A Tale of Two Cities A Critical Study

A Tale
Of
Two Cities
M. K. Srivastava
LAKSHMI NARAIN AGARWAL

1. Chaucer to 20th Century : A History 58 Candide
of English Literature 59. The Bluest Eye
2. History and Principles of Literary 60 Pride & Prejudice
Criticism 61 Sons & Lovers
3. Ages, Movements and Literary Forms 62 Tom Jones
n>
4.
5.
6.
Arnold : Selected Poems
Auden W.H. : Selected Poems
Every Man in His Humour
63
64
65
Great Expectations
A Passage to India
The Mayor of Casterbridge
a
r
7. Browning : Selected Poems 66 Lord of the Flies
8. Bacon, Francis : Essays 67 A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man M
9. The Prologue 68 A Tale of Two Cities
The Way of the World •
10.
11. Collins : Selected Poems
69
70
Oliver Twist
Heart of Darkness o
12. Donne, John : Selected Poems 71 Robinson Crusoe
o
13.
14.
15.
Mac Flecknoe
Murder in the Cathedral
The Waste Land and Other Poems
72
73
74
Ivanhoe
Heat and Dust
Don Quixote
a
a
16.
17.
The Family Reunion
Justice
75
76
A Room of One's Own
Robert Frost : Selected Poems
z
18. The Silver Box 77 Walt Whitman : Selected Poems oo
19. She Stoops to Conquer 78 A Farewell to Arms
20. Gray, Thomas : Selected Poems 79 R.W. Emerson : Selected Essays and
21. Hazlitt : Selected Essays Poems
22. Hopkins : Selected Poems 80 Emily Dickinson : Selected Poems
23. The Art of Poetry 80 Death of a Salesman
>
24. Hughes, Ted : Selected Poems 82 All My Sons
25. A Doll's House 83 The Glass Menagerie
26. Keats : Selected Poems 84 Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf ?
27. Essays of Elia 85 Sylvia Plath : Selected Poems
28. The Prince 86 The Zoo Story
29. Doctor Faustus 87 Invisible Man
30. Edward the Second 88 Frankenstein
31. Marvell, Andrew : Selected Poems 89
32.
33.
To His Coy Mistress
Paradise Lost—Book I
90
91
Ulysses
Untouchable
Gitanjali
O
34. Lye i das 92 The Guide
35. Utopia 93 Tughlaq
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
Orwell, George : Selected Essays
Look Back in Anger
The Birthday Party
The Caretaker
The Rape of the Lock
94
95
96
97
98
Hayavadana
Nagamandala
The English Teacher
Godaan
The God of Small Things
2
O
41. An Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot 99 Mukta Dhara
42.
43.
Confessions
Saint Joan
100
101
Silence ! The Court is in Session
The Post Office
O
44.
45.
Candida
Arms and the Man
102
103
Fire on the Mountain
The Man-Eater of Malgudi I H
NH
46. Pygmalion 104 In Custody
47.
48.
49.
The Rivals
The School for Scandal
An Apologie for Poetrie
105
106
107
Gora
The Dark Holds No Terror w
That Long Silence
50. Faerie Queene—Bk. I 108 Samskara
51. Gulliver's Travels 109 Mid-'-1—" r«wU«M
52. Tennyson : Selected Poems 109 Thii CHARLES DICKENS A TA
53. The Duchess of Malfi
54. The White Devil
00119002700016
55. The Importance of Being Earnest
56. Yeats, W.B. : Selected Poems
57. Philip Larkins : Selected Poems
[[ NARAIIVS )]
CHARLES DICKENS
A TALE OF TWO CITIES

Edited with :
General Introduction, Special Introduction, Chapterwise
Detailed Summary, Character Sketches,
Questions and Answers, etc.
(According to U.G.C. Syllabus as Prescribed)
Dr. M. K. Srivastava
LAKSHMI NARAIN AGARWAL, AGRA

Published by : Lakshmi
Narain Agarwal
Educational Publishers
Anupam Plaza-I, Block No. 50
Sanjay Place, Agra-282002
Telefax : (0562) 2527448
THE PUBLISHERS
[ Tliis book or any part thereof may not be reproduced in any

way or form without the written permission of the Publishers. )
Price:? 105-00 Onlv
Punted at: Navrang

Offset Printers, Agra
CONTENTS
Chapters
General Introduction
1. The Age of Dickens
2. Life of Charles Dickens
3. Dicken's Works
4. The English Novel During Dicken's Age
5. Dicken's Contribution to the English Novel
6. Dicken's Art of Plot-Construction
7. Dicken's Art of Characterization
8. Dicken's Female Characters
9. Dicken's Humour
10. Dicken's Pathos
11. Dicken's Satire
12. Dicken's Realism
13. Dicken's Pictorial Art or Setting of Dicken's Novels
14. Dicken's Language and Style
15. Dicken's Imagination
16. Dicken's Morality and Social Reform
17. Depiction of Childhood in the Novels of Dickens
18. Autobiographical Element in Dicken's Novels
19. Dickens As A Typical Victorian
20. Dickens and the Social Novel
21. A General Estimate of Dickens As A Novelist
22. Limitations of Dickens As A Novelist
23. The Modern Reaction Against Dickens
24. Select Literary Opinions on Dickens As A Novelist
Special Introduction
1- A Tale of Two Cities' : An Introduction
IV
j
Chapters Page
2. The Story in Outline s
3. Historical Background 92
4. Persons and Places 96
5. The Title of the Novel 103
100
6. Plot Construction 106
7. Characterization in the Novel 110
8. The Themes 111
9. Symbolism in A Tale of Two Cities' 115
10. Style of A Tale of Two Cities' 118
11. The Hero of the Novel 121
12. Select Literary Criticism 124
Chapterwise Detailed Summary of 'A Tale of Two Cities' 138 -i88
Character Sketches 189 -208
Questions and Answers 209 -230
Chronology 231 -232
Objective Type Questions and Answers i
Short Questions and Answers vi
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1. THE AGE OF DICKENS A

Remarkable Age
The Victorian Age, the age of Dickens, is one of the most remark-
able periods
in the history of England. Dickens calls it the best as well as the worst
period, the spring as well as the winter season of England.
It was an era of material affluence, political consciousness,
democratic and social reforms, scientific advancement, and social unrest.
It produced a galaxy of great men in all walks of life. It had its beauties as
well as ugliness.
While Macaulay trumpeted the progress that the Victorians had
achieved, Ruskin, Carlyle, Lytton Strachey and Trollope raised frowns of
disfavour against the soul-killing materialism of the age. Carlyle exposed
its deep-seated vulgarity, Symonds it's signs of Svorld fatigue'. Dickens
hinted at its social hollowness and the condition of the poor.
In the opening paragraph of ,4 Tale of Two Cities,, Dickens writes
about his age in the following manner:
"It was the best of time, it was the worst of times, it was the age
of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it
was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the
winter of despair, we had everything before us, we were all going
direct to Heaven, we were all going direct to the other way "
A Period or Radical Change
Dicken's Age was an era of great ups and downs, it was an age of
great political, social, religious, economic, intellectual and literary ac-
tivities. It was the time of discoveries and explorations, of reforms and
movements. It was, however, an age of radical changes in every field. That is
why, to Dickens also this was the best of all times as well as the worst of all
times.
An Era of Peace and Prosperity
The Victorian Age was essentially an era of peace and progress. It
was an era when their Svar drum throbb'd no longer' and the people felt
safe and secure in their island home. "It was comparatively peaceful reign
when Englishmen, secure in their island, could complete the transforma-
tion of all aspects of their industrial, commercial and social life without
any of those risks of violent interruption that gave quite a different quality
to the history of continental nations." (G. D. Klingopulous). The few
colonial wars that broke out during this period exercised little adverse
effect on the national life. The Crimean war, of course, caused a stir in
2 Dickens
-. ftert* were soon forgotten. Peace brought material
ad-England, but ^.^...Tprogress in the country. The Industrial
Revolu-vancement and indusmai iar.6n economy of Engiand to an industrial
tion transfPJ"m^nd factories were established at important centres, and
economy. ^Îand hummed with the rattle of looms and the boom of
weaving machines.
Social Unrest
With peace and prosperity, there was a kind of suppressed social
unrest in the hearts of the people. Pessimism and gloom swept away a
large majority of the thinkers and writers of the age. It may be due to
social unrest. Industrial advancement created social and economic dis-
tress among the masses. The Industrial Revolution, creating the
privileged class of capitalists and mill-owners, rolling in wealth and
riches, also brought in its wake the semi-starved and ill-clad class of
labourers and factory workers, who were thoroughly dissatisfied with
their miserable lot. There was no equitable distribution of wealth.
Hopkins wrote to Bridges on August 2,1871 : "England has grown
hugely wealthy but this wealth has not reached the working classes ; ex-
cept it has made their condition worse."
Over-Population
None of the Victorian 'revolutions' taking place in Nineteenth Cen-
tury England could be described without reference to the extraordinary in
population. This was a world-wide phenomenon, tentatively explained as
a result of improved medical knowledge and hygiene. In itself this natural
phenomenon goes someway towards explaining the squalor in housing
and in factories, described by novelists, by witnesses before Royal
Commissions, by Mayhew and Booth, and by other authors.
Humanitarian sentiment had first to bring the condition of England to
public notice and initiate reforms; once the first crisis had been met. The
cities remained over-crowded. London too was very much crowded and
congested.
Mechanical Age
Carlyle wrote of the age, "Were we required to characterise this age
of ours by any single epithet, we should be tempted to call it, not an
Heroical, Devotional, Philosophical or Moral Age, but, above all others,
the Mechanical Age. It was the age of Machinery, in every outward and
inward sense of the word : the age which with its whole undivided might,
forwards the teachings and practices of the great art of adopting means to
evil. Not the external alone is now managed by machinery, but the
spiritual also. Men are grown mechanical in head and heart, as well as in
hand."
Rapid Social Changes
It was an age of rapid social and educational reforms. Class distinc-
tions were causing alarm. The Reform Act of 1832 dethroned the landed
aristocracy, and transferred the balance of power to farmers and shop-
keepers. Despite reforms, the condition of the workers did not change
General Introduction 3
speedily. The quality of life deteriorated. There was a phenomenal growth
in population. In 1801, the population of great Britain was about ten and a
half million. By 1901, it had grown to thirty-seven millions. London Life
The streets of London were not so clean and well-lit as they are now.
London in those days was very dirty. Its sanitary conditions were very
poor. 'In London the delicate rose and grey architecture of elegant
Regency streets and squares gave way to the encroachments of prison-like
buildings and noise-some alleys where dirty and malformed children
screamed at their play.'
Referring to the changing social condition, Neil has observed in his
book, A Short History of English Novel, "The rapidly changing social
conditions in England during the first few decades of the Victorian Era
reflected in the changing tastes of the novel-reading public. As a result of
the Industrial Revolution, the face of the country altered more in the next
thirty years than it had done in the previous three hundred. Coaching inns
and highwaymen disappeared as the grimy railways began to wind their
way across the shires and counties, linking the somebre and monotonous
industrial towns.
"In 1807, Winsor, a German, first illumined Pall Mall with gas and
with this the murky atmosphere of the new industrialized London was
stabbed at intervals by the flaring gas-jets, caged for safety, that threw
their sinister shadows across dark lanes flanked by the pitiable hovels of
the poor. Cannletto's London was swallowed up in the London of Dick-
ens, where a morley cavalcade in new, unbecoming clothes cavorted along
the twisting quasi-medieval streets and passages of the old town. Down
the thriving docks amongst the gin shops a hideously squalid population
struggled fiercely for existence in the free-for-all tragi-comedy of unen-
lightened self-interest. Like swiftly moving tide of grey scum, the tene-
ment houses of the poor began to cover the few remaining fields and
meadows in the heart of the city."
Condition of Women and Children
In the domestic field, the Victorians upheld the authority of parents
over children, of husbands over wives. Women were regulated to a lower
place. Mrs. Elis in The Women of England outlined the role of the female
sex as being of service to the male members of the family. "The first thing
of importance was to be inferior to men, inferior in mental power in the
same proportion that you are inferior in strength." Education was a
closed book for most of the women, and the idea of establishing women's
colleges was ridiculed by the national poet Tennyson in The Princess.
"Early Victorianism was an age of moral cosmetics ; and women, who
would have regarded the lipstick as lascivious, did not scruple to lard
themselves with all the weaknesses which were supposed to appeal to
man's taste for mastery." (Laurence Housman, The Great Victorians)
During the Napoleonic wars, women, deprived of their old means of
livelihood by the decay of cottage industries, went into field- work beside
4 Dickens
their men-folk. But their wages were very low, much lower than those o
men. However, by and large, the place of women was inside the home
Women were expected to cultivate domestic virtues. In the words o]
Florence Nightingale, who opposed women's confinement within the
house-walls, "marriage being their only outlet in life, many women spend
their lives in asking men to marry them, in a refined way."
An account of women's life at this period ought to include a refer-
ence to the great army of prostitutes. It had existed in all ages, and its
ranks had grown with the increase of wealth and population in the
country. It infested the towns without the least public control;'the
harlot's cry from street to street' made public resorts hideous at nightfall.
The harshness of the world's ethical code, which many parents endorsed,
too often drove a girl once seduced, to prostitution. And the economic
condition of single women forced many of them to adopt a trade they
hated. The decay of cottage manufacture starved orphan girls till they
bowed their heads for bread. Low wages in unregulated sweated in-
dustries made temptation strong. Religious and Moral Conditions
Despite all the mechanism, industrialism and materialism of the
Dickens's era, religious feelings continued to dominate the thoughts of
the people. "From some points of view, in contrast especially with the
eighteenth century, the Victorian Age might be regarded as the age of
religion. It was an age in which prime ministers raised echoes of a sub-
merged religious vocabulary in their speeches and novels. Yet it might
also be regarded as an age of religious decay and uncontrolled sec-
tarianism." (G. D. Kliongopulous). Throughout the Victorian Era, two
schools of thought existed in religion, the school of rationalism, the in-
heritors of the deistic spirit of the eighteenth century, and the Catholic
reaction, based on faith and mystic apprehension of reality.
When the nineteenth century opened, it was obvious that it would be
an age of Victory of Reason. The Goddess of Reason had been enthroned
in France. She was created by a whole century of work by the ablest
minds—Hume, Gibbon, Voltaire. Science had begun her conquering
march, and every fresh discovery appeared to open up a new horizon, and
to change the conception of man. The Church was asleep, the sheep
looked up hungry and were not fed. Shelley and Owen attacked religion.
And while the established religion appeared to have solid foundations,
the reaction set in. A number of circumstances helped the Catholic
Movement. Romanticism strengthened it. Scott helped it, the revival
of Gothic architecture fed it. It was during this age that the Oxford
Movement started and developed with an aim to bring back faith in God
and in religion.
The Victorians were moralists at heart, and religion was the sheet
anchor of their lives. There was a marked conflict between religion and
science, between moralists and scientists. Victorians laid emphasis on
order, decorum and decency. To talk of duty, honour, the obligation of
ht ig a gentleman, the responsibilities of matrimony, anu the sacredness
of religious belief was to be Victorian. They were gross iconoclasts who
worshipped the idols of authority. They were also sentimental
humanitarians and hard-boiled proponents of free enterprise. 'Their art
constitutes a shameless record of both hypocrisy and ingenuineness.' In
the words of Elwin, "prudery and humbug" presided over the age.
Education and Intellectual Growth
England witnessed expansion in the field of education. The passing
of the Education Acts was a landmark in the history of education in the
country. A large reading-public was prepared to welcome the outpourings
of novelists, poets and social reformers. Journalism and press became
potent forces in the work of social awakening and political consciousness.
Book-selling by the middle of the century had become a major industry in
which not only were large fortunes made but power exercised as well. Bet-
ween 1830 and 1850, the prices of books fell sharply, and cheap miscel-
lanies and serial pamphlets brought literature into the hands of those
from whom the relatively high cost of order publications had hitherto
kept it. The authors began to bargain with the publishers and vice versa.
Authorship, however, became a vocation with many a great person. A
successful novelist like George Eliot was able to refuse an offer of ten
thousand pouhds for the copyright of Romola.
