to structure
& considerable loss of life.
Theories and criteria of earthquake design
Earthquake and its occurrence & measurements, its vibration effect & structural response have
been continuously studied for many years in earthquake history & thoroughly documented in
literature. Since then the structural engineers have tried hard to examine the procedure, with an
aim to counter the complex dynamic effect of seismically induced force in structures, for designing
of earthquake resistant structures in a refined & easy manner. The philosophy of seismic design
can be summarized as:
a) The design philosophy adopted in the code is to ensure that structures possess at least
a minimum strength to:
i) Resist minor earthquake (<DBF), which may occur frequently, without
damage.
ii) Resist moderate earthquake (DBE) without significant structural damage
through some non-structural damage.
iii) Resist major earthquake (MCE) without collapse.
"Design Basis Earthquake (DBE) is defined as the maximum earthquake that
reasonably can be expected to experience at the site once during lifetime of the
structure. The earthquake corresponding to the ultimate safety requirements is often
called as Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE). Generally, the DBE is half of
MCE."
b) Actual force that appear on structures during earthquakes are much higher than the
design forces specified in the code clause 6.1.3 IS 1893 (part I): 2002. It is recognized
that the complete protection against earthquake of all sizes is not economically feasible
& design based alone on strength criteria is not justified. The basic criteria of
earthquake resistant design should be based on lateral strength as well as deformability
& ductility capacity of structure with limited damage, but no collapse. Ductility in the
structures will arise from inelastic material, behavior & detailing of reinforcement in
such a manner that brittle failure is avoided and ductile behavior is induced by allowing
steel to yield in controlled manner. Therefore, the gap between the actual & design
lateral forces is narrowed down by providing ductility in the structure and additional
reserve strength in structures over & above the design strength.
P a g e 2 | 168
3
c) The design lateral forces specified in the code shall be considered in each of the two
orthogonal directions of the structure. For structures, which have lateral force resisting
elements in the two directions only, the design lateral force shall be considered along
one direction at a time, & not in both directions simultaneously. Structures, having
lateral force resisting elements in direction other than the two orthogonal directions,
shall be analyzed considering the load combination as specified in clause 6.3 of IS 1893
(part 1) : 2002.
d) Earthquake generated vertical inertial forces are to be considered in design unless it is
not significant. Vertical acceleration should be considered in structures with large
spans, those in which stability is a criterion for design, or for overall stability analysis
of structures. Reduction in gravity force due to vertical component of ground motions
can be particularly detrimental in case of pre-stressed horizontal members and of
cantilevered members. Hence special attention should be paid to the effect of vertical
component of the ground motion on pre-stressed or cantilevered beams, girders & slab.
Where both horizontal and vertical seismic forces are taken into account, load
combination specified in the code shall be considered.
e) The response of a structure to ground vibrations is a function of the nature of foundation
soil, materials, form, size & mode of construction of structures; & the duration and
characteristics of ground motion. This code specifies design forces for structures
standing on rock or firm soils, which do not liquefy or slide due to loss of strength
during ground vibrations.
(Reference: Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures, P. Agrawal & M. Shrikhande)
Basic requirements for earthquake resistant structure
The basic requirement for earthquake resistant design can be summarized into following:
1) Ductility Requirement
2) Stiffness Requirement
3) Strength Requirement
4) Building configuration
Ductility Requirement
Ductility refers to the survivability of a structure that must respond to strong ground motions.
Ductility serves as the shock absorber in a building for it reduces the transmitted force to one that
is sustainable. Therefore, the survivability of a structure under strong seismic action relies on the
capacity to deform beyond the elastic range, and to dissipate seismic energy through plastic
deformation. As per IS 1893 (part-I) 2002, clause 6.1.3, "Actual forces that appear on structures
during earthquakes are much higher than the design forces specified in the code." In general, it is
not economical to design RCC-Structures to remain elastic during a major earthquake. The basic
approach of earthquake resistant design should be based on lateral strength as well as deformability
and ductility capacity of structure with limited damage but no collapse. It has been demonstrated
that structures designed for horizontal loads recommended in the codes can only survive strong
earthquake if they can have ability to dissipate considered amount of energy. The energy
dissipation is provided mainly by large rotation of plastic hinge. The energy dissipation by inelastic
deformation requires the members of the structures & their connection to possess adequate
ductility. This, ductility is the ability to dissipate a significant amount of energy through inelastic
P a g e 3 | 168
4
action under large amplitude deformation without substantial reduction of strength. Adequate
ductility can be accompanied by specifying minimum requirement and by proper detailing.
Stiffness Requirement:
Stiffness in terms of rigidity is related to serviceability limit. Stiffness is the property of an element
to resist displacement. When two elements of different stiffness are forced to deflect the same
amount, the stiffer element will carry more of the total force because it takes more force to deflect
it. So while designing a building, the designer should consider serviceability in addition to ultimate
strength. Stiffness greatly affects the structure's uptake of earthquake generated forces. On the
basis of stiffness, the structure may be classified as brittle or ductile. A brittle structure, having
greater stiffness proves to be less durable during an earthquake, while a ductile structure performs
well in earthquakes. In seismic design, drift limitation imposed might be considered to be some
kind of serviceability requirement (The maximum lateral displacement of the structure with respect
to total height or relative inter storey displacement is known as drift). Nonstructural elements and
structural non seismic members primarily get damaged due to the drift. Higher the lateral stiffness,
lesser is the likely damage.
Strength Requirement
Strength is the property of an element to resist force. The strength is related to damageability or
ultimate limit state, assuring that the force level developed in structure remains in the elastic range,
or some plastic deformation. Member in the structure should have adequate strength to carry the
design load safely. The designer should concern on the strength of the structural member so that it
avoid brittle type of failure. The basic principle for designing such failure remedy by making a
capacity design.
Building Configuration
IS 1893 (part-1): 2002 has recommended building configuration system is section 7 for the better
performance of buildings during earthquakes. The important feature in building configuration is
its regularity and symmetry in horizontal and vertical plane. In order to economize the cost, seismic
resistance should be initiated at the architectural design stage as it becomes very difficult &
expensive for the structural engineer to make building seismic resistant. As a general principal the
floor plan should be as symmetrical as possible. Some examples for different irregularities are
shown below:
P a g e 4 | 168
5
Figure: General Building Configuration Problems (BIA 1996)

TABLE Building Configurations: Problems and Solutions (Arnold and Elsesser, 1980)
Architectural problems Structural Problems Remedial measures
Extreme height/depth ratio High overturning forces, large Revise proportion or special
drift causing non-structural structural system
damage, foundation stability
Extreme plan area Built-up large diaphragm Subdivide building by
forces seismic joints
Extreme length depth ratio Built-up of large lateral forces Subdivide building by
in perimeter, large differences seismic joints
in resistance of two axes.
Experience greater variations
in ground movement and soil
conditions
Variation in perimeter Torsion caused by extreme Add frames and disconnect
strength-stiffness variation in strength and walls, or use frames and
stiffness lightweight walls
False symmetry Torsion caused by stiff Disconnect core, or use frame
asymmetric core with non-structural core walls
P a g e 5 | 168
6
Re-entrant corners Torsion, stress concentrations Separate walls, uniform box,

at the notches center box, architectural
relief, diagonal reinforcement
Mass eccentricities Torsion, stress concentrations Reprogram, or add resistance
around mass to balance
resistance and mass
Vertical setbacks and Stress concentration at notch, Special structural systems,
reverse setbacks different periods for different careful dynamic analysis
parts of building, high
diaphragm forces to transfer
at setback
Soft storey frame Causes abrupt changes of add bracing, add columns,
stiffness at point of braced
discontinuity
Variation in column stiffness Causes abrupt changes of Redesign structural system to
stiffness, much higher forces balance stiffness
in stiffer columns
Discontinuous shear wall Results in discontinuities in Primary concern over the
load path and stress strength of lower level
concentration for most columns and connecting
heavily loaded elements beams that support the load of
discontinuous frame
Weak column-strong beam Column failure occurs before Add full walls to reduce
beam, short column must try column forces, or detach
and accommodate storey spandrels from columns, or
height displacement use light weight curtain wall
with frame.
Modification of primary Most serious when masonry Detach in-fill, or use light-
structure in-fill modifies structural weight materials
concept, creation of short,
stiff columns result in stress
concentration
Building separation Possibility of pounding Ensure adequate separation,
(Pounding) dependent on building period, assuming opposite building
height, drift, distance vibrations
Coupled Incompatible deformation Design adequate link
between walls and links
Random Openings Seriously degrade capacity at Careful designing, adequate
point of maximum force space for reinforcing design
transfer
P a g e 6 | 168
7
CHAPTER 2.0
Fundamental of Earthquake Engineering
Earthquakes
An earthquake is a natural phenomenon occurring as a result of sudden rupture of the rocks due to
any reason, which constitute the earth. The vibrations generated due to the occurrence of an
earthquake are termed as earthquake motion. The term earthquake is used to describe both sudden
slip on a fault, and the resulting ground shaking and radiated seismic energy caused by the slip, or
by volcanic or magmatic activity or other sudden changes in the earth. In other words, an
earthquake is a sudden tremor or movement of the earth's rest, which originates naturally at or
below the surface. Earthquakes strikes suddenly violently and without warning. The most
important sources of earthquakes from engineering point of view are those of tectonic origin. Thus
an earthquake is the vibration of Earth produced by the rapid release of accumulated energy in
elastically strained rocks.
- Energy released radiated in all directions from its source, the focus
- Energy propagates in the form of seismic waves.
- Sensitive instruments around the world records the event.
The rapture of rocks causing an earthquake extends over quite some distance but the point beneath
the earth's surface at which the rupture is initiated is called the by hypocenter or focus its depth is
called the hypo-central (focal) depth, while the point on the earth's surface straight above the
epicenter or hypocenter to any given point is called the epi-central or hypo-central distance,
respectively. Seismic waves originating at the hypo-center propagates in all directions and reach
the earth's surface following different paths.
Epicentral Epicentre
Distance Earth's Surface
Observation
Site
Hypocentre
Fig: Schematic diagram of hypocenter

Epicentral
distance
Grand Surface
Epicentre
Hypocentral
depth
Focus or
hypocentre
Fig: Schematic diagram of epicenter

Seismology: Seismology is derived from the Greek word in which seismos stands for earthquake
and logos for science. The field of seismology developed from a need to understand the internal
P a g e 7 | 168
8
structure and behavior of the earth, particularly as they relate to earthquake phenomenon. Although
earthquakes are complex phenomenon, advances in seismology have produced a good
understanding of the mechanisms and rate of occurrence of earthquakes in most seismically active
areas of the world. It is relatively younger and still developing science. It involves the study of:
a) generation of seismic waves
b) propagation of seismic waves
c) recording of seismic waves
d) earthquake source process
e) interpretation seismograms
STRUCUTRE OF THE EARTH
The earth consists of the following four parts:
1. Earth crust. The outer most layer of the earth is known as earth crust. The thickness of this
layer is said to vary from 5.0 to 56.0 km. Some authors have suggested its thickness varying
from 5.0 to 40 km. However the average thickness of this layer is assumed as 3300 km. The
radius at equator is taken as 6378km. The density of this part is 1500 kg/m3 or 1.5 gms/cc,
pressure at the crust is taken as 1 atmospheric or 1 kg/cm2 and temperature at 250C.
2. Lithosphere. The crust and the upper most part of the mantle down up to a depth of about
70 to 100 km under deep ocean basin and up to 100 to 150 km under continent is rigid
forming a hard outer shell. This outer shell is called lithosphere. Thus the earth's crust
together with the upper most part of the mantle of about 200 km thickness forms the
lithosphere. Its properties are same as that of earth crust.
3. Asthenosphere. Beneath the lithosphere exists Asthenosphere. Its thickness is taken as
150km. According to some authors, its lower and upper boundaries are not well defined. It
is believed that in this layer the seismic velocities are decreased, suggesting its lower rigidity.
This weaker layer is thought to be partially molten. This layer may be able to flow over long
periods of times like a viscous fluid or plastic solid depending upon temperature and
composition. This layer plays an important role in plate tectonic, as it makes possible the
relative motion of over lying lithosphere plates.
Some authors suggest the thickness of Asthenosphere as 2685 km surrounding the core.
This portion is composed of hot, dense ultra-basic igneous rock in a plastic state. The density
of this part varies from 5 to 6 gram per cm3 (5000 to 6000 kg/m3). The temperature at the
periphery of mantle is 26000C and at its center temperature is around 40000C. The thickness
of mantle is about 2900km.
4. Barysphere. It is also called as core. This core is further divided into two parts as inner core
and outer core:
i) Inner core. The thickness of this core is 1224 km and mainly composed of nickel and
iron. Its density varies from 13.5 to 16.0 gm/cc. (13000 to 16000 kg/m3) and it behaves
as a solid. Its radius has been indicated as 1221 km. Some authors have suggested this
value as 1290 km.
ii) Outer core. This core surrounds the inner core. The thickness of outer core is 2200 km.
Again some authors have suggested this thickness as 2249 km. However the combined
thickness of inner and outer cores has been suggested as 3473 KM. Actually all these
depths are based on hypothetical judgment of different scientists as actual
P a g e 8 | 168
9
measurements are not possible. So some contradiction. The outer core is comprised of,
nickel and iron alloys with silica. This exists as a liquid of density 12gm/c.c. or 12000
kg/m3. The temperature of the core is 25000C and pressure of 4106 atmosphere as
shown figure below
Earth crust 33km
Mantle
2900 km
250C
5200 km
Liquid
Inner core Fe, S
solid Fe
6378
Fig: Earth interior

These figures are guide lines not the absolute values.
Rocks of earth's crust
There are two types of rocks on the surface of the earth crust:
a) Sial rocks. The rocks are Aluminum-silicon rocks. These are lighter rocks. Their sp.
gravity is 2.7. They contain 65 to 75 silica and rest aluminum. Granite rocks which are
sedimentary rocks come under this type of rocks. Researchers have proved that these
rocks have not been found in sea bed.
b) Sima rocks. These rocks are silica-magnesia rocks. Basalt rocks come under this
category of rocks. These rocks are comprised of 40 to 45% of silica, and also contain
magnesia and iron oxide. These rocks are dark in color and are heavy. Their sp. gravity
varies from 2.8 to 3.0. These rocks are found at sea beds. Thus it is clear that earth crust
is made of a combination of Sial and Sima type rocks.
Definitions
a) Focus. The point on the fault from where the slip starts is called focus or hypocenter. The
location of the focus of an earthquake is very important as it indicates the depth at which
rupture and movement develops. Though movement of material with in the earth occurs
throughout the mantle and core, but earthquakes are concentrated in the upper 700 km
depth of the earth only. Most frequently earthquakes originate from a depth up to 70 KM
from the crust surface. Such earthquakes are called shallow focus earthquakes.
Earthquakes which originate or occur between 70km and 300 km depth are called
intermediate focus earthquakes. Earthquakes having focal depth more than 300 km are
called deep focus earthquakes.
b) Epicentre. The point vertically above the focus on the surface of the earth is known as
epicenter as shown is figure below
P a g e 9 | 168
10
c) Focal depth. The vertical distance between the focus and the epicenter is called focal
depth. It is an important parameter for determining the damaging potential of a
earthquake. Most of the damaging earthquakes have been found of shallow focus with
the focal depths less than about 70km. As the focal depth increases progressively. Also
seismic energy released from a source deeper than 70km gets largely dissipated by the
time it reaches the surface.
d) Epicentral distance. The distance between the focus and the point of determining the
effects of damage of the earthquake is known as epicentral distance.
e) Fore shocks. The smaller tremors which take place before the big or main earthquake are
called fore shocks. These can be caused either by small ruptures or plastic deformations.
f) After shocks. The smaller tremors which take place after the big or main earthquake are
called after shocks. These shocks are caused either by fresh ruptures or the readjustment
of the fractured mass.
g) Major shock. A major shock may result from a rupture of rock over a length of 100 to
400 km and several km wide and thick. The energy released by a damaging earthquake
is of the order of 1020 to 1025 ergs. The bigger is the mass of rupture at one time, bigger
is the earthquake.
h) Magnitude of earthquake. The magnitude of an earthquakes is a quantitative measure of
the actual size of the earthquake.
i) Intensity of earthquake. The intensity of an earthquake is a measure of the actual shaking
at a location during an earthquake.
j) Focal region. From the focus, a small region of earth through which the seismic
destruction propagates is called focal region.
k) ISO seismic lines. The lines joining the places or locations of experiencing earthquake of
the same intensity are called iso seismic lines.
l) Homo seismal lines. The line or lines joining the locations or places which receive the
seismic waves simultaneously or at the same times are called homo seismal lines.
CAUSE OF EARTHQUAKES
P a g e 10 | 168
11
Earthquakes are primarily caused due to two reasons:
1. Natural disturbances
a) Volcanic causes
b) Tectonic causes
2. Artificial disturbances.
1. Natural Disturbances: The natural disturbances which causes earthquakes are following:
This impact is sometimes strong enough to produce vibrations in the nearby areas. People,
living in Japan and Italy, have experience this type of earthquake frequently. These
earthquakes are not very deep and of mild intensity. The damages caused due to this type of
earthquake is confined within a few kilometers. All volcanic eruptions don't produce
earthquake.
b) Tectonic Causes: Tectonic causes are those which occur inside the earth. According to
the theory of plate tectonics, the Crust (Outermost layer of Earth) is made up of rocks
and is divided into many plates. These plates are constantly in motion in different
directions and with different speeds. These rocks or plates have strain energy stored in
them.
The sudden slip at the fault (A sudden movement along a fracture or crack in the rocks)
results in the release of strain energy in the form of seismic waves which causes the
shaking of the earth. The earthquake which occur due to sudden release of strain energy
as a result of sudden slip of fault is called as tectonic earthquake. This slip may occur
along the preexisting crack/fault or along a new fault plane. The magnitude of these
earthquake depends upon the amount of energy released. More than 90% of total
earthquakes are because of tectonic reasons. Bhuj (2001) and Latur (1993) were tectonic
earthquake.
2. Artificial Disturbances: Sometimes the surface of the earth vibrates due to manmade or
artificial disturbance. These vibrations are very mild and affect the surrounding area only.
The earthquakes of mild intensity are caused due to these external man made agencies. Some
of the artificial disturbances causing earthquakes are listed below:
i) Nuclear tests and explosions.
ii) Mining blasts in the mining area.
iii) A massive landslide along hill slopes caused because of deforestation.
iv) Large and deep excavations.
v) Vibrations induced due to heavy machinery used in industries or movement of heavy
vehicles.
The vibrations or shaking caused due to above reasons is very minor and limited to small
areas only. All these causes occur over the earth's surface so these are also called as surface
causes.
CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes are classified according to various criteria explained below:
1) Based on location
P a g e 11 | 168
12
2) Based on focal depth
3) Based on their cause
4) Based on their magnitude
5) Based on the epicentral distance
1) Based on Location: On the basis of location of occurrence of earthquake, they are

classified as:
a) Inter-plate earthquake
b) Intra-plate earthquake
a) Inter-plate earthquake: Most of earthquakes, in the world, occur along the

boundaries of the tectonic plates and are called Inter-plate earthquakes. It is seen that
epicenters of about 99% of earthquakes are in the narrow zones of interpolate
boundaries. For example, Assam earthquake (India, 1897)
b) Intra-plate earthquake: The earthquakes occurring within a plate itself away from
the plate boundaries are called as Intra-plate earthquakes. For example, Latur (India,
1993) was an intra-plate earthquake.
2) Based on Focal Depth : The earthquakes are classified into following three types based
on the focal depth:
a) Shallow earthquake
b) Intermediate earthquake
c) Deep earthquake
a) Shallow earthquake: The earthquake whose focal depth (distance from focus to
epicenter) is less than 70km are called Shallow depth earthquakes. Nearly 80% of
earthquakes are shallow, and are of great concern for civil engineers.
b) Intermediate earthquake: Those earthquakes in which focal depth is from 70 to
300 km are called as Intermediate earthquake.
c) Deep earthquake: The earthquake whose focal depth is greater than 300 km is
called as deep earthquake.
3) Based on Their Cause: The earthquakes are classified into following two types based
on their cause of origin:
a) Non Tectonic earthquake
b) Tectonic earthquake
a) Non-Tectonic earthquake: The earthquakes which are caused due to non-

tectonic reasons like volcanic activities and man-made reasons are called as
non-tectonic earthquakes. Non tectonic earthquakes are of following two types:
i) Volcanic Earthquakes: The earthquakes which are caused due volcanic
activities are called as volcanic earthquakes.
P a g e 12 | 168
13
ii) Artificial Earthquake: These are caused by the artificial disturbance which
are manmade like nuclear power testing, blasts, mining, large dams,
deforestation and landslides etc.
b) Tectonic earthquakes: The earthquakes which are of tectonic origin and are
caused due to sudden slip in the fault of the tectonic plates of the earth are called
as tectonic earthquakes.
4) Based on the Magnitude of Earthquake: The earthquakes are classified as given below
on the basis of their magnitude.
TABLE Classification of earthquake based on Richter's magnitude
Type Magnitude
Great earthquake 8 and more
Major earthquake 7-7.9
Strong earthquake 6-6.9
Moderate earthquake 5-5.9
Light earthquake 4-4.9
Minor earthquake 3-3.9
Micro earthquake <3.0
5) Based on Epi-central Distance : On the basis of epi-central distance (affected area), the
earthquakes are classified into following three types:
a) Local earthquake
b) Regional earthquake
c) Tele seismic earthquake.
a) Local earthquake: The affected area is very less within 10 of the epicenter of the
earthquake.
b) Regional earthquake: The affected area due to the earthquake is within 10 to 100
of the epicenter of earthquake.
c) Tele seismic earthquake: The affected area is greater than 1000 of the epicenter
of the earthquake.
PLATE TECTONIC
The convective flows of hot molten material of the Mantle cause the crust and some portion of the
mantle slide over the hot molten outer core. This sliding of earth's mass takes place in pieces and
is known as tectonic plates. According to some researchers the surface of the Earth is consisted of
seven major tectonic plates and many smaller plates. Some other researchers have suggested that
earth surface is consisted of ten major tectonic plates. The seven major tectonic plates are as
follows:
1. Eurasian plate
P a g e 13 | 168
14
2. North American plate
3. Pacific plate
4. Indo-Australian plate
5. South American plate
6. African plate
7. Antarctic plate
These plates are shown in figure below
EARTHQUAKES CAUSES, SEVERITY AND FORECASTING

These plates move in different directions at different speeds from those of the neighboring one.
Some times the speed of the front plate is slower than the plate behind it. In some situations the
behind plate collides with the front plate forming mountains. On the other hand in some cases the
two plates move away from each other forming rifts. In some situations the two plates move side
by side either in the same direction or in opposite directions. These three types of interactions are
convergent, divergent and transform boundaries.
PLATE BOUNDARIES
The tectonic plate boundaries or inter plate sections are formed due to the relative motion of the
crustal plates or tectonic plates. These boundaries are also known as marginal zones. These zones
are of the following types:
1. Zone of divergence (Constructive margin)
These zones are also known as spreading or rift zones. These zones are of tension in which the
lithosphere or earth crust splits, separates and moves apart. The hot magma rises up through cracks
and solidifies. New material gets deposited on the edges of the oceanic plates. This material forms
oceanic ridges. Due to the deposition of new material and forming oceanic ridges, it is called
constructive margin or zone. This process is also known as sea floor spreading. Thus the
occurrence of earthquakes is associated with volcanic activity along the axes of ridges.
This process does not cause uniform stretching all along the oceanic ridges. The movement of the
pole along a plate of rotation causes differential stretching of the earth's crust. The minimum
velocity of movement develops at the poles and it increases towards the equator. Hence the ocean
P a g e 14 | 168
15
ridges are offset by many transform faults. The shallow foci earthquakes are generated by the
movement along these transformed faults.
2. Zone of convergence (Destructive margin)
The boundaries along which the edge of one plate rides over the other are known as convergent
zones. When two plates from opposite direction come closer and collide are called as convergent
plates. On collision, the leading edge of the higher density plate may get bent down wards, causing
it to descend under the other plate. This undergoing plate enters the hot asthenosphere. At the high
temperature the material of this plate gets heated and melts. This melted material mixes completely
with the material of the upper mantle and forms new magma. This process is called subduction.
The new magma rises to the surface and erupts again to form a chain of volcanoes around the edges
of the plate boundaries. These boundary areas are known as subduction zones. These subduction
zones cause deep ocean trenches and major earthquakes when on collision, the two plates are
pushed upwards, and mountains are formed. In such a collision one of the plates in destroyed,
hence such a boundary is called destructive margin.
Most intense and wide spread earthquakes occur at the sites of subduction zones. Besides
producing shallow to deep focus and volcanic earthquakes, these boundaries also produce deep
trenches, basins, and folded mountain chains.
3. Fracture zone (Conservative margin)
Fracture zone are also called transformed faults. In these zones the lithosphere plates slide past
each other without any destruction or creation. The edges of the two sliding plates scrape each
other very closely, creating tension along the boundaries. The scrape of the faces of the two plates
cause shallow focus earthquake activities. Thus this boundary is also called a parallel or
transformed fault boundary. The transform faults approximately move parallel to the direction of
the plate movements. These zones are shown in figure below
Fig: Types of inter boundaries (Courtesy – IITK)

VOLCANIC EARTHQUAKES
It is a special feature of explosive eruption. These earthquakes release very small energy in
comparison of conventional earthquakes and are seldom damaging. Now it is felt that earthquakes
and volcanos may have a common origin in the deep movement of mantle material. The
coincidence of belts of major earthquake activity and belts of active volcanoes support this idea.
The most obvious common cause of volcanic activity and seismic activity relates to the plate
P a g e 15 | 168
16
interactions. In the process volcanic material from the lower crust of the mantle rises up through
the fracture zones. These boundaries are also areas, in which earthquakes would occur naturally
due to plate interaction in zones of convergence or divergence or areas where two plates slide past
one another along the parallel boundaries.
EARTHQUAKE THEORY
Though many phenomenon may cause earthquake, but from engineering point of view the most
important sources of earthquakes are those of tectonic origin, which are associated with large scale
strain in the earth's crust. Earthquake phenomenon may be divided into the following three
categories.
1. Elastic Rebound theory.
2. Tectonic plate theory.
3. Seepage of water into the earth's crust from large water bodies.
1. Elastic rebound theory
Rocks on earth's crust are made of elastic materials. Due to the deformation in the earth mass
during the gigantic tectonic plates action large amount of strain energy is accumulated in the rocks.
However there are some brittle materials also in the body of the rocks. When the rocks along the
weak region of the earth's crust develop energy in excess of their bearing capacity, a sudden
movement takes place on the opposite side of the fault and the stored energy is released through
the rupture. The energy released is propagated in the form of seismic waves, which impart energy
to the medium through which they propagate and vibrate the structures standing on the earth's
surface. The phenomenon of rupture is attributed to the elastic rebound theory as shown in figure
below.
active fault
(a) Unstrained condition
(b) Strained condition

Preceeding the earthquake
(C) After earthquake
Fig: Elastic Rebound Theory of Rupture

i) Originally before deformation the section is unstrained. In this condition the section is
straight as shown in Fig: (a)
ii) As deformation starts accumulation it starts straining as shown in Fig (b)
iii) As soon as rupture takes place, it breaks as shown in Fig (C). resulting in a relative shift
on the fault line.
In due course of time, after a major earthquake, the ruptured mass heals and binds up its self. Also
during this period the friction along the ruptured surface permits the mass to accumulate energy
P a g e 16 | 168
17
again. When the accumulated energy exceeds the bearing capacity of the materials, earthquake
occurs once again. Thus earthquakes may occur again and again from the same region.
2. Tectonic Plate Theory

As stated above also, the convective flows of mantle materials cause the earth crust and some
portion of the mantle to slide over the hot molten material of the outer core. This sliding of earth's
mass takes place in pieces. The molten magma cools forming the solid plates of rocks. These plates
are known or called as Tectonic Plates. These plates spread away from the ridges. Ultimately these
cooled plates become heavy and are pulled back into the mantle by the gravity. This process is
called subduction as shown in figure below.
Fig: Subduction Process (Courtesy – D.V. Mallick)

The rocks that make continental plates, however are lighter than those on sea floor, hence the
continental plates are not pulled down by the gravity. But these plates are simply propelled around
the globe. These plates are in constant motion on the viscous material of the mantle, over riding,
plunging beneath one another, and colliding each other or bruising past one other. Some parts of
adjacent plates however remain in stationary position and locked together for years. They break in
great faults producing earthquakes and seismic vibrations along the boundaries.
The movement in earth's crust is caused by the tectonic plates motion. This movement usually
occur along the boundaries of the plates and over large faults in the interior of the plates.
The Indian continental plate is pushing into and under the Eurasian plate at the rate of 5cm a year.
When the plates collide head on, usually one of them slip beneath the other and the enormous force
developed can cause great changes on the surface of the earth. About 90% earthquakes occur along
the boundaries of the plates where the rocks are usually weaker and yield more readily to the stress
than the rocks with in the plates. The remaining 10% earthquakes occur in areas far away from the
present boundaries of the plates and are called intra plate earthquakes.
There are certain regions on the earth where major earthquakes occur periodically and are called
danger zones, where disasters have occurred during the past centuries due to earthquakes. These
zones are as follows:
1) Pacific coast of North, central and South America.
2) Morocco, Algeria, Libya, and Mediterrian Sea bed.
3) Italy, Yugoslavia, Greece, and Turkey belt.
P a g e 17 | 168
18
4) Iran, Afghanistan, Northern, Western and Eastern parts of Indian sub-continent, Nepal,
Tibet region, Burma, China, Japan, South Sea Islands, Indonesia and Philippines.
SEISMIC WAVES
When the earth shakes, it releases energy in the form of seismic waves which travel inside the
earth and also on the surface of the earth. These waves obey the laws of reflection and refraction.
Seismic waves are of the following two types:
a) Body Waves
b) Surface Waves
a) Body Waves: The seismic waves which originate inside the earth and travel through the
various layers of the earth in all directions are called as body waves. Body waves are of
following two types:
i) Primary Waves
ii) Secondary Waves
i) Primary Waves: Primary waves or P-waves moves in a push and pull fashion like
sound waves. Thus, the material particles undergoes compression (push) and
extension (pull) as shown in Figure. P-waves radiate outward from the source like
a gas filled balloon. They are also termed as longitudinal waves.
Properties of P waves:
i) P waves are the fastest seismic waves and thus first to reach at the recording station/
ii) P waves can travel through any material be it solid, liquid or gas.
iii) Their speed depends upon the density and compressibility in push and pull fashion.
iv) P waves make loud thunderous noise near the epicenter.
P-Waves
Push and pull
Extension Compression
Fig: Primary Body Waves
ii) Secondary waves: Secondary waves or S-waves are those body waves which propagate
by vibrating the material particles at right angle to the direction of propagation. These
waves are transverse in nature like light waves. There are also called as shear waves.
Properties of Secondary Waves
i) S-waves are slower than P-waves and hence second to reach at the recording station/
P a g e 18 | 168
19
ii) S-waves can travel through solids only because liquids and gases do not have shear
strength.
iii) S-waves are transverse in nature like light waves.
iv) The velocity of S waves depends upon the density and shear strength of the material
through which they pass.
S. Waves
Up and down
Side to side
Direction of motion
Fig: Secondary Body Waves
c) Surface waves: The seismic waves which travel along the surface are called as surface
waves. These waves do not propagate deep inside of the surface of the earth. These are
also called as long waves. These waves can be visualized as the ripples caused by
throwing a rock into water. Surface waves are the slowest, thus last to reach the recording
station. Surface waves shake the ground surface and are responsible for all the damage
occurring on the earth's surface. These are most destructive in nature. Surface waves are
of two types:
i) Love waves
ii) Rayleigh waves
i) Love waves: These waves were detected by seismologist A.E.H. Love in 1911 and
thus are named as Love waves.
Properties of Love Waves
i) Love waves cause surface motion similar to S-waves, but with no vertical component,
thus the motion in from side to side in a horizontal plane roughly parallel to the earth's
surface.
ii) Love waves travel faster than Rayleigh waves and like S-waves they do not move through
liquid or air.
iii) Love waves along with S-waves cause maximum damage to the structures.
Love Waves Sideways in horizontal plane
P a g e 19 | 168
20
Fig: Surface Waves (Love Waves)

ii) Rayleigh waves: These waves are first discovered by Rayleigh in 1885. In these waves
the material particles vibrate in a backward elliptical path in the vertical plane.
Properties of Rayleigh Waves
i) The shaking produced by Rayleigh waves causes both vertical and horizontal movement.
ii) They advance in a backward rotating elliptical motion as shown in figure
Rayleigh Waves
Elliptic in vertical plane
Fig: Surface waves (Rayleigh waves)
The study of seismic waves and their records is very important in seismology. They not only help
us in assessing the magnitude, intensity and location of the earthquake but also give us information
about the interior of the earth. For example, the S waves help us in knowing that outer core is
liquid because as they pass through the mantle, they disappear. Similarly, movement of P-waves
into the core (outer to inner indicates an increase in velocity), suggest that the inner core is solid.
EQUATIONS FOR VELOCITY OF BODY WAVES

Velocity for P wave. The velocity of travel VP of P wave in an elastic isotropic solid is given by
the relation
1
   2  2
VP   …(a)
 P 
The velocity Vs for S wave is given by relation
1
 2
Vs    …(b)
P
Where in both equation (3.1) and (3.2)
P = mass density of the material.
 And  = Lame's elastic constant.
P a g e 20 | 168
21
 = Modulus of rigidity of material and  is given by the following relation.
2
K
3
Where K is bulk modulus.
These two constants  and  are expressed in terms of elastic modulus E and Poisson's ratio  as:
E

2(1  )
E.

(1  )(1  2)
The equation (3.1) can be pressed in Elastic modulus E and Poisson's ratio  and mass density P
as:
1 1
   2  2
  2  2
VP     
 P  P P 
1 1
E   1  2  2
E 1   2
 P  (1  )(1  2    
   P (1  )(1  2) 
1
1
 2  E 1 2
Vs       
P  2(1  ) P 
1
E 1  2
=    …(c)
 P 2(1   
Taking the value of  (Poisson's) ratio for earth as 0.25 we get
3 E
VP  . …(i)
2.5 P
E 1
Vs  . … (ii)
P 2.5
 VP  3.Vs
VP
or  3  1.734 … (d)
Vs
VP
From equation (d ),  1.734
Vs
Ratio of Rayleigh wave velocity secondary wave velocity i.e.
VR
 0.9194  0.92
VS
P a g e 21 | 168
22
From these values Dr. Jai Kishan and associates have given a relation between ratios of V P/VS.
Poisson's ratio and VR/VS and Poisson’s ratio as shown in figure below.
2.5
2.0
VP/VS
1.5
1.0
VR/VS
0.5
0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
POISSON'S RATIO
Fig: Relative Velocities of Different Waves
MEASUREMENT OF GROUND MOTIONS

For measuring ground motions due to seismic activities broadly two types of instruments are used
as follows:
1. Seismograms
2. Accelographs
1. Seismograms. This type of instruments are used by seismologists to record even weak
motions. These instruments are very sensitive and even can record weakest earth's motion. The
records are called seismograms and are useful in interpreting earthquakes occurrence and help in
locating epicenter, focal depth and other parameter of the event. However these instruments are
not useful for measuring strong ground motions which are important to a design engineer for
designing the earthquake resistant structures.
Design principle. In the design of the instrument seismogram, the simple electromagnetic
principle has been used. According to this principle when a coil moves in magnetic field, a voltage
is generated as an output, which is proportional to the relative velocity between the magnet and
the coil. By suitable mechanical design of the coil and magnet mounting, the relative velocity may
be made directly proportional to the ground velocity. Such a unit is called as velocity pickup.
The velocity pickup may be connected to a galvanometer, where mirror would rotate in proportion
to the voltage input. The rotation of the mirror may be recorded by photographic recording process
employing a light source as shown in figure below.
P a g e 22 | 168
23
Fig: A typical Seismograph System

This method which does not require electronic circuitry was first used in the beginning of
nineteenth century, still is used even in the twentieth century. The mechanical properties such as
natural frequency and damping of the seismometer and galvanometer decides which frequency
range would be magnified by a particular set of equipment. Sometimes such equipment are
classified as short period or long period seismographs. The sensitivity is the main requirement of
the seismographs to record weak motions. If strong motions occur in the vicinity of the
seismograph, they would be thrown off of the scale.
In order to identify the arrival of various phases of ground motion, these instruments record
continuously and need an accurate time base. These instruments are located on isolated
foundations resting on hard rock, such that instruments are insulated against spurious ground noise.
Accelerographs.
The strong motions which are needed to design the earthquake resistant structures are recorded by
accelerographs. These instruments operate when ground motion exceeds an initial or threshold
value of a ground motion of 0.01 to 0.02g and are expected to record the stronger ground motion.
Seismograms and Accelerographs are complementary to each other and provide useful data in
earthquake engineering. The speed or recording of Accelerographs is much more than
seismograms instruments. The speed is of the order of 20 mm/sec. Now more sophisticated variety
seismic instruments are available. Principle of working of accelerographs. Accelerographs also
work on the same principle as that of seismograms.
P a g e 23 | 168
24
Fig: Schematic of Early Seismograph

Besides these another type of seismograph is shown in figure above. This instrument has three
components and its principle of working also is same as explained above.
Components: It has the following components:
1. Sensor: The string, pendulum mass, magnet and support together from the sensor.
2. Recorder: The drum, pen and chart from the recorder.
3. Timer: The motor that rotates the drum at constant speed forms the timer.
Working: As shown in above figure a pen is attached at the tip of an oscillating simple pendulum
(a mass huge by a string from a support) marks on a chart-paper held on a drum rotating at a
constant speed. A magnet around the string provides required damping to control the amplitude of
the oscillation.
One such instrument is required in each of the two orthogonal horizontal directions. For measuring
the vertical oscillations, the string pendulum is replaced with a spring pendulum oscillating about
a fulcrum. Some instruments do not have a timer component and provide only the maximum extent
of the motion during the earthquakes. Such instruments are called Seismoscope. Today digital
instruments using modern computer technology are commonly used. The digital instrument
records the ground motion on the memory of microprocessor that is built in the instrument.
P a g e 24 | 168
25
Types of Faults
Faulting is the chief cause of earthquakes. The sudden slip of fault produces vibration in the earth's
crust causing earthquakes. Thus, study of different types of faults on the basis of slip of fault, there
are three types of faults.
a) Dip Slip Faults: Those in which net slip is in the direction of the dip of the fault.
b) Strike Slip Fault: Those in which net slip is in the direction of strike of the fault
c) Oblique Slip Faults: Those in which net slip is neither along dip nor along strike of
the fault; rather it is oblique.
Fig: Type of Faults

Attenuation laws:
Attenuation is the reduction in ground motion with distance.
Fig: Attenuation source
P a g e 25 | 168
26
Attenuation relationship relates ground motion parameters to the magnitude of an earthquake &
the distance away from the fault rupture. Relationship have been established for many ground
motion parameters including.
1) Peak ground acceleration (PGA)
2) Peak ground velocity (PGV)
3) Peak ground displacement (PGD)
4) Spectral quantities
 Attenuation relationships are developed by statistical evaluation of a large set of ground
motion data.
 Relationships developed for different regions & fault types (strikes slip vs subduction) and
interpolates vs intraplates.
 Relationship only as good as the data set upon which they are based.
 The greater the size of the data set the more robust the relationship.
Cambell (1981) proposed attenuation relationship as;
In PGA (g) = - 4.141 + 0.868 M – 1.09ln (R0.0606 exp (0.7m))
Ground Motion Attenuation
Fig: Ground Motion Attenuation

Reasons
1) Geometric
2) Absorption (damping)
Steps to obtain Empirical relationship:
i) Obtain catalog of appropriate ground motion records.
ii) Correct for aftershocks and foreshocks
iii) Correct for consistent magnitude measure.
iv) Fit data to empirical relationship of type
ln Y = lnb1+d1(M)+lnf2(R)+lnf3(M, R) + lnf4(P1)+ln E
Where,
P a g e 26 | 168
27
y = Ground motion parameter (eg PGA)
b1 = scaling factor
F1 (M) = function of magnitude
F2 (R) = Function of distance
F3 (M, R) = function of magnitude & distance
F4 (P1) = other variables
e = error term
Attenuation relationship for shallow crystal earthquake (magnitude  6.5) is
ln Y = C1 + C2M+C3 (8.5-M)+C4ln (rup + exp (Cs+SM) + C7 (y rup + 2)
Local Soil Condition

The influence of local geology and soil conditions on the intensity of ground shaking and
earthquake damage are called local site effects. The amplification of ground motion depends upon
different sub-surface conditions buildings situated on rocks are net so much affected as those
where foundations do not reach to bottom of soil. Local site condition can influence amplitude,
frequency and duration of strong ground motion. The study of such nature can be done in several
ways. Simple theoretical ground response analysis by measurements of actual surface and sub-
surface motions at same site & by measurements of ground surface motions from site with different
sub-surface conditions.
Local site conditions affect
i) Peak acceleration amplitude & shape of response spectra they produce.
ii) Frequency of surface motions
Fig: Local Soil Condition

iii) It also affects the attenuation of ground motion.
iv) Relatively small rock accelerations may cause high accelerations at surface
of sub-soil deposited.
P a g e 27 | 168
28
v) At higher accelerations level, low stiffness and non-linearity of soft soil
often prevent them from developing peak acceleration as large as those
becomes on rock.
Liquefaction
1) Loss of shear strength of soil.
2) Typically occur in saturated sands where they convert into the fluid mass and flow
as fluid causing damage to structures.
Causes
1) If a saturated sand is subjected to ground vibration, it tends to compact and decrease
in volume.
2) If drainage is unable to occur the tendency to decrease in volume results in increase
in pore pressure.
3) If pore pressure builds up to a point at which it is equal to the overburden pressure,
the effective stress becomes zero & sand loses its strength completely, liquefaction
occurs.
Effects
1) Liquefied soil exerts higher pressure on retaining walls which can cause them to tilt
or slide.
2) Liquefactions causes settlement of soils.
Fig: Flow failure

3) Liquefaction induced instabilities are most damaging earthquake hazards. This
effects are observed in the form of flow slides, lateral spreads, retaining wall &
foundation failure.
Response History
The response history is the ground motion record that is, plot of the acceleration, velocity, and
displacement, of a point on the ground surface as a function of time for the entire duration of the
earthquake. The recordings of an accelerograph provide the values of acceleration, velocity, and
displacements as a function of time at the location of the seismic instrument. Such records are also
known as time histories.
P a g e 28 | 168
29
The maximum amplitude of the recorded acceleration is termed as the peak response acceleration
and similarly the peak response velocity, and the peak response displacement are the maximum
amplitude of the recorded velocity and displacement respectively.
For a given ground motion, the deformation or acceleration response of SDOF systems of different
natural periods are different and hence the peak responses are also different.
Fig: Ground motion record from the 1940 El-Centro earthquake

Response spectrum
The response spectrum is a standard method of representation of the response of structures to
ground acceleration. It is the summarization of response histories in terms of the peak response of
all SDOF systems with different natural periods.
[Note: The peak responses of a single SDOF system is known as its response spectra. Response
spectra for numerous SDOF systems are plotted against their natural vibration periods to form the
response spectrum.]
The response spectrum is a plot of peak value of a response quantity such as acceleration, velocity,
or displacement of an SDOF system as a function of natural vibration period T n of the system with
a particular damping ratio. Several such plots for different values of damping ratio can be included
to cover the range of damping values encountered in actual structures.
P a g e 29 | 168
30
The dynamic behavior of most building structures is strongly influenced by the fundamental
natural period and the associated mode. The response spectrum provides a convenient method of
estimating the response of the structure with known natural period to specific ground motion.
Fig: Displacement responses spectra of El-Centro, 1940 earthquake
P a g e 30 | 168
31
Fig: Velocity response spectra of El-Centro, 1940 earthquake
Fig: Acceleration response spectra of El-Centro, 1940 earthquake
P a g e 31 | 168
32
Effect of Local Soil Conditions
Significant differences in structural damage in basin as compared with the surrounding exposed
rocks, or even in the basin itself from place to place, have been observed during earthquakes. The
amplitude of shaking in basin can be more than 10 times stronger than the surrounding rocks.
The effects of soil conditions on the ground motion characteristics needs special attention since
most of urbanized areas are generally settled along river valleys over young, soft soil deposits. The
following aspects of local soil conditions are known to affect ground motion characteristics:
1) Impedance contrast: Seismic waves travel faster in hard rocks than in softer rocks and
sediments. As the seismic waves pass from hard medium to soft medium, their celerity
decrease, so they must get bigger in amplitude to carry the same amount of energy.
Thus, shaking tends to be stronger at sites with softer soil layers.
2) Resonance: Tremendous increase in ground motion amplification can occur if there is
resonance of signal frequency with the fundamental frequency of the soil layer.
3) Damping in soil: In a soil layer where the collision of particles during vibration is not
perfectly elastic, the earthquake energy can be absorbed. This elastic damping property
of the soil can cause significant attenuation of seismic waves.
Effects of earthquakes
Earthquakes can damage structures in the following ways;
1. By inertial forces generated in the structures due to severe ground shaking.
2. By changes in the physical properties of the foundation soils – consolidation,
settlements, and liquefaction
3. By direct fault displacement at the site of a structure
4. By landslides, slope instability, or other movements of soil mass on the surface
5. By seismically induced water waves such as Tsunamis (sea waves) or fluid motions in
reservoirs and lakes.
Measure of Earthquakes
The size of an earthquake can be measured using a magnitude scale and an intensity scale.
Magnitude
It is the measure of energy released at the source of an earthquake. It is a quantitative measure of
an earthquake. The magnitude of an earthquake is independent of the location at which the
measurement is obtained. It represents a universal measure of the size of an earthquake,
independently of its damage potential.
Earthquake magnitudes were initially measured from the amplitude of seismic waves by Charles
Richter. However, magnitude of an earthquake can also be measured using other physical
properties of the earthquake. Some of these alternative measures are- Characteristics of fault such
as length of the fault rupture, the fault rupture area, and the extent of relative displacement between
two sides of the fault.
Richter scale: The concept of magnitude was first introduced by Richter. The Richter scale was
first established by Charles Richter in 1935. The measurement is based on the amplitude of seismic
waves measured at a location and corrected with respect to the epicentral distance. The amplitudes
of seismic waves were recorded by a seismograph.
P a g e 32 | 168
33
Seismic Zoning
It is a process of demarcating or mapping areas of:
 Equal seismicity
 Equal acceleration
 Equal destruction in past earthquakes
 Equal degree of liquefaction
 Equal structural response
 Equal 'a' and 'b' values in Gutenberg-Richter relation.
 Equal ground characteristics in micro tremor survey.
 Equal level of Estimated ground shaking (PSHA)
The goal of seismic zoning is to delineate regions of similar probable intensity of ground motion
in a country, for providing a guideline for provision of an adequate earthquake resistance in
constructed facilities, as a step to disaster mitigation.
The Problem of designing economical earthquake-resistant structures rests heavily on the
determination of reliable quantitative estimates of expected earthquake intensities in particular
region. However, it is not possible to predict with any certainty when & where earthquakes will
occur, how strong they will be, and what characteristics the ground motions will have. Therefore,
an engineer must estimate the ground shaking. A simple method is to use a seismic zone map,
wherein the area is subdivided into regions, each associated with a known or assigned seismic
probability or risk, to serve as a useful basis for the implementation of code provisions on
earthquake-resistant design.
Hence, Seismic zoning involves identifying and segregating regions of similar probable intensity
of ground motion in a country.
Seismic Risk
Seismic risk refers to the risk of damages from earthquake to a building, system, or other entity.
Seismic risk has been defined for most management purposes, as the potential economic, social &
environmental consequences of hazardous events that may occur in a specified period of time.
A building located in a region of high seismic hazard is at lower risk if it is built to sound seismic
engineering principles. On the other hand, a building located in a region with a history of minor
seismicity, in a brick building located on fill subject to liquefaction can be as high or higher risk.
Seismic risks are the harm or losses that are likely to result from exposure to seismic hazards. They
are usually measured in terms of expected casualties (fatalities & injures) direct economic losses
(repair & replacement costs) & indirect economic losses.
Seismic risk = Seismic Hazard  Vulnerability  exposure (Structure)
Seismic risk, determined by the combination of hazard, vulnerability and exposure, is the
measurement of the damage expected in a given interval of time, based on the type of seismicity,
the resistant of buildings & anthropisation (nature, quality & quantity of assets exposed).
Seismic Risk Evaluation
The evaluation of seismic risk is an important aspect of earthquake-resistant design. The following
factors need to be considered to make an evaluation for a specific area.
P a g e 33 | 168
34
1) Seismological factors: The seismic zoning map provides the input regarding the
probable peak ground acceleration (PGA) in the region based on the history of
earthquakes including the magnitude, intensity & the frequency of occurrence.
2) Geological Factors: These include the rock formation in the area, the active faults in
the region, & the characteristic of fault boundary. Reports of landslides, major
settlements & floods & tsunamis can also be used for the risk evaluation.
3) Engineering property of the soil: The liquefaction potential of soil, location of ground
water table & its movement, areas of subsidence & the stability of slopes in the area,
all need to be considered during risk evaluation.
Hazard Vs Risk
Seismic hazard analysis: Describes the potential for dangerous, earthquake – related natural
phenomenon such as ground shaking, fault rapture, or soil liquefaction.
Seismic risk analysis: Assesses the probability of occurrence of losses (human, socio, economic)
associated with the seismic hazard.
Hazard: It is the potential to cause harm, damage or destruction.
Natural Hazard: Natural processes, which are potential to cause harm, damage or destruction to
mankind & its environment.
Risk: Probability of losses on account of earthquake or other natural or artificial process. The loss
could be people, their property & environment.
Seismic risk = Seismic Hazard  Vulnerability  Exposure (Structure)
Vulnerability: Probability of occurrences of damages in population on or structure when exposed
to particular process.
Seismic Hazard: Nature or capability of phenomenon (earthquake) that can cause damage or
destruction to people & their made structures.
Or probability of exceedance of a certain level of ground motion to occur in a particular time at a
particular site.
P a g e 34 | 168
35
Earthquakes Quantification
Earthquakes can be quantified by:
– Magnitude
- Micro seismic data
- Principally, value should be unique wherever it is measured
- Deviations exist on account of heterogeneity that exists in the earth.
- Intensity
- Macro seismic data
- Decreases with increasing distance
- Energy volume expands into a larger volume and so the intensity decreases with distance.
- Pre-instrumental earthquakes are assigned magnitudes analysis macro seismic data.
INTENSITY – is the severity of the ground motion at any point.

- Degree of shaking at a particular place
- Degree of destructiveness at that particular place.
- Decays with increasing distance
- Maximum intensity, in general, at the source of earthquake
- However in certain circumstances the maximum intensity can be at other than the source of
earthquake.
- Site specific geology
- Site specific structures
- Rossi-Forel
- Divided into 10 intervals
- Mercalli
- Omori Scale
- Japan Meteorological Agency (JMAintensity)
SIGNIFICANCE OF INTENSITY
- Magnitude is same for an earthquake wherever it is measured.
- Intensity varies with distance thus provides an estimate of attenuation.
- Magnitudes are assigned to pre-instrumental earthquakes. Macro seismic data comes from
- Chronicles
- Damage of monuments
P a g e 35 | 168
36
- Archives
- Written documents
- Stone carvings (sheelalekh)
- Seismic Hazard is dependent upon instrumental and pre-instrumental record of earthquakes.
- Researches first collect such information study, analyze, assign intensity and then derive
magnitude for that particular earthquake.
Relating Richter to Mercalli
Richter Magnitude Mercalli Intensity

2 and lass I & II usually not fell by people
3 III felt indoors by some people
4 IV & V Felt by most people
5 VI & VII Felt by all, small blog damage
6 VII – VIII people scared, moderate damage
7 IX – X Major damage
8 and up XI – XII Damage nearly total
MAGNITUDE
- A general term for a measure of the strength or energy of an earthquake as determined from a
seismographic information.
- The magnitude is an estimate of the relative size (amplitude) of an earthquake measured from
a seismogram
- When earthquakes, the elastic energy transforms into:
- Heat energy
- Seismic Energy
- Size of earthquake is described by its magnitude
- Theoretically it should be same wherever it is measured.
- It is measure of energy released at the source.
- An increment of unity in the magnitude corresponds to 10 times increment in the amplitude of
seismic waves.
- EQ of magnitude <5.0 are not expected to cause structural damage.
- EQ >5 potentially very damaging.
LOCAL MAGNITUDE OR RICHTER SCALE (ML)
- Developed by Charles F. Richter (1935) or Caltech to quantify earthquakes in California
- Wood-Anderson instruments used
- Designed for earthquakes occurring in distance less than 300 km
- Based on the amplitude and period of max amplitude at 1 sec or less period.
P a g e 36 | 168
37
- Saturates above 6 magnitude
- Specially used for local earthquakes which occur at less than 1000 km from the recording site.
- A measure of the strain energy released by an earthquake within 100 kilometers of its epicenter.
Strictly defined by Richter magnitude scale.
- Modern instruments are calibrated to give Richter scale or the magnitude is converted into
Richter scale.
- It is logarithm of the max amplitude of seismic waves recorded by seismic instruments.
- An increment of unity in magnitude is ten-fold increase in amplitude of ground vibrations.
- The closer the epicenter the severe the damage depending up on the magnitude.
- {Ml=log (A)-248+2.76 log}
-A is maximum amplitude of ground motion in micron.
- is the epicenter-station distance in km
- It is important in engineering field because many structures have natural period as that of a
Wood Anderson type seismometer (0.8 s).
BODY WAVE MAGNITUDE (MB)
- At distance larger than 1000 km high frequency waves get attenuated.
- At such distance 'P-wave' becomes a distinct phase and S-wave lags quite behind or might not
be recorded because of longer period at large distance.
- It is measured at 1s period wave.
- Commonly used to describe distant earthquakes.
- For deep-focus EQ surface wave are too small to permit reliable evaluation of surface wave
magnitude.
- Body wave is a worldwide magnitude scale based on the amplitude of first few cycles of p-
wave which are not strongly influenced by focal depth.
- Mb=log (A/T) + Q(h,)
- Mb is local magnitude
- 'A' is max amplitude in micrometers
- 'T' is the period of corresponding measurement
- Q stands attenuation
- h stands for depth of focus
-  stands for the epicenter distance in degrees
- Occasionally long period instruments are used to determine body-wave magnitude for periods
5 to 15 seconds referred to as MB.
- Measured on P or PP waves (Rayleigh waves).
SURFACE WAVE MAGNITUDE (MS)
- Beyond 600 km distance, in case of shallow earthquake, surface waves dominate the seismic
record.
P a g e 37 | 168
38
- It is common then to use surface wave to measure magnitude
- An earthquake when occurs at shallow depth, depending upon magnitude, develops large
energy surface wave/
- When the same earthquake occurs at increasing depth, the surface wave energy gets smaller.
- So, there is a need to differentiate between shallow and deep earthquake --- is provided by MS
- This magnitude is very useful in mobilizing rescue teams.
- A magnitude determined at tele seismic distances (>100km) using the logarithm of the
amplitude of 20 second period surface waves generated by an earthquake.
- If surface wave magnitude is larger than body-wave magnitude, it is shallow focus earthquake
and could be a destructive one.
- Ms = log A20 + 1.66 log  + 2.0
- Ms is surface magnitude
- A20 is amplitude measured at 20 second period wave (micrometers) (maximum ground
displacement in mm)
-  is as before { is the epicentral distance of the seismometer measured in degrees (360 0
corresponding to the circumference of the earth)}
- For a shallow earthquake
- Mb could be small
- Ms could be larger relative to Mb
- For Ms>> Mb  shallow depth earthquake
- Casualty and loss of property could be large.
For a deep earthquake
- Mb could be large
- Ms is generally small
- For Mb>> Ms  deep depth earthquake
- Little loss of life and property.
DURATION MAGNITUDE (MD)
The size of smaller earthquake. Micro earthquake and near earthquake (< 200km) epicentral
distance is often reported as MD. Scale is based on signal duration or length of seismograph traced.
- When a locally operating network of seismic instruments get saturated on account of dynamic
range, then duration magnitude is used.
- Dynamic Range: The range of amplitudes that can be recorded by seismic instruments.
- Bandwidth: The frequency range in which the seismic instruments can record ground
motions.
P a g e 38 | 168
39
MOMENT MAGNITUDE (MW)
- The seismic moment of an earthquake converted to a magnitude scale that roughly parallels
the Richter scale. Because it relates directly to the energy released by an earthquake, it has
become the standard in modern.
- All common magnitude scales are based on the logarithm of amplitude at a particular period.
- They cannot measure the full spectrum of magnitudes because of saturation.
- The magnitude scale was envisaged that was free of such defects.
- The total size of an earthquake is best represented by its moment.
- Moment is measure of energy released during earthquake.
- Moment =  D A
-  is rigidity of the medium
- D is the average slip on the fault
- A is the rupture area on the fault
- An alternative measure of earthquake would be ENERGY release.
- Moment magnitude is based on the logarithm of moment.
- And represents the energy released at the source.
2
- Mw = (log Mo/1.5)-10.73 = log10 Mo  10.73
3
- Mw is the moment magnitude in dyne-cm
- Mo is moment of the earthquake = F.2b
- This scale is derived by Kanamori (1977)
- Ms is converted into Mw using the following relation:
- Log Mo = 1.5Ms + 16.1
- Mw = (log Mo/1.5)-10.73
- Such conversion is required in seismic hazard assessment.
WHY SO MANY MAGNITUDE SCALES??
- Because Most of the magnitudes are based on the measure of maximum amplitude of certain
type.
- Because one type of seismic wave is dominant at one place and other type is dominant at other
place.
- High frequency waves exist in distances less than 1000 km.
- Local magnitude
- Low frequency waves dominate at larger distances
- Ms, or Mb or MB
- Changes in instrumentation (changes in instrument responses)
- The magnitude formula
P a g e 39 | 168
40
- Station distribution (nearby or distant)
MAGNITUDE CLASSIFICATION
- Magnitude less than 2  micro.
- Magnitude 2-4  minor
- Magnitude 4-5  small
- Magnitude 5-6  moderate
- Magnitude 6-7  strong
- Magnitude 7-8  major
- Magnitude >8  great
MAGNITUDE SATURATION
- Ml
- Starts at 6.0
- Mb
- Starts to saturate at 5.5
- Fully saturates at 6.0
- Ms
- Starts to saturate at 7.25
- Fully saturates at 8.0
- Mw
- Does not saturate
SEISMIC ENERGY
- Faulting involves energy, accumulated over hundreds of years, in the form of:
- Heat energy generated at source during slip
- Elastic seismic wave energy radiation
- Log E = 5.8 + 2.4 Mb
- Log E = 11.8 + 1.5 Mb
- An increment of unity in Magnitude corresponds to ~ 30 time’s increment in energy.
SOME FACTS
- There are over a million of earthquakes each year, most of them are insignificant.
- About 3000 of these produce noticeable effects (tremors, ground shakings)
- About 20, each year, cause major damage and destruction
- On average, about 10,000 people die each year because of earthquakes.
- An increment of unity in magnitude corresponds 10 times increment in wave amplitude
P a g e 40 | 168
41
- An increment of unity in magnitude corresponds to 30 times increment in Energy.
- Intensity varies with increasing distance
- Magnitude theoretically should remain same irrespective of increase in distance but deviations
exist due to heterogeneity in earth's crust.
- Great earthquakes occur along either converging boundaries or transform boundaries.
- Earthquakes along diverging zones, in general, have smaller magnitudes.
- ~ 90% of total number of earthquakes/year occur along diverging zones.
- Earthquakes along diverging zones release only -5% of total energy released per year.
Based on the above factors two scales are commonly used –Modified Mercalli Intensity (MML).
Scale and the MSK Scale. Both scales are quite similar and range from I (least severity) to XII
(most severe). The Intensity Scales are developed keeping in view the following things:
a) The experiences people
b) Performance of buildings
c) Changes in natural surroundings
MSK Intensity Scale
MSK Intensity Scale takes into account the type of structure, percentage of damage to each type
of structure, grade of damage to different type of structures and details of intensity scale.
TABLE: Type of Structures (buildings)
Type of Structures Definitions
A Building in fieldstone, rural structures, unburnt-brick houses, clay
houses.
B Ordinary brick buildings, buildings of the concrete block and
prefabricated type, half-timbered structures, buildings in natural hewn
stone.
C Reinforced buildings, well-built wooden structures
TABLE: Definition of Quantity
Quantity Percentage
Single, few about 5
Many about 50
Most about 75
TABLE: Classification of damage to buildings