So there was an unprecedented intellectual and scientific advance-
ment during the Victorian Age. "The literary and scientific institutes,"
says Compton-Rickett, "take a more prominent place in the life of the
day; and science, once a sealed book save to an elect few, has become
democratised. The man of science is no longer an academic recluse, he
is, in the person of Huxley, a man of rare influence as a social and
educational force."
Expansion in Reading Public
As a result of an expansion in education and literacy and growth in
population, there was an immense increase in the reading public. "This
ever-growing reading-public was neither liberal nor catholic in its tastes.
In fact, it was distinctly provincial. But many readers, although impatient
of idleness and eccentricity, were quite ready to enjoy stories of 'high life'
so long as it was discredited."
"In some ways, the new reading-public of the Victorian age
resembled those who had welcomed Defoe a hundred and fifty years ear-
lier. Like them, they were materialistic, eager for sensation, ready to learn
and voracious in their appetites. A Victorian novelist had to be able to satisfy
a multiplicity of tastes; he had to be a philosopher, humorist,
psychologist, artist, to mingle slapstick and sentiment. Whether his medium
was realism, fantasy, farce or pathos, he must be able to grip the imagina-
tion and entertain. Without exception the Victorian novelists were
masters of the art of telling a story. Their serial methods might lead to
lapses and repetition and were not conducive to fine art, but the story
always gripped and the reader hurried on to find out the next turn in a
narrative that was rarely content with a single thread but wove a coloured
6 Dickens
web of intrigue. In such fiction, climaxes were dramatic, character boldlv
outlined and the atmosphere tense with excitement." (Neil).
The Victorian Compromise
The age of Queen Victoria was an age of compromise and balance
between science and religion, business and humanism, nationalism and
romanticism, materialism and spiritualism. In the political field too, there
was a compromise between democracy and aristocracy. In the field of
religion, science was fused with theology. In the field of sex also, the Vic-
torians sought a happy compromise between the unbridled licentiousness
of the previous ages and the complete negation of the functions and pur-
poses of nature.
In the words of John Morley, "It was an epoch of hearts, lifted with
hope, and brains active with sober and manly reason for the common
good. Some ages are marked as sentimental, others stand conspicuous as
rational. The Victorian Age was happier than most in the flow of both
these currents into a common stream of vigorous and effective talent.
New truths were welcomed in free minds and free minds make brave
men." Literary Features
Abundance of output, dominance of a moral or socialistic or
utilitarian outlook, interest in the past, fusion of romanticism and
idealism as well as of rationalism and romanticism, predominant
melancholic or pessimistic note, and fusion of farce and pathos, of
realism and fantasy and the note of individuality were the hall-marks of
Victorian literature. It marked the growth of the English novel, and laid
the foundation of English prose on a surer footing. Except the last
decades, the nineteenth century on the whole was poor in drama. It was
essentially an age of prose and novel. "Though the age produced many
poets, and two who deserve rank among the greatest, nevertheless, this
was emphatically an age of prose and novel. The novel in this age fills a
place which the drama held in the days of Elizabeth; and never beforej in
any age, or language, has the novel appeared in such numbers and in such
perfection." (Long).
The literature of the age is also marked with a moral note. It is
co-related to the social and political life of the age. It has become in the
hands of many Victorians an instrument of social reform and social
propaganda. It is considerably modified by the impact of science. "It is the
scientific spirit, and all that the scientific spirit implied, its certain doubt,
its care for minuteness and truth Of observation, its growing interest in
social processes and the conditions under which life is lived that is the
central fact in Victorian literature." (Mair, Modern English Literature).
The questioning spirit in Clough, the pessimism of James Thompson, the
melancholy of Matthew Arnold, the fatalism of Fitzgerald are all the out-
come of the sceptical tendencies evoked by scientific research. The works
of Tennyson, Dickens and Disraeli are inspired by national pride and
r General Introduction 7
patriotism whereas in some other writers, such as Hardy, Arnold Clough,
Thompson, the note of pessimism predominates.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. A remarkable period—the best as well as the worst, winter as well as
spring of England : a fertile period which produced great English-
men in all walks of life.
2. An era of peace and prosperity.
3. A period of social unrest (on account of industrial advancement).
4. Not a Heroical, Devotional, Philosophic Age, but above all others,
the Mechanical Age.
5. In contrast to the eighteenth century, the Victorian Age was the age of
religion. The Victorians were moralists at heart, and religion was the
sheet anchor of their lives. They laid emphasis on order, decorum
and decency.
6. A period of educational and intellectual growth—a large
reading-public.
7. An age of compromise and balance—between science and religion,
business and humanism, rationalism and romanticism, materialism
and spiritualism, between democracy and aristocracy too.
8. Literary features—abundance of output, dominance of a moral or
utilitarian outlook, interest in the past, fusion of romanticism and
idealism and rationalism, predominance of pessimism, fusion of
humour and pathos, of realism and fantasy.
2. LIFE OF CHARLES DICKENS
Dickens Vs. Shakespeare
Charles Dickens is the Shakespeare of the English fiction. He is the
master of the sunniest smiles and most unselfish tears.
His novels are like 'mobs, huge seething chaotic mobs'. His
characters are so varied and various that they would make a town
populous enough to send a member to a Parliament.
Mr. Dickens was not only a great novelist but also a great orator,
actor, moralist, humorist, journalist and caricaturist.
But more than all this he was a great entertainer, perhaps the greatest
entertainer in the history of the English novel. He could create individual
characters, and in this power of creative fertility, he was next only to
Shakespeare.
Birth and Parentage
Such a promising novelist had a very unpromising birth. He was born
on Feb. 7,1812 at Portsea, near Portsmouth. At the time of his birth, his
parents were so poor that they were unable to make both ends meet. His
father, John Dickens, was a clerk in Navy Pay Office. He was a man of
wavering and unstable temperament.
He incurred debts and after struggling with them in his native town
for many years, he shifted to London and later on to Chatham when
Dickens was nine years of age.
8 Dickens
Education
It was in Chatham that Dickens got his early education. He was fond
of books and devoted himself to his studies sincerely. He was not fond of
games. It is said, "He preferred to curl himself up in a corner with a book
than take part in the mildest of games." He lived with his parents very
happily for a few years only. Speaking about his early student-life, Dick-
ens says in David Copperfield:
" ...... in a little room upstairs to which I had access (for it ad
joined my own), and which nobody else in our house ever troubled.
From that blessed little room Roderick, Random Peregrine Pickle,
Humphrey Clinker, Tom Jones, The Vicar of Wakefield, Don Quixote,
Gil Bias, Robinson Crusoe came out, glorious host, to keep me com
pany. They kept alive my fancy, they, and the Arabian Nights and the
. Tales of the Genii . when I think of it, the picture always arises in
my mind of a summer evening, the boys at play in the churchyard,
and I sitting on to my bed, reading as if for life."
His Economic Troubles
But these palmy days ended soon. His father was arrested for not
paying off his debts and sentenced for a short term to Marshalsea prison.
His mother, the mother of eight children, of whom Charles Dickens, was
the second, opened a dingy sort of 'educational establishment," a boarding
establishment for young ladies. But no young ladies ever attended the
institution. It was because of these economic troubles that Charles
Dickens had to leave his school at the age of eleven. He helped his mother
in every sort of menial occupation. To his great humiliation, he had to
earn his own living by labelling and blackening pots in a warehouse. He
had to work there from dawn to dusk. He began his work at eight O'clock
in the morning and ended it at eight O'clock in the night, with an hour off
for dinner and half an hour for tea.
The release of his father brought some change in the family cir-
cumstances. His father wanted to send Charles to school again, but his
mother opposed the proposal and was in favour of Charles's return to the
warehouse work. This was the deepest wound made in his young soul, the
one cruelty that he never forgot.
Continuation of His Education
He was, however, relieved of this drudgery when he received a small
legacy from one of his relations. Then Dickens joined the Willington
House Academy at the age of fifteen.
It was a worthless and brutal school and its Head Master like Mr.
Creakle of David Copperfield was a most ignorant fellow and a tyrant.
He learned very little here and left the school in sheer disgust and
again went to work. At this time, he became a clerk in a lawyer's office. In
nights, however, he studied shorthand in order to achieve success in his
career as a reporter. His Career as a Reporter
He learned shorthand speedily. And at the age of eighteen, in 1830,
he became a Parliamentary reporter for several papers. In eighteen
months he left the solicitor's office and became a professional free-lance
shorthand writer. During his spare time, he haunted the theatres and
music-halls of London. Acting was his hobby. His famous public readings
of his novels in his later career showed his talent for acting.
However, at the age of twenty, he became famous as a reporter and
"occupied the highest rank, not merely for accuracy in reporting, but for
marvellous quickness in transcript." Another colleague of Dickens wrote,
"There never was such a shorthand writer." His reportership gave him
hold on the finger of literature and enabled him to travel from place to
place. This profession, indeed, provided for him ample opportunity to
study men and manners of various places. It was here that he studied life
closely and keenly. His Career as an Author
In 1833, Dickens entered into authorship. The earliest writings of
Dickens are: Sketches of Young Gentlemen, Sketches of Young Couples and
The Mudfog Papers. But they are in the form of essays and are good
samples of journalism. His first book that appeared in print was Sketches
by Boz. It was published in 1836. "One who reads these sketches now,"
says Long, "with one's intimate knowledge of the hidden aspect of Lon-
don, can understand Dickens's first newspaper success perfectly."
Soon after followed Pickwick Papers which appeared in a series
during 1836-37. This work made Dickens quite popular. His fortune
turned in his favour and made him rich. The Pickwick Papers took the
whole of England by storm.
Now Dickens was twenty-four. He was famous and rich. As fortune
favours the brave, every book that Dickens wrote afterwards, added to his
popularity and richness.
His position was unique. Everyone read him, admired him and
talked of him. He became the best and greatest entertainer of his time. He
spoke to millions of people. In an age of very great men, he towered above
them all. His energy was boundless. Even in middle age he could walk the
thirty-mile distance from London to Gad's Hill in a night. He was truly, as
he himself said, 'The Inimitable.'
His Foreign Tours
He travelled in America in 1841 and was warmly received by the
Americans. But soon their enthusiasm for him was damped when they
came to know that Dickens had strongly opposed the slavery system in
America in Yds American Notes and Martin Chuzzlewit. But this anger and
rage against him was over when he made his second tour to the U.S.A. in
1867-68. He also visited the continent in the company of his wife, his
sister, Miss Hogarth and five children. His Death
He died in 1870 of a heart-attack. He was then fifty-eight and was
burried in the Poet's Corner of Westminster Abbey. Carlyle wrote to his
wife about Dickens's death, "No death, since 1866 has fallen on me with
such a stroke. The good, the gentle, high gifted, ever friendly and noble
Dickens—every inch of him an honest man" had died.
10 Dickens
His Reputation
Dickens was the most favourite novelist of the people of his time.
Except Sir Walter Scott there is hardly any other novelist who has been so
much in perfect tune and harmony with his public. His novels have an
eternal freshness, youthfulness and buoyancy. Their humour is sparkling
and kind. He is the one novelist whose books have not grown dusty on the
sh fives. His novels have always been in the hands of the readers.
3. DICKENS'S WORKS
The literary career of Dickens may be divided in the following four
periods : (1) Experimental Period, (2) Second Period, (3) Third Period,
and (4) Final Period.
Experimental Period
Dickens began his career as a novelist with Sketches by Boz, a series of
short papers having descriptive value, and appealing primarily because of
their humour. The second work of Dickens was The Posthumous Papers of
Pickwick Club published serially during 1836-37. It was a humorous and
satirical interpretation of the middle class. Originally, the book was in-
tended to be written for a sporting club. But Dickens had little acquain-
tance with sports. So he had to give up the plan, and changed it into a book
for a general club, the Pickwick Club. The first seven pictures appeared
with the signature of the cartoonist Seymour who took up the work of
illustrating the events of Dickens's chapters. In the meantime, Seymour
died and Dickens was left free to extend the canvas of his work according
to his own imagination. The book, however, recounts the adventures of
Pickwick and his companions, Winkle, Snodgrass, Tupman and
Samweller through numerous changes of fortune that land them in dif-
ficult situations from which they are extricated by the ingenuity and skill of
Mr. Pickwick, the eldest and the most experienced of the adventures.
There are several scenes of humour in the novel. The incidents are loosely
connected; the observation is accurate; and the book is of the first rank. It
has been rightly assessed that 'Pickwick is almost a library of humour,
grotesque in the Fat Boy; satirical in the trial scene; riotous almost
everywhere'.
Second Period
In his experimental period, Dickens had already achieved a startling
triumph with Pickwick While Pickwick Papers was in racy progress, he
became the editor of Bentley's Miscellany, a magazine. It was for this
magazine that he wrote Oliver Twist. It was also written serially during
1837-39. In this novel, he attacked the evils of Poor Law and exposed the
workhouse system. 'The world of The Pickwick Papers was a cockney
world turned into a fairyland; Oliver Twist is a nightmare, the nightmare
of a terrified child, haunted by ogres.' This novel is a study in crime and
villainy. The moral of the novel, however, never allows the triumph of
wickedness in the end. So social reform is suggested in the working of
poor houses, and a strong case is made out for the dimissal of faint-
hearted persons likes Bumble. A spirited appeal is made for the better
treatment of children. It is here for the first time that Dickens appears as a
moralist, idealist and social reformer.
Next work of this period, Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby
(1838-39), exposes the 'farming' schools of Yorkshire and their severe
mistreatment of children. Nicholas, a generous, high-spirited lad of
nineteen, his mother, and gentle sister Kate are left penniless after the
death of his father. They appeal to their uncle Ralph Nickleby, for assis-
tance. But Nicholas soon makes Ralph his enemy. Nicholas then is sent to
Dotheboys Hall, where Wackford Squeers starves and maltreats forty
children under pretence of education. When a fellow of Nicholas is being
maltreated, Nicholas gets furious. He thrashes Squeers and escapes with
Smike who becomes his devoted friend. For a time, he supports himself
and Smike as an actor in the provincial company of Vincet Crummies;
then he enters the service of the brother of Cheeryble. But Ralph, who has
plotted against both Nicholas and his sister, is exposed at last and dis-
covers that Smike, Nicholas's friend, is none but his own son. At this dis-
covery, he hangs himself. And Nicholas marries Medeline, and Kate
marries Cheerybles' nephew, Frank. Squeers is transported, and Gride is
murdered.
In 1840, Dickens started a miscellany to be called Master
Humphrey's Clock which was to be the frame for his next serial, Old
Curiosity Shop. In this novel, Dickens shows the miserable and pathetic
life of Little Nell and her grandfather. Both of them are subjected to
financial difficulties as a result of certain borrowings by the old man from a
sinister and inquitious money-lender, Daniel Quilp, who harasses them
mercilessly until little Nell meets her death followed by her grandfather.
The death of Nell and her grandfather, indeed, makes this novel a grave
tragedy on the lines of Shakespeare.
Another work of Charles Dickens, Bamaby Bridge, is a historical
romance. It deals with the Gordon anti-poppery riots of 1780. All the
characters except Lord Gordon are imaginary. The story is found to be
quite complicated here.
Third Period
The outstanding work of this period is Martin Chuzzlewit (1843-44).
Here Dickens was at the height of his genius; he created characters in
which he was never to surpass in future. But this is a formless work. So its
plot-construction is faulty. Therefore, it cannot be placed among the
best novels of Dicknes. The novel deals with the adventures of Martin
Chuzzlewit, first in England and then in America. The minor characters in
this novel do not play a significant role. The plot is, of course,
melodramatic. But Mrs. Gamp is a figure of the purest comedy. She is the
most entrancing of all Dickens's comic characters.
Another famous work of this time is Dombey and Son (1846- 48),
memorable for the pictures of Little Paul and the pathos of his death. The
plot of this novel is more carefully constructed and controlled than that of
12 Dickens
Martin Chuzzlewit. This piece of fiction is a study in the evil effects of pride
and haughtiness of temper. Mr. Dombey is a rich merchant. He is the
proprietor of the firm, Dombey and son. He has been blessed with a son,
Paul, though his wife dies in delivering the son. Dombey proudly brings
up the son and sends him to Dr. Blimber's school, where Paul Dombey is
ill-treated by the Headmaster and dies of sickness. After his son's death,
Dombey neglects his daughter, Florence, who starts loving Walter Gay, a
servant of Dombey. But the proud Dombey does not like this love affair
and sends Mr. Gay to the West Indies. Dombey then marries again. But
his newly- wedded wife elopes with his manager, Mr. Carker, to France.
Dombey pursues them and is able to overtake Mr. Carker at a
railway-station. Mr. Carker falls in front of a train and is killed. Events
humble Dombey to bear up miseries of every sort. In the remaining days of
his life, he retires in solitude where his neglected daughter, Florence,
joins him and gives him solace. The Final Period
It is in this period that Charles Dickens reached the climax of his art.
It is again to this period that his best novels belong. David Copperfield.
Hard Times, Little Dorrit, A Tale of Two Cities, Great Expectations and
Edwin Drood are the marvellous creations of the period.
Among these novels, David Copperfield (1849-50) is the best.
Dickens himself liked it most, as he himself says, "Of all my books I like
this best." John Ruskin and Matthew Arnold preferred it to all other
novels. The life history of David in fact is the autobiography of Dickens. It
is in this novel that we get the immortal figure of Macawber. "David Cop-
perfield is born in Blunderstone (of which the original is the village of
Blunderstone) in Suffolk, soon after the death of his father. His mother, a
gentle weak woman, marries again, and her second husband, Mr.
Murdstone, by cruelty disguised as firmness, and abetted by Miss
Murdstone, his sister, drives her to an early grave. Young Copperfield,
who has proved recalcitrant, is sent to school, where he is bullied by the
tyrannical headmaster, Creakle, but makes two friends in the brilliant and
fascinating Steerforth and the good-humoured plodding Traddles.
Thence he is sent to menial employment in London, where he lives a life
of poverty and misery. He continues his education at Canterbury. After
his education, Mr. Copperfield has to lead a very complicated and adven-
turous life." So David Copperfield has a very loose plot. It is a tale of ups
and downs, joys and sorrows. But the final aim of the novelist is to show
that ultimately goodness in life pays a lot.
Dickens's next novel Bleak House was published in 1853. It was a
satire on the abuses of law courts. Only a year after this came out Hard
Times. It exhibits the evils of industrialism and money-mindedness. Little
Dorrit, and ,4 Tale of Two Cities were published in 1857 and 1859 respec-
tively. The former was planned as a satire on bureaucracy and intended to
show up the methods of those government offices in which no one took
responsibility, but always pushed decisions off and on to someone else.
The latter work is a great historical romance, but is not typical of Dickens.
Then appeared Great Expectations (1860-1861). It is one of his
most artistic novels, restrained both in its melodrama and romantic at-
mosphere. It was begun in a moment of spiritual new birth just as its
author had allowed himself to fall back into childhood. It is a story of the
adventures of Pip. Other important novels which belong to this period are
Edwin Drood and Our Mutual Friend.
Charles Dickens's life was, thus, a life of industry, of hard work, of
adventure, of poverty and of richness. He had learnt of the world and its
ways through bitter experiences of life.
4. THE ENGLISH NOVEL DURING DICKENS'S AGE
Not so long ago, the Victorian Period was considered one of literary
decline, derivaliveness, and disintegration. Now it is being acclaimed as a
time of great achievement in literature, even as the greatest in English
literary history. Victorian England could not produce unquestionably
major poets but it certainly produced major novelists such as Dickens and
Thackeray.
The main development in the English fiction was that described by
Henry James in the eighties. He wrote:
"Only a short time ago it might have been supposed that the
English novel was not what the French call discutable. It had no air
of having a theory, a conviction, a consciousness of itself behind
it—of being the expression of an artistic faith, the result of choice
and comparison. I do not say it was necessarily the worse for that: it
would take more courage than I possess to intimate that the form of
the novel, as Dickens and Thackeray (for instance) saw it, had any
taint of incompleteness. It was however, naif.... During the period I
have alluded to there was a comfortable, good-humoured feeling
abroad that a novel was a novel as a pudding is a pudding, and that
this was the end of it. But within a year or two, for some reason-or
other, there have been signs of returning animation—the era of dis-
cussion would appear to have been to a certain extreme opened."
(Partial Portraits, 1888)
What was gradually achieved in the nineteenth-century novel is
analogous with what happened in the gradual evolution of Elizabethan
drama, most conspicuously in Shakespeare's and Ben Jonson's work. A
loose assemblage of episodes, lacking and strongly focussed intention,
gradually gave place to those powerful visions of human life which we
have in, for example, Macbeth and Volpone.
English novel reached its highest peak in the Victorian Age. Never
before in England such a galaxy of great novelists was seen. With the
growth of the middle class and with the growth of democracy, the novel
became immensely popular with the reading public. The dominant note
of the period was one of realism. The Victorian novel is a departure from
the romantic novel of Scott.
14 Dickens
"Though Scott dominated the world of fir-ti™ J ,
. was a directing influence for mJS^SSSXSSi?V ^,ived and
h,S dealh vet ev
duringthe greatest popularity of Waverlev^hS ' en
n Ve,istS of
aims. Their subject was not pSSStSS^Z "*" nutio ° ***
emporary manners, Qr the manned%M^*-S!£ * bu< con-
ing to present canons, realists for thev cnÎ I ^ were not aceord-
1 thema e
of real life for instruction, ^^SS^SSlTf* ^ "'
realism. To begin with, their prZucwas nnVS hhe,frefforts ™de for
course of time Dickens came, wKE^ ^ grade' but in
great roman
assumed artistic principles." ces on their tacitly
The Victorian novel nf p„ni,„w .. (W.L Cross.)
Fielding and **k^\ttA*%2S»' ^ÎOEliot are primarily studies in
social rea km nr' Tnackeray and George the novel becomes a vehicle
forhu™„ -?'.°f course. wi«h George Eliot Henry James the novel takes
^SS'!nS?«,',,d em0,ions als°- *«» W study the inner mind of its cteraS, WA u"
a em in nis nove| 1 1 Tro
" J" s regional novel makes its appearand Kf, ''' "°Pe> «*
character. Charles Kingsley,prima?% a w,?er of hrISroma a re 0li,,cal in
, P
certam novels of great social importanceV,,nf°"!l' nceshas
Victorian mind with their historicalU%ZL V"°ere< n and
> ,
,h
R«»ds thrill the
torian pompousness, vanit? andTypocrisv ê8n nte" 'WVb
pecuhararoma of romance and susneêX™ ™snorlsisters create a
tonan novel has a very complex 2ac, er ^nS*1?
aC erWI h
-,he vi^
Charles Dickens (1812-70) ' * """»"erableforms.
is •A'EMKS'jg retry SES**«•• *

rank with the best novelists ofThe world SC" of fleldin& Wo can
scousness of the Victorian age He 7s tit f^T r 'he aWakened <*>"-against the
corruption and social maTadim^^.^L'0 Pro,est 0P«"'y the common
people of I^ndon to™e aS of p„° -'^ "* He adm"* one has only to read the
novels of DfcSJ?£^l" novel- '" reality England during the Victorian Age
wV,,t n iS?W he common "& of mtsenes. His greatness lies in hêep
humamsm"'**' "ardsniPs and
The novels which have madp h.«, . Bleak House, Hard
TimeTuôZ frf/ Tr SS* ^pperfield, pectations, Our Mutual
Friend*and\ Market °fJW°$*ies> Great&-D.ckens lies in his deep
humanism an^n S"?fcM"t The Sreatne*> of writer was so much interestedSe
c o m * * hUnT' Never before * Chrew writes, "he was of all the
&!!? °f the PeoP,e- Pro(. fomprehensivesouLHesawlife^^^JS?1**, !he man
of mos
<
He worked for practical reform^wû, 'Z,,efnoVe,,stnadseenit .....................
system of society because Ki^SLfS^1?* ■** *>*«& « *
administration were remedied, Kn^nSSD1 .l,ISHntUftol18 and their
ture would make the reform of SZSEE? * 8oodness of human na-
bad characters are capable of *SS£ST 2 22* Near* all h*
many are
Through most of his life, headdiSSfa inverted,
nt-ddle classes, and though ^ZTX^L S&«
turning from hope in them to hope in the aristocracy, his pictures of the
upper classes are almost always prejudiced and exaggerated, generally
inaccurate, seldom kindly. His basic belief in the primary benevolent im-
pulses of man—affection, charity, gaiety, fun, kindliness, spontaneity—
brought within the compass of his sympathy any man or woman in whom be
discerned the working of these impulses."
Dickens's novels have very loose plots. His plots are stagy and ill-knit,
repetitive and poor in invention. Melodramatic scenes are quite in
abundance. His characters are either good or bad. They are not complex
beings.
But Dickens appeals to his readers by 'the quality of sincerity'. His is a
soul dedicated to the cause of humanity. He has a 'moral purpose' in his
novels.
Thackeray (1811-63)
Another great novelist of Dickens's era is Thackeray. Thackeray, quite
like Dickens, also draws a picture of the Victorian society, but his method is
entirely different from and opposite to that of Dickens. While Dickens talks
of the lower middle classes, Thackeray deals with the upper middle classes.
Dickens, a born romantic, by relating the agonies and miseries of common
life, excites our sentiments of love for it and arouses our anger against the
social forces responsible for its hardships. Thackeray, a realist, appeals to
our intellect, by exposing the whims, caprices, snobberies and basic
corruptions of the class that he deals with. Thackeray's method is that of a
satirist, Dickens's is that of a humorist.
Besides his ealry works, The Paris Sketch Book (1840), The Irish
Sketch Book (1843), The Mernoires, The Diary, The Luck of Barry Lyndon,
and The Book of Snobs, he also wrote Vanity Fair, Pendennis, Henry Es-
mond, The Four Georges, Lovelthe Widower and Adventures ofPhilip.
Thackeray's novels are charged with a deep human sense. He portrays
society realistically and objectively. His realism is different from that of the
French Naturalists. He is a disciple of Fielding, and Smollet in realism. He
has implicit faith in goodness and beauty, nobility and truth.
He has his own faults. Many of his books are unplanned, and there are
serious lapses in plot-construction. Yet he has created some memorable
characters like Becky Sharp, Amelia, Sedley, Dobblin, Lady Castlewood
and Col. Newcome.
Wilkie Collins (1824-89)
Of the contemporaries of Dickens and Thackeray, Wilkie Collins,
Charles Reade, Charles Kingsley and Anthony Trollope were quite popular
with the Victorian readers. Wilkie Collins (1824-1889) worked as journalist
under Dickens. He was adept in weaving intricate plots. His theme was
mostly based on love. In 1850, he wrote a historical novel Autonia, which
could not bring much success to him. His famous works are The Woman In
White (I860), Armadale (1866) and The Moonstone
16 Dickens
(1868). His novels are the novels of sensation. He lacks a sense of realism
and his characters are weak. Charles Reade (1814-84)
Charles Reade was both a dramatist and a novelist. He wrote both
historical and social novels. He had a deep love for the downtrodden
humanity and exposed the social evils of his age. He had also a rich im-
agination which enabled him to reach the past with great feelings. He
wrote It's Never Too Late to Mend (1856), Hard Cash (1863). His The
Cloister and the Hearth is the best historical novel of the 19th century.
Charles Kingsley (1819-1875)
Charles Kingsley was a many-sided genius and a man of diverse
human activities. He was a professor of history at Cambridge and a Chris-
tian Socialist. He wrote both historical and social novels. His historical
novels, Hypatia (1853), Westward Ho (1855) and Hereward the Wake
(1866) are attempts to revive the past in a declamatory manner which is
not always very successful. Kingsley is always overburdened with his
Christian outlook. His descriptions of nature are excellent and sometimes
his narration of events catches the reader's imagination but he is not al-
ways successful to revive the past in him as could be done by Reade.
Mrs. Gaskell (1810-65)
When Kingsley was preaching his impassioned sermons to the Char-
tists, Mrs. Elizabeth Gaskell was depicting scenes in the manufacturing
towns of the North. Mary Barton was published in 1848 and North and
South in 1855. Mrs. Gaskell wrote from personal observation; she con-
sulted no reports for statistics, and made no special tours in search of
uncommon occurrences. As the wife of a dissenting minister at
Manchester, her visits of charity gave her easy access to the homes of
workmen, to neat suburban cot'ages, and to the cellars of the city, where
women and children in darkness and fetid air were dying of typhus and
consumption. Strikes, the mysteries of trade unions, and cheap groceries
were familar facts to her. And the heart of that mill- owner living in the
mansion on the hill was an open book, for she had followed this career
from boyhood. She was wise enough to offer no final solution of the
problem of labour and capital, beyond trying to inspire employer and
employee with the spirit of her own reasonableness.
In Mary Barton, she draws a vivid picture of the miserable conditions
of the working class during the forties of the century. Its plot is
melodramatic but exposes very realistically the selfishness and the
callousness of the industrialists to the sufferings of the working class.
In 1853, she wrote Cranford. Cranford presents some honest portraits of
English village-life. North and South deals with the struggle between
capital and labour. In Wives and Daughters, she presents the
character-sketch of some snobs in a penetrating manner. Trollope
(1815-1882)
Bulwer, Borrow, Reade along with Dickens and Thackeray had
many characteristics in common. They were all satirists; they all possessed
ii
strongly marked personalities which they projected into their work; and
this is their charm, for they were all manly men. But they were not
dramatic in the high sense in which Jane Austen was. They were
humorous, in the old Elizabethan meaning of the word ; their emotions
led the way, and their pens followed. If they were in a lyrical mood, they
wrote poetic prose; if their sense of justice was ruffled, they wrote in grand
indignation. Anthony Trollope tried to give the novel the dramatic ele-
ment again.
Trollope's notion of novel was in many respects the same as that of
his contemporaries. In his view, the novel was a salutary and agreeable
sermon, preached to recommend the virtues and to depreciate the vices.
But he objected to the manner in which this kind of sermon was put
together by the social reformers. He accused Reade of not comprehend
ing his subject. He rebuked Dickens for creating vices in the middle and
upper classes, merely for the sake of attacking them. He even maintained
that the literary dishonesty of the reformers had been bad for art; that
droll beings with no blood in their veins were made to pass for men and
women, that pathos had become 'stagey and melodramatic,' that the
comic style created by Dickens 'in defiance of all rules' and affected by his
school was 'jerky' and 'ungrammatical'. "Are there not, Trollope in
quired, "real men and women here in England, and humour and pathos in
life as it is ?" (W. L. Cross)
Trollope started the topographical novel which was brought to
perfection by Hardy and Arnold Bennett. He was a prolific writer of
novels and he wrote social, political, historical, romantic and
psychological novels. His best works, however, are the Barchester novels.
These novels are six in number, starting with The Warden (1855) and en-
ding with The Last Chronicle ofBarset (1866). Trollope always regards the
character as the principal thing in a novel. The plot is not of much con-
sideration with him. He is interested in human beings and wants to
portray them with feelings and imagination. The plot for him, evolves out
of the clash of characters. In his treatment of characters he displays his
keen psychological insight.
Benjamin Disraeli (1804-81)
The leader of the Conservative Party of the age, Benjamin Disraeli,
Earl of Beaconsfield (1804-1881) wrote a number of social and political
novels, which though quite popular during his age, are of little sig-
nificance today. His literary career started with Vivian Gray (1826) which
deals with a political intrigue. His other novels are Henrietta Temple
(1836), Coningsby (1844) and Sybil, or The Two Nations (1845).
Disaeli, the Conservative, in his novels, expresses his faith and
love in the aristocracy. Even when he writes of the poor, he does with an
angularity of vision that shows his lack of love for the poor. His hero of
Sybil frankly argues that the hope of England "lies in the aristocracy to a
sense of their responsibilities as hereditary leaders." He also lacks in im-
agination. His skill lies in recording witty conversations of his characters.
18 Dickens
Edward Bulwer-Lytton (1803-1873)
A prolific writer of romantic, realistic and historical novels of the f9th
century was Edward Bulwer-Lytton. He was always engaged in producing
mysterious and sensational elements in his works. His earlier novels deal
with the social affairs of the age. But he is to be remembered as the writer of
historical novels the most outstanding of which is The Last Days of Pompeii
(1834).