Grade Definitions Description
G1 Slight damage Fine cracks in the plaster, full of small pieces of plaster
P a g e 41 | 168
42
G2 Moderate damage Small cracks in walls, fall of fairly damaged large pieces
of plaster, pantiles slip off, cracks in chimneys, parts of
chimneys
G3 Heavy damage Larger and deep crack in walls, fall of ……….
G4 Destruction Gaps in walls; parts of buildings may collapse, separate
parts of the building lose their cohesion; and inner walls
collapse
G5 Total damage Total collapse of buildings
TABLE: Details of MSK intensity scale.
Intensity Descriptions
The intensity of the vibration is below the limit
I Not noticeable of sensibility; the tremor is detected and
recorded by seismographs only.
Vibration is felt only by individual people at rest
Scarcely noticeable (very
II in houses, especially on upper floors of the
slight)
buildings.
The earthquake is felt indoors by a few people,
outdoors only in favorable circumstances. The
Weak, partially observed vibration is like that due to the passing of a light
III
only truck. Attentive observes notice a slight
swinging of hanging objects, somewhat more
heavily on upper floors.
The earthquake is felt indoors by many people,
outdoors by few. Here and there people awake,
but no one is frightened. The vibration is like
that due to the passing of a heavily loaded truck.
IV Largely observed Windows, doors and dishes rattle. Floors and
walls crack. Furniture begins to shake. Hanging
objects swing slightly. Liquids in open vessels
are slightly disturbed. In standing motorcars the
shock is noticeable.
a) The earthquake is felt indoors by all,
outdoors by many. Many sleeping people
awake. A few run outdoors. Animals
become uneasy. Buildings tremble
throughout. Hanging objects swing
considerably. Pictures knock against walls
V Awakening or swing out of place. Occasionally
pendulum clocks stop, unstable objects may
be overturned or shifted. Open doors and
windows are thrust open and slam-back
again.
Liquids spill in small amounts from well-
filled open containers. The sensation of
P a g e 42 | 168
43
vibration is like that due to heavy object
falling inside the buildings.
b) Slight damages in buildings of Type A are
possible.
c) Sometimes changes in flow of springs.
a) Felt by most indoor and outdoor people.
Many people in buildings are frightened
and run outdoors. A few persons lose their
balance. Domestic animals run out of their
stalls. In few instances dishes and glassware
may break, books fall down. Heavy
furniture may possible move and small
steeple bells may ring.
VI Frightening b) Damage of Grade I is sustained in single
buildings of Type B and in many of Type
A. Damage in a few buildings of Type A is
of Grade 2.
c) In few cases cracks up to widths of 1 cm is
possible in wet ground; in mountains
occasional landslips; changes in flow of
springs and in level of well water are
observed.
a) Most people are frightened and run
outdoors. Many find it difficult to stand.
The vibration is noticed by persons driving
motorcars. Large bells ring.
b) In many buildings of Type C damage of
Grade I is caused; in many buildings of
VII Damage of Buildings
Type B damage is of Grade 2. Most
buildings of Type A suffer damage of Grade
3, a few of Grade 4.
c) In single instances landslips of roadway on
steep slopes; cracks in roads; seams of
pipelines damaged; cracks in stone walls.
a) Fright and panic; also persons driving
motorcars are disturbed. Here and there
branches of trees break off. Even heavy
furniture moves and partly overturns.
Hanging lamps are damaged in part.
VIII Destruction of Buildings b) Most buildings of Type C suffer damage of
Grade 2, and a few of Grade 3. Most
buildings of Type B suffer damage of Grade
3, and most buildings of Type A suffer
damage of Grade 4. Many buildings of
Type C suffer damage of Grade 4.
P a g e 43 | 168
44
Occasional breaking of pipe seams.
Memorials and monuments move and twist.
Tombstones overturn. Stone-walls collapse.
c) Small landslips in hollows and on banked
roads on steep slopes; cracks in ground up
to widths of several cm. Water in jakes
becomes turbid. New reservoirs come into
existence. Dry wells refill and existing
walls become dry. In many causes change
in flow and level of water is observed.
a) General panic, considerable damage to
furniture. Animals run to and fro in
confusion and cry.
b) Many buildings of Type C suffer damage of
Grade 3, and a few of Grade 4. Many
buildings of Type B show damage of Grade
4. Many buildings of Type B show damage
of Grade 4, and a few of Grade 5. Many
buildings of Type A suffer damage of Grade
5. Monuments and columns fall.
General Damage to Considerable damage to reservoirs;
IX
Buildings underground pipes partly broker. In
individual cases railway lines are bent and
roadway damaged.
c) On flat land overflow of water, sand and
mud is often observed. Ground cracks to
widths of up to 10cm, on slopes and river
banks more than 10cm; furthermore a large
number of slight cracks in ground; falls of
rock, many landslides and earth flows; large
waves in water. Dry wells renew their flow
and existing wells dry up.
a) Many buildings of Type C suffer damage of
grade 4, and a few of Grade 5. Many
buildings of Type B show damage of Grade
5; most of Type A have destruction of
Grade 5; critical damage to dams and dykes
and severe damage to bridges. Railway
General destruction of lines are bent slightly. Underground pipes
X are broken or bent. Road paving and asphalt
buildings
show waves.
b) In ground, cracks up to widths of several
cm, sometimes up to 1m. Parallel to water
course occur broad fissures. Loose ground
slides from steep slopes. From river-bank
and steep slopes, considerable landslides:
P a g e 44 | 168
45
are possible. In coastal areas, displacement
of sand and mud; change of water level in
wells; water from canals, lakes, rivers etc.,
thrown on land. New lakes; occur.
a) Severe damage even to well-built buildings,
bridges, water dams and railway lines;
highways become 1 useless; underground
pipes destroyed.
XI Destruction b) Ground considerable distorted by broad
cracks and fissures, as well as by movement
in horizontal and vertical directions;
numerous landslips and falls of rock. The
intensity of the earthquake requires to be
investigated specially.
a) Practically all structures above and below
the ground are greatly damaged or
destroyed.
b) The surface of the ground is radically
changed. Considerable ground cracks with
XII Landscape Changes extensive vertical and horizontal
movements are observed. Falls of rock and
slumping of river-banks over wide areas,
lakes are dammed; waterfalls appear, and
rivers are deflected. The intensity of the
earthquake requires to be investigated
specially.
P a g e 45 | 168
46
MMI Scale
The details of MMI Scale (Modified Mercalli Scale) are given below.
TABLE: Details of Modified Mercalli Scale (MMI)
Basic difference between magnitude and intensity

The difference is shown in the tabular form in the Table below
P a g e 46 | 168
47
Magnitude Intensity
1. It is a measure of the size of the 1. It is an indicator of severity of shaking
earthquake. The size is measured by generated at a location. The severity of
the amount of strain energy released shaking by an earthquake clearly is much
by the fault rupture. Thus the higher near the epicenter than farther
magnitude of earthquakes is a single away at any location.
value for a given earthquake. From an earthquake of a certain
2. At all locations the magnitude of an magnitude, different intensity is
earthquake remains the same. experienced at different locations.
Buildings are designed on the basis of
3. Structures are not designed on the
intensity of earthquake at a particular
basis of magnitude.
place.
4. They are based on direct
It is measured in relation to the effect of
measurements of the size of seismic
the earthquake on human life.
waves.
P a g e 47 | 168
48
Chapter 3.0
Basic Structural Dynamics
3.1 Introduction
The primary purpose of structural dynamics is to present methods for analyzing the stresses and
deflections developed in any given type of structure when it is subjected to an arbitrary dynamic
loading. The objective focuses to an extension of standard methods of structural analysis, which
are generally concerned with static loading only but to permit consideration of dynamic loading as
well. In this context, the static-loading condition may be looked upon merely as a special form of
dynamic loading. In the analysis of a linear structure it is convenient to distinguish between the
static and dynamic components of the applied loading, to evaluate the response to each type of
loading separately, and then to superpose the two response components to obtain their total effect.
When treated thusly, the static & dynamic methods of analysis are fundamentally different in
character.
The term 'dynamic' simply means 'time varying'. A dynamic load is one, the magnitude, direction
or point of application / or position varies with time. Similarly the structural response to a dynamic
load, i.e., the resulting stresses & deflections.
In general, structural response to any dynamic loadings expressed basically in terms of
displacements of the structure.
3.1.1 Dynamic Problems
A structural dynamic problem differs from its static-loading counters part in two important respect.
The first difference to be noted by definition, is the time-varying nature of the dynamic problem.
As both loading and response vary with time, it is evident that a dynamic problem does not have
a single solution, as a static problem does, instead the analyst must establish a succession of
solutions corresponding to all times of interest in the response history i.e. a structural dynamic
problem does not have s single solution, Thus, a dynamic analysis is clearly more complex & time-
consuming than a static analysis.
Since the earthquake forces are considered dynamic, instead of obtaining a single solution as in a
static case, a separate solution is required at each instant of time for the entire duration of the
earthquake. When a dynamic load P(t) is applied dynamically to a structure e.g. on a simple beam
as shown in figure, the resulting displacements are associated with accelerations that produce
inertia forces resisting the accelerations. Thus the internal moments and shears in the example
structure (beam) of figure must equilibrate not only the externally applied force, but also the inertia
force resulting from the acceleration of the beam. These inertia forces cause the system to vibrate.
P
P(t)
a) Static loading
inertia force
b) Dynamic loading
P a g e 48 | 168
49
Fig: static and dynamic loading
Degree of Freedom
In structure dynamics the number of independent coordinate necessary to specify the position or
configuration of a system at any time is referred as degree of freedom. In general, a continuous
structure has on infinite number of degree of freedom. The process of idealization or selection of
an appropriate mathematical modeling permits the reduction in the number of degree of freedom
to a discrete number and in some cases to just a single degree of freedom. Figure below shows
some examples of structures which may be represented for dynamic analysis as one-degree – of
freedom systems; that is, structure modeled as systems with a single displacement coordinate.
F(t)
y
F(t)
y
(b)
(a) y
(c)
Fig: dynamic analysis as one-degree-of freedom systems

These one-degree of freedom systems may be described conveniently by the mathematical model
shown in figure below which has following elements: (1) a mass element in representing the mass
& inertial characteristics of the structure; (2) a spring element K representing the elastic restoring
force and potential energy capacity of the structures; (3) a damping element representing the
frictional characteristics & energy losses of the structure; and (4) an excitation force F(t)
representing the external forces acting on the structural system. The force F(t) is a function of time.
In adopting the mathematical model as shown in figure below it is assumed that each element in
the system represents a single property (which is not possible on do no exist in our physical world.
y
K
C m P(t)
O O
Fig: Mathematical model for one degree of Different Terms used in structural Dynamics
Different terms used in structural dynamics
Natural frequency. The full number of cycles per unit time is known as Natural frequency. When
no external force acts on the system after giving it an initial displacement, the body vibrates. These
vibrations are known as free vibrations and their frequency is called as natural frequency. It is
expressed as radian per second or Hertz.
Stiffness. The force required to produce unit deformation is called stiffness. It is an elastic property
that describes the level of resisting force that develops when a body undergoes a change in length.
The unit of stiffness is Newton per meter (N/m) or N/mm. (1N/mm=100N/m).
Amplitude. The maximum deformation or displacement of a vibrating system from its mean
position is known as amplitude. Usually it is denoted by A.
Free vibration. The vibration which persists in a structure after removal of the force causing the
motion in the structure is known as free vibration. It takes place when a system oscillates under
P a g e 49 | 168
50
the action of forces inherent in the system itself. No external forces act on them. Oscillation of a
simple pendulum is a good example of the free vibration.
Forced vibration. The vibration which is maintained in a structure by steady periodic force acting
on the structure is called forced vibration. When the excitation is oscillatory, the system is forced
to vibrate at the excitation frequency. The behavior of a system under forced vibration depends
upon the type of excitation. Forced vibration may be either deterministic or random.
Fundamental mode of vibration. The mode having the lowest natural frequency is known as
fundamental mode of vibration of a structure.
Damping. The resistance to the motion of a vibrating body is called damping. The vibrations of a
system associated with this resistance are called as damped vibrations. It is a phenomenon in which
the vibrational energy of the system is gradually decreased or amplitude of vibration is gradually
reduced. The unit of damping is N/m/s.
Resonance. When the frequency of an external force is equal to the natural frequency of the
vibrating system in such situations the amplitude of the vibration becomes excessively high. This
phenomenon is known as resonance. The failure of major structures such as bridges and buildings
largely is due to resonance.
Simple harmonic motion (S.H.M.). The motion of periodic form is called as harmonic motion.
The harmonic motion is represented in terms of circular sine and cosine functions. All harmonic
motions are periodic in nature, but all the periodic motions are not always harmonic. The to and
fro motion of a body about a fixed point is called simple harmonic motion. Following are the
characteristics of a S.H.M.
a) The motion is periodic.
b) When displaced from the mean position or the fixed point, a restoring force acts on the
particle tending to bring it to the mean position.
c) The restoring force on the particle is directly proportional to its displacement.
A simple harmonic motion may be of the type
x = A sin(t+)
or, x = A sin pt + B cos pt
Where,
x = Displacement
A = Amplitude
 = Frequency
P = Angular or circular frequency. It is measured in radians per second
 = Phase angle.
In this text x = A sin pt + B cos pt has been used as H.S.M. equation.
P a g e 50 | 168
51
TYPES OF VIBRATIONS
Whatever may be the cause of vibrations, a structure vibrates in one of the following four
deformation or a combination of thereof. The line diagram of these deformations during vibrations
are shown in figure below.
(a) Extensional vibrations. This type of vibrations develop in vertical direction by a rigid block
tied with a spring, one end of which is tied with a fixed support as shown in figure below.
Spring
Weight
(a) Extentional (b) Bending (c) Shearing (d) Torsional
Fig: Types of Deformations during vibration

(b) Bending vibrations. This type of vibrations develop in tall vertical structures as that in a
chimney stack as shown in Figure
(c) Shear vibrations. This type of vibrations develop in multistory buildings having columns
stiffened by rigid floor beams at different levels. These vibrations are horizontal
vibrations Figure
(d) Torsional vibrations. This type of vibrations develop due to twisting of a building having
its supporting parts of different stiff nesses as shown in Figure.
Generally one type of deformation predominates, though quite often combinations of two types of
deformations can be important like that of bending and shear deformations in vibrations of
chimneys in higher modes and horizontal and rocking mode vibrations in machine foundations.
The vibration behavior depends on mass and stiffness distribution and constraints on the system.
DEGREE OF FREEDOM
The position of a vibrating mass in space with respect to its position of equilibrium can be
described by six coordinates, three translational along the three orthogonal axes x, y, z and three
rotational about the same axes i.e. x, y and z axes. However a mass may have freedom to move
only in certain directions and may be constrained in other directions. The number of independent
coordinates required to describe the position of a vibrating mass is known as degree of freedom of
that mass. For a multi mass discrete (independent from others) system the total degree of freedom
would be the sum of degree of freedom of individual masses. If a system is represented by a single
mass and it is constrained in such a way that its motion is described by a single coordinate, then
this system is known as a single degree of freedom system.
P a g e 51 | 168
52
Fig: Degree of freedom

Such a system is shown in above figure in which  is the coordinate which defines the position of
mass 'm'.
If six masses such as the floor mass of the six storeyed building (the masses are considered to be
concentrated at floor levels) vibrate in one plane as shown in figure, six displacements for six
masses from x1 10X6 will describe the deformed position of the structure. This would be known
as a structure having six degree of freedom.
If one mass is attached to two springs and is free to vibrate in two position of the mass. The two
independent coordinates required to define the position of the mass are '' and 'x'.
SPRING ACTION AND DAMPING
Imagine a mass 'm' fixed on the top of a column as shown in figure or a mass resting on rollers and
fixed to a spring and a damping device dashpot as shown in.
Fig: Mass Spring and Damping

If the mass 'm' is displaced by a distance 'x'. The elastic straining of the column in Fig. (a) or the
stretching of the spring in Fig. (b) Will tend to bring the mass back to the original position. The
force exerted by the column or spring is a function of the displacement 'x' and is known as its
restoring force or spring force. If the displacement 'x' is small, this force could be assumed to be a
linear function of 'x'.
This mass 'm' will come back to its original position with a certain velocity and pass to the other
side and thus vibrate. In case the system is elastic and there is no loss of energy, the mass will
vibrate forever.
P a g e 52 | 168
53
Fig: Damped free vibration

But in practice friction due to air, or friction between the particles of the system or at junction or
due to yielding of the material etc., energy dissipation will take place so the vibrations will die out
in course of time. The forces which cause loss of energy are called as damping forces. The figure
shows the variation of displacement with time. If the damping force is proportional to the velocity
motion of the mass, then this damping is called viscous damping.
Though in practice damping is not purely viscous, but for the convenience of solution of the
equation of motion, damping is assumed as viscous. In case the damping is any other function of
velocity as c(x)n, where c is coefficient of damping that would give the same response as that of
actual damping, x is velocity of the mass of any time 't' & n is any number higher than one.
Sometimes it is possible to find equivalent viscous damping that would give deliberately in a
structural system by attaching to some frictional devices. Damping of a structure depends upon
the following factors and can only be determined experimentally.
1. Nature of the materials of the structure.
2. Nature of joints.
3. Quality of construction.
4. Nature and type of foundations.
Equation of Motion of Single Degree of Freedom System
x
m
V(t)
C P(t)
x
m F(t)
K
O O
(a) Mathematical modal of SDoF (b) Portal frame having same behaviour
as mass 'm' in fig (a)
Fig: model of SDOF

The equation of motion for the simple system of figure (a) is most easily formulated by directly
expressing the equilibrium of all forces acting on the mass using a 'Alembert's principle. Let us
consider a moss m attached to a fixed plane AB through a spring as shown in figure (a) or an elastic
system such as represented by a portal frame shown in fig (b) pulled by a force P(t) which is a
function of time.
P a g e 53 | 168
54
V(t)
FI
FS
m P(t)
FD
(c)
Fig: Downward & upward force due to self-weight & reaction concels
Let the displacement be V at any time t. The velocity and acceleration of the mass at the same time
0 00
would be v and v respectively, Besides the exciting force P(t), the forces acting on the mass
would be inertia force (fI(t)), spring force (fs(t), and damping force (fD(t)) which can be expressed
as
Fs(t) = elastic force = Spring, stiffness * displacement = K+V(t)
00
FI(t) = Inertia force = mass * acceleration = M V (t)
0
FD(t)= Damping force = Damping constant * velocity = C V (t)
P(t) = applied force
Above figure (c) can be expressed in condition of equilibrium forces.
- FS-FD-FI+P(t)=0
FI+FS+FD = P(t)
00 0
 m v (t) + c v (t) + kv(t) = P(t) (1)
P a g e 54 | 168
55
Influence of gravity on SDOF equilibrium equation
fs(t) fD(t)
K C fs(t) fD(t)
fI(t) fi(t)
m
(w)
W W
st = static displacement
V(t) V(t)
P(t) P(t)
P(t)
V(t)
(a) (b) (c)
Fig: Influence of gravity on SDOF equilibrium

In Fig (a) it is seen that the force of gravity acts in the direction of the displacement.
The equation of equilibrium of these forces is given by
00 0
M v (t) + C v (t) + FKv (t) = P(t)+W
Where W is the weight of the rigid block.
However, if the total displacement V (t) is expressed as the sum of the static displacement st
caused by the weight W plus the additional dynamic displacement V(t) as shown in figure (c).
V (t) = st + V(t)
Then the spring force is given by
fs(t)=kv(t)=K(st+ v( t ) ) = Kst+ k v( t )  (3)
Substituting (3) in (1)
00 0
m v (t) + C v (t)+Kst+kv(t)=P(t)+W
0 0
m v (t)+c v (t)+k v (t)=P(t) ---- (4)
[ kst = W]
Hence, there is no influence of gravity on SDOF system.
Solution of un-damped free vibration
The equation of motion of a simple spring mass system with damping can be expressed as
00 0
m v (t)+c v (t)+kv(t)=P(t) - (1)
In which v(t) represents the dynamic response and P(t) represents the effective load acting on the
system, either applied directly or resulting from support motions.
The solution of equation (1) will be obtained by considering first the homogenous form with the
right side set to zero i.e.
00 0
m v (t) + c v (t) + kv(t) = 0
Again for un-damped case
P a g e 55 | 168
56
mv(t) + kv(t) = 0 (2)
The solution of equation (2) is givn by
v(t) = -Asint + Bcost (3)
Differentiating equation (3)
0
v (t) = Asint + Bcost (4)
Where,  = circular frequency or angular velocity of the system
= k
m
Where, A and B are constants which depend upon the initial conditions of the motion.
Note: The motion described by equation (4) is harmonic &therefore periodic. The period T of the
2
motion is determined as T 

The period is usually expressed in seconds per cycle or seconds. The value reciprocal to the period
1 
is the natural frequency 'f' given by f  
T 2
The natural frequency f is usually expressed in hertz or cycles per second.
As the quantity  differs from the natural frequency f only by the constant factor, 2,  is also
sometimes referred to as the natural frequency.  may be called circular or angular natural
frequency. The unit of  is radian per second. The natural vibration properties , t and f depend
on only mass and stiffness of the structure. The stiffer the structure, the higher natural frequency
of the same mass & the shorter natural period. Similarly a heaver (more mass) structure of the
same stiffness will have lower natural frequency & longer natural period.
If at time t = 0, v = v(0) , then the constants A and B from equations (3) & (4) will be
v(t=0) = ACos0+Bsin0
 = v(t-0) = v(0)
 A = v(0)
Now,
0
v (t=0) = A(-sint) + bcost
0
v (t=0 = -A. 0 + B 1
0
v(0)
B

Substituting value of A and B in equation (3)
0
v ( 0)
v(t) = v(0) Cost + Sint (5)
w
This solution represents a simple harmonic motion and is shown in figure
P a g e 56 | 168
57
v(t)
v(0)
v(0)
Q/w
T= 2
 (onecycle )
Velocity Vs time
Fig: Un-damped free vibration response
The motion represent by equation (5) & depicted by fig also may be interpreted in terms of
0
v ( 0)
pair of vectors, v(0) & rotating counter – clockwise in the complex plane with angular

velocity , as shown in figure.
Using previously stated relations among the free vibration constants & the initial conditions,
imaginary A=v(0)
wt

Real

0
B=v(0)/w
Fig. : Rotating vector representing un-damped free vibrations (Argand Diagram)

B  v(0) 
  tan 1    tan 1  
 A  .v(0) 
v(t) =  cos (t - ) (6)
 Stands for amplitude. In which the amplitude is given by
2
0
v(0)
= (v(0) 2  (7)

And phase angle by
 0 
 v(0) 
  tan 1
(8)
 v(0) 
 
P a g e 57 | 168
58
Fig. Un-damped Free Vibration Response
The natural period, T, defined as the time required for the phase angle, t, to travel from 0 to 2
is given by
2 m    K 
T  2
 k  m 
1  1 k
f  
T 2 2  m
The quantity  which have identified previously as the angular velocity (measured radians per unit
of time) of the vectors rotating in complex plane, also is known as the circular frequency. Usually
for structural & mechanical systems the period T is measured in seconds & the frequency is
measured in cycles per second commonly referred to as Hertz (Hz).
Solution of Damped Free Vibrations

Damping is an influence within or upon an oscillatory system that has effect of reducing, restricting
or preventing its oscillation.
P a g e 58 | 168
59
 
m v (t) + c v (t) + kv(t) = p(t) – (1) is equation of motion of un-damped simple spring mass system
in which v(t) represents the dynamic response (that is, the displacement from the static-equilibrium
position) and p(t) represents the effective load acting on the system, either applied directly or
resulting from support motions.
For free vibration (motion taking place with no applied force) the equation (1) becomes:
 
m v (t) + c v (t) + kv(t) = 0 - (2) is equation of motion for damped free vibration.
Since the above equation is second order differential equation, the solution is in the form.
v( t )  est
v( t )  sest - (3) Where, S is arbitrary parameter
v( t )  s e 2 st
Substituting the values of equation (3) in equation (2)

ms2est + csest + kest = 0
Or, est (ms2+Cs+k) = 0
Since, est 0
 C  c2  4mk
S 
2m
C C
2 2
 C  4mk  C  k
=          - (5)
 2 m  ( 2 m)  2m  m
2
2m 2m
K k
Since  2 i.e.  
m m
C
2
 C 
S1, 2 =    
2
- (6)
2m  2m 
Where,  is angular frequency or circular frequency
Three types of motion are represented by this expression, according to whether the quantity under
the square root sign is positive, negative or zero.
Three types of motion
2
 C 
  
2
 2m 
2
 C 
  
2
 2m 
2
 C 
  
2
 2 m 
P a g e 59 | 168
60
Case I: Critical Damping
For a system oscillating with critical damping, then the expression under the radical in equation
(6) is equal to zero.
2
 Ccr  k
   0
 2m  m
Ccr = 2 km - (7)
Where, Ccr designates the critical damping value. Since the natural frequency of the un-damped
system is designated by   k , the critical damping coefficient given by equation (7) may also
m
be expressed in alternative notation as
2k
Ccr = 2m =

Then, both values of S given by equation (6) are the same i.e.
 Cc
S1  S2    - (8)
2m
The required solution of the equation of motion for this case
v(t) = A1es1t + A2tes2t (Since, S1 = S2)
= es1t (A1+A2t)
= e-t (A1+A2t) - (9)
 v(t) = -e-t (A1 + A2t) + e-tA2 - (10)
Applying the initial condition at t = 0
v(t) = v(0)

v (t) = v(0)
Then, v(0) = A1 [From equation 9]

v (0) = -v(0) + A2 A2 = v(0) + v(0) [From equation 10]
Putting the value of A1 & A2 in equation (9)
v(t) = e-t(A1+A2t)

= v(0) e-t + [ v (0) + v(0)]te-t

 v(t) = [v(0) (1+t) + v (0)t]e-t - (11)
Is the required solution for the critically damped system which is portrayed graphically in figure

(a) for positive value of v (0) & v (0)
Note that this free response of a critically damped system does not include oscillation about the
zero-deflection position; instead it simply returns to zero asymptotically in accordance with the
exponential term of equation. (11)
P a g e 60 | 168
61
v(0)
v(0)
Fig: Free vibration response with critical damping

Critically damped condition can be defined as the smallest amount of damping for which no
oscillation occurs in the free response.
Case II: Over Critically – Damped Systems
(Not usually in practice)
In an over damped system, the damping coefficient is greater than the value for critical damping
2
 C 
  
2
 2m 
Although it is very unusual under normal conditions to have over critically damped structural
systems, they do sometimes occur as mechanical systems, therefore it is useful to carry out the
response analysis of an over critically damped system.
2
 C 
  
2
 2 m 
C>2m = Cc
C C
=  - (1)
Cc 2m
2
C  C 
S=     
2
- (2)
2m  2m 
2
 C 
Since,     , the expression under the radical of equation (2) is positive, thus the
2
 2m 
roots of the characteristic equation are real & distinct, & consequently the solution is given by
v(t) = A1es1t + A2eS2t - (3)
From equation (2)
C
2
 C 
S1, 2     
2
2m  2 m 
P a g e 61 | 168
62
=   2   2
 S1, 2 = -    2  1
= -W - (4)
Where, W =   2  1
Substitute the two values of S given by (4) in equation (3) and simplifying leads eventually to
v(t) = [ASinht + Bcosht] exp (-t) - (5)
A & B can be evaluated using the initial conditions v (0) &v (0). It is easily shown from the
equation (5) that the response of an over critically damped system is similar to the motion of a
critically damped system as shown in figure (a), however the asymptotic return to the zero-
displacement position is slower depending upon the amount of damping
Critically damped (e = 1)
v(t) Over damped (e > 1 or c > cc)
Under damped (c > cc or e< 1)
Fig: Free Vibration of under damped, critically damped or over damped system
Case III : Under critically Damped System or Un damped case

If the damping is less than critical, that is if C<Cc
(i.e. C<2mw) it is apparent that the quantity under the radical sign in equation below is
negative.
2
C  C 
S1, 2 =     
2
- (1)
2m  2 m 
To evaluate the free-vibration response in this case, it is convenient to express damping in
terms of a damping ratio of which is the ratio of given damping to the critical value.
C C
Damping ratio =  - (2)
Cc 2m
Where, =2m= 2 mk or fraction of critical damping.
Putting the values in equation (1)
S1,2 = -w  2   2

P a g e 62 | 168
63
=      2  1
= -i𝐷
where, 𝐷 =  1   2
𝐷 is the free vibration frequency of the damped system.
The complete solution is
v(t) = A1 es1t + A2 es2t
=𝐴1 𝑒 (−+𝑖 𝐷)𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 (−−𝑖 𝐷)𝑡
= 𝑒 (−𝑡) (𝐴1 𝑒 𝑖𝐷𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑖𝐷𝑡 ) (3)
equation (3) can be expressed in the equivalent trigonometric form
v(t)=[Acos𝐷 t + Bsin𝐷 t] e(-t) (4)
At time t = 0, v(t) = v(0)
𝑣̇ (t) = v(0)
𝑣̇ (t) = -e−t (Acos𝐷 t) + Bsin𝐷 t) + e−t (-𝐷 ASin𝐷 t+𝐷 Bcos𝐷 t) (5)
v(0) = A [From equation 4]
𝑣̇ (0) = - (A+0) + 1 (𝐷 B) [From equation 5]
 𝑣̇ (0) = -A + 𝐷 B

v(0) 
B=  v(0).
D D
Equation (4) becomes
 

-t  v(0)  v(0)
v(t) = e v(0)Cos D t  Sin D t  (6)
 D 
 
Alternatively, this response can be written in the form
v(t) = Cos(Dt+)e-t
in which
 = A 2  B2
1
   
2 2
  v ( 0)  v ( 0)  
= v(0) 2    
  D
   
 v(0) 

1
= tan  D 
 v(0)  v(0) 
 