The Bronte Sisters
The romantic side of the Victorian novel was represented by Bronte
Sisters. These illustrious sisters were concerned not with the social affairs of
their age but with the inner emotions of their characters. The three sisters,
Charlotte (1816-1855), Emily (1818-1848) and Anne (1820-1849) often
lived in loneliness and were often in fits of despondency. The Professor and
Jane Eyre (1847) are the outstanding works of Charlotte. Her other novels
are Shirley (1848) and Villette (1853). All her best novels have the charm of
autobiographical touches. They take the reader to a dreamworld of romance
and emotions of love and sacredness.
Emily Bronte has secured a permanent place in the history of the
English novel by her single volume, Wuthering Heights (1848). It is essen-
tially a novel of atmosphere and one which studies human relationship in the
world of imagination and emotion. It is not a Gothic romance, but is a
symbolic presentation of the inner passions of human-beings. It depicts the
story of two families—their hatreds, passions and the ups and downs of their
fortunes. Emily's prose is subtle and colloquial, firm and direct, poetic and
emotional. She has been truly regarded as one of the greatest geniuses in
English literature.
George Eliot (1819-1880)
The later fiction takes various forms. George Eliot is interested in
psychological novel. Meredith makes it a poetic comedy. Hardy fulfills it
with a lot of pessimism. George Eliot (Mary Anne Evans) is undoubtedly
little read these days. She is a realist but is not preoccupied with the social
and political problems of her age. Her first novel, Adam Bede appeared in
1857 and then came out The Mill on the Floss and Silas Mariner in 1860.
Her historical novels are Romola and Middle March (1872). Her chief at-
tention is focussed on characters. She draws upon her rich store of ex-
periences gathered in her early life in Warwickshire and Derbyshire. Her
characters are developed through moral clashes. She maintains links with the
past traditions of the English novel, but brings in the study of the mind to it.
George Meredith (1828-1909)
George Meredith is the father of modern fiction. His steps are followed
by and his methods are perfected by Henry James, James Joyce, Dorothy
Richardson and Virginia Woolf. He also wants to interpret the inner reality
of life. He is interested in the study of the mind. His outstanding works are
Rhoda Fleming, Victoria, The Adventures of Harry Richmond, All of these
appeared from 1865 to 1871. In 1877, he defined his
idea of comedy in his book entitled The Idea of Comedy and the Uses of the
Comic Spirit. He looks on human-beings as Victims of the spirit of
comedy'. His best novel, The Egoist came out in 1879.
Meredith introduces to English novel the study of the world from
within. He has a romantic temper and consequently there is a lyrical
romanticism in his prose. He is not a humorist of the type of Dickens; he is a
satirist who uses his rod of laughter to punish and correct human
vanities, conceits, pedantry and hypocrisy. He has a message to deliver.
He wants his men and women to be free from false sentiments. A Roman-
tic by temper, he is always against ^vashy sentimentalism'. Sanity is what
he recommends for life.
Meredith is not without his limitations. He does not know how to
tell a good story. He is so much concerned with his characters that he
often forgets the novelist's responsibility to present his plot interestingly.
Dr. Daiches remarks about him, "Self-conscious, cumbersomely artful,
not always successful in weaving together into a single complex pattern
the points of view of characters and author armed with an apparatus for
observing life that often sticks out of the novels. Meredith is the most
difficult of the Victorian novelists to come to critical terms with."
These are the novelists of the generation of Dickens during the
Victorian Age. A few other novelists such as Hardy, Butler, Stevenson,
Gissing Moore and Henry James belong to the later generation and
therefore need not be considered here.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. The Victorian Age was remarkable for literary achievements, more
especially in the field of prose.
2. English novel reached its highest peak. Never before in England
such a galaxy of novelists was seen.
3. The Victorian novel owes its primary allegiance to Fielding and
Smollett, but it has a very complex character and large variety.
4. Dickens—One of the best novelists of the world; the novelist who
draws people's attention to the contemporary faults, his deep
humanism; a reformer, his basic belief in the primary benevolent
impulses of man, his immortal humorous characters, his humour
and its blend with pathos, his sincerity and his nice story-telling
make him a great novelist.
5. Whereas Dickens deals with lower classes, Thackeray deals with the
aristocratic society. The former is a born romanticist, the latter a
realist. Thackeray appeals to intellect and exposes the whims,
caprices and snobberies. His best known novels are Vanity Fair and
Henry Esmond
6. Wilkie Collins (1824-89) and other contemporaries of Dickens, such
as, Charles Reade, Charles Kingsley and Anthony Trollope were
quite popular with the Victorians.
7. Women Novelists—Mr. Gaskell (1810-86), Charlotte Bronte and
Emily Bronte who wrote WutheringHeights.
20 Dickens
8. Among other well-knwon novelists may be mentioned the names o

Benjamin Disraeli, Edward Bulwer Lytton, George Eliot anc George
Meredith.
5. DICKENS'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE

ENGLISH NOVEL
Most Famous, Most Typical Novelist of His Age
Dickens is a unique novelist. "It is not to be avoided," says David Cecil
that "a book on the Victorian novelists must begin with Dickens. Not that he
needs praising. He is the one novelist of his school, whose books have not
grown at all dusty on the shelves, whose popularity has suffered no sensible
decline. Nor that there is much new to be saidabout him; Mr. Santayana and
Mr. Chesterton, to say nothing of lesser critics, have seen to that. But he is
not only the most famous of the Victorian novelists, he is the most typical. If
we are to see distinguishing virtues and defects of his school at their clearest,
we must examine Dickens."
A Great Master of English
Dr. F.R. Leavis regards Dickens 'as a great poet', 'in range and ease (of
command of word, phrase, rhythm, and image), there is surely no "* greater
master of English except Shakespeare.' Mr. Walter Allen praises . him,
"Dickens was the great novelist who was also the great entertainer, the greatest
entertainer, probably, in the history of fiction." Dickens was, indeed, 'the
master of our sunniest smiles and our most unselfish tears.' 'Make 'em laugh,
make'em cry, make 'em wait', was his friend Wilkie Collins's formula for the
novel. Dickens first caught his readers by making them laugh. So the first great
contribution of Dickens to the English novel was his discovery of new sources
of humour.
Discovery of New Sources of Humour
"Perhaps Dickens's major contribution to literature," says Neill in The
Short History of English Novel, "was his discovery of new sources of
humour. Like Smollett, the great literary influence on him, he saw the
humour of funny faces. A child who was asleep in a room in which Dickens
was writing later recalled how, waking up suddenly, she saw the novelist
make faces at himself in the looking glass and then return to his desk and
continue his work."
Dickens used almost every device of humour. Ungrammatica! cir-
cumlocutions of the uneducated, the childish fun in the contrariness of
inanimate objects, the absurdity of the apt or ludicrously unsuitable name,
the humour of the professional outlook, over-riding egoism—all these were
new to English Fiction.
Socialization of the Novel
The next contribution of Dickens to the English novels is that he made
the novel 'social'. No novelist before Dickens had treated the lower middle
classes on such broad lines or in so frank a way. He studied them not as a
detached, superior kind of observer, but as one on their own level.
This socialistic approach and feeling made Dickens an apostle, and
turned his work into "a gospel of humanitarianism." W.L. Cross observes
in this connection, "The humanitarian novel, with which the name of
Dickens is pre-eminently associated after the publication of 'Pickwick,' is
the popular section of an extensive humanitarian literature, and as such, it
is the most available record of a deep and far-reaching philanthropic
movement, which has its beginning in the eighteenth century, and rose to
its sentimental culmination some fifty years ago."
After the publication of Nicholas Nickleby and Old Curiosity Shop,
"Dickens became a sort of professor of humanitarianism" and he held his
position for nearly thirty years, disturbed now and then by a critic or
reviewer who questioned his knowledge. His theme was always the down-
trodden and the oppressed. He was their advocate; for them each of his
novels after 'Pickwick' is a lawyer's brief.
In his opinion, it was not possible for the lower and criminal classes
to raise themselves by the elective franchise to a higher moral and intel-
lectual plane. To him Parliament was the dearest place in the world, and
he sought to arouse the conscience of the British public, and he left the
issue with themselves. He accordingly attended, often acting as chair-
man, meetings of philanthropic societies where governmental abuses
and the condition of criminals and the poor were to be canvassed, visited
jails and prisons, holding long conversations with the keepers and went
on addressing the over increasing audience of his novels. "Through him
spoke the heart and conscience of Britain, which had found not respon-
sive voice in Scott."
His Moral Influence
Considered from this point of view, Dickens has his place in
idealistic reaction. His influence combined itself with that of Carlylc,
whose authority as a teacher he accepted or felt. But his most important
significance is not that he shared in the philanthropic crusade, that he
showed up abuses, or prepared those fits of moral compunction from
which reforms have sprung. Above all, he has stimulated the national
sensibility which was slowly wasting away in the dry atmosphere of a
utilitarian age; he has re-estabilished balance and more wholesome order
in the proportionate values of the motives of life.
Restoration of Idealism to the Novel
"Dickens thus restored to the novel the idealism which departed
with Richardson and Fielding. For all the squalor, sin and pain in the
novels of Dickens, the impression left on reading any of them is, that he
believed as implicitly as Leibnitz that this is best of all possible
worlds...His faith in the better element of human nature, in its possible
triumph, in its readiness to grasp the helping hand outstretched to it, was
boundless. His novels are a tribute to the species, to the vast army of
beings who live and struggle for a period, and then fall unremembered to
give place to others." (W. L. Cross)
22 Dickens
A Check to Medievalism
Dickens was from the very first a check to medievalism. After he
began writing, knights and ladies and tournaments became rarer. He
awakened the interest of the public in the social condition of England
after the Napoleonic wars. The Scott novel had come swollen with
prefaces, notes, and appendix, to show that it was true to the spirit of
history; the Dickens novel became considerably enlarged with personal
experiences, anecdotes, stories from friends, and statistics, to show that it
was founded upon facts. Instead of the pageant of the middle age, Dickens
gave to his readers strikes and riots, factories and granaries and barns in
blaze, employee shooting employer, underground tenements, dirty
garrets, sweating establishments, work-houses, truck-stores, the ravages
of typhus, enthusiastic descriptions of model factories, model prisons,
model cottages, discussions of the newpoor law of trade unions, of char-
tism, and of the relations of the rich and the poor.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. Dickens is a unique novelist. His popularity has never declined. He is
not only the most famous of the Victorian novelists, he is the most
typical.
2. On account of his command of word and phrase, rhythm and image,
Dickens is the master of English. F. R. Leavis calls him "a great
poet"; Walter Allen "the greatest entertainer; the master of our
sunniest smiles and our most unselfish tears,"
3. According to S. D. Neil, Dickens's greatest contribution was his
discovery of new sources of humour.
4. Dickens used almost every device of humour. Ungrammatical
circumlocution of the uneducated, the childish fun in the con-
trariness of inanimate objects, the absurdity of the apt or unsuitable
name, the humour of professional outlook, the over- riding egoism.
5. He made the novel social and "a gospel of humanitarianism"; and
he himself became "a sort of professor of humanitarianism", an
advocate of the down-trodden and the oppressed.
6. His zeal for reform influenced his contemporaries. He showed the
faults of his contemporaries.
7. Dickens restored to the novel the idealism which departed with
Richardson and Fielding.
8. Dickens was from the very first a check to medievalism. L
6. DICI^NS'S ART OF PLOT-CONSTRUCTION A
Bad Constructor of Plots
Dickens was a bad constructor of plots. His plots are loose, complex,
ill-shaped, inconsistent and round-about. They lack unity, and are not
well-knitted. They are full of detachable episodes, astonishing crudities
and irrelevant characters who serve no purpose in furthering the plot and/
might be omitted without the slightest loss.
General Introduction 2'\
David Cecil has beautifully pointed out the weaknesses of Dickens's
plot-construction in the following words : "Dickens cannot construct.
After pages of humorous conversation, he will remember, there should be a
plot, and will plunge back for a paragraph or two into a jungle of
elaborate intrigue....Very often he leaves a great many threads loose till
the last chapter; and then finds there is not enough time to tie them up
neatly. The main strands are knotted roughly together, the minor wisps
are le*ft hanging forlornly. Of course, in his later novels, Dickens en-
deavoured his best to make amendments and improve his plots, yet, can-
didly speaking, there had been little improvement. His novels ever
remained topsyturvily plotted."
Major Weaknesses of Dickens's Plots
(1) Lack of Unity. Dickens's plots are all shapeless and incoherent.
As stated by Walter Allen, "His early novels are like shapeless bags which
contain something for everybody and parts which one does not like, can
more or less be ignored. We remember the early novels not as wholes but
by episodes." (Allen). As a matter of fact, his plots are not organic wholes.
The crudities and improbabilities of his plots are astonishing. First, a
number of episodic stories are introduced, sometimes, merely melo-
dramatic, which are not closely related to the main theme, and thus the
artistic unity is weakened. The narrative grows rambling and incoherent
and there is much that is superfluous.
(2) Subordination of Plot to Character. In Dickens's novels plot is
subordinated to characters. It is often stretched to accommodate
characters which have no organic relation with the plot. We remember his
characters, they are so charming, but often we cannot place them in the
novel to which they belong. As Hugh Walker says, "One of his faults as an
artist is to introduce unnecessary characters, characters who drop in from
nowhere, exercise no influence on the story, and sometimes disappear
unnoticed." Mr. Micawber, Mrs. Gamp, etc. are mere excrescences as they
are not all suggested by the story. He cares more for character than for
plot, and unity and integrity of plot is often sacrificed in the interest of
character.
(3) Improbabilities and Inconsistencies. There are many
improbabilities and inconsistencies in the plots of Dickens's novels.
Gissing rightly points out that his plots do not grow out of plausible
human situations. There is much that is improbable and unconvincing in
his plots. Even in David Copperfield, which has the best plot-construction,
"there is no real pressure on reality, no logic of cause and effect" (A.OJ.
Cockshut). The ease with which Betsey Trotwood acquires legal control
over David is unconvincing. The Murdstones come like ogres and go like
nightmares. Much of the novel is daydream, where pieces of good or evil
fortune happen without cause or consequence; where each event seems
detached from every other. David employed in washing bottles needs
some friend or relative, money and education, and he gets them. He wants
to marry Dora, her father does not give his consent and his daughter can
not disobey him, and so he dies quite conveniently. And Dora dies equally
24 Dickens
conveniently. Agnes's father must be saved, and so Mr. Micawber, of all
people, finds proof of all the crimes of his partner—Uriah Heep. Some-
thing always turns up at the last moment; dangers and difficulties disap-
pear like mist. "Too often the novelist prefers some far-fetched
eccentricity, some piece of knavishness, some unlikely occurrence, about
which to weave his tale." (Gissing).
(4) Melodramatic Touches. Since Dickens was writing at a time
which was a transitional period between the romances and the novels of
plot, he often incorporated melodramatic touches after the novels of
women novelists, such as Mrs. Gaskell, In his novels, we get many
melodramatic situations and dialogues. In Nickolas Nickleby we get
melodrama of the feeblest kind, Dickens seems to be after the thrilling,
the sensational, the unnatural and the artificial, which may entertain but
which are not artistic. Dickens's love of the stage was a misfortune for him
as a novelist, and this theatrical vice appears in his plots upto the very end.
(5) Abuse of Coincidence. "The sin most palpable, most gross,
which Dickens everywhere commits is the abuse of coincidence." In David
Copperfield, Steerforth returns to England from his travels with Emily, his
ship is wrecked at Yarmouth, and his dead body is washed up at the feet of
David who happened to have made a little journey to see his Yarmouth
friends on that very day. It is again a coincidence that Miss Murdstone
happens to be the companion of Dora. The plot of Break House is held
together by the abuse of coincidence in its most flagrant form. In
Dickens's novels, things happen when and were the novelist wants them
to happen. All this misuse of coincidence makes his plots artificial and
unnatural.