P a g e 63 | 168
64
Under damped system oscillates about the neutral position with a constant circular
frequency D.
2 2 T
 Damped period of vibration is given by TD   
D  1 2 1 2
A plot of the response of an under critically damped system subjected to an initial
displacement v(0) but starting with zero velocity is shown in figure below.
v(0)
Fig. Free Vibration response of under damped system
Logarithmic Decrement
A practical method for determining experimentally the damping coefficient of a system to initiate
free. Vibration, obtain a record of the oscillatory motion as the one shown in figure and measure
the rate of decay of the amplitude of motion. The decay may be conveniently expressed by the
logarithmic decrement  which is defined as the natural logarithm of the ratio of any two successive
peak amplitudes.

v(0) v(0)
D  v1 3
D D
t
2 4
D D
Fig: Free vibration response of un-damped system
The damped period of vibration is given by
P a g e 64 | 168
65
2 2 T
TD   
D  1 2
1 2
vn
If the amplitudes at times t n and tn+TD are vn& vn+1 respectively, the ratio of
vn  1
 t
vn v e
 0 
vn  v1  e (t TD )
e t
= = eTD
e t .e TD
= e(2/D)
  
= exp  2 
  D 
vn   
  exp  2  (7)
vn  1  D 
This is called amplitude decay ratio.
Taking the natural logarithm (ln) on both sides of equation (7) and substituting
vn 2
 D   1   2 , then logarithmic decrement of damping  is  ln   (8)
vn 1 1 2
For low values of damping, equation (8) can be approximated by   2 
(9)
After m number of cycles
vn v v v v
 0 . 1 . 2 . n 1
v n  m v1 v 2 v3 v m
= e .e .e .e
1  v 
= em      ln  n 
 m   v n m 
 v   2 
ln  n   m 
 2 
 vnm   1 
Note: Damping hasan effect of lowering the natural frequency from  to D and lengthening the
natural period from T to TD. These effects are negligible for damping ratios below 20 percent, a
range that includes more structures. For most structures the damped properties. n and TD are
approximately equal to the un-damped properties  and T respectively.
Examples:
Question:
P a g e 65 | 168
66
Q. Vertical cable is 3.5m long withcross sectional areas is 5cm2. It supports a weight of
45KN at its lower end. Determine the natural period T & natural frequency of the system.
Solution
Given,
Area of cross section of the cable = 5cm2
Length of the cable = 3.5m
Weight W=45KN
45  1000
M=  4568kg
9.81
E = 2.45  106kg/cm2
AE 5  2.45  106
K=   35  103 kg / m
L 350
= 35000981 = 344 106N/m
3.44  10 6
Un-damped Natural frequency   k   27.36 radians
m 4586
2 2  3.142
T   0.273
 27.261
1 1
f   3.66cps (Cycle per second)
T 0.273
Q. A vibrating system consisting of a weight of W=10lb & a spring with stiffener k=20lb in
is viscously damped so that the ratio of two consecutive amplitudes is 1.00 to 0.85.
Determine
a) The natural frequency of the un-damped system.
b) The logarithmic decrement
c) The damping ratio
d) The damping coefficient, and
e) The damped natural frequency
Solution
a) The un-damped natural frequency of the system in radians per second is
 20lb in 
\ km    386   27.78rad / sec
 in Sec 2 
Or in cycles per second

f  & 4.42 cps
2
b) The logarithmic decrement is given by
P a g e 66 | 168
67
y1 1
  ln  Ln  0.163
y2 0.85
c) The damping ratio is approximately equal to
 0.163
=   0.026
2 2
20  10
d) Damping coefficient, c= Ccr = 0.026 2
386
= 0.037 lb sec/in
e) The natural frequency of the damped system is
D   1   2
= 27.78 * 1  (0.026)2  27.77rad / sec

Q. Assume mass and stiffness of the structures are as follows
m=100 kg k=4000N/m the system is set into free vibration with initial condition. v(0)

= 15mm & v (0) = 100mm/s Determine the displacement & velocity at t=1 Sec assuming
a) C=0
N S
b) C = 400
m
Solution
a) For C = 0

 v ( 0)
v (t) = v(0) Cost + Sint


v (t) = -v(0) Sint + v(0) cost
4000
 k   6.324rad / sec
m 100
0.10
v(1) = 0.015*Cos(6.324*1)+  Sin (6.324  1)
6.324
= 0.0156m
= 15.63mm
v(1) = 6.3240.015 Sin (6.324)+0.1Cos(6.234)
= 0.096m/sec
NS
b) For C = 400
m
P a g e 67 | 168
68
 

 v (0)  v(0)
v(1) = e -t v(0) Cos D t  Sin D t 
 D 
 
C 400 400
    0.1
Cr 2m 2  100  6.32
 D   1   2  5.99rad / s
 

-t  v(0)  v(0)
 v(1) = -e  v(0) cos  D t   Sin D t 
D 
 
 
 v(0)  v(0) 
+ e -t  D v(0)Sin D t  D   cos D t
 D 
 
Q. A platform of weight W=4000lb is being supported by four equal columns which are
clamped to the foundation as well as to platform experimentally it how been determined
that a static force of f=1000 Lb it is estimated that damping in the structure is of order 5%
of critical damping determine this structure the following (i) un-damped natural frequency
(ii) Absolute damping coefficient (iii) Logarithmic decrement and (iv) The number of
cycles & the time required for the amplitude of motion to be reduced from an initial value
of 0.1 inch to 0.01 inch:
a) The stiffness coefficient (force per unit displacement) is computed as:
F 1000
K   10,000lb / in
 0.1
 The un-damped natural frequency
K K 10,000  386
    3109rad / sec
m W/g 4000
b) The critical damping is
Ccr= 2 km  2 10,000  4000 / 386
= 643.8 lb.sec/in
 Absolute damping = Ccr = 0.05*643.8 = 32.19 lb.sec/in
c) Logarithmic decrement is
 
  ln vn vh  1  2  2 (0.05)  0.314
The ratio of two consecutive amplitudes

vn
 1.37
vn  1
d) The ratio between the first amplitude vo and the amplitude vn+h after K cycles may
be expressed as
P a g e 68 | 168
69
vn v v v
 0 . 1 ... n 1
v n  m v1 v 2 v m
v0  0.1 
Ln  0.314m  n   0.314m
vn  m  0.01 
n10
 m  7.33  7cycles
0.314
 Damped frequency,  D   1   2  31.06 1  (0.05) 2  31.02rad / sec

2 2
the period TD    0.2025 sec
D 31.02
Then, the time for seven cycles is t(7cycles) = 7T D=1.42 sec.
Q. Determine the free vibration response of a single degree of freedom system shown in figure
at time t=0.205 for the following data.
v
Natural circular frequency =12 rad/s K
Damping factor, =0.15 m
 c
Initial velocity v (0) = 10 cm/s
Initial displacement, v(0)=5cm
Soln :
Displacement at any time t is given by
 

 v(0)  v(0) 
exp(t)  v(0) cos  D t  sin D t 
 D 
 
 D   1   2  12  1  0.15 2  11.86 rad/s

=0.15*12=1.8 rad/s
Displacement at time t=0.20 sec.
 (10  5  1.8) 
v(t) = exp  1.8  205  Cos(11.86  0.2)  Sin (11.86  0.2)
 11.86 
= 0.697676 (5(-0.718194)+1.6020.6958)
= -1.7276cm
In order to get velocity of 0.20 sec, differentiating displacement equation with respect to t.
 


 v (0)  v(0)
v(t )   exp(  t ) v(0) cos  D t   D Cos D t  
 D 
 
P a g e 69 | 168
70
 

 v (0)  v(0)
exp(  t )  v(0) D Sin D t   D cos  D t 
 D 
 
= 1.8  0.697676  [5  (-0.718194)+1.6020.6958] + 0.697676  [-5 11.86 0.6958 +
1.602 11.86 (-0.718194)]
= -34.72cm/sec
Q. Consider the frame shown in figure. This is a rigid steel frame to which a horizontal
dynamic force is applied at the upper level. As part of the overall structural design it is
required to determine the natural frequency of the frame. Two assumptions are made (1)
The masses of the columns & walls are negligible and (2) The girder is sufficiently rigid
to prevent rotation at the top of the columns (The assumptions are not mandatory for the
solution of the problem, but they serve to simplify the analysis)
v(t) v(t)
200 lb/ft
P(t) K
m
L=15' W 8  24 P(t)
c
25'
Fig. One degree of freedom frame & corresponding mathematical model
W = 200  25 = 5000 lb
I = 82.5 in4
E = 30 106 psi
12E(2I) 12  30  106  165
K   10,185 b/in
L3 (15  12)3
Therefore, the natural frequency is
1 k 1 kg 1 10,185  386
f  
2 m 2 W 2 5000
f=4.46 cps
Q. Consider a RCC frame structure shown in figure. Assume (a) the masses of columns are
negligible & (b) the girder is sufficiently rigid to prevent rotation at the top of the column.
Determine the natural frequency of the frame.
10KN/m
Size of column = 240 mm  240 mm
Soln
12EI
 K  K1  4m
m L3
P a g e 70 | 168
4m
71
 K = K1 + K2 = 2k1
= 2  12E I
L3
Size of column
= 240  240 mm
bd 3
I  2.7648 *10 4 m 4
12
K = 2592  103
10  4
m  103  4.077  103 kg
9.81
2592  103
  25.213 rad/s
4.077  103
Q. The mass and stiffness of the system as shown in figure are m=5kips sec2/in & k=20 kips/in
& that it is un-damped. If the initial displacement is v(0)=1.8 in & the displacement at t=1.2
sec is also 1.8in, determine
a) The displacement at t=2.4sec
b) The amplitudes of free vibration .
weight W=mg
v
P(jacking force)
K/2
K/2
Since the system is un-damped& free


v(0)
v(t) = Sint  v(0) cos t

K 20
2    2rad / sec
m 5


v(0)
 v(t=1.2)= Sin 2(1.2)  1.8 cos 2(1.2)  1.8in  v(0)Sin 2(1.2)  1.8 cos 2(1.2)
2

v (0)=9.26 in/sec
9.26
a) v(t=2.4)= Sin 2(2.4)  1.8Cos2(2.4)
2
= 4.45in
P a g e 71 | 168
72
v(2.4) = -4.5in
2
 v(0) 
  [v / 0]    
2
b)
2
 9.26 
= (1.8) 2  
 2 
   4.97in ~ 5.0in
Some units
 Weight (W)  N lb
NS2 lbSec 2
 Mass (m)  kg or
m in
 Cyclic frequency  HZ or cycle/ sec
  rad/sec
lb
 Stiffness (K)  N
m in
 Damping coefficient (0)  NS  lb S
m in
 EI  Nm 2
lb in 2
Q. A one-storey blog is idealized as a rigid girder supported by weightless columns as shown

in figure. In order to evaluate the dynamic properties of this structure, a free vibration test
in made, in which the roof system is displaced laterally by a hydraulic jack and then
suddenly released. During the jacking operation, it is observed that a force of 20 kips is
required to displace the girder 0.20 in. After the instantaneous release of this initial
displacement, the maximum displacement on the first return swing is only 0.16 in & the
period of this displacement cycle is T=1.40 sec.
weight W=mg
v
P=jacking force
K/2
K/2
1) Effective weight of the girder

2 m W
T  2  2  1.40 sec
 k gk
Hence,
2
 1.40  20
  gk  0.0496   386  1,920kips
 2  0.2
P a g e 72 | 168
73
g = 386 in/sec2
1 1
2) Un-damped frequency of vibration, f    0.714Hz
T 1.4
=2f = 4.48 rad/sec
3) Damping properties
0.20
Logarithmic properties   ln  0.223
0.16

Damping ratio    3.55%
2
0.0355  2  (1920)
Damping coefficient C=Cc = 2m= * 448
386
= 1.584 kips. sec2/in
1
Damped frequency,  D   1   2   (0.999) 2

~ 4.48 red/sec
4) Amplitude after six cycles
6
v 
6
4
v6   1  v0     (0.20)  0.0524in
 v0  5
Q. The SDOF structure shown in figure consists of 10 kip weight supported by a massless
column. Application of a 5.kip static horizontal force to the weight produces a horizontal
deflection of 0.04 in. Compute (a) the natural circular frequency (b) the natural period of
vibration
Solution.
W=10 kips
5kips
a) K  125kip / in
0.04in
The natural circular frequency is given by
k kg 125 386.1216
  
m w 10
= 69.5 rad/sec
b) The natural period
2 2
T 0   0.09 Sec
 69.5
c) The horizontal force produced a static deflection of 0.04 in.

The initial conditions for free vibration would be
v0 = 0.04 in v0 = 0
P a g e 73 | 168
74
Then,

v0
v(t) = Sin0 t  v0Cos0 t
0
= (0.04 in) Cos (69.5t)
Q. A cantilever beam 3.5m long supports a mass of 450 kg at its upper end. Determine its
natural frequency & natural period of vibration E=2.45 106 kg/cm2& moment of inertia
I=1400 cm4.
Solution,
Consider the cantilever beam as shown in figure 450 kg
Length of cantilever beam = 3.5m
Weight at upper end W=450kg
L=3.5m
Modules of elasticity E = 2.45  106 kg/cm2
Moment of inertia I = 1400 cm4.
3EI
Flexural stiffness of the cantilever K 
L3
3  2.45  106  1400
= = 240 kg/cm
(350)3
= 240981 N/cm = 2.354105N/cm
1 k
f
2 m
1 2.354  105
=
2 450
= 0.364 cps
  2f
= 2.285 rad/sec
2
T 1   2.75 sec
f 
Q. A vertical cable is 3.5m long, whose cross-sectional areas is 5cm2. It supports a weight of
45KN at its lower end. Determine the natural period T & natural frequency of the system.
E=2.45106kg/
Soln, Given,
Area of cross section of the cable = 5cm2
Length of the cable = 3.5m
Weight W=45KN
P a g e 74 | 168
75
45  1000
m  4586kg
9.81
E = 2.45  106kg/cm2
AE 5  2.45  106
K 
L 35
= 35 104 kg/m
= 350000  9.81 = 3.43 106 N/m
Natural frequency,   k
m
3.43  106
=  27.36 rad/sec
4586
2 2  
T   0.273sec
 27.36
1 1
f   3.66 cycle per sec. (cps)
T 0.273
Q. A free vibration test is conducted on an empty elevated water tank. Such as shown in figure.
A cable attached to the tank applies a lateral (horizontal) force of 164 kips & pulls the tank
horizontally by 2 in. The cable is suddenly cut the resulting free vibration is recorded. At
the end of four complete cycles, the time is 2.0 sec. & amplitude is 1 in. From these data
complete the following: (a) damping ratio (b) natural period of un-damped vibration (c)
stiffness (d) weight (e) damping coefficient and (f) number of cycles required for the
displacement amplitude to decrease to 0.2 in.
Soln
F = 16.4 kips
V = 2 in = 1
m = 4 cycles
t4 = 2 sec.
v = 1 in = 2 fig. water tank
We know,
2
a) Ln   2m  2  4
1
1 2
Damping ratio   n   0.0276  2.76%
8  1 
(Assuming  is very small)
b) Natural period of un damped vibration
2
For one cycle, Tn   0.5Sec
4
P a g e 75 | 168
76
Tn
 TD  since,  is very small
1 2
 Tn ~TD ~0.5Sec
c) Effective stiffness F = K. 
16.4 = K  2  K=8.2 kips/in
d) Effective weight
2
T

2 2 
    4
T 0.5
k

m
8.2 8.2
4  or, m
m (4) 2
= 0.0519 kips Sec2/inch
 W = mg
= 0.0519  386
= 20.06 kips
e) Damping coefficient
C C
 
Cc 2m
 C = 2m
= 0.0276  2  0.0519  4
= 0.036 kip. sec/in
f) No of cycle (m) = ?
 v 
n 1   2m
 v1  i 
 2 
or, n   2m * 0.0276
 0.2 
 m = 13.28 cycles
~ 13 cycles.
Q. Determine the ratio of damped natural frequency to un-damped natural frequency for
various values of damping ratio of .
P a g e 76 | 168
77
Given,  = 0.02, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.5
Soln,
D
i)  = 0.02,  1  (0.02) 2  0.996

D
ii)  = 0.05,  1  (0.05) 2  0.9987

D
iii)  = 0.01,  1  (0.01)2  0.995

D
iv)  = 0.02,  1  (0.02)2  0.98

d
v)  = 0.04,  1  (0.04) 2  0.916

d
vi)  = 0.05,  1  (0.05) 2  0.886

Q. An empty elevated water tank is pulled by a steel cable by applying a 30KN force. The
tank is putted horizontally by 5cm. The cable is cut suddenly & the resulting free vibration
is recorded. At the end of five complete cycles, the time is 2.0 S and the amplitude is 2 cm.
Determine the damping ratio, natural period of un-damped vibration, effective stiffness,
effective weight & damping coefficient for the given data:
Soln,
1 vn 1 5
a) Damping ratio,   ln  ln
2m vn  m 2    5 2
= 0.292
 = 2.92 %
b) Natural period of un-damped vibration
Tn  TD 1   2
2.0
TD =  0.4 sec
5
 T  0.4 1  0.02922  0.4 sec

30
c) Effective stiffness, K   600KN / m
0.05
2 2
d)    15.7rad / s
T 0.4
k 600
e) m   2.43kN  S2 / m
2
(15.7) 2
W=mg = 2.43  10 = 24.3 kN
P a g e 77 | 168
78
f) Damping coefficient, C   2 km  

= 0.0292 2  600  2.43 
= 2.23 kN-S/m
Q. A SDOF system of mass 'm' & stiffness 'k' is found to vibrate with a natural frequency of
12 hertz. If the stiffness is decreased by 1000N/m, the natural frequency is altered by 50%.
Determine mass & stiffness for the original system.
k
m
f = 12 Hz
n = 2f
= 212 = 75.4 rad/s
Now, Natural frequency of modified system is
50
mod = 75.4 – 75.4 *
100
= 37.7 rad/s
now,
2n  k
m
Similarly, 2mod  k  mmod
 
 n   ke / m 
2
k1
    
 mod   ke(mod)  k1  1000
 m 
2
 75.4  k
   
 37.7  k  1000
 4k – 4000 = k
3k = 4000  K= 4000  1333.33N / m
3
& w 2n  k / m
1333.33
m = 0.23 kg
75.42
Springs in parallel and series
a) In parallel (All Springs having same deflection)
P a g e 78 | 168
79
k1
p(t) ke=k1+k2
k2
b) In series (same force)

k1 k2
p(t)
1 1 1
 
k e k1 k 2
Q. Determine the natural period of the system. Assume that the beam & springs supporting
the weight ‘w’ are weightless.
wl3
b 
3EI
k
W 3EI
kb  3
 3
w Wl l
3EI
k1 p(t)
3EI
ke=k1+k2+kb = 2k +
l3
L
ke w 1
w f T
m 2 f
2 m
T  2
w ke
W L3
 T  2 .
g (2KL3  3EI )
Q. Determine an expression for the natural frequency of the weight W. Neglect mass of the
beams.
W
v(t)
L/2 L/2
Kb = Ke = Kb+K
P a g e 79 | 168
80
W W 48EI
Kb    3
 b WL 3
L
48EI
1 1
1  
Ke 48EI K
L3
Ke 1 KL3  48EI
 
m Ke 48EIK

f
2
1 48EIKg
=
2 (KL3  48EI) w
Q. Find the expression for time period.
A B
A C C
B Kb1 Kb2
v1=1 v2=1
C K
3EI 3EI
K b1  K
Kb2  W
a3 b3
a b
W
L
Kb = Kb1+Kb2 (Kb1 // Kb2)

Kb2 3EI 3EI
Kb1 =  3
a3 b
3EI (a 3  b3 )
=
a 3b3
1 1 a 3b3
 
W K eq K 3EI (a 3  b3 )
m w a 3b3 1
T  2  2   
k g  3EI (a  b ) k 
3 3
W 1 a 3b3 
= 2   3 

g  K 3EI (a  b ) 
3
Q. A system is consisted of five spring as shown in figure. Find the mass of the system if the
natural frequency f of the system is 6. The stiffness of the springs is given as follows:
P a g e 80 | 168
81
K1 = 1500N/m K2 = 3000 N/m
K3 = 2000 N/m K4 = K5 = 1000 N/m
Soln,
The springs K1, K2& K3 are in series. Upper support
K1
Their equivalent stiffness Ke1 will be
1 1 1 1 K2
  
Ke1 K1 K 2 K 3 K3
1 1 1
=  
1500 3000 2000
423 9 K4 K5
= 
6000 6000
6000 Lower support
K e1   666.67 N / m
9
Lower springs K4& K5 are in parallel. Their equivalent stiffness Ke2 will be
Ke2 = K4+K5
= 1000+1000 = 2000 N/m
 Final stiffness = Ke1 + Ke2
= 666.67 + 2000 = 2666.67 N/m
W
 Frequency f 
2
=2f
= 2  3.14  6
= 37.7 rad/sec
2666.67
2  K  m  ke 2   1.877kg
m w (37.7)2
Q. A iron flat 15cm wide and 4cm thick is used as a simply supported beam over a span
of 2m. At its mid span it is connected by a spring of stiffness of 200kg/cm and a mass of 400kg is
attached at the lower end of the spring. Determine the natural frequency o the system.
E=2.45kg/cm2.
Solution
P a g e 81 | 168
82
Weight = 400kg
Stiffness of spring K=200kg/cm
48EI
The stiffness of simply supported beam K b 
L3
bd 3
I
12
Width of beam b=15cm
Stiffness of spring K=200kg/cm
15  4  4  4
 Moment of inertia of the flat I 
12
= 80 cm4
 Stiffness of flat as simply supported beam
48  2.45  106  80
Kb 
200  200  200
= 48  24.5 = 1176kg/cm
The two springs one flat as beam and the other spring are in series. Hence their equivalent
stiffness will be as
1 1 1 1 1
   
K c K f K s 1176 200
Q. A SDoF System of mass 'm' & stiffness 'K' is found to vibrate with a natural frequency of
12 hertz. If the stiffness is decreased by 1000N/m, the natural frequency is altered by 50%.
Determine mass & stiffness for the original system.
K
m
f = 12hz
wn = 2f
= 2 12 = 75.4 rad/s
Now, natural frequency of modified system is
50
mod  75.4  75.4 *
100
= 37.7 rad/s
We how,
2n  K
m
Similarly,  m
2mod  K
mod
P a g e 82 | 168
83
 
 n   Ke / m 
2
K1
    
 mod   Ke(mod)  K1  1000
 m 
2
 75.4  K
   
 37.7  K  1000
 4K – 4000 = K
3K = 4000  K = 4000/3 = 1333.33N/m
& 2n  K / m
1333.33
m
75.42
= 0.23kg
Multi Degree of Freedom (MDoF) System

Structures cannot always be modeled as SDoF Systems. In fact, structures are continuous systems
& possess infinite degrees of freedom. Example-Multi-Storey buildings. In general, the number of
degree of freedom of the system will be equal to the sum of the degree of each discrete mass in to
which the system has been lumped. Hence, A multi-Degree-of – Freedom (MDoF) system, as the
name suggests, is one that requires two or more independent coordinates to describe its motion.
For studying the seismic effects on actual structures, the analysis of the behavior of multi-mass
system is necessary. For example, consider the framework of a five storeyed building shown in
figure (a). It is usual to assume the masses to be lumped at the floor levels and the lumped mass
having corresponding to weight of the floor, part of the supporting systems (columns) above &
below the floor & effective line load. The restoring forces (spring effect) are provided by the
supporting systems. Figure (b) shows an idealization. If we consider horizontal vibrations in the
plane of the frame each mass would have one degree of freedom. If suppose the system is set into
vibration such that all the masses attain maximum amplitudes simultaneously & also all the masses
pass through equilibrium position (zero amplitude) simultaneously, then it is said to vibrate in its
natural normal or principal mode of vibration. If there is no damping in the system, response in
such a mode of vibration would be harmonic and correspond to one of the unique frequencies of
the system termed as natural or principal frequency. The various modes for the five degree of
freedom are sketched in figure. If all the masses vibrate in phase (in this case, in fig all the masses
have the same sign of amplitude at any particular instant of time) the mode is termed the first or
lowest or fundamental mode of vibration & the frequency associated with this mode would be
lowest in magnitude compared to other frequencies. If all adjacent masses vibrate out of phase
with each other (in this case fig) adjacent masses have opposite sign of amplitude at any particular
instant of time) the mode is termed the highest mode of vibration and the frequency associated
with this mode would be highest in magnitude compared to other modes.
P a g e 83 | 168
84
Fig: A five storeyed Frame – Idealization and Mode Shapes
Equation of motion
Fig (a): Frame with damping and stiffness acted by force
P a g e 84 | 168
85
Fig (b): Analytical Modeling Fig: Mathematical Model

P3(t)   m3 V 3
 
 K 3 (V3  V2 )  C3 (V3  V 2 )
 
 K 3 (V3  V2 )  C3 (V3  V 2 )

P2(t)   m2 V2
 
 K 2 (V2  V1 )  C2 (V 2  V1 )
 
 K 2 (V2  V1 )  C2 (V 2  V1 )

P1(t)   m1 V1

 K1V1  C1 V1
Fig (C) Free Body Diagram
The equation of motion of the system can be formulated by expressing the equilibrium of the
effective forces associated with each of its degree of freedom. In general four types of forces will
be involved, the externally applied load P(t) and the forces resulting from the motion, that is inertia
fI, damping fD & elastic fS [ i.e. for each mass the externally applied load must be balanced by
the inertia, damping and elastic forces that resist motion]. Thus for each of the several degrees of
freedom the dynamic equilibrium may be expressed as
FI1 + FD1 + FS1 = P1(t)
FI2 + FD2 + FS2 = P2(t)
FI3 + FD3 + FS3 = P3(t)
Or when the force vectors are represented in matrix form
P a g e 85 | 168
86
FI + FD + FS = P(t), Which is the MDoF equivalent of the SDoF equation
As shown in figure the lumped masses are concentrated at floor level. The restoring forces,
displacement and damping are related. Considering the free body diagram of the masses M1, M2&
M3 as shown in figure (b) & (c).
For mass 3
  
m3 V3  K3 (V3  V2 )  C3 (V3  V 2 )  P3 (t ) (1)
For mass 2
    
m2 V2  K 2 (V2  V1 )  C2 (V2  V1 )  K3 (V3  V2 )  C3 (V3  V 2 )  P2 (t ) or,
   
m2 V 2  V2 (K 2  K3 )  K 2V1  V 2 (C2  C3 )  C2 V1  K3V3  C3 V3  0 (2)
For mass 1
   
m1 V1  K1V1  C1 V1  K 2 (V2  V1 )  C2 (V 2  V1 )  P1 (t )
  
Or, m1 V1  V1 (K1  K 2 )  V1 (C1  C2 )  K 2V2  C2 V2  P1 (t ) (3)
Arranging in the matrix form of above three equations
  
M 1 0 0   V 1  ( K 1  K 2 )  K2 0  V1 
 0  
  
 M2 0  V 2     K 2 ( K 2  K 3 )  K 3  V2  

 0 0 M 3  V 3   0  K3 K 3  V3 
 
 
(C1  C2 )  C2 0   V1   P1 ( t ) 
 C    V
  
 2 ( C 2 C 3 ) C 3   2   P2 ( t )

 0  C3 C3  V 3  P3 ( t ) 
 
mV  CV  Kv  P(t ) Is the required equation of motion of MDoF

 
   
Where, [m] = mass matrix
[C] = Damping matrix
[K] = Stiffness matrix
{v} = Displacement matrix
{P(t)} = Force matrix
 {f}I + {f}D + {F}S= {P(t)}
P a g e 86 | 168
87
Q. Find the equation of motion in matrix form for the given system.
K 2K K
m1 m2
v1 v2
For mass "m1"


m1 V1  KV1  2KV1  V2   0

m1 V1  3KV1  2KV2  0 (I)
For mass "m2"

m2 V 2  2KV2  V1   0

m2 V 2  3KV2  2KV1  0 (II)
Arranging in the matrix form
0   V1   3K

m1  2 K  V1  0
0   
 m2  V 2   2 K 3K  V2  0
 
 
Mass Matrix Stiffness matrix
Q. Find the equation of motion in matrix form for the given system.
K
m1 m2
C 2C
v1 v2
For mass "m1 "

   
m1 V1  C V1  KV1  2C(V1  V2 )  2KV1  V2   0
  
m1 V1  3C V1  2(V2  3KV1  2KV2  0 (i)
For mass "m2 "
   
m2 V 2  2C(V 2  V1 )2K(V2  V1 )  C V 2  KV2  0 (ii)
m1 0   V1   3C  2C  V1   3K  2  y1  0

 
 0 m       2C 3C       2K 3K   y   0
2  V 2   V 2  
     2   
P a g e 87 | 168
88
Chapter 4.0
Lateral Load Resisting Systems for Buildings
4.1 Different structural systems for lateral loads

The term structural system or structural frame in structural engineering refers to the load resisting
sub-system of a structure. The primary purpose of all structures used for building is to support
gravity loads. However, building may also be subjected to lateral forces due to wind or
earthquakes. The taller a building, the more significant the effects of lateral force will be. It is
assumed that seismic criteria rather than wind or blast forces govern the design for lateral
resistance of buildings. Three types of structures, most commonly used as building system are
discussed below:
a) Structural Frame System
Structures of multistory reinforced concrete buildings often consists of bean, frames,
supporting floors and columns are continuous and meet at nodes, often called "rigid"
joints. Such frames can readily carry gravity loads while providing adequate resonance
to horizontal forces, acting in any direction. In building frame system, the members
columns & beams and joints of frame are resisting the earthquake forces, primarily by
flexure. This system is generally prepared by architects because they are relatively
unobtrusive compared to the shear walls or braced frames, but there may be poor
economic risk unless special damage control measures are taken. Slab column frames
are not recommended as a lateral load resisting system.
Fig: (a) Structural Frame Systems

(Moment Resisting Frame)
b) Structural Wall Systems
When functional requirements permit it resistance to lateral force may be assigned
entirely to structural walls, using reinforced concrete or masonry. Gravity load effects
on such walls are seldom significant and they do not control the design. Usually, there
are also other elements within such a building which are assigned to carry only gravity
loads. Their contribution to lateral force resistance, if any is often neglected. In general,
a bearing wall system has a comparably lower value of R since the system lacks
redundancy and has a poor inelastic response capacity. In severe seismic zones, these
bearing wall systems are required to be specially detailed as per IS 4326:1993. This
system is not much preferred by the architects.
P a g e 88 | 168
89
Fig: (b) Bearing wall system

c) Building With Dual System
In Dual building systems, the reinforced concrete frames interacting with reinforced
concrete or masonry walls together provide the necessary resistance to lateral forces,
while each system carries its appropriate share of the gravity load. These types of
structure are variously known as dual, hybrid or wall-frame structures. In general, a
dual system comparably has a higher value of R since a secondary lateral support
system is available to assist the primary nonbearing lateral support system. This system
is somewhat less restrictive architecturally.
Lateral load-resisting systems
Framing System Description

Bearing-wall system The walls are load-bearing walls. Some of the bearing
walls may be shear walls. The system is designed for
gravity as well as for lateral loads. Under lateral loads the
walls act like cantilevers. The shear distribution is
proportional to the moments of inertia of the cross-
sections of the walls. The relative displacements of the
floors result from bending deformation of the walls.
Moment-resisting frames These are the frames in which the beams, columns, and
joints resist earthquake forces, primarily by flexure. These
frames, when subjected to lateral forces, exhibit zero
moments at mid-height of the columns, shear distribution
proportional to the moments of inertia of the columns, and
relative displacements (or inter-story drifts) proportional
to the shear forces. This is the reason why sometimes
these frames are referred to as shear systems. The
continuity of the frame also assists in resisting gravity
loading more efficiently by reducing positive moments in
the center span of girders. These are preferred because of
least obstruction to access. However, this system is
P a g e 89 | 168
90
recommended only up to thirty-storeys due to a limitation
on the drift.
Dual Systems These consist of moment-resisting frames either braced or
with shear walls. The coupling of the above two systems
completely alters the moment and shear diagrams of both
the walls and the frame. The characteristic of this
combination is that in the lower floors the wall retains the
frame, while in the upper floors the frame inhibits the
large displacements of the wall. As a result, the frame
exhibits a small variation in story shear between the first
and the last floors. The two systems may be designed to
resist the total design force in proportion to their lateral
stiffness.
Tube systems It is a fully three-dimensional system that utilizes the
entire building perimeter to resist lateral loads. For taller
buildings, the relatively recent framed-tube, trussed-tube,
tube-in-tube, and bundled-tube systems are used.
Center of Mass (CM)

Center of Mass is the point where entire mass of the system is concentrated. During an earthquake
acceleration induced inertia forces will be develop at each floor level, where the mass of an entire
storey may be assumed to be calculated. Hence the location of a force at a particular level will be
determined by the center of the accelerated mass at that level.
In regular buildings, the portions of the centers of floor masses will differ very little from level to
level. However, irregular mass distribution over the height of the building may result in variations
in centers of mass, which may need to be evaluated. The summation of all the forces, Fj, above a
given storey with due allowance for the in-plane position of each, will then locate the position of
the resultant force, Vj within that story.
Determination of center of mass

Y
WN
WW WE B
O WS X
L
Consider a one storey building of LB dimensions with a wall as shown in figure. Let WN, WS,
Ww, WEbe the lumped weight of the wall respective to its direction considered.
 