(6) Too Much Conventional Element Dickens suffers from a
poverty of invention. This mars even some of his best novels. Even in
David Copperfield, the story of Emily is unhappily conceived. The
mysteries surrounding Wickfield, the knaveries of Uriah Heep, have no
claim upon our belief; intrigues are half-heartedly introduced merely be
cause intrigue seems necessary. The situation in which Mr. Micawber
brings Uriah Heep to book, is theatrical and unconvincing. The scene be
tween Emily and Rosa Dartle is entirely theatrical and fails to carry con
viction. David's flight from London and the direction it takes, are
unsufficiently accounted for. There is much in his novels that is merely
conventional in the tradition of Fielding—long lost heirs, mistaken in-
dentity, disguised lovers, artificial intrigues, etc. However, David Copper-
field is remarkably free from such conventional elements.
(7) Forced and Unnatural Endings. The closing scenes of Dickens's
novels are often contrived in the tradition of the theatre and are brought
to a happy end, however, forced and unnatural that happy end may ap
pear. This sin is to be seen at its worst in Martin Chuzzlewit, where a family
of emigrants from America turns up at the right moment to fill the cup of
benevolent rejoicing. In Great Expectations, Pip is not left a lonely man in
the interest of happy ending. There is always poetic justice at the end; the
wicked are punished and the virtuous are suitably rewarded. For example,
.
in David Copperfield, Uriah Heep is punished, Mr. Micawber prospers in
Australia, and David is happily married to Agnes. Thus his moral purpose
makes his closing scenes often unnatural and improbable.
(8) Too Much Moralising and Superfluity. Dickens's narration
frequently suffers from much tedious superfluity. Frequently, he opens a
chapter with a long passage of old-fashioned moralising which has noth-
ing to do with the story. In Martin Chuzzlewit, there is a long chapter
directed against the advantage of high birth which is entirely superfluous,
and the story would gain much by its omission. There is much tedious
superfluity of this kind in Our Mutual Friend as well. In David Copperfield,
the story is told in the first person, but David relates in detailed conversa-
tions which took place before his birth, and which, therefore, could not
Have been heard by him. Thus, verisimilitude is violated. The natural
question which the readers ask is how David came to know all that hap-
pened before his birth ? However, this verisimilitude has been preserved
with remarkable care in Great Expectations. Reasons for His Faults
There are some definite reasons for some of the shortcomings of
Dickens's plots. Much that is conventional in his plots results from his
fondness for the theatre and the picaresque tradition. He often wrote
against time, and the rapidity of production forced upon him by the serial
method of production tended to looseness of construction. Marks of
haste and lack of revision are writ large on his novels. There was, further,
his intellectual inability to see his work as a whole. The serial method of
publication had this disadvantage that he could not see mentally the
whole of the work on which he was engaged, and could not make altera-
tions in the earlier chapters even when he considered such alterations
necessary. Besides this, he cared more for character than for plot or in-
cident; he strained his plots to the utmost to accommodate his charac-
ters. Dickens had to write according to public taste which went on
changing from time to time and had to produce a story suitable for publi-
cation in monthly numbers, he had to create a small climax and excite-
ment in each instalment. That is why his plots have little organic unity and
are loose and complex.
Defence of Dickens
Defending Dickens as a plot-builder, Symons has observed in his
book, Charles Dickens : "It was Dickens's misfortune that he did not live
in such a period; that he began to write instead at a time when the English
novel was changing from a picturesque romance to a plotted narrative,
and from a record of events to an analysis of character. Dickens lived
through this time of change, and was aware of it; and we see in his books
the struggles of a creative artist who lacked a form in which to set down his
apprehension of the world. The task of constructing such a form was one
for which Dickens was not fitted although he heroically attempted
it ... When he began to write, Dickens was concerned simply to produce a
story suitable for publication in monthly numbers—one, that is to say, in
which each instalment should have its small climax and its need of excite-
26
Dickens
ment: the Pickwick Papers, are in effect an eighteenth-century picaresque
tale, with a dash or two of Gothic horror added. There is no evidence that
Dickens disliked the need to write for monthly part publication. Like
other Victorian novelists, he accepted it quite willingly, and it made his
work, like theirs, frequently prolix and verbose. Such a method of work
suited very well the needs of one who positively enjoyed working at a great
speed and for long periods at a time; but it hampered Dickens as an art-
ist."
Dickens was not, however, like the modern detective story-writer, or
like his young friend, Wilkie Collins, interested in the puzzle for its own
sake. It was to him simply a convenient medium for conveying the
melodrama which chiefly concerned him. The plot was always a nuisance
to Dickens, although it was a nuisance that held for him a continual and
increasing fascination. In fact, Dickens was much more interested in men
than in manners. He focussed not on incidents but on characters. "It is his
comic figures, we remember first, before we remember the books that contain
them. ".
Above all, the plot of David Copperfield is well constructed. And so is
the plot of Great Expectations. Many of his later novels are free from the
weaknesses of the earlier novels. His main aim is to entertain in the full.
David Copperfield was Dickens's best novel. He himself said, "Of all the
books I like this the best. "A.C. Ward also praises the plot-construction of
David Copperfield and says that it is a story with a plot and not a mere
string of adventures and experiences.
The Fusion of the Dramatic and Episodic Approaches
In fact, most of Dickens's faults as a plot-builder shall disappear if we
evaluate his novels as a fusion of the modern and ancient traditions of
novel, the dramatic and the episodic. The dramatic is designed to show the
development of character such as Pip in Great Expectations. In the
episodic type, the characters move from place to place, but they do not
develop: they are in the static state; it is a device to set the characters 'in
new situations, to change their relations to one another, and in all these to
make them behave typically." All the early novels of Dickens are episodic
•while in his later novels, an attempt is made to devise more dramatic
plots, to make the best of two traditions. In the fusion of these two tradi-
tions, Dickens had demonstrated his abilities in a variety of narrative
techniques : farce, caricature, speech-devices, conflicting and exciting ac-
tions, use of sentiment and horror, etc. In the words of Davies, "The
balance of contrast of several plots and techniques, so that each inten-
sifies the others, the entire action arranged around a central pattern."
A Good Story-teller
We may conclude the account of Dickens's plots with the words of
David Cecil: "Dickens may not construct the story well, but he tells it ad-
mirably. With the first sentence he grips the attention of the readers, and does
not let it go till the very end " His scenery is always charming, dialogue ad-
mirable, and incidents thrilling and exciting. There is often over-abun-
dance of wit and humour to delight and entertain. Besides, as both Ward
and Baker agree, David Copperfield is remarkably free from the usual
faults of Dickens, (a) It is not a mere string of adventures and experiences
but has a well-marked theme and the story moves forward more rapidly
and smoothly than is the case with the other novels of Dickens, (b) There
is much less of melodrama, and (c) there is less of direct moralising.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. Critics have mentioned time and again several weaknesses in
Dickens's plot-construction such as superfluity, verbosity, in-
coherence, lack of unity, improbability, abuse of coincidence, over-
crowding of events, lack of logical relationship between the plot and
character, subordination of plot to character, over- moralizing, etc.
2. But his David Copperfield is without many of these shortcomings. It
is one of the best few plots he has constructed. Its plot has been
praised by critics such as Ward and Baker.
3. In spite of his shortcomings, Dickens is able to give us a very good
kind of entertainment: he fills the gaps by good scenery and immor-
tal characters. For him characters are more important than their
manners of situations.
4. Dickens is a good story-teller. His stories are gripping in their interest.
—
7. DICKENS'S ART OF CHARACTERIZATION

A Large Variety of Characters
There is in Dickens's novels a 'great stream of people hurrying to
and fro' that never ceases to break. Next to Shakespeare, Dickens is the
greatest creator of characters in English Literature. His characterization is
a mere wonder-work of genius. Dickens possesses a prodigal, exuberant
energy of creating characters. He has created and populated a world of his
own characters. His is the world of richness, variety and complexity un-
matched in the English fiction. It has been remarked, humorously, of
course, that his characters would make a town populous enough to send a
member of Parliament Lord David Cecil observes, "Of all the crowded
Victorian canvas his is the most crowded. His books are like mobs, huge,
seething chaotic mobs; but mobs in which there is no face like another, no
voice but reveals in its lightest accents a unique unmistakable in-
dividuality." In his novels, thus, we come across a rich pageant of human
life—men, women, children drawn from all classes. In Picwick Papers
alone, there are about one hundred characters and in David Copperfield
ninety-five. There is thus God's plenty in Dickens as it was in Chaucer and
Shakespeare. Among the Victorian novelists, Dickens was the greatest
'character-monger.' Dickens has given us a galaxy of vital and lively char-
acters. His Micawbers, his Peggotties, his Betsey Trotwoods, his Uriah
Heeps, etc., are amazingly alive and vital.
28 Dickens
Main Categories of Dickens'^ Characters
There are some three or four main types of characters in his novels.
First, there are the innocent little children such as Oliver, Joe, Paul, Tiny
Tim, David and Little Neil. Secondly, there are horrible or grotesque foils
like Squeers, Fagin, Quilp, Uriah Heep and Bill Sykes. Thirdly, we come
across the grandiloquent or broadly humorous personages such as
Micawber and Samweller. Fourthly, there are the tenderly drawn figures
like those of Lady Dedlock in Bleak House, and Sydney Carton of A Tale
of Two Cities.
Compton-Rickett divides Dickens's characters into two categories :
the normal and the abnormal. And the abnormal are further divided into
satirical portraits, villains, and grotesques. According to
Compton-Rickett, Dickens is not much interested in depicting average
young men and women. He is much more successful with characters who
have some marked peculiarity, oddity or eccentricity to distinguish them
from the common run of mankind. As mentioned by Gissing also, "With
the normal in character, Dickens does not often concern himself. His
greatest success lies with confessed eccentrics." The most successful of
such figures is Mr. Micawber, with his beaming face always waiting for
some thing to turn up, and retaining his cheerful optimism even under the
most adverse circumstances. He is the representative of a class which knows
the art of living on nothing at all. He is the type of the irrepressibly
hopeful man, full of kindness, who goes through life, an unreluctant
pensioner on the friends won by his many good and genial qualities. The
only false note about him is his sudden conversion to practical activity in
Australia, where he becomes a magistrate. Dickens is ever at his best
when dealing with an amiable weakness, as in the case of Mr. Micawber.
He is a universal type, such men are peculiar to no nation or country; they
exist in every part of the world.
Another type which Dickens excels in painting is the social victim,
specially a child. "He is capital as a baby." His child characters are vivid
and unforgettable. "Dickens did not describe a child, he became a child
for the time-being. He lived over again his own childish days. Hence the
poignancy and actuality of his pictures." (Compton-Rickett).
Some Limitations
There is no doubt that Dickens's art of characterization suffers from
a number of limitations. In the wrods of David Cecil, "Dickens often fails
over his character. His serious characters with a few brilliant exceptions
like David Copperfield, are the conventional, virtuous and vicious dum-
mies of melodrama. He cannot draw complex, educated or aristocratic
types. And what is more unfortunate, even in his memorable figures he
shows sometimes an uncertain grasp of psychological essentials. He real-
izes personality with unparalleled vividness; but he does not understand
the organic principles that underlie the personality." The female charac-
ters of Dickens have been regarded as feeble or artificial. Women in love
have been portrayed with little understanding of sex-life. The tragedy of
sensitive ill-used children is a tragedy that Dickens could draw with force,
tenderness and imaginative insight, but the tragedy of fitful passions, of

futile affections, tragedy of Juliet, a Maggie Tulliver, of Tess is outside his
range. He could be successful in the portrayal of eccentric women like Betsy
Trotwood, Miss La Creevy and Miss Pross."
Dickens does not try to reveal the inner life of his characters so much as
their individuality. He never portrays men and women at the critical juncture
of their lives. He cannot depict them in the whirlwind of emotions and
passions. "Dickens's affair," says Baker, "was with characters, not with
character, to portray the infinite diversity of mankind, not to analyse the
individual; his genius was for the extensive not the intensive vision."
In a celebrated passage of his History of English Literature, Taine
complained of the static and undramatic nature of Dickens's characters.
Dickens, he said, began with a book of essays, and his novels are only essays
stitched together into a series. His characters do not grow and change, as
they would, if presented as living wholes. They have no history.
Dickens's characters have also been criticized for not being real. Many
of them are placed in improbable situations. Dickens is essentially a novelist
of low life. He could draw characters only from lower middle class or lower
classes : characters belonging to the upper classes were beyond his range.
He had no knowledge of aristocracy.
Dickens's Method of Characterizations
In general, Dickens delights in delineating the external peculiarities of
his characters. He gives us a very vivid and precise picture of the exter-
nals—the face, the gesture, and the dress. His fantastic imagination fastens
on any oddity or peculiarity of his characters. We are told about the tone of
voice, the trick of utterance and the gestures which accompany it, till every
word spoken by his characters is real to us. His characters further reveal
themselves in conversation, chapter after chapter. He visualises his character
first by depicting his external peculiarities and then by attaching a tag or
label, or by describing his surroundings and atmosphere.
Since Dickens uses exaggeration in his characterization, he has been
called or rather condemned as a caricaturist. According to Walter Allen,
"Dickens's characters are often said to be caricatures or to be exaggerated. I
do not think this is true ; they are all so sharply differentiated from one
another as to be plainly the product of intense accuracy of observation." In
the words of Santayana, "When people say, Dickens exaggerates, it seems to
me they can have eyes and no ears. They probably have only notions of what
things and people are ; they accept them conventionally at their diplomatic
value. Their minds run on in the region of discourse, where there are marks
only, and no faces ; ideas and no facts : they have little sense for those living
grimaces that play from moment on the countenance of the world." The
reason of their being caricatures is perhaps that while portraying his
characters, Dickens s lays greater emphasis on their individuality.
30 Dickens
Flat Characters
Dickens, with few exceptions, fails to develop his characters through
circumstance. In other words, his characters are flat; they do not change
and grow psychologically under the stress of circumstances. 1 hey remain
the same from beginning to the end. Flat characters are sometimes called
types, and sometimes caricatures. "In their purest form," says L.M.
Forster, "they are constructed round a single idea or quality: when there is
more than one factor in them, we get the beginning of the curve towards the
round." Dickens's characters, according to Mr. Forster, are flat
characters. They are types and symbols. Mr. Piekwick is a belated
specimen of the eighteenth century man of feeling. Picksniff and Mrs.
Gamp are drawn as embodiments of hypocrisy and heartless egoism. Mr.
Jellyby is the type of all professional philanthropists; Mr. Sergeant Buzful
is the type of all legal advocates. Mr. Micawber stands for optimists. "Like
the writers of the old moralities, Dickens peoples his stage with virtues
and vices, and like them he does it gaily, presenting them as no frigid
abstractions, but as clowns and zanies, thwacking their bladders, ex-
uberant in motley and bell." (DavidCecil). In a word, Dickens's characters
are both types and individuals.
Conclusion
In spite of all the blemishes of characterterization, Dickens's char-
acters are real persons of flesh and blood. "The word 'caricature' that is
used a thousand times to reproach Dickens is the word that does him sin-
gular honour." His characters are the fantastic creations of a fertile im-
agination. They have a great deal of vigour and vitality. They are so
consistent, they are presented with so much verisimilitude and with so
much conviction that we believe with them. They are dearly loved by the
readers and those who have once been in their company bless the author
who created them for our delights in a world over-ridden with sorrows and
griefs.
According to S.D. Neil, "Dickens's approach to character was that of
the actor, not that of the philosopher or the psychologist. The actor is a
fine artist. He observed from the outside, he built up character boldly and
swiftly, catching the salient features, and his cut-and-thrust method tri-
umphed because it resulted in something ijnforgetably vivid."
POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. Dickens's canvas is a crowded one. His characters are extremely
varied and vital. He has created a large variety of characters like
those of Shakespeare and Chaucer.
2. But his range of characterisation is a limited one like that of Jane
Austen. He cannot create upper class characters, intellectual, deep,
passionate people, and men of extreme grace and charm.
3. His characters have an air of unreality about them. Reality con-
stantly idealised.
4. His characters are touched with caricature; their pecularities are ex-
aggerated; they are somewhat grotesque; but caricaturing is also an
art; grotesqueness is the part of his Age; and exaggeration a gift of his
rich imagination.
5. Dickens is good at painting the externals of character, but not the inner
reality.
6. His characters are flat; they do not change psychologically.
7. He is more successful with the abnormal, rather than with the normal
characters. ^
8. DICKENS'S FEMALE CHARACTERS
Social Attitude Towards Womanhood
Dickens was dictated by Victorian morality and outlook towards
women. In his practical life also he had never been a favourite with women.
They had simply regarded him as vulgar and left him alone, or turned away
from him in disgust as a libeller of the fair sex. Yet Dickens wrote of women
in the liveliest spirit of satire ; numberless pictures of detestable widows,
wives and spinsters appear in his pages. Such portraits are among his finest
works and they are incontestable proofs of his ability to reproduce life with
great fidelity. His works are a rich picture gallery of foolish, ridiculous, or
offensive women.
Portraits of the Women of the Middle Classes
Dickens's women are mostly drawn from lower middle class life. Their
circumstances are comfortable. They are treated with kindness by their
menfolk and are provided with all possible comforts, and nothing is
expected from them but a quiet discharge of their household-duties. Yet they
are quarrelsome and ill-tempered and make all about them as uncomfortable
as possible. Invariably, they are unintelligent and untaught, even imbecile.
Education has done little to improve their intellect or their temper. In such
presentation, Dickens is realistic, for in his day, among the poor of London,
countless such specimens could easily be found. Even the language which
they use is the very language which Dickens must have heard them using in
the lodging-houses and inns of London.
Objects of Joyous Laughter : Realistic Presentation
Dickens treats these women humorously and makes them the source of
joyous laugher. These women cause untold misery to their menfolk, but this
aspect of the matter is not exhibited by Dickens. "Women who might have
wrecked homes, are shown as laughable foils for the infinite goodness and
patience of men about them." (Gissing). In Barnaby Rudge, we have Mrs.
Warden, the representative of all the illogicality, and ill-temper of the fair
sex. Her talk has been reported with marvellous realism. Her talk is almost
phonographic reproduction. In David Copper-field, there is Mrs. Gummidge
who serves, no doubt, to illustrate the finest qualities of the Peggotty
household. She has fits of depression and irritation andis guilty of monstrous
ingratitude towards the household which keeps her out of the workhouse.
She has been portrayed with great realism as the type of woman who suffers
herself and causes untold suffering to all about her. The only false note is
about her sudden conversion to
32 Dickens
a bright, happy and serviceable woman in Australia. We refuse to believe
in such sudden conversations, even though they are caused by misfortunes
in the family. Shrewish Tyrannical Women
Dickens abounds in women who are a curse to their husbands' lives.
There is Mrs. Joe Gargery, the wife of the blacksmith in Great Expecta-
tions. She is a shrew of the most highly developed order. She tyrannises
over her husband and also over her little brother as any harshness to the
boy causes pain to her husband. "It is the peculiarity of these women that
no one can conjecture why they behave so ill. The nature of the animals,
nothing more can be said." (Gissing). She brings about a quarrel between
Joe and Orlick by a malicious lie. She is not converted but made quiet by a
half-murderous blow at the back of her head. Mrs. Nickleby belongs to a
higher social stratum. She is a smiling idiot with no education, but an
irresponsible tongue. Such characters are very strong pleas for the
education of women.
Base London Landlady
Mrs. Crupp in David Copperfield is the representative of a very large
social class. She stands for the baser kind of London Landlady, a type
frequently recurring in Dickens. Her name stands for all dishonesty and
uncleanliness. "The monstrosity of her pretensions touches the highest
point of the ludicrous." (Gissing).
Women of the Working Classes
With women of the working classes, Dickens is more sympathetic.
His sympathy prevents him from criticising the very poor. He shows the
women of the poor at their very best. Generally speaking, these women
are blessed with a good temper, the source of everything enjoyable in life.
However poor and ignorant, they shed about them the light of joy and
comfort. Themselves genial and cheerful, they do much to lighten the sor-
row and suffering of poverty.
Eccentric Women
Another group of female characters in Dickens, consists of ec-
centrics of all classes and tempers. They are a source of great mirth for the
readers. "Eccentric, indeed, but on a fine basis of sense and character, is
the immortal Betsey Trotwood." All her time is given to the care of Mr.
Dick and assault on donkeys, till David enters her life, and she becomes
the making of him. A victim of bad marriage, she has not yet soured her
temper and leads a rational existence. In spite of her many peculiarities,
she is a woman of sense and character. Marriageable Maidens
Still another group of Dickens's female characters consists of
marriageable maidens. They are kittenish. They smirk and simper, and
tell little fibs, and smile treacherous little smiles, and sometimes shed a
tear. But they are lovable all the same. These girls are among Dickens's
masterpieces. In their portrait, there is no exaggeration at all; they are
entirely true to life. They are realistic portraits of the Victorian maiden;
not a word, not a gesture goes beyond the very truth. Here Dickens is the
realist exemplar. They arc so representative, yet so finely individualised.
"They are the most precious thing left to us by early Victorian literature."
Failure to Portray Women in Love
It may be noted that there is very little love-making in all the novels 0f
Dickens. Dickens is rarely successful in presenting women in love. In the
words of Compton-Rickett, "Never was anyone more devoid of
semblance to humanity than Estella. She does not talk like a creature of
flesh and blood, but as a personified theory." The story of little Emily and
her elopement has been presented in the falsest possible light. The girl is
shown to us as acting with coldblooded deliberation. There is no hint
given as to how she was tempted by Steerforth, and it looks very much as if
she calculated the material advantages of elopement with him. The insults
hurled at her by Rose Dartle are to some extent justified. It may be said
that Emily has only a subordinate part in the book; it is Dora who is the
leading lady. But Dickens is equally unsuccessful with her. She is wooed
and wed, but it is the wooing and wedding of a butterfly. This is the prettiest
bit of love-making in all Dickens, however false it may appear to us. The
scene in which David writes with Dora, holding the pen, is, no doubt,
poetic, but it certainly does not present a real picture of an author's life. No
author can write with such a charming assistant bending over him. Dora is
not to be taken seriously; she is incapable of shouldering the
responsibilities of life. Dickens's young ladies in love have received no
education worth the name, and hence are irresponsible and fickle. "They
are all 'little women,' they are all shortstatured."
POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. Dickens's portrayal of women is dictated by Victorian morality and
outlook. He does not portray very sexy women, nor does he portray
women in love successfully. His attitude towards womanhood, there-
fore, is typically Victorian or social.
2. His women are mostly drawn from lower middle class life.
3. Dickens treats these women humorously and makes them the source
of joyous laughter.
4. Dickens portrays successfully shrewish, tyrannical women, e.g., Mrs.
Joe Gargery and Miss H avis ham in Great Expectations.
5. Dickens is frequent in portraying cruel, base London landladies
through a typical woman such as Mrs. Crupp.
6. Dickens is more sympathetic with women of working-classes. These
women are blessed with a good temper, though poor and ignorant.
7. Ano tiler group of female characters in Dickens consists of eccentrics
of all classes and tempers. They are a good source of great mirth for
the readers. For example, Betsey Trotwood.
8. Then we have marriageable maidens such as Estella, Dora, Agnes,
etc.
9. Dickens has failed in presenting women in love. ^
34 Dickens
9. DICKENS'S HUMOUR
A Supreme Humorist
"Humour," said Carlyle, "is a sympathy with the seamy side of
things." Charles Dickens has a lot of sympathy with the seamy side of life.
As a humorist, he stands beside Shakespeare. Fashions come and fashions
go but the supremacy of Dickens as a humorist remains ungone, un-
challenged.
\ Dickens has created a large population of drolls. There are nearly a
hundred comic characters in Pickwick Papers. His Martin Chuzzlewit is a
booby of humour and Pickwick its library. There is grotesque humour in
the fat boy, satirical in the trial-scene and riotous almost everywhere in
Pickwick Papers. Martin Chuzzlewit is not only Dickens's best comic novel
but the greatest work of comic genius in the whole of English literature. In
the field of comedy, I put Dickens above Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Field
ing, and Smollett, though recognizing, as he did himself, that he owed
much to them." ^ (R. C. Churchill)
Humour of Farce
Whereas the humour of Thackeray consists in intellectual wit and
suggestiveness and the humour of Somerset Maugham is ironical,
Dickens's humour is not far away from farce. Gissing says, "As a writer of
true farce I suppose Dickens has never been surpassed." Dickens's
humour does not reflect the intellectual repartee of Benedick and
Beatrice but it creates uproarious, vivacious and rocking laughter.
Humour of Character
According to Baker, "The humour of Dickens is essentially a
humour of character. It is his comic figures we remember first, before we
remember the books that contain them. We all remember Mr. Peter,
Magnus, Mr. Sapses, Mr. Puppy, Mr. Jack Hopkins, Mr. Toots, Mrs.
Gamp, Mr. Pumblechook, Miss Nipper, but not al! of us could allocate
them to their several volumes without hesitation. Dickens lives chiefly
now in his comic characters, but these are so numerous, so astonishing, so
altogether delightful, that a writer could hardly wish for a better hold
upon posterity."
Humour through Themes and Situations
Dickens's humour remains an awe-inspiring theme, both on account
of its size and of its elusive character. His comic spirit assumes almost
inexhaustibly varied and complex forms. He was adept in conceiving
humorous situations or scenes, but it is mainly as a delineator of
humorous characters that he is unsurpassed. Dickens also provides
humour through a certain number of themes and their special treatment.
Out of many themes, there are three that are most illuminating; domestic
servants, inadequate theatrical performances, and funerals. Mr. Sylvere
Monod has said in this connection in his article, A French View of
Dickens's Humour, "All this plethoric branch of Dickens's humour boils
down to one simple statement—that in the relationship between master
and servant the real psychological position is as often as not the reverse of
the official one although Mr. Pickwick is not often daunted by Sam, while
David Copperfield lives in constant aweofMr. Crupp, of Littimer, and of
everyone of the incapables who are supposed to be the servants of Dora :
finally, Pip and Herbert have to come to call their page, simply, the Avenger.
The source of the comic appears comparatively clear in such cases: it is
merely a reversal of theaccepted order of things."
Satire as a Source of Humour
Sometimes Dickens's humour lies in the contrast between the littleness
of the means and results. This kind of humour is clearly visible in Great
Expectations. Sometimes, humour appears through his treatment of funerals.
There are satirical references to this theme in Oliver Twist, Martin
Chuzzlewit, David Copperfield. Our Mutual Friend, Edwin Drood and Great
Expectations. Here also it is the sense of incongruity that gives rise to
humour. The humour of Dickens is of two kinds—satirical and sympathetic.
He despises hypocrisy, vanity, greed, insolence of men and women. So he
satirises and exposes those characters who practise unfair means. In the
character of Mr. Bumble, he satirises all selfish dispensers of public charity.
In Mr, Picksniffs character, he exposes hypocrites. But it is the pure humorist
in Dickens that is most enjoyable. The pure humorist in him puts a language
so fertile and exuberant in comic inventions in the mouth of his characters
that it reminds one of the lyrical quality almost of poetry. Dickens's pure
humour lies in the mastery of jokes that are funny and sweet. The delicately
suggestive touch of Jane Austen, or Lamb or Sterne, is quite out of the range
of Dickens. His humour is sometimes farcical, but it is always exuberant and
healthy. He can raise a laugh at any time, but that laugh is generally innocent.
Humour out of Oddities and Eccentricities
Dickens creates humour out of his characters' oddities and ec-
centricities. He exaggerates the manners of his characters. "A sympathy with
what is odd, out-of-the way, bizarre, lies at the bottom of all his uproarious
fun and quick sensibility." (Compton-Rickett). He can create humour even
out of the externals of his characters. Mr. Toots in Dombey and Son has a
swollen nose, a large head, and thin legs. He falls in love with Miss Dombey,
but she does not respond to his love-making. He becomes "perfectly sore
with longing her" inasmuch he finds that his legs have grown thin : "If you
could see my legs, when I take my boots off, you will form some idea of what
unrequited affection is." In Great Expectations, he describes Mr.
Pumblechook as "a large hard breathing middle-aged slow man, with a
mouth like a fish, dull staring eyes and sandy hair standing upright on his
head so that he looked as if he had just been but choked."
He delights his reader by the humour of "odd tricks of speech, like the
jerky machine-gunning staccato conversation of Mr. Gingle, and the
ungrammatical circumlocutions of the uneducated in sentences from which
they can only extricate themselves by means of more and more relative
clauses."
36 Dickens
The reversal of relations between a master and his servant also
provides humour. In David Copperfield, the servants of Dora (Grupp,
Littimer and others) do not behave with David as servants. On the con-
trary, David feels a sense of awe born of their presence.
Humour through Virtuous as well as Vicious Characters
Broadly speaking, the humour of Dickens may be divided into two
kinds: sympathetic humour and satirical humour. Cockshut calls them
negative humour and positive humour. His humorous characters sym-
pathetically portrayed make us laugh and we feel delighted. They invoke a
genial kind of humour and sympathy in our heart. Pip, Joe, David
Copper-field, Mr. Toots and Mr. Micawber belong to this category. On
the other hand, Dickens satirises those characters who represent vices
of grotesqueness of human nature. They are mostly greedy,
over-ambitious, and malicious persons.
His novels are full of such comic marionettes, masquerading as offi-
cials, lawyers, fashionable people, and bigwigs. His handling of them is
frequently very funny, for Dickens was always determined to enjoy his
characters, and even his most sinister villains are, as it were, a great lark.
But more than his villains are his creations of sympathetic humour. These
are the Micawbers, the Wellers, the Pickwicks, the Toots, and the rest.
They are always lovable simpletons who asK for and receive the laughter
of affection. It is because of his humour that a novel of Dickens is like the
day and the night of some tremendous excited child, now darkly
miserable, now violently happy. In other words, it may be said that his
humour is inseparable from his pathos. The very characters who have
produced humour produce pathos in his novels.
Conclusion
Critics have stressed on the element of his humour time and again.
S. D. Neill says, "Perhaps Dickens's major contribution to literature, that
which gives him rank among the giants, was his discovery of new sources
of humour. Ungrammatical circumlocutions of the uneducated, the child-
ish fun in the contrariness of inanimate objects, the absurdity of the apt or
ludicrously unsuitable name, the humour of the professional outlook, the
over-riding egoism—all these were new to English fiction."
Rightly therefore in the opinion of E. Albert, "It is very likely that
the reputation of Dickens will be maintained chiefly as a humorist."
George Sampson also observes, "The great humorists of the world can
be counted on the fingers of a single hand, and Dickens is of that choice
company."
"Without his humour, he might have been a vigorous advocate of
social reform, but as a novelist, assuredly he would have failed.... As a
story-teller, pure and simple, the powers that remain to him, if humour be
subtracted, would never have ensured popularity. Humour is the soul of his
work. Like the soul of man, it permeates a living fabric which, but for its
creative breath, could never have existed." (George Gissing).
POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. Humour is the soul of Dickens's work. He is a supreme humorist.
R. C. Churchill has put Dickens above Shakespeare, Ben Jonson,
Fielding and Smollett in the field of comedy.
2. He gives us humour of force.
3. He provides us the humour of character.
4. Dickens creates humour of themes and situations.
5. Satire as a source of humour is also exploited by him.
6. There is humour through virtuous as well as vicious characters,
through the externals of some of his characters, through
ungram-matical circumlocutions, through the spellings of their
names, through a contrast in their behaviour, e.g., servants behave
like masters and vice versa, through a professional outlook, through
externals of some characters, through their over-riding ego,
through the contrariness of inanimate subjects, etc.
7. There is a blend of humour and pathos in his novels. The very char-
acters who produce humour, produce pathos. Smiles and tears go
hand in hand.
8. His reputation as a novelist mainly depends on his humour. ^
10. DICKENS'S PATHOS
Blend of Humour and Pathos
Dickens's humour is at its best when he can mingle it with pathos. In
his works, we have a humour that caresses, a pathos that brightens, a rain-
bow of humour where the author is smiling at us through his tears. The
tears of laughter and the laughter of tears go side by side in Dickens's
novels. In his novels there are things of *that nature as to make one's fancy
chuckle while his heart doth ache.' So, "Dickens's humour and pathos are
not to be sharply differentiated; laughter and tears lie closely together in
his writings and frequently invade one another's territory."