Let, center of mass be X, Y which can be found by taking statical moment about a point
considered. 'O'.
P a g e 90 | 168
91
WW  0  WS  L  WN  L  WL  L
X cm  2 2
WW  WS  WN  WE
WS  0  WW  B  WE  B  WN  B
Y cm  2 2
WW  WS  WN  WE
General,
WiYi
X  WiXi Y
 Wi  Ei
Center of Rigidity (CR)
Center of Rigidity is the point that locates the position of a storey shear force which will cause
only relative floor translations. Center of Rigidity means the point where force is supposed to
resist. It is also referred as center of stiffness of a system.
It as a result of lateral forces, on floor of the building translates horizontal as a rigid body
relative to the floor below, a constant inter-story displacement say 'X' will be imposed on all
frames & walls in that story. Therefore, the induced forces in these elastic frames & walls, in the
relevant planes, will be proportional to the respective stiffness. The resultant total force, Vj=Vx,
induced by the translational displacement X, will pass through the center of rigidity (CR).
The position of CR may be different in each story it is relevant to storey shear forces applied in
any direction in a horizontal plane. Such a force may be resolved into two components, such as
Vx &Vy which will cause simultaneously storey translations 'x' & 'y' respectively. The
displacement due to story twist are proportional to the distance of the element from the center of
rotation i.e. CR.
Determination of center of Rigidity
RN
RW RE B
RS
O
L
The center of Rigidity X r & Yr is calculated by taking statical moments about a point 'O'. The
stiffness of slab is not considered in the determination of center of rigidity.
Considering Earthquake force in x-direction (  )
 R i Xi
X CR  (Using relative stiffness of wall parallel to y-axis)
 Ri
1 1
RS *  R N *
= 2 2 1
Rs  R N 2
P a g e 91 | 168
92
RS * 0  R N * B R N  B
YCR  
RS  R N RS  R N
Considering Earthquake force in y=direction (  )
RW * 0  RE  L R EL
XCR  
RW  RE RW  RE
B
RW *  RE * B
2 2 B
Y CR  
RW  RE 2
FLOOR DIAPHRAGMS
Definition and Function
A horizontal system (roof, floor or other membrane or horizontal bracing) acting to transmit lateral
forces to vertical-resisting elements.
The floors and roof a building, in addition to resisting gravity loads, are also generally designed to
act as diaphragms. In this respect, they are required both to distribute seismic forces to the main
elements of horizontal resistance, such as frames and shear walls, and also to tie the structure
together so that it acts as a single entity during an earthquake. The robustness and redundancy of
a structure is highly dependent on the performance of the diaphragms. For diaphragm transmit
inertia forces generated by earthquake accelerations of the floor mass at a given level to all
horizontal force resisting elements.
Precast floor without an in-situ topping are not generally recommended in seismic areas.
In a ductile structure, diaphragms will almost always be required to remain elastic, so that they can
sustain their function of transferring forces to the main lateral-resisting structure, and tying the
building together. Diaphragms should in principle therefore have the strength to sustain the
maximum forces that may be induced in them by the chosen yielding mechanism within the rest
of the structure.
Eurocode 8 deals with this rather simply be specifying that diaphragms should be designed for 1.3
times the shear forces obtained directly from the analysis.
Usually, the seismic analysis of buildings is carried out on the assumption that deflections in the
diaphragms are so small compared with those in the main lateral load-resisting structure that the
diaphragms can be treated as rigid. In most cases, this is quite satisfactory, because usually
diaphragm flexibility affects neither overall structural stiffness (and hence natural period) nor the
distribution of forces within a structure. Moreover, during a major earthquake, in ductile structures
where the diaphragms are designed to remain essentially elastic, the superstructure deflections are
likely to include large plastic deformations, increasing the disparity still further.
TYPES OF DIAPHRAGM
a) Rigid Diaphragms
A diaphragm may be considered rigid when its midpoint displacement, under lateral load, is less
than twice the average displacements at its ends. Rigid diaphragm distributes the horizontal forces
to the vertical resisting elements in direct proportion to the relative rigidities. It is based on the
assumption that the diaphragm does not deform itself and will cause each vertical element to
P a g e 92 | 168
93
deflect the same amount Rigid diaphragms capable of transferring torsional and shear deflections
and forces are also based on the assumption that the diaphragm and shear walls undergo rigid body
rotation and this produces additional shear forces in the shear wall. Rigid diaphragms consist of
reinforced concrete diaphragms, precast concrete diaphragms, and composite steel deck.
b) Flexible Diaphragm
Flexible diaphragms – Roofs or floors including, but not necessarily limited to, those sheathed
with plywood, wood decking, or metal decks without structural concrete topping slabs. Metal
decks with lightweight fill may or may not be flexible. Diaphragms are considered flexible when
the maximum lateral deformation of the diaphragm is more than two times the average story drift
of the associated story. This may be determined by comparing the computed midpoint in-plane
deflection of the diaphragm itself under lateral load with the drift to adjoining vertical elements
under tributary lateral load.
A diaphragm is considered flexible, when the midpoint displacement, under lateral load, exceeds
twice the average displacement of the end supports. It is assumed here that the relative stiffness of
these non-yielding end supports is very great compared to that of the diaphragm. Therefore,
diaphragms are often designed as simple beams between end supports, and distribution of the
lateral forces to the vertical resisting elements on a tributary width, rather than relative stiffness.
Flexible diaphragm is not considered to be capable of distributing torsional and rotational forces.
Flexible diaphragms consist of diagonally sheated wood diaphragms, sheathed diaphragms etc.
The rigidity of the diaphragms is classified into two groups on relative flexibility: right and flexible
diaphragm.
Flexible Vs. Rigid Diaphragms (another definition)
The purpose of determining whether a diaphragm is flexible or rigid is to determine whether a
diaphragm should have the loads proportioned according to the tributary area or the relative
stiffness of the supports. For flexible diaphragms, the loads should be distributed according to the
tributary area, whereas for rigid diaphragms, the load should be distributed according to the
stiffness. The distribution of seismic forces to the vertical elements of the lateral force resistance
system is dependent first on the relative stiffness of the vertical elements vs, the horizontal
elements, and second on the relative stiffness of the vertical elements when they have varying
deflection characteristics. The first issue defines when a diaphragm can be considered flexible or
rigid. In other words, it sets limits on whether the diaphragms can act to transmit torsional
resistance or cantilever. When the relative deflections of the diaphragm and shear wall are
determined at the factored load resistance level, and the mid-span deflection of the diaphragm is
determined to be more than two times the average deflection of the vertical resistant elements, the
diaphragms may be considered as being flexible. Conversely, a diaphragm should be considered
rigid when the diaphragm deflection is equal to or less than two times the shear wall drift.
Obviously, the performance of most diaphragms falls in a broad spectrum between perfectly rigid
and flexible. However at the current time, there are no design tools available to provide for
analyzing diaphragms in the intermediate realm.
Therefore, model building codes simply differentiate between the two extreme conditions.
The flexible diaphragm seismic forces should be distributed to the vertical resisting elements
according to the tributary area and simple beam analysis. Although rotation of the diaphragm may
occur because lines of vertical elements have different stiffness, the diaphragm is not considered
sufficiently stiff to redistribute the seismic forces through rotation. The diaphragm may be
visualized as a single-span beam supported on rigid supports in this instance.
P a g e 93 | 168
94
For diaphragms defined as rigid, rotational or torsional behavior is expected and the action results
in a redistribution of shear to the vertical force-resisting elements. Requirements for horizontal
shear distribution invoice a significantly more detailed analysis of the system than the assumption
of flexibility.
Torsional response of a structure due to an irregular stiffness at any level within the structure can
be the potential cause of failure in the building. As a result, dimensional and diaphragm aspect
ratio limitations are imposed for different categories of construction. Also, additional requirements
are imposed on the diaphragm when the structure is deemed to have a general torsional irregularity
such as when reentering corners or discontinuities are present.
Diaphragm Discontinuity
Diaphragms with abrupt discontinuities or variations in stiffness, including those having cut-out
or open areas greater than 50 percent of the gross enclosed diaphragm area, or changes in effective
diaphragm stiffness of more than 50 percent from one storey to the next.
w kN/m w kN/m
R=1 R=1 R=1
L/2 L/2 L/2 L/2
Seismic
Seismic force
force k=1 k=1 k=1
Reaction Reaction
w
/4 w
/4 w
/4 w
/4 w
/3 w
/3 w
/3
Comparison between flexible and rigid diaphragm
TORSION
For the seismic resistant designs all Indian codes have assumed that the buildings is symmetrical
in plan and the center of gravity of the mass and the center of rigidity of the building are nearly
coincident.
The center of rigidity is the geometric center of stiffness of the variouselements.
Centre of rigidity
Centre of mass
Fig: Electricity causing torsional vibrations
Consider the plan of a floor shown in Figure, The one edge of the floor rests on wall and the other
on the columns as shown. The wall is stiffer than columns, hence for vibration in the direction
parallel to the wall, the center of rigidity will be nearer to the wall as it is stiffer than columns.
P a g e 94 | 168
95
If the mass is contributed predominantly by the floor, then the mass of the floor will be close to
the center of the floor. The distance 'e' between the center of mass and center of rigidity is known
as eccentricity, which causes torsion in the building.
Where a building is considerably unsymmetrical, it is essential to investigate the torsional forces
properly. Similar situation may arise when buildings of different rigidities are connected rigidly
with each other.
In simple cases, the effect of torsional oscillations can be determined. It is difficult to evaluate
torsional stresses in buildings statically, even due to torques applied. The dynamic problem is
much more complicated due to coupling between translational and torsional oscillations.
The IS code suggests an adhoc provision of an increase in shear resulting from horizontal torsion
due to an eccentricity between the center of mass and center of rigidity. Negative shears are
neglected. The design eccentricity is taken as 1.5 times the computed eccentricity between the
center of mass and center of mass and center of rigidity.
Torsionally Uncoupled System
When the center of mass and center of rigidity coincide, torsional shear forces will not be induced
on the wall then the system is considered as torsionally uncoupled system.
X  Xr
i.e
Y  Yr
Torsionally coupled system
When the center of mass and center of rigidity do not coincide, torsional shear forces will be
induced on the wall in addition to the direct shear force. The horizontal load P will be at the center
of mass, thus a torsional moment, Mt is induced that is equal to Pyex, where ex equals the distance
between the line of force center of mass & the center of rigidity.
{Even in symmetrical structure, where e=0, a minimum eccentricity amounting to 5% of the
building dimension is assumed which is called accidental eccentricity}
EL EL
CM CM CM
e Iey couple
EL EL
CR
Mt=ELXey
Fig: Showing coupled force generated by E/Q

In this system, we can see that there are direct shear force and a couple force as shown in figure.
r1 r5
r3
CR
r2
Fig: Plan of wall with CR distance.

P a g e 95 | 168
96
Qi ri
CR
Fig: Showing rotation of structure.

From figure,
i = ri (1) Displacement in its own plane
Fi = kiri (2)
[i.e. F=k = k]
Where ki = stiffness in its own plane
ri = Perpendicular distance from CR.
Mi = Firi = kiri2 (3)
(Restoring moment in ith element)
Again,
Mi = EL * e (4)
(Applied moment)
Equating equation (3) & (4)
Kiri2 = EL * e
EL  e
 (5)
 K i ri
2
Substituting value of  from (5) in equation (2) we get,

EL  e
Fi  K i ri 
 K i ri
2
 K i ri 
Fi     ( EL  e)
2 
  K i i 
r
(Force in each member)
P a g e 96 | 168
97
Solved example:
Q. Calculate the lateral force in the wall of one storey building due to the lateral force 200kN
applied in y-direction &passing through center of mass.
The roof diaphragm is rigid in its own plane and mass at
roof is uniformly distributed.
Given center of mass (CM) = (15, 5)
Center of Rigidity (CR) = (17.33, 5.55)
Solution:
1. Determination of direct shear force
K1F K  200 200K
1) F1   
 F K  0.5Kf1.5k 3K
= 66.66 kN ()
K 2 F 0.5K  200
2) F2    33.33kN()
F 3K
K 3F 1.5K  200
3) F3    100kN()
F 3K
4) F4 = 0
5) F5 = 0
2. Determination of shear force due to couple
ex = 17.33.15 = 2.33m
ey = 5.55 – 5 = 0.55m
Since, l load is in y-dirn so ex is used.
Now, Mt = EL*ex = 2002.33 = 466kNm
K i ri
Wall Ki ri Kiri Kiri2 Fi  Mt
 k i ri
2
1 K 17.33 17.33 300.33 13.107

2 0.5K 3.33 1.605 5.54 1.265
3 1.5K 12.67 19 240.79 14.436
4 1.5K 4.45 6.67 29.70 5.067
5 1.2K 5.55 6.67 36.96 5.06
613.31
Now, Total forces in each wall
Fi = Force due to direct shear + Force due to couple force.
F1 = 66.66 + 13.167 = 79.827kN ()
P a g e 97 | 168
98
F2 = 33.33 + 1.265 = 34.6 kN ()
F3 = 100 + 14.436 = 114.436 ()
F4 = 0+5.06 = 5.06 ()
F5 = 0+5.06 = 5.06 ()
Q. A two storeyed building is built on a 10  18 m plot. The height of each storey of the building
is 3.5 m the data are shown below. Determine the relative stiffness of walls. Also determine the
direct and torsional stresses. The relative rigidity of the walls may be
assumed as rigidity for north wall as 0.454 and rigidity for south wall as P R=0.546
0.546 S
Data:
Thickness of floor and roof slab = 12.0 cm W 18m
Thickness of walls = 15 cm
Density of concrete = 25 kN/m3
10m
Density of masonry = 20 kN/m3
N
Live loads:
Live load on roof = 0 (for seismic calculation = 0)
Live load on floors = 1 kN/m3
Seismic zone = V
Zone factor Z = 0.36
Importance factor I = 1.0
Reduction factor R = 3.0
The foundation soil is medium hard
Solution
The Center of mass X CM and Y CM is estimated by taking moment at a point say at P in this case.
Point P is situated at the corner of south and west wall. The respective weights are used as forces
in the summation of moment. The calculations are shown in tabular form below.
Table: For calculations of center of mass
w.x w.y
Item Weight i(kN) X(m) Y(m)
(kN-n) (kN-m)
Roof 10  18  3 = 540 5.0 9.0 2700 4860
North wall 10  3.5  5 = 175 5.0 18 875 3150
South wall 10  3.5  5 = 175 5.0 0 875 0
Eastern wall 18  3.5  5 = 315 10.0 9.0 3150 2835
Western wall 18  3.5  5 = 315 0 9.0 0 2835
wx=7600.0 wy=13680.0
P a g e 98 | 168
99
 w.x 7600
 Xcm    5.0
w 1520
 w.y 13680
Ycm    9.0
w 1520
Thus the center of mass of building will be at the center of the plan the building.
Location of center of rigidity
The center of rigidity X CR and Y CR is calculated by taking static moments about a point say at P,
the corner of south and western wall, using relative stiffnesses of the walls as forces in the
summation of moment. In the determination of center of rigidity, the rigidity of roof is not
considered. The calculations are shown in Table below.
Table: Calculations for center of rigidity
Item Rx Ry X(m) Y(m) Y Rx X Ry
N Wall 0.454 - - 18 8.172 -
S Wall 0.546 - - 0 0 -
E Wall - 0.5 10 - - 5.0
W Wall - 0.5 0 - - 0
Rx=1.0 Ry=1.0 y Rx=1.0 XRx=1.0
x R y 5.0
 X CR    5.0 From West wall
Ry 1.0
y R x 8.172
Y CR    8.172 From Southwall
Rx 1.0
Torsional Eccentricity
Torsional eccentricity in y direction.
Eccentricity between the center of mass and center of rigidity
ey=9.0 – 8.172 = 0.90 = 1.73 m
Add minimum 5% as accidental eccentricity = 0.05  10 = 0.5m
 Total eccentricity = 0.0 + 0.5 = 0.5m
Torsional moment
The torsional moment due to E-W seismic forces rotate the building in y direction, hence
MTx = Vx.ey =409.5  1.73 (Base shear = 409.5)
= 708.7 kN-m
Similarly torsional moment due to N-S forces rotate the building in x direction.
 MTy = Vy.ex = 409.5  0.5 = 204.75 kN-m
P a g e 99 | 168
100
For period 0.2, which is in between 0.1 and 0.55, the value of say Sa/g is 2.5 is constant.
 VBx = VBy
Distribution of direct shear force and torsional force
As we are considering the seismic forces in E-W direction, the walls in N-S direction will resist
the forces and walls in E-W direction may be neglected.
The distribution of direct shear and torsional shear is shown in Table below
Table: Distribution of forces in North and South shear walls
Torsional Total
Direct shear shear shear
Item Rx d*y(n) Rxdy Rx. d 2y
force (kN) force** force
(kN) (kN)
N. wall 0.454 (18-8.172) 4.432 43.82 290.75 + 39.1 329.85
= 9.828 4.992 36.46 118.75 - 39.62 118.75
8.172
Rx d 2y =
80.29
Note: *Distance of considered wall from center of rigidity. (18 – 8.172) = 9.828
R xd y
**Torsional force in N wall =  VB .e y
 R x d 2y
4.432
=  409.5  1.73  39.1
80.29
R x .d y
Torsional force in S wall =  VD  C y
 R x d 2y
4.492
=  409.5  1.72  39.62
80.29
Direct S.F.
Torsional forces are additive on the North wall and subtractive on the N. Wall
south wall as shown. The code direct that negative torsional shear shall Torsional
Force
be neglected. Hence the total shear acting on the south wall is simply
Applied
direct shear only. force
Seismic
C.G. Force
The center of mass, center of rigidity and forces are shown in Fig.
C.R.
Resisting
Force
South Wall
Example: Determine the torsional forces in a one storey shear wall
masonry structure with a rigid diaphragm roof with the following data.
There are four with the following data. There are four shear walls with Torsional Force
Direct S.F.
relative rigidity. The rigidity of walls are shown on the Figure below
Data:
Height of parapet walls =1m
P a g e 100 | 168
101
Height of walls up to roof level = 4.0m
S. Wall
5m 5.0m 5m
Rx=0.2
W. Wall
9m Rx=0.7 Rx=0.3 6m
E. Wall
Rx=0.8
A N. Wall
Self-weight of roof = 3 kN/m2

Self-weight of walls = 5 kN/m2
Base shear = 330 kN
Seismic zone of structure is V, i.e. Z=0.36, I=1.0
Sa
R = 1.5 and  2.5
g
Concrete density = 25 kN/m3 and masonry density = 20 kN/m3.
Solution:
Location of the center of mass
Let X CM and Y CM be the coordinates of the center of mass. Taking static moments about a point of
the building say A, the left corner of building N wall and W wall we get. The calculations are
shown in Table below
Table: Calculation for center of gravity
Item Weight w in kN X(m) Y(m) W.x (kN-n) W.y (kN-m)
Roof slab 1593 = 405.0 7.5 4.5 3037.5 1822.5
E. wall 645 = 120 15.0 4.5 1800.0 540.0
W. wall 945=180 0 4.5 0.00 810.0
S. wall 545 = 100.0 7.5 4.5 750 450.0
N. wall 1545= 300 7.5 0.00 2250.0 0.00
wx=7837.5 Wy=3622.5
 Wx 7837.5
Center of mass from W wall Xcm    7.094
W 1105
= 7.1 m
 W.y 3622.5
Center of mass from N wall, Ycm    3.278
W 1105
Location of center of rigidity
P a g e 101 | 168
102
Let the coordinates of center of rigidity be x cr and y cr Taking moment about a point say 'A' at the
left corner of the building of N wall and W wall. The stiffness of roof and height of parapet are not
considered in the calculations for center of rigidity.
Table
Item Rx Ry x (m) y (m) Y Rx X Ry
E. wall - 0.3 15 - - 4.5
W. wall - 0.7 0 - - 0.00
S. wall 0.2 - - 9.0 1.8 -
N. wall 0.8 - - 0 - -
Rx=1.0 Ry=1.0 y Rx=1.8 xRy=4.5
xR y 4.5
X CR    4.5m
Ry 1.0
y R x 1.8
Y CR    1.8m
Rx 1.0
Torsional eccentricity
Torsional eccentricity in x direction ex  Xcm  XCR
= 7.1 – 4.5 = 2.5m
Accidental eccentricity @ 5% = 0.05  15 = 0.75 m
 Total eccentricity = 2.6 + 0.75 = 3.35m
Torsional eccentricity YCM  YCR = 3.278 – 1.8 = 1.478m
Accidental eccentricity @ 5% = 0.05  9 = 0.45 m
 Total eccentricity = 1.478 + 0.45 = 1.93 m
Torsional moment
The torsional moment due to seismic force in East and West direction wall rotate the building in x
direction hence
MTx = Vxey = 330  1.93 = 639.9 kN-m
Similarly the seismic force in North-south direction will rotate in the direction hence
MTy =Vy.ex=330  3.35
= 1105.5 kN-m
Distribution of direct shear force and torsional shear force
i) If the seismic force is considered only in East and West direction, then the walls in the
south and North direction will resist the seismic forces and the walls in East and West
direction may be ignored.
P a g e 102 | 168
103
ii) If the seismic force is considered in South and North direction the walls in East and West
direction will resist the seismic forces and the walls in south and North direction may be
ignored. The distribution of forces in the walls will be as follows:
Direct shear force in south wall
Rx
=  Vx
Rx
= Relative rigidity of the wall concerned Base shear
= 0.2  330 = 66 kN
Direct shear force in the North wall
= Relative rigidity of the wall  Base shear
= 0.8  330 = 264 kN
Rigidity shear force in the south wall
R x .d y 1.44
=  Vx .e y   636.9  70.85kN
 R x .d 2
y 12.5
Rigidity shear force in North wall
R x .d y 1.44
=  Vx .e y   636.9  70.85kN
 R x .d 2
y 12.5
(It is minus as distance dy is ( - ) as point is down ward the center of rigidity).
The distribution of forces in south and north shear walls is shown in Table below:
Direct Torsional Total
2
Item Rx dy(m) Rx .dy Rx. d y shear force shear force shear
kN kN force kN
S. wall 0.2 (9.8-1.8)=7.2 1.44 10.368 66.0 70.85 136.85kN
N. wall 0.8 - 1.8 1.44 2.592 264.0 -70.85 264.0*
* Neglecting negative rigidity shear as per code.
Direct shear in Eastern wall
= Relative rigidity of concerned wall  Base shear
= 0.3  330. = 99 kN
Similarly direct shear in western wall = 0.7  330 = 231 kN
R yd x
Rigidity shear in East wall =  Vy .e x
 R y d 2x
Distance of center of rigidity from Eastern wall = 15.0 – 4.5 = 10.5m
Distance of center of rigidity from Western wall = - 4.5
Note: The direction of center of rigidity from Eastern wall is in opposite direction, hence negative.
Table
P a g e 103 | 168
104
Direct Torsional Total

Item Rx dy(m) Rx .dy Rx. d 2y shear force shear force shear
kN kN force kN
E. wall 0.3 15-4.5 = 10.5 3.15 33.075 99.0 73.7 1727
W. wall 0.7 0-4.5 = -0.45 3.15 14.175 231.0 -73.7 2310
R yd x
 Torsional rigidity in Eastern wall = Vy e x
 R y d 2x
3.15
=  330  3.35  73.7kN
47.25
R yd x
Similarly torsional rigidity in Western wall = Yy e x
 R y d 2x
3.15
=  330  3.35  73.7kN
47.25
Results are shown
S. Wall
15m
W. Wall (7.1, 3.3)

9m E. Wall
C.G
(4.5, 2.8)
C.G
N. Wall
Fig: Position of C.G. and C.R.