(Compton-Rickett).
Like Lamb, Dickens also is replete with a happy agglomeration of
humour and pathos. Humour with Dickens is never far from tragedy. Such
a happy blend between humour and pathos further strengthens his realis-
tic approach to life. Life too is neither a pure comedy, nor entirely a
tragedy. It is a mixture of the two. So is Dickens's attitude to life.
Admiration By Critics
In Dickens's times also, his art of creating pathetic scenes, was
highly admired by the critics of his own age. Macaulay shed tears over
Rorence Dombey, Jeffrey sobbed over the death of Paul and felt his heart
purified by the tears. Thackeray was astonished by the heart-stirring
death-scene in Dymbey and Sons. John Ruskin was also moved to the
depths by the deaths of little Nell in Old Curiosity Shop.
38 Dickens
Criticism by Modern Critics
But the modern critics do not hold such a high opinion of Dickens's
pathos as his contemporaries had. Some of the detractors regard his
pathos preposterously overdone, cheap, sentimental, melodramatic and
maudlin. Prof. Hugh Walker sums up this modern reaction against Dick-
ens in the following manner :
"Generalised, the modern verdict is that pathos of Dickens is
overdone and too long drawn out, and that it shows a lack of
self-restraint. In short, in his pathos he follows his unusual literary
practice of exaggeration. His humour rests on exaggeration ; and he
chose to set up his pathos on the same basis. The question, there-
fore, is, did he obtain results artistically as good as he obtained in his
scenes of humour ? His contemporaries answered, yes, men of a
later day, with few exceptions say no."
Albert also condemns him, and remarks, "His devices are often
third-rate, as when they depend upon such themes as the deaths of little
children, which he describes in detail. His genius had little tragic force. He
could describe the horrible, as in the death of Bill Sykes; he could be pain-
fully melodramatic, as in characters like Rosa Dartle and Madame
Defarage; but he seems to have been unable to command the simplicity of
real tragic greatness." Compton-Rickett also observes, "There are no
great depths to his imagination as there in Shakespeare and Milton, no
such subtleties as in Meredith and Thomas Hardy, but for acute sensibility
he has no peer in English letters. Thus both humour and pathos alike are
rich in inventive fancy.
So this is a serious charge against Dickens that in his pathetic scenes,
he overstates and tries to wring an extra tear from the situation. He tries to
exploit the emotions of his readers and keeps tears flow by a cold-
blooded mechanization. He never lets the situation speak for itself. There
is much theatrical element in the pathos of Dickens.
Main Features of His Pathos
Lord David Cecil speaking about the pathos of Dickens, writes in
Early Victorian Novelists, "Pathos can be the most powerful of all the
weapons in the novelists'arsenal. But it is far the most dangerous to
handle. The reader must feel convinced that the story inevitably demands
that a direct attack be made on his tender feelings. If he once suspects that
his emotions are being exploited, his tears made to flow by a cold-blooded
machination on the part of another he will be nauseated instead of being
touched. The author must take the greatest care, therefore, first that the
emotion he extracts from his pathetic situation is inevitably inherent in it
and secondly that he is not overstating it." Dickens does not stick to such a
prescription of Mr. Cecil. "He has a natural gift for homely pathos. But
almost always he sins flagrantly against both the canons which govern its
use. He overstates. He tries to wring an extra tear from the situation; he
never lets it speak for itself. One would have thought, the death of an
innocent and virtuous child should be allowed to carry its own emotion;
but Dickens cannot trust us to be moved by little Nell's departure from the
world unassisted by church-bells, falling snow at the window, and every
other ready-made device for extracting our tears that a cheap rhetoric can
provide. No Hollywood film, director, expert in sobstuff, could more
thoroughly vulgarise the simple and the tender. But little Nell is not so bad as
little Emily. For here, in order to be sure of his effects, Dickens not only
underlines the pathos in the situation, he tries to increase it by the addition of
foreign elements. The situation of an innocent girl, seduced under a promise
of marriage, is poignant indeed; but it is not necessarily a hopeless
situation."
POINTS TO RKMKMKKK
1. Dickens like Lamb has fused humour and pathos artistically. The tears
of laughter and the laughter of tears go side by side in Dickens's novels.
2. His pathetic scenes have been highly admired by critics such as
Macaulay, Thackeray and Ruskin.
3. But his pathos has been criticised by modern critics because like his
humour, it is based on exaggeration.
4. His pathos moves the heart of his reader: it extracts an extra tear from his
eyes. ^
11. DICKENS'S SATIRE
Basis of His Satire : His Moral Concern
4 Dickens's satire and radicalism are apparent throughout the whole
course of his writing. Dickens was opposed to the order of the society of his
days. He saw injustices committed, laws administered harshly and all sorts of
social miseries. He wanted to bring reform in the society through
Parliamentary system or through the extra-Parliamentary means.
Dickens was not a radical in the strict political sense. He was a radical
entirely and purely in the social sense. He had no patience with the workings
of the Parliamentary system; but he had no capability of understanding the
practical side of politics. 'Elections in his novels are at once corrupt and
comic : members of Parliament are mere strutting boobies, and in Bleak
House the Parliamentary apparatus itself is ridiculed when Boodle, Coodle
and Doodle are presented as the political alternatives to Buffy, Cuffy, and
Fuffy.' But such criticisms which Dickens made were not based on
intellectual understanding and rational condemnation, but on moral feeling.
Dickens, the Reformer and Revolutionary
Mr. Shaw regarded Dickens as a revolutionary like Marx. Sketches by
Boz also contains hints of radical feeling, and Pickwick Papers presents
scenes of prison and Parliamentary working. Bui it is very difficult to un-
derstand what Dickens demanded of Law or of Parliament. Goodwill,
however, was Dickens's prescription for all the times. It was Goodwill
alone which could remove the social evils Dickens saw.
40 Dickens
Targets of His Satire
Dickens satirises in his novels the defects of education, the exploita-
tion of the poor workers and of their children by the rich employers. He
also exposes in a satirical manner the evils of ill-breeding and ill-educa-
tion. In Nicholas Nickleby, he satirises 'the monstrous neglect of educa-
tion in England, and the disregard of it by the State as means of forming
good or bad citizens.'
"Treatment of such subjects in such a tone was something new in
literature, and the success of the books was based partly on the picture of
'low life' in Oliver Twist and the storm raised by the exposure of private
schools in Nicholas Nickleby. These were subjects and this was an attitude
that could be appreciated by the new reading-class, the rising bourgeoisie
whose power had been released by the Industrial Revolution and formally
acknowledged in the Reform Act of 1832, the class that was to play a
major part in developing British Imperialism abroad through ruthless ex-
ploitation, while trying at the same time to solve uneasy consciences with
such minor measure of reform at home as Factory Acts that limited work-
ing-hours to f^n a day. Dickens was the conscience of this rising bour-
geoisie and he uever moved outside the ethics of his class. It has been said
that his attitude was that of a nineteenth century liberal; but to say that is
to do Dickens both more and less than justice, and to disregard his acute
distaste for the liberal rationalism of his age. His sympathy for the op-
pressed was wholly emotional and took the form of a drama in which he
was the central figure." (Symons, Charles Dickens).
Dickens as a Radical
Dickens himself confessed of his becoming radical. He wrote to
Forester in 1841, "By Jove, how radical I am getting." The social criticism
in the later novels becomes increasingly bitter with Dickens's own grow-
ing disillusionment about the behaviour of human-beings. He wants to
uproot corruption and dishonesty from the society. In Bleak House
(1851), Hard Times (1854), Little Dorrit (1856), Great Expectations (1861)
and Our Mutual Friend (1865), Dickens created a world like that of no
other English novelist, in which the good characters are either fools or
lunatics caught up in a vicious whirlpool that makes nonsense of their
attempts at benevolence; and the bad are bloodless embodiments of evil
institutions, or reformers of a kind really not very different from Dickens
himself.
Conclusion
Bleak House is mainly a study in decay. Little Dorrit is a study in
snobbery. The same radicalism is at work in ,4 Tale of Two Cities. Unlike
his predecessors, Dickens is quite serious in his purpose. Dickens did not
like Scott's being too much non-serious like a restaurateur of Europe. So
he felt that he must vindicate his dignity by teaching. That is why, the
Oliver Twist deals with the administration of the poor law and the making
of criminals, and has thus some kinship with the 'Newgate Novels' of
Lyt-ton. Hard Times is an attack upon the orthodox political economy.
Other
vels deal with the Court of Chancery, or the government office, or with '1
ecific vices, such as selfishness, or the modern English worship of
wealth.
It is because of his love for 'exaggeration that his satire often becomes
prejudicial and bitter. Since Dickens's natural tendency has been towards
excess, he loses sometimes the natural proportions. He was, however,
determined to see everything in the light of his purpose. In his eagerness for
reform, he seems to forget that rule and method are essential. His satirical
sentimentality, therefore, grows unwholesome, his most offensive
violations of taste are committed, all under the influence of this wish to
teach.
Inclusion of satire in his novels was indispensable for Dickens. He
could not be without satire the assailant of an educational system, the critic
of the poor law, or of the machinery by which the business of the nation was
transacted, or of the social and economic relations between employer and
workman.
In spite of all his weaknesses as a satirist, Dickens remains 'purely and
simply an observer.' He lives in the lives of his creations, suffers with them
and rejoices in their good fortune. The method is excellent, and doubtless
the singular vividness of Dickens is due to it.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. Dickens's satire is not satire for the sake of satire : it has a serious
purpose of reform and revolution. Its basis is morality.
2. It is not aimed at individuals but at the defective laws, systems and
institutions of his time.
3. Capitalism, ill-education, corruption in legal and political institutions,
shabby industrialization are the main targets of his satire. ^
12. DICKENS'S REALISM His
Realism—a Controversy
There is a controversy among critics about Dickens' being a realist.
There are critics who regard him as a realist but at the same time, there are
others who do not regard him as a realist in the true sense. The term realism
has two broad and general meanings in literature. The one is applied for the
surface reality, the reality which a cameraman presents, the realism which
Shaw and Galsworthy, Zola and Flaubert had, that is, depicting things as
they are or as appear in the common view. But realism in the other sense is
the art of making anything that may be imagined to look real; it may even
make the impossible seem probable. Dickens has, as Baker says, most of this
second kind of realism.
Peculiar Realism
Dickens's realism is peculiar. It is not merely born out of his attempt to
represent his age in his novels but also out of his temperament and the needs
of his age. The novelist, the Victorians believed, should be a mixture of fact
and fiction. Dickens's most important contemporaries in fiction, Thackeray,
George Eliot and Trollope, did this in their different
42 Dickens
ways. Vanity Fair, Middlemarch, and Barchester Towers are after all the
pictures of world around their authors. But Dickens's realism is like that
of a child. The child while living in the real world always has his dreams
and fantasies. So has Dickens. It is in this sense that his realism is peculiar.
His realism incorporates both fact and fiction, joy and sorrow, this
world and the world beyond the material reality. That is why Hugh Walker
considers Dickens more of an imaginative and romantic novelist than a
realist. He observes in his book, The Literature of the Victorian Era, "By
contrast with Scott, he may be called a realist; for there are no mists of
time or space to throw a glamour over his subjects. He takes what lies
nearest to his hand, what he knows best. Even in Pickwick, before he had
developed a 'purpose.' there is stern reality enough in the scenes in the
Fleet prison. But in the strict sense of the word he is not a realist at all; on
the contrary, his work is rather the romance of the streets of London. "But
this is not the whole truth about Dickens's realism. Dickens may not be a
realist in the strict sense of realism; he may not have surface reality. Yet
he is a realist because he makes the things he deals with look like real. His
world is not a dreamy or airy world. There are no ghosts and fairies, no
supernatural things and gods appearing on his pages."
His world is solid. He is able to create a world as solid as it is soaked in
imagination. His London may be different from actual London, but it is just
as real as it could be possible and probable in England. Its streets are of
firm brick and its inhabitants of genuine flesh and blood. His world may not
be life-like, but it is alive. Dickens's world is the world as we normally
conceive it transformed, heightened in a sense, cruder, more highly
coloured, more violent.
A Novelist of Low Life
The life which Dickens dealt with is the life of the lower middle clas-
ses of the nineteenth century London. It is the London of 1820's and
1830's with its squares and shops and offices and murky slums and prisons
and clamorous thoroughfares, its churches striped with soot, its suburbs
with their trim cottages and tidy, gentle spaces of open country. But in the
process of presentation, passing through the prismatic imagination of
Dickens, they all emerge tinged with a new colour. The slums of Oliver
Twist, the law-courts of Bleak House and Great Expectations, the westend
of Little Dorrit, the waterside of Our Mutual Friend, the marshes of Great
Expectations, the suburbs of Nicholas Nickleby, all these form part of the
same world, the world which is not London, but which London has stimu-
lated Dickens's fancy to create.
One of the most sympathetic of Dickens's critics, George Gissing
observes, "He sought for wonders amid the dreary life of common streets.
Even the most common and lifeless things of London are treated by Dick-
ens romantically. His methods are quite different from those of the
modern novelists."
\ Novelist of Domestic Life

Dickens is pre-eminently the novelist of the hearth and the home and
nowhere does this note ring clearer and truer than in David Copper-Held.
The love of his mother and his home is deep seated in the unfortunate little
hero ; throughout the chapters, he betrays his affection for Blunderstone,
Rookery, and all its dear associations. Not less striking than the mutual love
of mother and son, is the loyalty of Agnes Wickfield to her father: for
Dickens is with Shakespeare and Scott in desiring to depict the sympathetic
care and the charming solicitude of a daughter. There is, moreover, another
side of happy home life illustrated by the dependence of Wilkins Micawber
and his wife upon each other ; the single-souled fidelity of Peggotty to her
mistress and little David completes the picture drawn by the novelist of
home life.
Realistic Treatment of Child-life
Dickens is a realist also because of his realistic treatment of child-life.
The scenes, characters, actions and activities of children, depicted by him as
well as their sorrows and sufferings, treated by him are real. He is a supreme
novelist of child-life and has no match in this respect.
Realistic Characters
The characters which Dickens creates are human beings of flesh and
blood. Although they are not the exact copies of their originals, seen and
observed in life, yet they are like them. Sam Weller, Mr. Mantalini, Joe,
Micawber, Quilip, Swiveller, Pip, David are the characters which have been
drawn from the life without much alteration. They are beings he has made for
his own delight: and many are creations of a bold and unconstrained fancy,
tejoicing in the grotesque. Dickens may have seen their originals : he himself
may even have seen them exactly as they are drawn, for the world to him was
alive with such captivating absurdities. "However, they may have been
originated, these imaginative figures are substantiated by their own dramatic
integrity and by the potent engine of his realistic art, the Defoe-like art, the
Defoe-like accumulation of detail, true as eyesight, and harmonious, if
sometimes stagey, atmosphere which is evolved from his vivid thought, it
may be visionary picturing of their surroundings." Speaking about his
characters, Quiller Couch has remarked, "If it came to the mere
wonder-work of genius—the creation of men and women, on a page of
paper, who are actually more real to us than our daily acquaintances, as
companionable in a crowd as even our best selected friends, as individual as"
the most eccentric we know, yet as universal as humanity itself, I do not see
what English writer we can choose to put second to Shakespeare save
Charles Dickens."
Idealisation of Reality
From all these view-points, we come to the conclusion that Charles
Dickens is not a realist in the ordinary sense of the term. He is not a
prose-realist. He is, in fact, a poetic realist. He idealizes and to some extent
poeticizes the surface reality to make it adaptable to the tastes of the Vic-
torian readers. Hence, he is not a dark or stern realist. His realism is not of
44 Dickens
a photographer but of an artist. His pen does not reflect the surface
realities of life, like a camera, but it paints like a painter the reality of life as
seen through the eyes of an artist. Limitations of His Realism
There are two main limitations of Dickens's realism. He cannot be
realistic in the speech of his characters, that is, he cannot represent a
foul-mouthed person speaking in his natural manner, and secondly, his
characters are made subservient to his moral purpose. Sometimes, he
misrepresents social facts. He constantly idealises young girls belonging
to the lower classes, and such idealisation, as Gissing puts it, is not only
false but morally mischievous. He also avoids to present the picture of
extreme pain and extreme pleasure. Thus, he is somewhat false to life.