Vertical Structural System
1) Moment Resisting Structure
A moment resisting structure is a kind of a structure in which the moment generated at the rigid
joint can be transfer from the horizontal member to the vertical member & ultimately to the
foundation. This system is also known as shear system.
There are following types of MR Structure.
a) Frame without Rigid Joints
In this type of formed structure, the joint of the structural members are not rigid or free at the joint.
This kind of frame normally can't resist the moment or generate the moment of the joint, due to
which the structure is ineffective in seismic zone.
Beam
Column
P a g e 104 | 168
105
lb = moment of resistance
b) Frame with infinitely rigid beam (lb= )
In this kind of framed structure, the joint are rigidly connected and the stiffness of the beam is in
inconsiderable amount i.e. k=. The lateral forces that act on the frame generate a moment in the
horizontal as well as vertical member of the rigid joint. These moment are ultimately transferred
to the foundation. In comparison to the frame without rigid joint, this kind of frame is 50% more
functional from structural point of view. This is high preferable in the seismic zone.
(This kind of structure have high frequency with law time period)
P P
c) Frame with very flexibility Beam

In this kind of structure the beam is flexible due to which the moment is not resisted by beam &
the moment that is generated due to lateral forces are directly resisted by the column. This is also
not preferred in seismic zone. In this type of structure the frequency of vibration is very low and
due to which the time period is very high.
2) Shear Walls
Shear walls are specially designed structural wall incorporated in building to resist lateral forces
that are produced in the plane of wall due to wind, earthquake and other forces. They are usually
provided in tail building and have been found to be advantageous in avoiding total collapse of the
building under seismic forces. The design of these walls for seismic forces require special
consideration as they should be safe under repeated load shear wall can be classified as follows:
a) Simple rectangular type and the flanged wall (Barbel)
Barbel type shear wall are formed where a wall is provided monolithically betn two columns. The
columns at the end are then called boundary element.
P a g e 105 | 168
106
Shear wall
Column
Fig: Barbel type of shear wall

b) Coupled Shear Wall
If two structural wall are joined together by relatively short spandrel beam, the stiffness of the
resultant wall increases, in addition, the structure can dissipate most of the energy by yield the
coupling beams, with no structural damage to the main wall.
There wall should justify the following two requirement.
i) The system should develop hinges only in the coupling beam before shear failure.
ii) The coupling beam should be designed to have good energy dissipation character.
Shear wall
Coupling Beam
c) Framed wall, shear wall, in filled shear wall

Framed wall are most monolithically wherein filled frames are constructed by casting frame first
and in filling it with masonry or concrete wall later.
Frame member
Infill wall
d) Column Supported Shear Wall

When it is necessary for architectural region to discontinue shear wall at floor level it becomes
necessary to carry out the wall to the ground on widely spaced column as shown in figure.
P a g e 106 | 168
107
Shear wall
Column
e) Core Type Shear Wall

In some building, the elevators& other service areas can be grouped in a vertical care which may
serve as devices to withstand lateral loads.
Open Space
Shear wall
Plan
Classification according to behavior

a) Shear Wall
SS wall in which deflection & strength are controlled by shear. These are usually low raised shear
wall.
b) Ordinary Moment Shear Walls
In which deflection & strength are controlled by flexure. These are usually high raised shear wall
used to resist high wind, cyclone & E/Q forces.
c) Ductile Moment Shear Wall
These are special wall meant for seismic region & which have good energy dissipation
characteristics under reversed cyclic load.
P a g e 107 | 168
108
CHAPTER 5.0
Seismic Resistant Building Design as per I.S. codes
Introduction
An earthquake generates motions in the ground in all directions. When a structure standing on the
ground encounters such ground motions, it vibrates in all the three directions. The predominant
direction of shaking or vibrating is horizontal. All structures primarily are designed for gravity
loads (mass time's gravity in the vertical direction). Usually a factor of safety is used in the design
specifications; hence most of the structures remain adequately protected against vertical shaking.
Generally the inertia forces generated by the horizontal components of ground motions need
greater attention in the seismic design. The vertical inertia forces generated by the earthquake must
also be considered in the design unless checked and proved to be insignificant.
Generally building are not susceptible to vertical ground motion, but its effect should be taken into
account in the design of R.C.C. columns steel column connections and pre-stressed concrete
beams. Vertical accelerations
Steps involved in the earthquake resistant design
Following steps are involved in the design of an earthquake resistant building or structure:
a. Selection of the workable over all structural concept
b. B. Establishing proper sizes of the members.
c. C. performing structural analysis of the members to verify that the stress and displacement
requirements are satisfied.
d. Providing structural and non structural details so that the building may accommodate all
stresses and distortions likely to be developed.
Structural response (reactions)

The response (reaction) of the structure depends upon the following factors:
a. Acceleration to which the structure is subjected. The acceleration depends upon the
frequency of vibration or time period of vibration and damping etc.
b. Materials form size and mode of construction of the structure.
c. Soil structure interaction.
d. Post yield behavior of the structure.
Design earthquake loads

The random ground motion caused by an earthquake generates inertia forces in a structure in all
the three (x, y, z) directions.
The design earthquake loads and their combinations are discussed below.
Design horizontal seismic load
When designing lateral load resistant elements oriented along the orthogonal horizontal directions
the structure should be designed in such a way that the effects due to full design seismic load act
in one horizontal direction at a time. In case the lateral -load resisting elements are not oriented
along the orthogonal horizontal direction. Then the structure should be designed for the effects for
the full design seismic load in one horizontal direction and 30% seismic design load on the other
direction. For example a building may be designed as (+- ELx-0.30) or as (+- 0.30 ELx +Ely)
where x and y are two orthogonal horizontal direction and EL is the seismic design load adopted
for design
Design vertical seismic load
During an earthquake usually all structures experience a constant vertical acceleration (down
ward) that may be additive or subtractive to the gravity depending upon the direction of ground
motion of that instant. Factor of safety applied for gravity loads usually is sufficient to take care
P a g e 108 | 168
109
of the earthquake induced vertical acceleration. In case it is desired to design for vertical
acceleration, then the value of vertical acceleration may be assumed as 67% of the horizontal
acceleration
However this approach should not be adopted for sensitive structure.
Ground accelerations
When the disturbance of seismic nature arrives at a given location, it causes accelerations in the
soil particles which are transferred to the buildings and make them shake. It is believed that only
the horizontal accelerations are most destructive. Hence the effect of vertical accelerations is
neglected in the design. The study of damage of building during the past earthquakes has shown
that vertical accelerations also do cause additional damage to structures expansion and contraction
against which usual static calculations provide a safety margin, which in most cases seems to be
satisfactory. But whenever vertical component of the acceleration is found much stronger, then its
effect should not be neglected.
Influence of soil on structures during earthquake
The analysis of damage of building during the past earthquakes has shown that the intensity of
ground shaking during an earthquake and the associated damage to structures, are greatly affected
by the soil condition and local geology of the area. The topography of a sity may cause wave
amplification. At certain frequency levels these amplifications can be considerable. Following
factors have been found to influence the damage to structures during a earthquake.
1. Maximum acceleration at the site.
2. The frequency characteristics of the ground motion and its duration.
3. The dynamic characteristics of the site
4. The dynamic characteristics of the structure (time period and damping)
The nature of the soil has a great influence on the intensity of ground shaking, which causes
structural damage. These damages have been found to occur even when the soil underlying a
building may remain perfectly stable during the earthquake.
a. Nature of sub soil. It has been observed that loose and unstable soils coincide with heavy
damage i.e. building situated on loose and unstable soils suffer heavy damage. On the other
hand buildings situated on rocks are damaged very less.
b. It has been found that prominent periods of ground vibrations during earthquake are the
periods of natural vibrations of bedded soil layer characteristics of a given locality. Soft
soils are found to have large periods where as firm soils have smaller periods.
c. The type of soil also has been found to influence the amplitude of its vibrations. Vibration
amplitudes of different soils have been found as follows:
Type soil Amount of amplitude

a. Rock 2 to 5 mm
b. Clay 30 mm
c. Filled and slimy 100 mm or more
d. Accelerations of soil vibrations decrease appreciably with the increase in its density and
solidity.
e. The presence of high ground water level increases the acceleration of vibrations which is
more pronounced in loose soils. The influence of ground water in rocks on the vibration
acceleration is very small.
P a g e 109 | 168
110
The influence of actual soil conditions on the seismic hazards can be established by the special
studies of local conditions according to their seismic risk potential. This procedure is called
micro zoning. From micro zoning it will be revealed that cities situated on loose soil are likely
to suffer greater destruction as loose soils amplify the earthquake vibrations. On the other hand
cities situated on hard rock would suffer less destruction. Thus micro zoning will help to
prepare detailed seismic maps of a city according to density of population and seismic risk on
the basic construction of big structures on ……..
When earthquake forces are considered the allowable bearing pressure in soils shall be
increased as per table shown below depending upon type of foundation of the structure and the
type of soil.
Table Percentages of permissible increase in allowable bearing pressure or resistant of soils.
(Clause 6.3.5.2)
S.No Foundation Type of soil mainly constitution the foundation
Type I rocks or hard Type II medium Type III soft
soil: well graded gravel Soils: all soils soils : all soils
and sand gravel with N between 10 other than SP
mixtures with or and 30 and poorly with N<10
without clay binder and graded sands or
clayey sands poorly gravelly sands
graded or sand clay with little or no
mixtures (GB, CW, SB, fines (sp1) with
SW and SC) having N2 N>15)
above 30 where N is the
standard penetration
value
1 2 3 4 5
I Piles passing 50 50 50
through any soil but
resting on soil type I
II Piles not covered - 25 25

under item I
III Raft foundations 50 50 50
IV Combined isolated 50 25 25
RCC footing with
tie beams
V Isolated RCC 50 25 -
footing without tie
beams or
unreinforced strip
VI foundations 50 25 25
Well foundations
Notes:
P a g e 110 | 168
111
1. The allowable bearing pressure shall be determined in accordance with 196403 or IS 1888
2. If any increase in bearing pressure has already been permitted for forces other than seismic
forces, the total increase in allowable bearing pressure when seismic force is also included
shall not exceed the limits specified above.
3. Desirable minimum field value of N and H soil of sinner value are met compacting may be
adopted to achieve these values or deep pile foundation going to stronger strata should be
used.
4. The values of N (corrected values) are at the founding level and the allowable bearing
pressure shall be determined in accordance with IS 6403 or IS 1888.
Seismic Zone Level Depth Below Ground N-Values Remarks

(in meters)
III, IV and V <5 15 For value of depths between
>10 25 5 m and 10 m, liner
II (for important <5 15 interpolation is
structures only) >10 20 recommended.
5. The piles should be designed for lateral loads neglecting lateral resistance of Soil layers
liable to liquefy.
6. IS 1498 and IS 2131 may also be referred.
7. Isolated R.C.C. footing without tie beams, or unreinforced strip foundation shall not be
permitted in soft soil with N<10.
Load combinations
Clause 6.3 of IS 1893 discusses various load combinations for design of structures while
considering earthquake forces. For limit state design of reinforced concrete and prestressed
concrete structures, the following load combinations should be used.
1. 1.5(DL+IL)
2. 1.2(DL+IL_+EL)
3. 1.5(DL_+EL)
4. 0.9 DL_+EL
Where
DL= dead load
IL= Imposed load
El= Earthquake load
+and-sign with earthquake load is taken because earthquake load is reversible in direction.
Represent the behavior of the structure under assumed ground motion expected at the site proper
modeling of the structure, material elements and connection is required for the accurate dynamic
analysis.
Increase in permissible stresses in materials when earthquake forces are considered along with
other normal design forces, the permissible stresses in material may be increased by one third.
However for steel the stress will be limited to yield stress or 0.2 percent proof stress.
Method of Seismic Analysis

Analysis process
P a g e 111 | 168
112
Based on the external action and behavior of structure the analysis can further be classified as
linear static analysis linear dynamic analysis, non linear static analysis or non liner dynamic
analysis.
The linear static or equivalent static analysis can be used for regular structures with low to medium
heights. The linear dynamic analysis can be performed in two ways as
1. Response spectrum method
2. By the elastic time history method
The significant difference between liner static and linear dynamic analysis is follows:
1. Magnitude (Level of forces
2. Distribution of forces along the height of the structure.
Non liner static analysis is an improvement over liner static or dynamic analysis as it allows
inelastic behavior of the structure. This method is simple to use. It provides information regarding
strength, deformation and the ductility of the structure. It also provides distribution of demands
along the height of the structure.
This method facilitates the identification of the critical members that are likely to attain the limit
states during the earthquake. This limit state should be taken into consideration at the time of
design and detailing process.
However this method is based on many assumptions, which neglect the resonance etc. inspite of
these shortcomings, this method provides a reasonable estimation of the global deformation
capacity, especially for structures which respond according to the first mode.
During an earthquake the actual behavior of structure is only described by a non liner dynamic
analysis or inelastic time history method. This method is based on direct numerical integration of
the elasto-plastic deformation of the structural elements.
Methods of elastic analysis
The most commonly used methods of elastic analysis are based on the approximations. The effects
of yielding can be estimated by liner analysis of the building, using design spectrum for inelastic
systems. Forces and displacements due to each horizontal component of the ground motion are
determined separately by the analysis of an idealized building of one lateral degree of freedom per
floor in the direction of the ground motion component being considered. Such analysis may be
carried out by any of the following methods.
i. By equivalent lateral force method (static method)
ii. By response spectrum analysis method (Dynamic method)
iii. By elastic time history method. It is a refined method of dynamic analysis
Both static and dynamic method lead directly to the lateral forces in the direction of ground motion
component. The main differences between the two methods are in the magnitude and distribution
of the lateral forces over the height of the building. The static method mainly is suitable for
preliminary design of building. The preliminary design of the building is then used for dynamic
analysis or any other refined method as elastic time history method.
Equivalent lateral force method (Seismic Coefficient method)
The seismic analysis of most of the structures is still carried out on the assumption that the lateral
force (horizontal force) due to earthquake is equivalent to the actual (Dynamic) loading. This
method requires only natural period or fundamental period of the building, and periods and shapes
of higher modes of vibration are not required. Hen ce this method is less laborious. The base shear,
which is the total horizontal force on the structure is calculated on the basis of mass of the structure,
its fundamental period of vibration and structure in terms of lateral forces according to the code
formula. The planar models appropriate for each of the two orthogonal (x and y) lateral directions
P a g e 112 | 168
113
are analyzed separately. The results of the two analysis and other effects as that of tensional
motions of the structures are combined. This method usually is limited to low to medium height
buildings with regular configuration.
Response spectrum analysis
This method is also known as mode superimposition or model method this method is applicable
especially to those structures, whose responses are significantly affected by the models others than
fundamental mode. Generally this method is applicable to the analysis of the dynamic response of
asymmetrical or having areas of discontinuity or irregular structures in their linear range of
behavior. Particularly this method is applicable to the analysis of forces and deformations in the
multi storey building due to medium intensity of ground shaking. This ground shaking causes a
moderately large but essentially linear response in the structure. This method is based on the fact
that for certain form of damping, which are reasonably models for many buildings, the response
in each natural mode of vibration can be computed independently of the others.
The total response can be determined by combining the model response. Earthquake mode
responds with its own particular pattern of deformation (Mode shipping) with its own frequency
and with its own model damping. The time history each model response can be determined by the
analysis of single degree freedom (SDOF) oscillator with properties chosen to be representative of
the particular mode and the degree to which it is excited by the earthquake motion in general the
responses should be determined only in the first few model the response to the earthquake mainly
is due to lower modes of vibration. A complete modal analysis provides the history of response
that is history of forces, displacements, and deformation of a structure to a specified ground
acceleration history. However for design of structures complete response history is seldom
required. For design purposes the maximum response value during the period of earthquake
usually are sufficient.
In its most general form this method is applicable to arbitrary three dimensional structural systems.
But for the purpose of design of buildings, can be simplified from the general case by restricting
its application to the lateral motion in a plane. The planar models for each of the two orthogonal
directions can be analyzed separately and the result of the analysis and others effects such as
torsional motion of the structure are combined
Comparative study of equivalent lateral force and response spectrum analysis
The main difference is in the magnitude of base shear and distribution of lateral forces. It is shown
in tabular from in table below
Table
S.no. Equivalent lateral force method Response spectrum method
1 Both are based on the basic In this method the force calculations are
assumptions made based on compound period and mode
shapes of several modes modes of
2. In this method the force vibrations
calculations are based on the This method can be applied to the
estimate of the fundamental period analysis of model
3 The force distribution is based on It requires more computation efforts in
simple formula appropriate for analysis
buildings with regular distribution
of mass and stiffness over the
4. height It is more completed.
This formula usually is used
P a g e 113 | 168
114
Elastic time history method
Thought linear time history analysis over comes all disadvantages of mode response spectrum
analysis provided non linear behavior is not required, but it is more laborious, this method requires
large number of calculations for determining the response at discrete times. In most cases this in
not required.
Assumptions made in model analysis
In the model analysis of a building certain assumption has to be made for simplicity in calculations.
In building analysis usually following assumptions are made.
1. In the model of a building usually the floor is assumed rigid and the columns as flexible.
2. In the model of a building for simplicity usually the floor is assumed infinitely rigid as
compared to columns.
3. In multi storied buildings the lateral force or load is assumed to act at floor level.
4. In case of R.C.C. structures the effective length of columns is assumed as distance from
the centre to centre of the floors. This assumption is reasonable for buildings having the
ratio of moment of inertia per unit length of the beam to that of the column of the order 3
to 8.0.
5. The elastic modulus of R.C.C. column is assumed to be between 0.15 to 0.3x10 11 N\m2.
The value of elastic modulus is a function of composition of concrete and its age under
stress.
6. The damping of the system usually is chosen arbitrarily. It (damping) varies with strain in
material, its nature and details of construction
7. The damping is specified in terms of model damping. The percentage damping for various
materials increases with strain levels and in the following range:
Material Damping
Concrete 5 to 10%
Steel 2 to 5%
Masonry 5 to 10%
Soil 10 to 30%
Timber 2 to 5%
The model analysis for estimation of ground motions is adopted for important and special
structures only. For routine structures and for preliminary design of special structures empirical
coefficients are used. For a rational design these coefficients should be based on detailed dynamic
study of a class of typical structures.
Zone Factor
Seismic zoning assesses the maximum severity of shaking that is anticipated in particular region.
The zone factor (z) thus is defined as a factor to obtain the design spectrum depending on the
perceived seismic hazard in the zone in which the structure is located. The basic zone factors
included in the code are reasonable estimate of effective peak ground acceleration. Zone factor as
per IS 1893 (Part) 2002 are given in table below
Table zone Factor (Z)

Seismic zone II III IV V
Seismic intensity low moderate Severe Very
Severe
P a g e 114 | 168
115
Z 0.10 0.16 0.24 0.36
Importance factor
The importance factor is a factor used to obtain the design seismic force depending upon the
functional use of the structure
It is customary to recognize that certain categories of building use should be designed for greater
levels of safety than the others, and this is achieved by specifying higher lateral design forces.
Such categories are:-
a. Building which are essential after an earthquake-hospitals, fire stations etc
b. Places of assembly-schools, theatres etc
c. Structures the collapse of which may endanger lives unclear plants dams etc
The importance factors are given in table below

Table importance factor
Structure Importance Factors
Important service and community building such as hospitals schools 1.5
Monumental structures emergency building like telephone
exchanges, television stations, radio stations, Railway stations, fire
station subway stations, power stations
All other buildings 1.0
Note
 The design engineer may choose values of importance factor I greater than those mention
above
 Buildings not covered in the table above may be designed for a higher value of I, depending
on economy and strategy considerations. These could be buildings such as multi-storey
buildings having several residential units.
 This table does not apply to temporary structures like excavations, scaffolding etc.
 Repose reduction Factor
It depends on the expected seismic damage of the structure. This factor represents the structures
ductility characteristics. He level of R table Ductility. The code IS 1893 gives the value of table
for different types of buildings on the basis of experiences with past earthquakes
Table Response reduction factor (1) R for Building Systems (clause 6.4.2)
S. No. Lateral Load Resisting System (2) R (3)
(1)
Building frame systems
(I) Ordinary RC moment resisting frame (OMRF)2 3.0
(II) Special RC Moment Resisting frame (SMRF)3 5.0
III Steel frame with 4.0
(a) Concentric Braces 5.0
(b) Eccentric Braces
IV Steel moment resisting frame designed as per SP 6(6) 5.0
Building with shear wall (4)
V Load bearing masonry wall buildings (5)
(a) Unreinforced 1.5
P a g e 115 | 168
116
b. Reinforced with Horizontal RC Band 2.5

C. reinforced with horizontal RC bands and vertical bars at corners
of rooms an jambs of openings
VI Ordinary reinforced concrete shear wall (6) 3.0
VII Ductile shear wall (7) 4.0
Buildings with dual systems (8)
VIII Ordinary shear wall with OMRF 3.0

IX Ordinary shear wall with SMRF 4.0
X Ductile shear wall with OMRF 4.5
XI Ductile shear wall with SMRF 5.0
1. The value of response reduction factors are to be used for buildings with lateral
load resisting elements, and not just for the lateral load resisting elements built in
isolation.
2. OMRF are those designed and detailed as per IS 456 or IS 800 but not meeting
ductile detailing requirement as per IS 13920 or SP 6 (6) respectively.
3. SMRF defined in 4.15.2
4. Building with shear walls also include building s having shear walls and frames
but where:
a. Frames are not designed to carry lateral loads, or
b. Frames are designed to carry lateral loads but not fulfill the requirements of
dual systems.
5. Reinforcement should be as per IS 4326.
6. Prohibited in zones IV and V.
7. Ductile shear walls are those designed and detailed as per 13920
8. Buildings with dual systems consist of shear walls (or braced frames) and moment
resisting frames such that:
a. The two systems are designed to resist the total design force in proportion to
their lateral stiffness considering the interaction of the dual system at all floor
levels; and
b. The moment resisting frames are designed to independently resist at least 25
percent of the design seismic base shear.
Fundamental natural period

The fundamental natural period is the first (longest) mode time period of vibration of the structure.
Because the design loading depends on the building period, and the period cannot be calculated
until a design has been prepared, IS 1893 (Part 1): 2000 provides formula from which Ta may be
calculated
For a moment resisting frame building without brick infill panels, Ta may be estimated by
empirical expressions
Ta= 0.075h0.75 for RC frame Building
P a g e 116 | 168
117
Ta=.085h0.75 for RC frame Building
For all other building, including moment resisting frame buildings with brick infill panels Ta may
be estimated by the empirical expression
Where is height of building in meters (this excludes the basement storey's, where basement walls
are connected with the ground floor deck or fitted between the building columns. But it includes
the basement storey's, when they are not so connected), and d is the base dimension of the building
at plinth level, in meters along the considered direction of the lateral force
Design response spectrum

The design response spectrum is a smooth response spectrum specifying the level of seismic
resistance required for a design. Seismic analysis requires that the design spectrum be specified.
IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002 stipulates a design
Fig: Design response spectrum for rock and soil sites for 5 per cent damping
Acceleration spectrum or base shear coefficients as a function of natural period. These coefficients
are ordinates of the acceleration spectrum, divided by acceleration due to gravity. This relationship
works well in SDOF systems. The spectral ordinates are used for the computation of inertia forces.
Figures above relates to the proposed 5 per cent damping for rocky or hard soils sites and table
below gives the multiplying factors for obtaining spectral values for various other damping (note
that the multiplication is not to be done for zero period acceleration). The design spectrum
ordinates are independent of the amounts of damping (multiplication factor of 1.0) and their
variations from one material or one structural solution to another.
Table Multiplying factor for obtaining spectral values for damping (other than 5 per cent
damping)
Damping (per cent) 0 2 5 7 10 15 20 25 30
Factors 3.20 1.40 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.55 0.50
Equivalent lateral force method
This method of finding design lateral forces is also known as the static method or the equivalent
static method or the seismic coefficient method. This procedure does not require dynamic analysis,
however, it accounts for the dynamics of building in an approximate manner. The static method is
the simplest one-it requires less computational effort and is based on formulae given in the code
of practice. First, the design base shear is computed for the whole building, and it is then distributed
along the height of the building. The lateral forces at each floor level thus obtained are distributed
to individual lateral load resisting elements.
P a g e 117 | 168
118
Seismic base shear
The total design lateral force or design seismic base shear (Vb) along any principal direction is
determined by
Where Ah is the design horizontal acceleration spectrum value, using the fundamental natural
period, T, in the considered direction of vibration and W is the seismic weight of the building
(section 5.9.2). The design horizontal seismic coefficient Ah for a structure is determined by the
expression.
For any structure w3ith T<0.1 s, the value of Ah will not be taken less than Z/2 whatever be the
value of I/R z is he zone factor given table for the maximum considered earthquake (MCE). The
factor 2 in the denominator is use so as to reduce the maximum considered earthquake (MCE)
zone factor to the factor for design basic earthquake (DBE). I is the important factor and depends
upon the functional use of the structure, the hazardous consequences of its failure post earthquake
functional needs, historical value, or economic importance. R is the response reduction factor
depends on the perceived seismic damage performance of the structure characterized by ductile or
brittle deformations. This factor is used to decide what building materials are used, the type of
construction, and the type of lateral bracing system. Sa/g is the response acceleration coefficient
as given by figure represent free-field ground motion. For other damping values of the structure,
multiplying factors given in table should be used.
For rocky or hard soil sites
Seismic weight
The seismic weight of the whole building is the sum of the seismic weights of all the floors. The
seismic weight of each floor is its full dead load plus the appropriate amount of imposed load, the
letter being that part of the imposed loads that may reasonable be expected to be attached to the
structure at the time of earthquake shaking. It includes the weight of permanent and movable
partitions, permanent equipment, a part of the live load, etc. while computing the seismic weight
of each floor, the weight of columns and walls in any storey should be equally distributed to the
floors above and below the storey. Any weight supported in between storey's should be distributed
to the floors above and below in inverse proportion to its distance from the floors.
As per IS 1893 (Part I), the percentage of imposed load as given in table should be used. For
calculating the design seismic forces of the structure, imposed load on the roof need not be
considered.
Percentage of imposed load to be considered in seismic weight calculation
P a g e 118 | 168
119
Imposed uniformly distributed floor load (KN/m2) Percentage of imposed load
Up to and including 3.0 25
Above 3.0 50
Note
1. The proportions of imposed load indicated above for calculating the lateral design force
for earthquakes are applicable to average conditions.
2. Where the probable loads at the time of earthquake are more accurately assessed, he
designer may alter the proportions indicated or even replace the entire imposed load
proportions by the actual assessed load.
3. Lateral design force for earthquakes should not be calculated on contribution of impact
effects from imposed loads
4. Other loads apart from those given above (e.g., snow and permanent equipment) should be
considered as appropriate
Distribution of design force

Buildings and their elements should be designed and constructed to resist the effects of design
lateral force. The design lateral force is first computed for the building as a whole and then
distributed to the various floor levels. The overall design seismic force thus obtained at each floor
level is then distributed to individual lateral load resisting elements, depending on the floor
diaphragm action.
Vertical distribution of base shear to different floor levels the design base shear (Vb) is distributed
along the height of the building as per the following expression
Where Q is the design lateral force at floor I, w is the seismic weight of floor I, hj is the height of
floor I measured from the base and n is the number of storey's in the building, i.e. the number of
levels at which the masses are located.
Distribution of horizontal design lateral force to different lateral force resisting element in the case
of building in which floors are capable of providing rigid horizontal diaphragm action, the total
shear in any horizontal plane is distributed to the various vertical elements of the lateral force
resisting system assuming the floors to be infinitely rigid in horizontal plane. For buildings in
which floor diaphragms cannot be treated as infinitely rigid in their own plane, the lateral shear at
each floor is distributed to the vertical elements resisting the lateral forces, accounting for the in
plane flexibility of the diaphragms.
For a regular (uniform building, the above equation gives an inverted parabolic distribution of
forces as show in fig.
P a g e 119 | 168
120
Fig: Lateral force distribution in a uniform multi-storeyed building

Dynamic Analysis
Dynamic analysis is an alternative procedure to the equivalent lateral force method performed to
obtain the design lateral forces at each floor level along the height of the building and its
distribution to individual lateral load-resisting elements.
Dynamic analysis should be performed to obtain the design seismic force and its distribution to
different levels along the height of the buildings and to the various lateral load-resisting elements,
for the following buildings:
a. Regular building those greater than 40 m in height in zones IV and V, and those greater
than 90 m in height in zones II and III.
b. Irregular buildings all framed buildings higher than 12 m in zones iv and v, and those
greater than 40 m in height in zones II and III.
Expressions used for design load calculation and load distribution with height in this procedure
are based on the assumptions that (a) the fundamental mode dominates the response and (b) mass
and stiffness are evenly distributed with building height, thus giving a regular mode shape. In tall
buildings, higher modes can be quite significant; ad in irregular buildings, mode shapes may be
somewhat irregular. Hence, for tall and irregular buildings dynamic analysis is generally preferred.
Methods of Dynamic analysis
Dynamic analysis may be performed either by the response spectrum method or by the time history
method. However, in either method, the design base shear Vb is compared with base shear Vb
calculated using a fundamental period Ta. Where VB is less than Vb all the response quantities,
e.g., member forces, displacement, storey forces, storey shears, and base reactions, should be
multiplied by Vb/Vb. The value of damping for buildings may be taken as 2 and 5 per cent of the
critical value, for the purpose of dynamic analysis of steel and RCC buildings respectively.
The dynamic analysis is carried by the time history method or response spectrum method.
Response Spectrum
P a g e 120 | 168
121
In the response spectrum method, the peak response of a structure during an earthquake is obtained
directly from the earthquake response (or design) spectrum. This procedure given an approximate
peak response, but this is quite accurate for structural design applications. In this approach, the
multiple modes of response of a building to an earthquake are taken into account. For each mode,
a response is read from the design spectrum, based on the modal frequency and the modal mass.
The responses of different modes are combined to provide an estimate of total response of the
structure using modal combination methods such as complete quadratic combinations (CQC),
square root of sum of squares (SRSS), or absolute sum (ABS) method.
Response spectrum method of analysis should be performed using the design spectrum specified
or by a site specific design spectrum, which is specifically prepared for a structure at a particular
project site. The same may be used for the design at the discretion of the project authorities.
Response spectrum of any earthquake ground motion is a plot of maximum values of

response quantities (displacement, velocity and acceleration) as a function of natural vibration
period 7 or frequency and damping ratio of single degree freedom system (SDOF).
During the ground motion a structure subjected to the maximum stiffness force depends on
the maximum displacement response. The maximum displacement is known or called as spectral
displacement Sd of the structure. This corresponds to the condition of zero kinetic energy and
maximum strain upotential) energy.
The maximum strain (potential) energy
1
E max  K (Sd ) 2
2
The maximum velocity response is estimated by multiplaying the spectral displacement Sd
by circular frequency ''.
1
 The maximum kinetic energy E max  mv 2
2
1 1
= m(Sd ) 2  mS2pv
2 2
Equating the strain energy to kinetic energy we get
1 1
E max  K(Sd ) 2  m(Sd ) 2
2 2
1
= mS2pv
2
where, Spv=Sd is called Pseudo (artificial) spectral velocity. A plot of S pv with respect to time or
 is called Pseudo velocity response spectrum.
The maximum base shear in single degree of freedom system can be obtained as
(Q)max = K.Sd=m2Sd(As K=m 2)
= m(2.Sd)=Spv is called Pseudo spectral acceleration.
The Pseudo spectrum acceleration has the units of acceleration which when multiplied with
the mass gives max base shear.
P a g e 121 | 168
122
The spectral values of Sd Spv and Spa are related as
Spa = 2 Sd =  (.Sd)
2  2 
2
= Spv  .Spv    Sd
T T 
Normally they plotted on a single graph with log scale on each axis, and called tripartite
log plot. The response spectra for a single earthquake record is used for analysis, but they are not
suitable for the purpose of design. They are not found suitable for design purposes, because in
design response spectra, information regarding the effect of near and distant earthquake is required,
which they do not provide. They also do not account for the inherent variability of earthquake
motion with respect to both frequency and amplitude at a given station.
Response spectrum method
In this method, maximum model response is estimated for each mode, using response
spectrum. The number of modes to be combined in the analysis are such that the sum total of all
modes considered is at least 90% of total seismic mass.
Mode shapes
Mode shapes are the displacement shapes of an vibrating system corresponding to the
natural frequencies.
Under the undamped free vibrations, multi mode of freedom buildings having N degree of
freedom will vibrate in N modes of vibrations. The equation of multi-degree undamped free
vibration system can be written as
..
m x  Kx  0
As the mass is assumed to execute the simple harmonic motion. The solution of the
equation may be assumed as.
x = n sin n t
then differentiating equation (15.13) w.r.t. twice we get
2 x ..
 x  n 2n sin n t
t 2
where, n represent displaced shapes of vibrating system (i.e. mode shapes) which do not
change with time 't' but vary only with amplitude. n is circular frequency.
..
Substituting the value of x in equation (15.12) we get.
m(n 2n sin n t )  KnSin n t  0
or (K  2n m)n sin n t  0

If sinn t = 0
Then 
[Kn ]  2n m.n 
sin nt can not be zero, as in that case x will be zero, which means that there is no motion.
 (K  2n m)n  0
P a g e 122 | 168
123
or Kn  m2n n
Again n can not be zero as it leads to trivial (un important) solution implying that x=0.
For more equations or non trivial solution, the determinant of coefficient of x should be
zero i.e.
K  m2n  0
Equation above is known as characteristic equation.

The solution of this characteristic equation will give N roots, representing the frequencies
of N modes of vibrations.
Time History Analysis
It is analysis of the dynamic response of the structure at each increment of time, when its
base is subjected to a specific ground motion. This means that this needs the studies of ground
motion of the specific site. However in majority of the cases the time history method is not
required.
Selection of the method
In dynamic analysis either time history method or response spectrum method shall be used
for the following types of buildings.
a) Regular buildings. Buildings having height greater than 40m in zone IV and V and
buildings having height more than 90m in zone II and III.
b) Irregular buildings. All buildings having height more than 12 m in zone IV and V
and more than 40 m height in zone II and III, though dynamic analysis is not
mandatory, but recommended.
Thus in general the dynamic analysis should be performed for buildings in zone IV and V.
For buildings in zone II and III having height less than 40m seismic coefficient method should be
used which is simple to use.
Modal Analysis
Buildings with regular, or nominally irregular, plan configurations may be modeled as a
system of masses lumped at the floor levels with each mass having one degree of freedom, that of
lateral displacement in the direction under consideration. In the modal analysis, the variability in
masses and stiffness is accounted for in the computation of lateral force coefficients. The following
expressions are used for the computation of various quantities.
a) Modal mass The modal mass (Mk) of mode k is given by
2
n 
 Wi ik 
M k   in1 
g  Wi (ik ) 2
i 1
where g is the acceleration due to gravity, ik is the mode shape coefficient at floor i in
mode k, and Wi is the seismic weight of floor i.
b) Modal participation factor The modal participation factor (Pk) of mode k is given by
P a g e 123 | 168
124
n
W i ik
Pk  n
i 1
 W (
i 1
i ik )2
c) Design lateral force at each floor in each mode The peak lateral force (Qik) at floor I in kth
mode is given by
Qik = AkikPkWi
where Ak is the design horizontal acceleration spectrum value using the natural period of
vibration (Tk) of kth mode.
d) Storey shear forces in each mode The peak shear force (Vik) acting in storey i in mode k is
given by
n
Vik  
j  i 1
ik
e) Storey shear forces due to all modes considered The peak storey shear force (Vi) in storey
i due to all modes considered is obtained by combining those due to each mode as explained
in Section 5.11.2.
f) Lateral forces at each storey due to all modes considered The design lateral forces, Froof
and Fi at roof and at floor i are given by
Froof = Vroof
Fi=Vi-Vi+1
Free vibration analysis
Free Vibration response of MDoF system
v1 v2
m2
K1 K2
K2/2 K2/2 m1 m2
m1
K1/2 K1/2
For mass M1

m1 v1  K1v1  K 2 ( v2  v1 )  0 (1)
For mass M2

m2 v 2  K 2 ( v2  v1 )  0 (2)
Let
V1 = a, sint V2 = a2 Sint
P a g e 124 | 168
125
 
V1  -a1 2Sint V 2  -a2 2Sint
 
Substituting values of v1 , v1 , v2 & v 2 , in (1)
 m1a12 Sin t - K 2 (a 2Sin t - a, Sin t)  K1a Sin t  0
or,  m1a1w 2  (K1  K 2 )a1  K 2a 2  0
or, K1  K 2  m12 )a1  K 2a 2  0 (3)
From (2)
 m2a 22Sin t  K 2 (a 2Sin t  a1Sin t )  0
or, K 2  m22 a 2  K 2a1  0
Method - 1
From equation (3) & (4), we can get the values of a1 & a3. Equating the ratio of amplitude
 a1 
 a 
 2
From (3)
a1 K2

a 2 K1  K 2  m1w 2
From (4)
a1 K 2  m 2w 2

a2 K2
Equating both
K2 K 2  m 22

K1  K 2  m12 K2
 K1 
 K 2  m12 K 2 - m22 ) - K 22  0 
This is called frequency equation.
Method – 2
Matrix form of equation (3) & (4)
K1  K 2  m1w 2  K2   a1 
  0
  K2 K 2  m22  a 2 
 a1 
 0
a 2 
K1  K 2  m1w 2  K2 
 0
  K2 K 2  m 22 
P a g e 125 | 168
126
K 1 
 K 2  m12 K 2 - m22 
Method – 3

[m] v   [K]v  0 (1)
 
v  vSin (t  )


(2) For SDoF v   sin(t   )
 
 2 

v    v Sin (t   ) (3)
   
Putting 2 & 3 in equation (1)
   
 2 [m] vSin (t  )  [K]vSin (t  )  0
   
   
or,  2[m]v  [K]v  {0}
   
[K]   [m]v  {0}


2
 
 
Since v  cannot be zero so
 
1 
 
[K]   [m]  0
2
Where,    2 
n 
 
Natural Frequency and Mode Shape
(This is also discussed above)
mV  CV  Kv  P(t )

 
is the equation of motion of MDoF system. The equations of
   
motion for a freely vibration un-damped system can be obtained by omitting the damping matrix
& applied-load vector.
mV  KV  0
 
(a) / m V +KV = 0
 
By analogy with the behavior of SDoF systems, it will be assumed that the free-vibration motion
is simple harmonic, which may be expressed for a MDoF system as

V( t )  V Sin ( wt  ) (b)

In this expression V represents the shape of the system (which does not change with time; only
the amplitude varies) and  is a phase angle. When the second time derivation of equation (b) is
taken, the accelerations in free vibration are
P a g e 126 | 168
127
 
V   2 V Sin (t   ) (c)
Substituting (b) and (c) in equation (a)
 
  2 mV Sin(t   )  K V Sin (t   )  0
 
or,   2 mV  K V  0
K    2
 
[m] V   0
 

Since, V  cannot be zero, so
 
K    2 [m]  0 is the frequency equation or characteristics equation of the system with respect
to the circular frequency w.
We know from {Sign}
A  IC  0 (d)
K   mV   0  Km 

 

Now, 2 -1
-  2 I V   0
   
Comparing with (d) w2=Eigen value = natural frequency {a}=Eigen vector  mode shape
 Mode Shape:
 Equivalent structural model (not real structure), so mode shapes will most closely but not
exactly give the actual structural behavior during vibrations
 A real structure can vibrate in more than one mode at a time.
 Least frequency give critical mode shape
 Higher mode also exist but have less active as period are shorter.
Q. Determine the natural frequency of the given probelm

m3=40kg
2
K2=10,000 N/m
m1=50kg
1
K1=15,000 N/m
50 0  2
Mass matrix, [M]    NS m
 0 40
K  K 2  K2 
Stiffness [K ]   1
  K2 K 2 
P a g e 127 | 168
128
 25,000  10,000
=  
 10,000 10,000 
2.5  1
= 10,000 
1 1 
[K]  2 [m]  0
2.5  1 50 0 
10,000   2   0
1 1   0 40
 2.5000  10000 2 50 0
 10000 10000     0 40  0
   
 502 
25  10000 1 
  0
 402 
1 1
 10000 
2
Let B
10000
Then, the matrix becomes
2.5  50B 1
0
1 1  40B
(2.5-50B) (1-40B)-1 = 0
Solving, we get
1  10.95
rad / sec
2 \ 25.10 
Q. Determine the natural frequency & fundamental time.
m2
m 1 = 136 lb.sec2/in
K 2 I2 I2 K2 10' m 2 = 661 lb.sec2/in
E = 30x106 psi
m2
I1 = 248.6 in4
15' I2 = 106.8 in4
K 1 I1 I1 K1
2  12EI 2  12  30  106  248.6

K1  
I3 (15  12)3
= 30691.35 lb/in
P a g e 128 | 168
129
2  12EI 2  12  30  106  106.8

K2  
I3 (10  12)3
= 44291.67 lb/in
We have,
K 1  
 K 2  m12 K 2 - m22  K 22  0
(30691.35  44291  136.2 ) (44291.67 - 661w 2 ) - 44291.672  0

 898964  44487440.95w 2  1359371054  0
 b  b 2  4ac
Solving, 2 
2a
(55587446.95)  (55587440.95) 2  4  8989.6  1359371054

=
2  8989.6
Taking two
 12  3130.65  1  5.05 rad/sec
 22  351557  2  24.35 rad/sec
 Fundamental time = T1  2  2 5.05  1.24 sec

1
2 2
= T2    0.258 sec
2 24.35
Considering 1
Due to 1 Mass m2 a21
Mass m1 a11
Due to 2 Mass m2 a22
Mass m1 a12
For 1=5.05 rad/sec
K1  K 2  2 m1  K 2   a11 
   0
2
(K1+K2- m1) a11-k2a21=0 (1) 
  K2 K 2  2 m2  a 21
-K2a11+a21 (K2-2 m2) =0 (2)
Now, From (1)
a11 K2

a 21 K1  K 2  2 m1
44291.667
=
30691.35  44291.667  5.052 *136
P a g e 129 | 168
130
a11
 0.619
a 21
For 2=24.35 rad/sec
2
K1  K 2  2 m2  K2  a 21 
(K1+K2- m1) a21-k2a22=0 (3)   
  K2 K 2  2 m 2  a 22 
-K2a22+a12 (K2-2 m2) =0 (4)
From (3)
a12 K2

a 22 K1  K 2  2 m1
= -7.833
Now if a11 = 1 if a12 = 1
1 1
a 21   1.61 a 22   0.127
0.619 7.833
a21=1.61 a 22=-0.127
a11=1
a12=1
Q. A four storey reinforced concrete frame building is as shown, is situated in zone V. The height
between the floors is 3m & the total height of building is 12m. The dead load & normal live load
is lumped at respective floor. The soil below the foundation is assumed to be hard rock. Assume
building is intended to be used as a hospital. Determine the total base shear as per IS 1893 (part I):
2002 & Distribute the base shear along the height of the building.
M4=2500KN
Solution,
M3=3000KN
3m We know,
Z I Sa
3m Ah  * *
M2=3000KN 2 R g
M1=3000KN
3m I = Importance Factor
3m = 1.5 [IS 1893: 2002 Table 6]
Z = Seismic Zone
P a g e 130 | 168
131
= 0.36 [Table 2]
Soil type = Hard Rock
Sa
  2.06
g
T=0.075h = 0.075*120.75
= 0.489
Sa 1
&  for hard sock
g T
R= 5 (special, RC moment resisting frame)
Z I Sa 0.36 1.5
 Ah  * *  * * 2.06
2 R g 2 5
~
= 0.11124  0.12
 Total seismic weight of building (W) = 33000+125000
= 11m500KN
 VB = Ah.W
= 0.12 * 11500 = 1397.25KN
Determination of Lateral force
Wihi 2
Qi  VB *
 Wihi 2
Now,
Wihi2=2500*122+3000*92+3000*62+3000*32=738000
Now,
Wihi 2
Lateral Force in floor = Q = VB *
Wihi 2
3000 * 32
Lateral force in first floor = Q1 = 1397.25*
738000
= 51.118 KN
3000 * 62
Q2  1397.25 *
738000
= 204.48KN
3000 * 92
Q3  1397.25 *
738000
= 460.07 KN
P a g e 131 | 168
132
2500 *122
Q4  1397.25 *
738000
= 817.902 KN
Q. Consider a three degree of freedom system as shown in figure. Determine the mode shapes.
m
K
m
K
m
K
We know,
From frequency equation
|[K] – w2[m]|=0
K1  K 2  K2 0 
K     K 2 K 2  K3  K 3 
 0  K3 K 3 
 2K  K 0 
=  K 2K  K 
 0  K K 
m 0 0 
M   0 m 0 
 0 0 m 
Now |[K]-w2[m]|=0
 2K  K 0  m 0 0 
 K 2K  K   2  0 m 0   0
   
 0  K K   0 0 m
(2K  2 m) K 0
K ( 2k   m)
2
K 0
0 K (K  2 m)
Assuming 2   , then
2K   m K 0
K 2K   m K 0
0 K K  m
P a g e 132 | 168
133
Expanding the determinant
2K  m(2K  m)  (K)(K)  (K)[(K)(K  m)  0  (K)] =0
or, m23  5Km22  6K 2m  K3  0
Dividing by K3
m33 5Km22 6K 2 m K 3
   3 0
K3 K2 K3 K
m m2
Assuming  
1
K K
3  52  61  1  0
Solving Then
11  0.198 12  0.198 K
m
12  1.555 22  1.555 K
m
13  3.247 32  3.247 K
m
Again, [K ]  2 [m]a .0

 
 
 2K   m K 0   A1 
 K  
 2K   m  K  A 2   0
 K K  m A 
0  3
(2K  m)A1  KA2  0A3  0
 m2A1  2KA1  KA2  0 (a)

A1 K
 (m2  2K)A1  KA2  0  
A2 
 m2  2K 
 KA1  (2K  m)A2  KA3  0
  m2A2  KA1  2KA2  KA3  0 (b)

0.A1  (K)A2  (K  m)A3  0
  m2A3  OA1  KA2  KA3  0 (c)
 (m2  K)A3  KA2  0
A 2  m2  K
 
A3 K
Now, On solving
1st Mode 2nd mode 3rd mode
P a g e 133 | 168
134
A1 0.445 -1.247 1.802
A2 0.802 -0.555 -2.247
A3 1 1 1
Fig. Mode shapes of a three degrees of freedom system

Q A six storeyed R.C. framed building has plan dimensions as shown in Fig below. The size of
the exterior columns (7 each on line A and C) are 30cm  50cm and the interior columns (7 on line
B) are 30cm  60cm for the bottom three floors and 30cm  40cm and 30 cm 5own0 cm
respectively for the upper three floors. The height between the floors (storey) is 3.5m. The dead
load per unit area of the floor which consists of floor slab, etc. is assumed to be of intensity 5000
N/m2. The intensity of normal live load is assumed as 2500 N/m2. The soil below the foundation
is hard. The building is located in seismic zone IV.
7m 7m
ELEVATION
Fig a
7m
7m
6 x 5 = 30 m
PLAN
Fig b
Determine the base shear and its distribution along the height of the building.
P a g e 134 | 168
135
Solution. The elevation and plan of the building is shown in Fig a and b
Equivalent lumped weight at various floors:
For calculating earthquake force the design live load is taken 25% of the given load as per
code. No live load will be considered acting on the roof.
Hence effective weight at all floors except roof = 5000 + 0.25  2500
= 5000 + 625.0 = 5625 N/m2 = 5.625 kN/m2
Weight at roof = 5000 N/m2 = 5.0 kN/m2
The plan area of the building = 14  30 = 420 m2
 Equivalent weight on roof level = 420  5 = 2100 kN
Equivalent weight on other floors = 420  5.625 = 2362.5 kN
 Total effective weight W = 2100 + 5  2362.5
= 2100 + 11812.5 = 13912.5
(i.e. Roof weight + Sum of all floors.)
h
(i) Natural period T  0.9 (d  width)
d
1
= 0.09  21  0.505  0.51
14
For T=0.51 and hard soil, from table 15.7, the value of S a/g for
1 1
  2.0
T 0.51
For seismic zones IV, zone factor Z=0.24, importance factor I=1.0 and for concrete frame
building taking reduction factor 5, we get
Z I Sa
Ah   
2 R g
0.24 1
=   2.0
2 5
0.24
=  0.05
5
 Design base shear along x-axis = Ah  W
= 0.05  13912.5 = 695.63 = 696.0
The lateral load at different floors can be determined by the following relation.
VB  w i  h i2
Qi  n
w
i 1
i  h12
Where,
P a g e 135 | 168
136
wi = Weight working at level i
hi = Height of the floor from the base
VB = Base shear
i = 1, indicates the height at 1st floor level.
The calculations are shown in the tabular form as below in Table below
Table ……
w i h i2 Vi = kN,
Mass w i h i2 in n
Qi in kN
Wi kN hi in m
No. kN/m 2  wih
i 1
2
i VB Col.5
sum of col.
6 from top
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6. 2100.00 21.0 926100.0 0.3700 257.5 257.5
5. 2362.50 17.5 723515.6 0.2895 201.9 459.4
4. 2362.50 14.0 463050.0 0.1853 129.0 588.4
3. 2362.50 10.5 260465.6 0.1031 71.77 660.17
2. 2362.50 7.0 115762.5 0.0441 30.7 690.87
1. 2362.50 3.5 29531.25 0.0118 8.2 698.87
wi = wih i2 
1392.5 2498425.0
Note. Calculation by log. Difference due to approximation in values.
P a g e 136 | 168
137
Q. A ten-storey OMRF building has plan dimension as shown in figure. The storey height is
30m. The dead load per unit area of the floor, consisting of the floor slab, finishes, etc. is
4kN/m2. Weight of partitions on floor can be assumed to be 2kN/m2. The intensity of five
load on each floor is 3 kN/m2 and on the roof is i.5 kN.m2. The soil below the foundation
is hard and the building is located in zone IV. Determine the seismic forces and shears at
different floor levels.
Solution
Design parameters:
For Delhi (zone IV), zone factor, Z=0.24
Importance factor, I = 1.0
Response reduction factor, R=3.0 (OMRF)
Seismic weight :
Floor area = 24  24 = 576m2
Dead load = 4 kN/m2
Weight of partitions = 2 kN/m2
For live load upto and including 2 kN/m2,
Percentage of live load to be considered = 25%
Total seismic weight on the floors,
W=Wi
where Wi is the sum of loads from all the floors, which includes dead loads and
appropriate percentage of live loads.
Effective weight at each floor except the roof = 4.0 + 2.0 + 0.25  3 = 6.75 kN/m2, and at
the roof = 4.0 kN/m2.
P a g e 137 | 168
138
Weight of the beams at each floor and the roof = 0.3  0.6  240  25 = 270 kN
Weight of the columns at each floor = 0.3  0.6 2.4  25  25 = 270 kN
1
Weight of the column at the roof =  270  135kN
2
Total plan area of the building is 24m  24m = 576 m2
Equivalent load at roof level = 4576+1080+135=3519 kN
Equivalent load at each floor = 6.75576+1080+270=5238 kN
Seismic weight of the building, W=3519+5238  9 = 50661 kN
Base shear
Fundamental natural period of vibration of a moment-resisting frame without infill
Ta = 0.075h0.75 = 0.075 (30)0.75 = 0.96 s
Average response acceleration coefficient, Sa/g, for 5% damping and type I soil is 1.04
Design horizontal seismic coefficient,
ZI(Sa / g) 0.24  1.0  1.04
Ah    0.0416
2R 23
Base shear VB=AhW=0.416  50661 = 2107.5 kN
Design lateral load and shear force at various floor levels
Wi h i2
Design lateral, force at floor i, Qi  VB n
W h
j 1
j
2
j
The calculation of design lateral forces at each floor level is shown in Table below
Table: Lateral loads and shear forces at different floors levels
w i h i2 w i h i2
Mass No. Wi (kN) (hi (m) Qi (kN) Vi = (kN)
(kN/m 2 )  Wi h i2
P a g e 138 | 168
139
1 3519 30.0 3167100 0.1907 402.0 402.0

2 5238 27.0 3818502 0.2299 484.6 886.6
3 5238 24.0 3017088 0.1817 382.9 1269.5
4 5238 21.0 2309958 0.1397 293.3 1562.8
5 5238 18.0 1697112 0.1022 215.5 1778.3
6 5238 15.0 1178550 0.0709 149.5 1927.3
7 5238 12.0 754277 0.0454 95.7 2023.5
8 5238 9.0 424278 0.0255 54.0 2077.5
9 5238 6.0 188568 0.0114 24.0 2101.5
10 5238 3.0 47142 0.0028 6.0 2107.5
 Wi h i2 = 16602570
Fig: Design seismic forces

Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete Buildings (Refer code IS 13920 for figure and
diagram clarity)
Introduction
One of the most important property which an earthquake resistant structure must have is ductility.
A ductile material is the one which can undergo large elongations (strains) while resisting loads.
When applied to reinforced concrete members and structures, ductility means the ability to sustain
significant inelastic deformations before collapse. a brittle material fails suddenly while ductile
material gives sufficient warning before collapse thus saving many lives. It is very important to
incorporate ductility into the structures to make them earthquake resistant. To have sufficient
ductility, the designer should pay attention to detailing of reinforcement. Sufficient amount of
ductility can be ensured by following simple design details.
P a g e 139 | 168
140
Provision for ductile detailing in the members of reinforced concrete buildings are given in IS:
13920: 1993 titled "Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete Structures, Subjected to Seismic
Forces". These provisions are for the anchorage, splices, bar cut offs and joint details etc. It is
observed in past earthquakes that the problems in structural detailing may also be one of the cause
of damage. Thus, this chapter focuses on the provisions of ductile detailing for RC buildings and
important clauses of IS 13920: 1993 to understand the importance of ductility of reinforced
concrete structures subjected to seismic forces.
Codal Provision of IS 13920: 1993
General Specifications (Clause 5.0)
 The design and construction of reinforced concrete buildings shall be governed by IS:
456: 2000 except as modified by this code.
 For all buildings which are more than 3 storeys in height, the minimum grade of
concrete shall be M 20.
 Steel reinforcement of grade Fe 415 or less shall be used. Strong steel is not preferred
in earthquake prone region because low strength steel are more ductile, show long yield
and greater breaking strain. Mild steel should be used as main reinforcement in those
structural elements where earthquake damage is expected, such as beams. Higher
strength steel is good for other structural elements where possibility of damage is loss
under earthquake loads.
Flexural Members (Clause 6.0)
The beams and slabs are flexural members which are designed to resist flexure (bending). The
cracking pattern of a beam is shown in Fig. 6.1. The vertical cracks at the centre are the bending
or flexure cracks. The cracks at the end are diagonal tensions cracks caused due to shear.
Reinforcement is provided to avoid all types of cracking. The various provisions of reinforcement
and detailing for beams are as follows:
 The flexural members are subjected to very little axial stresses. The factored axial stress
on these members under earthquake loading shall not exceed 0.1 fck where fck is the
characteristic compressive strength of concrete.
 The member should have width to depth ratio of more than 0.3.
 The width of the member shall not be less than 200mm.
 The depth of the member shall not be more than one fourth of the clear span.
P a g e 140 | 168
141
Longitudinal Reinforcement
Longitudinal bars are provided in the beams to resist bending cracks. In frames, both top and
bottom faces of the beam (at the ends) are subjected to tension, thus steel bars are required on both
faces at the ends and on the bottom face at the middle portion of beam. Figure 6.2 shows the critical
sections in a beam of a frame where tension may develop during earthquake and steel
reinforcement is required.
P a g e 141 | 168
142
The codal recommendations for longitudinal reinforcement in a beam are

 At least two bars go through the full length of the beam at the top as well as the bottom
of the beam.
 At the ends of the beam, the amount of steel provided at the bottom is at least half of
that at top.
 The steel provided at each of the top and bottom face of the member at any section shall
be equal to one fourth of the maximum negative moment steel provided at the ends of
the beam. Figure 6.3(a) shows the general arrangement of longitudinal bars in a beam.
P a g e 142 | 168
143
 Steel reinforcement bars are available in lengths of 12.14 m, thus, it is necessary to

overlap bars. If longer bars are required, such laps of then longitudinal bars should be
made away from the column face.
 The bars should not be overlapped at the locations where the beam is subjected to
greater moments (for example: middle length of beam).
 The lap length should not be less than the bar development length in tension.
 At the overlapping lengths, vertical stirrups should be provided over all the overlapping
(spliced length and at a closer spacing) zone.
 Not more than 50% of the bars shall be spliced at any section.
P a g e 143 | 168
144
Transverse Reinforcement - Stirrups

Stirrups is RC beam has following functions:
a) They carry the vertical shear force and hence resist diagonal shear cracks.
b) They prevent the concrete from bulging outwards.
c) They prevent the buckling of the longitudinal bars.
IS 13920: 1993 gives following recommendations related to stirrups in reinforced concrete
beams (Clause 6.3 of code)
a) The diameter of stirrups must be at least 6 mm. In beams having clear span more
than 5m. The diameter of stirrups must be at least 8 mm.
b) Both ends of the vertical stirrups should be bent into a 135 0 hook and extended
sufficiently beyond it to prevent opening of the hook as shown in Fig. 6.5.
P a g e 144 | 168
145
c) The maximum spacing of stirrups should not exceed half the depth of beam.
d) The contribution of bent up bars and inclined stirrups to shear resistance should not
be considered.
e) The spacing of stirrups over a length of 2d at either end of a beam should not
exceed.
i) d/4
ii) 8 times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar but in no case less than
100mm.
f) The first stirrup should be at a distance not greater than 50 mm from joint face.
Columns and Frame Members Subjected to Axial Load and Bending (Clause 7.0)
P a g e 145 | 168
146
Columns are the vertical compression. Members which are subjected to axial load and bending.
They contain two types of reinforcement
a) Longitudinal bars
b) Transverse reinforcement
The earthquake load can cause tension on both faces of columns in frames because of their
reversible nature as shown in Figure.
The codal provisions applicable to columns and to frame members which have a factored
axial stress >0.1 fck under the effect of earthquake load are given below-
 The minimum dimension of the member should not be less than 200 mm. In frames,
which have beams with center to center span exceeding 5m or columns of unsupported
length exceeding 4m., the shortest dimension of the column should not be less than
300mm.
 The ratio of the cross-sectional dimensions (shortest/other dimension) should not be
less than 0.4.
Longitudinal Reinforcement of Columns (Clause 7.2)
In the case of RC columns, it is very common practice to lap columns bars. The lap length
depends on types of reinforcement and concrete.
 Lap length should be provided ONLY in the middle half of the column and not near its top
or bottom ends.
 Only half the vertical bars in the column are to be lapped at a time in any storey.
 When laps are provided ties must be provided over the entire lap length at spacing not
exceeding 150 mm centre to centre.
 The ductile detailing of a column with spliced bars is shown in Fig. 6.8.
Transverse Reinforcement of Columns
Transverse reinforcement of lateral lies in columns also serve three purposes:
a) They carry the horizontal shear forces induced by the earthquake. Thus prevent
diagonal cracking.
b) They hold together the vertical bars and keep them in place.
c) They prevent buckling of the vertical bars.
The following are the codal provision for lateral ties of a column (Clause 7.3)
 Transverse reinforcement for circular columns should be spiral or circular.
 For rectangular columns, lateral ties is a closed stirrup having a 1350 hook with
appropriate extension of 10 times bar diameter but not less than 75mm as shown in
figure
 The parallel legs of ties should not be more than 300 mm apart. If it is more than 300
mm then a cross tie or a pair of over lapping ties are required as shown in Figure.
 The spacing of ties should not exceed half the least lateral dimension except where
special confining reinforcement is provided.
P a g e 146 | 168
147
P a g e 147 | 168
148
Special Confining Reinforcement (Clause 7.4)

 Closely spaced ties must be provided at the ends of the column over a length not less
than (a) larger dimension of the column, (b) one sixth the column height (c) 450mm.
P a g e 148 | 168
149
 Over the distance specified above (ends of the column), the vertical spacing of the ties
in the column should not exceed D/4 (D is the smallest dimension). This spacing should
not be less than 75 mm and not greater than 100mm.
 When a column goes into a footing or mat, the special confining reinforcement should
extend at least 300mm into the footing or mat as shown in Figure
 Special confining reinforcement should be provided over the full length of column
which has lot of stiffness variation. It may be because of presence of bracing, a
mezzanine floor or a R.C.C. wall extending over a part of column height as already
explained in article 5.4 (b). Short column effect.
P a g e 149 | 168
150
 The spacing of ties used as special confining reinforcement should not be more than ¼
of minimum member dimension but not less than 75mm or more than 100mm.
 The area of bar forming circular ties (spiral) to be used as special confining
reinforcement shall not be less than
f ck  A g 
Ash  0.09SD k   1.0
f y  Ak 
Where Ash = Area of bar
S = Pitch of spiral
Dk = Diameter of core, measured to the outside of spiral
Fck = Characteristic compressive strength of concrete
Fy = Yield stress of steel ties
Ag = Gross X-area of the column
 2
Ak = Area of concrete core = Dk
4
 The area of X-section, Ash of the bar forming rectangular ties, as special confining
reinforcement shall not be less than
f ck  Ag 
Ash  0.18Sh  A  1.0
fy  k 
Where h = Longer dimension of rectangular core measured upto outside of ties and)
300mm.
Ak = Area of core in the rectangular ties.
Beam Column Joint (Clause 8.0)
In RC buildings, portions of columns that are common to beams are called beam column joints. It
is seen that these joints are severely damaged in earthquake loads. The various codal provisions
for Beam detailing column joints are as follows:
P a g e 150 | 168
151
 The special confining reinforcement as required at the end of the column should be
provided through the joint as shown in Fig. 6.12. The spacing of ties should not exceed
150mm.
 It is preferred to have large column size for Seismic zone III, IV and V. The column
should be at least 300 mm in each direction, when they support beams that are longer
than 5 m or columns are taller than 4m.
 In exterior joints where beams ends at columns longitudinal beam bars need to be
anchored into the column to ensure proper gripping. The length of anchorage should
be development length in tension plus ten times the bar diameter.
 In an interior joint the beam bars (both top and bottom) should go through the joint
without any cut or bent in the joint region.
P a g e 151 | 168
152
Shear Walls
Reinforced Concrete (RC) buildings have vertical plate like RC walls called shear walls, in
addition to slabs, beams and columns. These are like wide beams which are vertically placed.
There walls start at foundation level and are continuous throughout the building height. Their
thickness can be as low as 150mm or as high as 400mm in high rise buildings. There are provided
in multi-storeyed buildings. Properly designed and detailed RC buildings with shear walls have
shown very good performance in past earthquakes. Figure shows a reinforced concrete building
with shear walls. The provisions for design of shear walls are given IS 13920: 1993 (clause 9.0).
Some of them are explained below:
 Shear walls should be provided along both length and width.
 Door or window openings may be provided in shear wall but they should be small in
size and symmetrically located.
 Shear walls in buildings must be symmetrically placed.
 Steel bars should be provided in vertical and horizontal grids in shear walls.
 Minimum area of reinforcing steel should be 0.0025 times the X-sectional area along
each horizontal and vertical direction. The vertical reinforcement should be distributed
uniformly across the wall cross section.
P a g e 152 | 168
153
Example
Let us consider a one bay four-storey shear building. Taking the masses and columns stiffness of
each storey as shown. The summed shear stiffness (2 ki) of columns.
m4=4
k=3 k=3
m3=4
k=3 k=3
m2=8
k=4 k=4
m1=8
k=5 k=5
Stiffness and Mass matrix for the plane frame

 18  8 0 0 8 0 0 0
 8 14  6 0  0 8 0 0
[K ]    , [M]  
 0  6 12  6 0 0 4 0
   
0 0 6 6  0 0 0 4
Eigen-values of [K - 2M], clause: 7.8.4.1
(18  2 8) 8 0 0 
 
 8 (14   8)
2
6 0 
[K   M] 
2
 0 6 (12  2 4) 6 
 
 0 0 6 (6  2 4
(14  2 8 6 0 
(11)  
[K   M]  (1) (18   8)   6
2 2
(12   4)
2
6 +
 0 6 (6  2 4)

 8 6 0 
(1) (1 2 ) 
(8)  0 (12   4)
2
 6 
 0 6 (6  2 4)
[K-2 M]= 8-8.56+22.06254-4-182 +2.8125

The determinant is a quadratic equation in 2. There are four values of 2 for which the
determinant [K - 2M] is zero, they are:
12  0.2028, 22  1.1280, 32  2.8385, 24  4.3306
P a g e 153 | 168
154
Therefore, the structure has four Eigen-values, which are the natural frequencies of the
system.
Eigen-vectors of [K - 2 M], clause: 7.8.4.1

After obtaining the Eigen-values of the system, the next step is to calculate the Eigen-vectors
(mode shape) corresponding to each Eigen-value. The characteristics equation governs the
undamped free vibration of the MDOF system. There are no external forces acting on the system.
The displacement of the structure storey level. The initial displacement is perfectly arbitrary.
Therefore, one can determine the relative rather than absolute displacements (Bhatt, 2002). In this
example Eigen-vectors corresponding to Eigen-values are obtained from the cofactors of any row
of the characteristics equation.
The shape of each mode of free vibration is unique but the amplitude of the mode shape is
undefined. The mode shape is usually normalized such that the largest term in the vector is 1.0 or
the sum of the squares of the terms in the vector is 1.0 or the vectors are normalized so the
generalized mass M* is 1.0 (Carr, 1994), i.e.
M*  {i }T [M]{i ]  1.0
(18  2 8) 8 0 0 
 
 8 (14   8)
2
6 0 
[K   M] 
2
 0 6 (12  2 4) 6 
 
 0 0 6 (6  2 4)
2=0.2028, 1.1280, 2.8385 and 4.3306
Eigen-vector for 2=0.20285
16.3776 8 0 0 
 8 12.3776 6 0 
[K   M] 
2 
 0 6 11.1888 6 
 
 0 0 6 5.1888
Assume, x1 = 1.0, then
Row 1 gives: 16.3776 – 8x2=0, x2=2.0472
Row 2 gives: -8x1 + 12.3776x2 – 6x3=0, x3=2.8899
Row 3 gives: -6x2+11.1888x3-6x4=0, x4=3.3418
P a g e 154 | 168
155
 1 .0 
2.0472
X 
2.8899
 
3.3418
8 0 0 0  1.0 
0 8 0 0 2.0472
X T MX  [1.0 2.0472 2.8899 3.3418]   119.5983
0 0 4 0 2.8899
  
0 0 0 4 3.3418
 1.0  0.0914
2.0472 0.1872
1   
X
119.5983 2.8899 0.2643
   
3.3418 0.3056
Eigen-vector for 2 = 1.1280
8.9760 8 0 0 
 8 6 0 
 
K  2 M  
 0
4.9760
6 7.4880 6 
 
 0 0 6 1.4880
Row 1 gives: 8.9760-8 x2=0, x2=-0.4028
Row 2 gives: -8x1+4.9760x2-6x3=-0.4028
Row 3 gives: -6x2+7.488 x3-6x4=0, x4= -1.6242
 1.0 
 1.1220 
X 
 0.4028
 
  1.6242 
8 0 0 0  1.0 
0 8 0 0  1.1220 
X T M X  [1.0 1.1220 - 0.4028 - 1.6242]  29.2722
0 0 4 0  0.4028
  
0 0 0 4   1.6242 
 1.0   0.1848 
 1.1220   0.2074 
1   
X
29.2722  0.4028  0.0744
   
  1.6242   0.3002
Eigen-vector for 2 = 2.8385
P a g e 155 | 168
156
 4.7080 8 0 0 
 8  8.7080 6 
K M 
2 

 0 6 0.6460
0
6 

 
 0 0 6  5.3540
Row 1 gives: -4.7080-8x2=0, x2=-0.5885
Row 2 gives: -8x1-8.7080x2-6x3=0, x3=-0.4792
Row 3 gives: -6x2-0.6460x3-6x4=0, x4=0.5370
 1.0 
 0.5885
X 
 0.4792
 
 0.5370 
8 0 0 0  1.0 
0 8 0 0  0.5885
X T MX  [1.0  0.5885  0.4792 0.5370]  12.8429
0 0 4 0  0.4792
  
0 0 0 4  0.5370 
 1.0   0.2790 
 0.5885 - 0.1642
1   
X
12.8429  0.4792 - 0.1337
  
 0.5370   0.1498 
Eigen-vector for 2=4.3306
 16.6448 8  0 
 8  20.6448 6 0 
[K   M] 
2  
 0 6  5.3224 6 
 
 0 0 6  11.3234
Row 1 gives: 16.6448 – 8 x2 = 0, x2= -2.0806
Row 2 gives: 8 x1 – 20.6448 x2 – 6 x3 = 0. x3=5.8256
Row 3 gives: -6 x2 – 5.3224 x3 – 6 x4 = 0, x4 = -3.0871
 1.0 
 2.0806
X 
 5.8256 
 
  3.0871
P a g e 156 | 168
157
8 0 0 0  1.0 
0 8 0 0  2.0806
X MX  [1.0  2.0806 5.8256 - 3.0871] 
T
 216.501
0 0 4 0  5.8256 
  
0 0 0 4   3.0871
 1.0   0.0680 
 2.0806  0.1414
1   
X
216.501  5.8256   0.3959 
   
  3.0871  0.2098
Determination of model participation factors, clause: 7.8.4.5 (b)

Using the eigen-vectors determined for the four-storey shear frame, modal participation factors
and effective masses for all the four modes can be calculated as,
8 0 0 0
0 8 0 0
[M]   , M Total  8  8  4  4  24
0 0 4 0
 
0 0 0 4
P a g e 157 | 168
158
0.0914  0.1848   0.2790   0.0680 
0.1872  0.2074   0.1642  0.1414
i    ,    ,    ,   
0.2643 2  0.0744 3  0.1337 4  0.3959 
       
0.3056  0.3002  0.1498   0.2098
The modal participation factor (pk) of mode k is,
n
W i ik
Pk  n
i 1
 W (
i 1
i ik )2
W i i 1
W111  W2 21  W331  W4 41 
P1  i 1

4
 Wi (i i )2
W (
1 11 ) 2  W2 ( 21) 2  W3 ( 31) 2  W4 ( 41) 2 
i 1
8  0.0914  8  0.1872  4  0.2643  4  0.3056

=  4.5084
8  (.0914) 2  8  (.1872) 2  4  (.2643) 2  4  (.3056) 2
4
W i i2
W112  W2 22  W332  W4 42 
P2  i 1
  1.6383
4
 W ( i i2 ) 2 W (
1 12 ) 2  W2 ( 22 ) 2  W3 ( 32 ) 2  W4 ( 42 ) 2 
i 1
Similarly, P3 = -0.9831, P4 = 0.1569

Determination of modal mass, clause : 7.8.4.5 (a)
The modal mass (Mk) of mode k is given by.
2
n 
 Wi  ik 
M k   in1 
 
g  Wi ( ik ) 2 
 i 1 
Where,
g = Acceleration due to gravity,
ik = Mode shape coefficient at floor i in mode k, and
Wi = Seismic weight of floors i,
2
 4 
 Wi  i1  [9.81(8(0.0914 )  (8(0.1872 )  4(0.2643 )  4(0.3056 ))]2
M1   i 1  
 4 2 9.81[9.81(8(0.0914 ) 2  8(0.1872 ) 2  4(0.2643 ) 2  4(0.3056 ) 2 )]
g  Wi ( i1 ) 
 i 1 
P a g e 158 | 168
159
= 20.3249
2
4 
 Wi  i 2 
M 2  4i 1   2.6841,
 2
 Wi ( i 2 ) 
 i 1 
Similarly, M3 = 0.9664, M4 = 0.0246.
Model Contributions of Various Modes, Clause: 7.8.4.2
M1 20.3249
For mode 1,   0.8468  84.68%
M 24
M 2 2.6841
For mode 2,   0.1120  11.20%
M 24
M3 0.9664
For mode 3,   0.0402  4.02%
M 24
M 4 0.0246
For mode 4,   0.0010  0.10%
M 24
The effective mass for all modes considered will be 84.68+11.20+4.02+0.1-100%.
It is clear from the values of the participation factors and effective mass, their value decreases as
the mode number increases. The practical significance of this fact is that, in general it is not
necessary to include all the modes in a calculation. Only a few significant modes need to be
included in order to obtain reasonable results for practical problems. Therefore, the Clause 7.8.4.2
of IS 1893 (Part I) : 2002 states that "The number of modes to be used in the analysis should be
such that the sum total of modal masses of all modes considered is at least 90% of the total seismic
mass and missing mass correction beyond 33 Hz are to be considered, modal combination shall be
carried out only for modes upto 33 Hz".
Design lateral force at each floor in each mode, clause: 7.8.4.5 (c)
The design lateral force (Qik) at floor i in mode k is given by,
Qik = AkikPkWi
Where Ak is design horizontal acceleration spectrum value as per 6.4.2 using the natural period of
vibration (Tk) of mode k.
The design horizontal seismic coefficient Ak for various modes are worked out using
Z I Sa
Ah  .
2R g
Design Lateral Force in Each Mode
A1 P1 11 W1 
A P  W1 
 1 1 21
Qil  (A1P1 il Wi ) Qil  ..........  kN

 
A1 P1 ..1 Wn 1 
A1 P1  n1 Wn 1 
P a g e 159 | 168
160
Similarly, Qi2, Qi3, Qi4 … Qin.
Storey shear forces in each mode, clause 7.8.4.5 (d)
The peak force (Vik) acting in storey i in mode k is given by,
n
Vik  Q
j  i 1
ik
The storey shear force for the first mode is,

 V11  (Q11  Q 21  Q..1  Q n1 )
 V   (Q  Q 
( n 1)1  Q n1 ) 
n
Vil   Qil   21 
  21
kN
j  i 1 V( n 1)1  (Q( n 1)1  Q n1 ) 
   
 Vn1   ( Q n1 ) 
 V12  V13   V14 
V   V3 V 
Similarly, Vi 2   22 
, Vi 3    , Vi 4   24 
V32   V3 V34 
     
V42   V3 V44 
Storey shear force due to all modes considered, clause 7.8.4.5 (e)
The peak storey shear force (Vi) in storey i due to all modes considered is obtained by combining
those due to each mode in accordance with modal combination as per clause 7.8.4.4. The
combinations are usually achieved by using statistical methods.
The design values for the total base shear are obtained by combining the corresponding modal
responses. In general these modal maximum values will not occur simultaneously. To overcome
this difficulty, it is necessary to use an approximate method.
An upper limit for the maximum response may be obtained by Sum of the Absolute values (ABS)
of the maximum modal contributions. This is very conservative and is very seldom used except in
some codes for say two or three modes for very short period structures. If the system does not have
closely spaced modes, another estimate of the maximum response, which is widely accepted and
which usually provides a reasonable estimate is the Square Root of the Sum of Squares (SRSS).
Application of the SRSS method for combining modal responses generally provides an acceptable
estimation of the total maximum response. However, when some of the modes are closely spaced
i.e. the difference between two natural frequencies is within 10% of the smallest of the two
frequencies, the use of the SRSS method may either grossly underestimate or overestimate the
maximum response. A formulation known as the Complete Quadratic Combination (CQC), based
on the theory of random vibration and is also considered as an extension of the SRSS method. For
an undamped structure CQC estimate is identical to the SRSS estimate.
Maximum Absolute Response (ABS), Clause 7.8.4.4 (B)
The Maximum Absolute Response (ABS) for any system response quantity is obtained by
assuming that the maximum response in each mode occurs at the same instant of time. Thus the
maximum value of the response quantity is the sum of the maximum absolute value of the response
associated with each mode. Therefore using ABS, maximum storey shear for all modes shall be
obtained as
P a g e 160 | 168
161
r
*    c
e
where the summation is for the closely-spaced modes only. The peak response quantity due to the
 
closely spaced modes * is then combined with those of the remaining well-separated modes by
the method of SRSS.
Square Root of Sum of Squares (SRSS), Clause 7.8.4.4 (a)
A more reasonable method of combining modal maxima for two-dimensional structural system
exhibiting well-separated vibration frequencies is the square-root-of-the squares (SRSS). The peak
response quantity () due to all modes considered shall be obtained as,
r
  (
k 1
k )2
where k is the absolute value of quantity in mode 'k', and r is the numbers of modes being
considered.
Using the above method, the storey shears are as follows,
V1 = [V11)2 + (V12)2 + … (V1(n-1))2 + (V1n)2]1/2 kN
V2 = [V21)2 + (V22)2 + … (V2(n-2))2 + (V2n)2]1/2 kN
V3 = [V31)2 + (V32)2 + … (V3(n-1))2 + (V3n)2]1/2 kN
Vn = [Vn1)2 + (Vn2)2 + … (Vn(n-1))2 + (Vnn)2]1/2 kN
Complete Quadratic Combination (CQC), Clause 7.8.4.4
For three-dimensional structural systems exhibiting closely spaced modes, the peak response
quantities shall be combined as per Complete Quadratic Combination (CQC) method
r r
   P 
i 1 j 1
1 ij j
Where,
r = Number of modes being considered,
i = Response quantity in mode i (including sign),
j = Response quantity in mode j (including sign),
Pij = Cross modal coefficient,
8 2 (1  ij )1.5
Pij =
(1  ij2 ) 2  4 2ij (1  ij ) 2
Where,
 = Modal damping ratio (in fraction),
ij = Frequency ratio j/i,
i = Circular frequency in ith mode, and
j = Circular frequency in jth mode.
P a g e 161 | 168
162
Therefore all the frequency ratios and cross modal components can be represented in matrix form
as shown below,
 111 211 ... x 111 n 11 
 11 12 13 14  
 112 212 n 112 n 12 
24  
...
22 23
ij   21   ... 
31 32 33 34   
   1 21n 1 ... n 11n 1 n 1n 1 
 41 42 43 44   1 n 1
 11n 21n ... 31n n 1n 
 P11 P12 P13 P14 

P P22 P23 P24 
Pij   21
P31 P32 P33 P34 
 
 P41 P42 P43 P44 
r r
The above quadratic combination i.e.     P 
i 1 j 1
i ij j can also be written in matrix form
as,
 P11 P12 P13 P14   1 
P P22 P23 P24   2 
1 23 4   21
P31 P32 P33 P34   3 
  
 P41 P42 P43 P44   4 
Here the terms i and j represent the response of different modes of a certain storey level. Using
the matrix notation the storey shears are worked out
V1, V2, V3 … Vn respectively.
Lateral forces at each storey due to all modes, clause 7.8.4.5 (f)
The design lateral forces Froof and Fi, at roof and at ith floor, are calculated as,
Froof = Vroof, and Fi = Vi – Vi+1
F4 = V4 kN,
F3 = (V3 – V4) kN
F2 = (V2 – V3) kN
F1 = (V1 – V2) kN
Example
Consider a mass and stiffness matrix for the undamped free vibration of the system as below.
Determine the lateral force at each storey.
 1800  800 0 0  8 0 0 0
 800 1400  600 0  0 8 0 0
K    kN / m, [M]   t,
 0  600 1200  600 0 0 4 0
   
 0 0  600 600  0 0 0 4
P a g e 162 | 168
163
Natural frequencies
1=4.5036, 2=10.6209, 3=16.8479 and 4=20.8101
Eigen-vectors
0.914   0.1848  0.2790 0.0680 
0.1872  0.2073 0.1642  - 0.1414
1    ,    ,    ,   
0.2642 2 0.0744  3 0.1337  4 0.3959 
       
0.3056 0.3002   0.1498 - 0.2098
Time Periods
1.3951 0 0 0 
 0 0.5916 0 0 
T s
 0 0 0.3729 0 
 
 0 0 0 0.3019
Modal Participation Factors
P1 = 4.5084, P2 = -1.6383, P3 = -0.9831, P4 = 0.1569
Modal Mass
M1 = 20.3249, M2 = 2.6841, M3 = 0.9664, M4 = 0.0246
Design Lateral Force at Earth Floor in Each Mode
The design lateral force (Qik) at floor i in mode k is given by,
Qik=AkikPkWi
Sa1
For T1  1.3951   0.7169, From Figure 2 of IS1893 (Part 1) : 2002
g
Sa2
g
Sa3
g
Sa4
g
Z 1 Sa
The design horizontal seismic coefficient Ah for various modes are worked out using Ah=
2R 8
Z I Sa1 0.24 1
, A1   0.7169  0.0172
2R g 2 5
Z I Sa1 0.24 1
A2   1.6903  0.0405
2R g 2 5
Similarly,
A3 = 0.060,
P a g e 163 | 168
164
A4 = 0.060.
Design Lateral Force
[Qi1]=(A1 P1 i1 Wi]
A1 P1 11 W1   ((90.172)(4.5084)(0.0914)(8  9.81))  (0.5567)
A P1  21 W2   ((0.172)(4.5084)(0.1872)(8  9.81))  (0.1396) 
[Qi1 ]   1   kN
A1 P1  31 W3  ((0.0172)(4.5084)(0.2646)(4  9.81)) (0.8043) 
     
A1 P1  41 W4  ((0.0172)(4.5084)(0.3056)(4  9.81)) (0.9301) 
A 2 P2 12 W1  ((0.0405) * 1.6383)(0.1848)(8  9.81)) (0.9623) 

A P2  22 W2   ((0.0405)(1.6383)(0.2073)(8  9.81))  (1.0794) 
[Q i 2 ]   2   kN
A 2 P2  32 W3   ((0.045)(1.6383)(0.0744)(4  9.81))  (0.1930)
     
A 2 P2  42 W4   ((0.0405)(1.6383)(0.3002)(4  9.81))  (0.7816) 
A 3 P3 13 W1  ((0.060)(0.9831)(0.2790)(8  9.81))  (1.2915) 

A P3  23 W2   ((0.060)(0.9831)(0.1642)(8  9.81))  (0.7601) 
[Q i 3 ]   3    kN
A 3 P3  33 W3   ((0.060)(0.9831)(0.1337)(4  9.81))  (0.3095)
     
A 3 P3  43 W4  ((0.060)(0.9831)(0.1498)(4  9.81)) (0.3467) 
A 4 P4 11 W1   ((0.060)(0.1569)(0.0680)(8  9.81))  (0.502) 

A P4  21 W2  ((0.060)(0.1569)(0.1414)(8  9.81))  (0.8433) 
[Q i 4 ]   4   kN
A 4 P4  31 W3   ((0.060)(0.1569)(0.3959)(4  9.81))  (0.1462) 
     
A 4 P4  41 W4  ((0.060)(0.1569)(0.2098)(4  9.81)) (0.0775)
Storey Shear Forces in Each Mode
n
The peak shear force will be obtained by Vik  Q
j  i 1
ik
The storey shear forces for the first mode is,

 V11  (Q11  Q 21  Q31  Q41) 3.4306 
n  V   (Q  Q  Q )  
2.8739
[Vil ]   Qil   21 
  21 31 41    kN
j  i 1 V31   (Q31  Q 41)  1.7344 
     
V41  (Q41)  0.9301
Similarly,
V12  2.6303 V13  0.5686  V14   0.7244
V    V    V  
 22  1.6680   23    0.7229  24    0.7746
[Vi 2 ]   , [V ]   ,[V ]  
V32  0.5886 i3 V33  0.0372  i4 V34  0.0687 
           
V42  0.7816 V43  0.3467  V44   0.0775
P a g e 164 | 168
165
Storey Shear Forces due to All Modes Considered
Maximum Absolute Response (ABS)
V1= [|V11| + |V12| + |V13| + |V14|] = [|3.4307| + |2.6303| + |0.5686| + |-0.7244|] = 7.3539 kN
V2= [|V21| + |V22| + |V23| + |V24|] = [|2.8740| + |1.6680| + |-0.7229| + |-0.7746|] = 6.0394 kN
V3= [|V31| + |V32| + |V33| + |V34|] = [|1.7344| + |0.5886| + |0.0372| + |0.0687|] = 2.4289 kN
V4= [|V41| + |V42| + |V43| + |V44|] = [|0.9301| + |0.7816| + |0.3467| + |-0.0775|] = 2.1359 kN
Square Root of Sum of Squares (SRSS)
V1 = [(V11)2 + (V12)2 + (V13)2 + (V14)2]½
= [(3.4306)2 + (2.6303)2 + (0.5686)2 + (-0.7244)2]½ = 4.4199 kN
V2 = [(V21)2 + (V22)2 + (V23)2 + (V24)2] ½
= [(2.8739)2 + (1.668)2 + (-0.7229)2 + (-0.7746)2]½ = 3.4877 kN
V3 = [(V31)2 + (V32)2 + (V33)2 + (V44)2] ½
= [(1.7344)2 + (0.5886)2 + (0.0372)2 + (0.0687)2]½ = 1.8332 kN
V4 = [(V41)2 + (V42)2 + (V43)2 + (V44)2]½
= [(0.9301)2 + (0.7816)2 + (0.3467)2 + (-0.0775)2]½ = 1.2657 kN
Complete Quadratic Combination (CQC)
r r
   P 
i 1 j 1
i ij j
Where
r, Number of modes being considered
Pij, Cross modal coefficient
i, Response quantity in mode i (including sign)
j, Response quantity in mode j (including sign)
8 2 (1  ij )1ij.5
Pij 
(1  ij2 ) 2  4 2ij (1  ij ) 2
Where
, Model damping ratio (in fraction)
ij, Frequency ratio, j/i
i, Circular frequency in ith mode, and
j, Circular frequency in jth mode
Therefore all the frequency ratios and cross modal components can be represented in matrix
form shown below,
P a g e 165 | 168
166
11 12 13 14   1 / 1 2 / 1 3 / 1 4 / 1 

 22 23 24  1 / 2 2 / 2 3 / 2 4 / 2 
ij   21 
31 32 33 34  1 / 3 2 / 3 3 / 3 4 / 3 
   
41 42 43 44  1 / 4 2 / 4 3 / 4 4 / 4 
 1 2.358 3.7409 4.6207

0.4240 1 1.5863 1.9593 
= 
0.2673 0.6303 1 1.2351 
 
0.2164 0.5103 0.8096 1 
8  (0.05) 2  (1  1)  11.5
P11  1
(1  12 ) 2  4  (0.05) 2  1  (1  1) 2
8  (0.05)2  (1  2.358)  2.3581.5

P12   0.0115
(1  2.3582 ) 2  4  (0.05)2  2.358  (1  2.358) 2
Therefore Pij calculated for all i j and represented as given below
 P11 P12 P13 P14   1 0.0115 0.004 0.0027
P P P23  
P24  0.0115 1 0.0430 0.0197
Pij   21 22  
 P31 P32 P33 P34   0.004 0.0430 1 0.1816
   
 P41 P42 P43 P44  0.0027 0.0197 0.1816 1 
r r
The above quadratic combination i.e.     P 
i 1 i 1
i ij j can also be written as
4 4
  P 
i 1 j 1
i ij j = 1P111 + 1P122 + 1P133 + 1P144+ 2P211+1P222+
1P233+1P244+ 1P311+1P322+1P333+1P344+
1P411+ 1P422+ 1P433+1P444
In matrix form, it can be represented as
 P11 P12 P13 P14  1 
P P22 P23 P24   2 
[1 2 3 4 ] 21
P31 P32 P33 P34   3 
  
P41 P42 P43 P44   4 
Here the terms i or j represent the response of different modes of a certain storey level.
Using the matrix notation the storey shears are worked out as follows:
P a g e 166 | 168
167
 1 0.0115 0.004 0.0027 3.4307 

0.0115 1 0.0430 0.0197 2.6303 
V1  [3.4307 2.6303 0.5686 - 0.7244]
 0.004 0.0430 1 0.1816 0.5686 
  
0.0027 0.0197 0.1816 1  - 0.7244
= [4.4328]
 1 0.0115 0.004 0.0027 2.8740 

0.0115 1 0.0430 0.0197 1.6680 
V2  [2.8740 1.6680 - 0.7229 - 0.7746]
 0.004 0.0430 1 0.1816 - 0.7229
  
0.0027 0.0197 0.1816 1  - 0.7246
= [3.5064]
 1 0.0115 0.004 0.0027 1.7344 

0.0115 1 0.0430 0.0197 0.5886 
V3  [1.7344 0.5886 0.0372 0.0687] 
 0.004 0.0430 1 0.1816 0.0372 
  
0.0027 0.0197 0.1816 1  0.06874
= [1.8411]
 1 0.0115 0.004 0.0027 0.9301 

0.0115 1 0.0430 0.0197 0.7816 
V4  [0.9301 0.7816 0.3467 - 0.0775]
 0.004 0.0430 1 0.1816 0.3467 
  
0.0027 0.0197 0.1816 1  - 0.0775
= [1.2776]
Lateral Forces at Each Storey due to All Modes Considered
Maximum Absolute Response (ABS)
Froof = F4 = V4 = 2.1359 kN
F3 = V3 – V4 = 2.4289 – 2.1359 = 0.2930 kN
F2 = V2 – V3 = 6.0394 – 2.4289 = 3.6105 kN
F1 = V1 – V2 = 7.3539 – 7.3539 – 6.0394 = 1.3145 kN
Square Root of Sum of Squares (SRSS)
Froof = F4 = V4 = 1.2657
F3 = V3 – V4 = 1.8332 – 1.2657 = 0.5674 kN
F2 = V2 – V3 = 3.4877 – 1.8332 = 1.6544 kN
F1 = V1 – V2 = 4.4199 – 3.4877 = 0.9322 kN
Complete Quadratic Combination (CQC)
Froof = F4 = V4 = 1.2776 kN
P a g e 167 | 168
168
F3 = V3 – V4 = 1.8411 – 1.2776 = 0.5635 kN
F2 = V2 – V3 = 3.5064 – 1.8411 = 1.6653 kN
F1 = V1 – V2 = 4.4432 – 3.5064 = 0.9368 kN
Comparison of ABS, SRSS and CQC Results
Method of Modal Combination Base Shear in kN
ABS 7.3539
SRSS 4.4199
CQC 4.4432
Summary
Determination of design lateral forces is the primary requirement of seismic analysis and design
of a structure. The design lateral forces are often carried out by equivalent static lateral force
procedure and dynamic analysis of structures. Dynamic analysis is carried out either by response
spectrum method or by time history method. The aim of this chapter is to present a clause wise
approach for determination of lateral forces as per IS 1893 (Part 1) : 2002 with the help of worked
out examples. Equivalent static and response spectrum method has been used in this chapter for
determining the design lateral forces. Determination of lateral forces from earlier version of IS
1893 has also been worked out to know the impact of change of code. Seismic design philosophy
for earthquake resistant design of structures has also been explained in brief.
P a g e 168 | 168
References
1. Earthquake Resistant Design of structures by: Pankaj Agrawal and Manish Shirkhande (PHI
Publication)
2. Dynamic of structures by Patrick Paultre (Wiley )
3. Earthquake resistant building construction by Neelam Sharma (Katson Books)
4. Earthquake resistant design of structures by S.K Duggal (Oxford Higher)
5. Structural Dynamics theory and computation second edition by Mario Paz (CBS, Publishers and
Distributors)
6. Dynamics of structures by Clough and Penzin
7. Elements of Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures and Tsunami by B.L Gupta and Amit
Gupta (Standard Publishers Distributors)
8. Other related internet sites

EQ Note

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

EQ Note

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A READING MANUAL ON

INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING (BEG 454 CI)

PREPARED BY: ER. SUSHMA ARAYAL BHATTARAI

Figure: General Building Configuration Problems (BIA 1996)

Re-entrant corners Torsion, stress concentrations Separate walls, uniform box,

Fig: Schematic diagram of hypocenter

Fig: Schematic diagram of epicenter

Fig: Earth interior

1) Based on Location: On the basis of location of occurrence of earthquake, they are

a) Inter-plate earthquake: Most of earthquakes, in the world, occur along the

a) Non-Tectonic earthquake: The earthquakes which are caused due to non-

EARTHQUAKES CAUSES, SEVERITY AND FORECASTING

Fig: Types of inter boundaries (Courtesy – IITK)

(a) Unstrained condition

(b) Strained condition

(C) After earthquake

Fig: Elastic Rebound Theory of Rupture

2. Tectonic Plate Theory

Fig: Subduction Process (Courtesy – D.V. Mallick)

Fig: Secondary Body Waves

Fig: Surface Waves (Love Waves)

Fig: Surface waves (Rayleigh waves)

EQUATIONS FOR VELOCITY OF BODY WAVES

0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

Fig: Relative Velocities of Different Waves

MEASUREMENT OF GROUND MOTIONS

Fig: A typical Seismograph System

Fig: Schematic of Early Seismograph

Fig: Type of Faults

Fig: Attenuation source

Fig: Ground Motion Attenuation

Local Soil Condition

Fig: Local Soil Condition

Fig: Flow failure

Fig: Ground motion record from the 1940 El-Centro earthquake

Fig: Displacement responses spectra of El-Centro, 1940 earthquake

Fig: Velocity response spectra of El-Centro, 1940 earthquake

Fig: Acceleration response spectra of El-Centro, 1940 earthquake

INTENSITY – is the severity of the ground motion at any point.

Richter Magnitude Mercalli Intensity

TABLE: Definition of Quantity

TABLE: Classification of damage to buildings

Basic difference between magnitude and intensity

Fig: dynamic analysis as one-degree-of freedom systems

(a) Extentional (b) Bending (c) Shearing (d) Torsional

Fig: Types of Deformations during vibration

Fig: Degree of freedom

Fig: Mass Spring and Damping

Fig: Damped free vibration

Fig: model of SDOF

Fig: Influence of gravity on SDOF equilibrium

Fig. : Rotating vector representing un-damped free vibrations (Argand Diagram)

Fig. Un-damped Free Vibration Response

Solution of Damped Free Vibrations

Substituting the values of equation (3) in equation (2)

Fig: Free vibration response with critical damping

Under damped (c > cc or e< 1)

Case III : Under critically Damped System or Un damped case

S1,2 = -w  2   2

Fig. Free Vibration response of under damped system

Fig: Free vibration response of un-damped system

The damped period of vibration is given by

= e .e .e .e