Conclusion
Dickens may idealise, even falsify, but such idealisation has its own
value and significance. It is to be preferred to the coarse, cynical realism of
many a modern novelist. His mode of conception is intuitive whereas the
realist's mode is generally critical. Above all, he has created a world as
solid as it is soaked in imagination. His novels are a blend of realism and
fantasy.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. Some critics regard Dickens as a realist; others don't.
2. However, Dickens is a realist in the sense that he makes imagined
things look real.
3. According to Hugh Walker, Dickens is not a realist in the strict
sense; on the contrary, his work is the romance of the streets of Lon-
don.
4. Yet he is a realist and not a romanticist, because his is not a dreamy
or airy world; there are no ghosts and fairies, no supernatural things
and gods appearing on his pages.
5. Dickens is a realist not by opposing romanticism. In this respect, he
is different from the modern realists who have a tendency of reaction
against the romantic tendency.
6. His realistic treatment of characters of child-life, and above all his
realistic settings and reflections of the conditions of his Age further
make him a realist of a high order.
7. However, he often idealises reality which amounts to falsification of
reality.
8. There are some limitations of his realism too : he is unable to draw
pictures of extreme: he is a novelist of low life, of domestic life.
9. Nevertheless he is not a photographer but artist. m
13. DICKENS'S PICTORIAL ART
OR
SETTING OF DICKENS'S NOVELS
The scenic settings of Dickens's novels are profuse. The back-
grounds are presented in a lively colour, every detail is lavish, description of
every thing is magnificent. The setting is not only a means of suggesting the
atmosphere, it is also an end in itself by virtue of its elaborate inde
pendent treatment. Every detail of his setting contributes to the overall
atmosphere and its intended effect and generally it predominates other
aspects of the central theme. It serves the purpose of evocating higher
levels of meaning, it enhances the intensity of truth and adds lyrical inten-
sity and life to the narrative. By his keen observation he adds vibration of
life and quivering impulse even to the concrete aspects, even the pic-
turesque objects are full of spirit. He catches every material object in its
remarkable gestures and motions. In the images, he presents, there is
rhythmic cadence full of emotional correspondence with human sen-
sibility. His art of setting is extraordinarily suggestive though sometimes
it seems to be exaggerated or suffering from a bit morbidness. He draws
the individual characters of things and adds eloquence to their realistic
images which strike our eyes with their lifrMikeness. The eloquence of his
scenes reach the height of poetry which moves our heart, his art of
ac-tualising and vitalising things is in no way less real than creating
life-like human-beings.
His portrayal of dramatic scenes, particularly in his earlier works,
may tend to degenen; 2 into melodrama, but "the simple poignancy, the
restraint and dignity of many of his scenes from David Copperfield on-
wards, are under-estimated by many."
Arthur Compton-Rickett points out that the scenes of finding of
Steerforth's body, the duel between Madame Defarge and Miss Pross, the
death of Sidney Carton, the river-scene in Our Mutual Friend, the tragic
fooling of Dr. Marigold, the quarrel of the young men in Edwin Drood are
admirable. He modulates his style to take on the mood of the moment.
His treatment of the wind may be examined as an illustration: "He uses it
as a stage property with the most astounding effect. Whether blustering
cheerily through Pickwick, or wailing through The Chimes, whether
taking on the note of comedy or informing with sinister accompaniment
the note of the tragedy, the effect is always achieved with fine art. "His
description of the marshes at the beginning of Great Expectations is strik-
ing, its creeping fog and flat loneliness are imbued with the lives of their
own ; while painting such a background his language becomes almost a
mist of words and phrases." (Arthur Compton-Rickett). When he describes
a coach-ride, "the language quickens and slackens, becomes rollicking or
deliberate, according to the pace of the coach. In reading the ride of Tom
Pinch to„London, one recalls the famous lines in Homer and Virgil where
the sound of the horses' hoofs is imitated in the rhythm. He grasps the
restless vitality of nature, the physical exhilaration of his characters and
the rich pageantry of the outward world. His winter-sketches are more
46 Dickens
effective than the traditional summer-sketches because unlike other
novelists, he preferred summer-time. "Often he describes cold weather
with the genial appreciation of a full-blooded man; at other times, per-
haps, some early experience inspiring him or the sight of some
wretched, shivering beggar, he describes the miseries of the cold with a
Dantesque power of imagination." He uses natural phenomena "with the
eye of the dramatist who makes things, both animate and inanimate, serve
to intensify and vivify the situations he is describing .... " Arthur Compton-
Rickett quotes the following lines from Little Dorrit as an illustration of
his sensibility to the "genius of places."
"Like unexceptionable society the opposing rows of houses in
Harley Street were very grim with one another. Indeed, the man-
sions of their inhabitants were so much alike in that respect, that the
people were often to be found drawn up on opposite sides of dinner
tables in the shade of their loftiness staring at the other side of the
way with the dullness of the house.... The expression in uniform
twenty houses, all to be knocked at and rung at in the same form, all
approachable by the same dull steps, all fended off by the same pat-
tern of railing, all with the same unpracticable fire-escapes, the
same inconvenient fixtures in their heads, and everything without
exception to be taken at high valuation."
In the above description there is "deadly respectable dullness, a
dullness which spread itself over large tracts of Bayswater in Dickens's
day, and has now extended in the direction of West Kensington." In con-
trast to the above, there is the almost affectionate mockery lurking in his
picture of Lant Street which is also dull but shabby :
"There is an air of repose about Lant Street in the Borough,
which sheds a gentle melancholy on the soul .....If a man wished to
extract himself from the world, to remove himself beyond the pos-
sibility of any inducement to look out of the window, he should by
all means go to Lant Street. The majority of the inhabitants either
direct their energies to the letting of furnished apartments, or
devote themselves to the healthful and invigorating pursuit of man-
gling. The chief features in the still life of the Street are green shut-
ters, lodging bills and brass door plates, the pot boy, the muffin
youth, and the baked potatoman. The population is migratory,
usually disappearing on the verge of quarterday, and generally by
Knight. His majesty's revenues are seldom collected in this happy
valley; the rents are dubious ; and the water communication is very
frequently cut off."
We find dramatic touches in Dickens's Uncommercial Traveller.
Dickens not only felt keenly the personality of a street and the larger per-
sonality of the Great City, but could actualise it for us, for example :
"The way in which it tumbles and tosses before it can get to
sleep....Except in the Haymarket, which is the worst kept part of
London, and about Kent Street in the Borough, and along a portion
of the old Kent Road, the peace was seldom violently broken. But it was
always the case that London, as if an imitation of the individual citizens
belonging to it, had expiring fits and starts of restlessness. After all
seemed quiet, if one cab rattled by, half a dozen would surely follow ;
and Houselessness even observed that intoxicated people appeared to
be magnetically attracted towards each other." He clearly dates the
description of "the stones that pave the way to Waterloo Bridge" and
"the thumbnail sketch of the toll keeper." His description of the course
of Law in Westminster which hinted to low whispers what members of
people they were keeping awake, and how intensely wretched and
horrible they were rendering the small hours to unfortunate suitors
becomes reverie. The solitary chambers of the Inn of Courts evoke a
peculiar sense of loneliness:
"It is not to be denied that on the terrace of the Adelphi....or
anywhere among the1 neighbourhoods that have done flowering and
have run to seed ; you may find chambers replete with accommoda-
tion of solitude, closeness, and darkness where you may be as low
spirited as in the genuine article, and might be as easily murdered,
with the placid reputation of having merely gone down to the sea-
side. But the many waters of life run musical in those dry channels
once,—among the Inns never."
And here is another example of a sketch of Symond's Inn:
"A little, pale, wall-eyed, woe begone Inn, like a large dustbin
of two compartments and a sifter. It looks as if Symond were a spar-
ing man in his day, and constructed his Inn of old building materials,
which took kindly to the dry rot, and to dirt and all things decaying
and dismal, and perpetuate Symond's memory with congenial
shab-biness."
There are certain striking scenes in his earlier books also. For ex-
ample, the trial-scene of Fagin, the pictures of South London and the
scene where James Chuzzlewit goes down to murder Montague Tigg are
impressive and possess masterly touches. In the words of Arthur
Com-pton-Rickett, Dickens had retentive memory, keen perceptions,
and genius for minuteness. But the most commendable fact about him is
that he had a fantastic imagination that read new and distinctive meanings
into what he witnessed and observed.
The profusion of his scenic settings answers to the abundance of his
personages. The backgrounds are painted with an ample brush, and the
lavishness of details breathes a kind of exhilaration. Description, with
Dickens, is more than a means ; very often it is an end in itself. It con-
tributes to the general effect, but with such varied and powerful resources
at its command that it subordinates the other elements of the narrative to
itself. Thus the novel tends to become above all evocative; and imagina-
tion, the instrument of realism carries the search for intense truth right
to the domain of purely lyrical vision. The writer's senses are quick and
keen; nature, the aspects of concrete life, the picturesqueness of things,
48 Dickens
not so much highly coloured as vibrating, astir with a nervous quiver o
each contour. The material universe appears as made up of broker
lines, pronounced gestures : and rapid motions. Supremely suggestive,
this art has its limitation in a certain instability, a kind of flickering exag-
geration. The rhythm in the succession of images, with Dickens, often
shows some slight morbidness.
In his calmer and less feverish spells of work, this gift of infusing with
life all that appeals to the senses has the happiest results. He calls up
before our eyes scene after scene of a truth made striking, and which
yet our feeling of normal life is willing to accept; so accurately is the
individual character of things thrown into relief, and so much realistic
flavour is mixed up with the eloquence, the moving poetry, or the fanciful
drollery, which is the main object and indeed the soul of the picture.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. Profuse scenic setting contribute to the overall atmosphere.
2. His settings seem to be speaking; they are very much living.
3. His settings are life-like; they are mixture of joy and sorrow.
4. His descriptions of seasons are very much remarkable.
5. His descriptions of houses, streets, roads and places are memorable;
they are also real and minute.
6. Dickens actualizes a street or city by his descriptions.
7. In the words of Compton-Rickett, Dickens had retentive memory,
keen perceptions, and genius for minuteness,
8. The most commendable fact about him is that he had a fantastic im-
agination that read new and distinctive meanings into what he wit-
nessed and observed. ^
14. DICKENS'S LANGUAGE AND STYLE
His Remarkable Power of Description
Charles Dickens may not be a skilled builder of the plot, but he is
certainly an admirable story-teller. He possesses a remarkable power of
description which is evident in the descriptions of Nature and country-
side. "He hardly or ever mentions a tree or flower by its name; he never
elaborates—perhaps never even sketches a landscape, yet we see and feel
the open air-surroundings. The secret is his own delight in the road and
the meadow, and his infinite power of suggestion in seemingly uncon-
sidered words." (Gissing). His description of journeys from country
to town abound in rich observation. External appearances are described
with gusto. The inner workings of the mind and mental states are left
untouched.
A Great Master of Prose
According to David Cecil, "Dickens is one of the masters of prose,
but in a sense that carries qualification. He cannot be compared with
Thackeray for flow of pure idiom, for command of subtle melodies. He is
often mannered to the last point of endurance, he has one fault, which
offends the prime law of composition. For all that, he made unique use of the
English language." Pickens's Masters in Prose
Many critics have disparaged Dickens's style because of its gram
matical slips, but such slips of grammar are quite suitable to those charac
ters who commit them. Baker observes, "Dickens formed his style on the
pest models ; he made it his own, developed it, and often surpassed the
great models that he once plodded behind at a modest interval. His/
masters were Smollett and Fielding, and the great essayists, including
Leigh Hunt as well as Lamb. In Sketches by Boz, he was often stilted, and
often fell back upon Johnsonese. In Pickwick Papers, the hero is the only
one who often speaks in the voice of Dr. Johnson and it is usually with
such dramatic propriety that it cannot be called a blemish...He had an in
fallible sense for the right word.... "
Universality of His Style
Dickens's style has a universal appeal. Many phrases of his characters
have grown proverbial: 'Not Known'; 'can't say,' 'In tears and white muslin,'
ladies who 'ferment themselves into hysterics.' The names and by-names
have become household words, like Tartuffe, Shylock, Dr. Pangloss, Ingo,
Pumblechook. The classical malapropisms of his characters have a certain
classical aroma—'reduced counsels' or 'Patent Brahmins' or Mr. Weller's
'dispensary.'
Dramatic Element in His Style
"None but a genuine dramatic artist could modulate his style as
Dickens can so as to take on the mood of the moment. His treatment of the
wind is a case in point. He uses it as a stage-property, with the most
astounding effect. Whether blustering cheerily through Pickwick, or ailing
through The Chimes, whether taking on the note of tragedy, the effect is
always achieved with fine art. In the striking description of the marshes at
the beginning of Great Expectations, with its creeping fog and flat
loneliness, his language becomes almost a mist of words and phrases. In his
description of a coach-ride, the language quickens, and slackens, becomes
rollicking or liberate, according to the pace of the coach. In reading the ride
of Tom Pinch to London one recalls the famous lines in Homer and Virgil,
where the sound of the horses' hoof is imitated in the rhythm. What
especially attracts him in Nature is just what we should expect from a man of
his temperament—her restless vitality. No writer can better convey the idea
of physical exhilaration. His description of journeys, from country to town
abounds in rich observation, but the physical experiences are especially
emphasised. Very little is said of those mental states of felling dear to Mr.
Thomas Hardy. Egdon Heath would have been little more than a
wind-blown ridge to Dickens. As a rule, novelists have a preference for the
summer-time ; but Dickens not only gives the preference to winter, but is far
more effective in his winter-sketches. Often he describes cold weather with
the genial appreciation of a full-blooded man ; at other times, perhaps, some
early experience inspiring
50 Dickens
him or the sight of some wretched, shivering beggar, he describes the
miseries of the cold with a Dantesque power of imagination. What is this
but using natural phenomena with the eye of the dramatist who makes
things, both animate, and inanimate, serve to intensify and vivify the
situation he is describing ? And by reason of this power there is no better
guide to the London of the early nineteenth century, than in his pages."
(Baker)
His Humour and Subjectivism
Charles Dickens, as Walter Bagehot well described him, is a 'special
correspondent' for posterity. His retentive memory, his keen perceptions,
his genius for minute observation are very impressive. It is not the 'special
correspondent' in him so much as the humorist that gives such vitality to
his pictures of London life. Apparently, the most objective of writers, he is
really intensely subjective, as very great humorist must be. He lulls by the
familiartity of his setting. He looks like a realist in spite of all his fantastic
imaginative mind.
His Vocabulary
With all its mannerisms, there is the element of greatness about
Dickens's style. For colour, movement, and variety, it is a remarkable
style. His vocabulary has superabundant wealth; it wells up naturally and
esaily; all the inherent genius of the English race for concrete perception
goes to nourish it. His language contains learned words, technical terms.
But the main inexhaustible stream is drawn from the fund of a racy, na-
tional, in no way artcularised, particularised experience.
Movement and Rhythms
The highest quality of his style is its movement. He is the master of
racy narrative. He can write metrical prose. The five-foot cadence is
flagrant at many times in his novels. He can write plain prose also without
metre whenever he chooses. In Bamaby Bridge, his style is simple, direct
and forcible. There are no interruptions of metre; the periods are flower-
ing, the language full of subdued energy.
His Power of Minute Observation
Whenever Dickens writes in his pleasantest moods, his style be-
comes both suggestive and humorous, poetic and graphic. "I suppose,"
says George Gissing, "there is no English writer, perhaps no writer in
literature, who so often gives proof of minute observation. It is an impor-
tant source of his strength; it helps him to put people and things before us
more clearly than, as a rule, we should ourselves see them."
Conclusion
In the words of Cazamian, "His vocabulary has superabundant
wealth ; it wells up naturally and easily ; all the inherent genius of the
English race for concrete perception goes to nourish it. It carries with it
and turns • use the contents of other veins of speech—learned words,
technical ttims ; but the main inexhaustible stream is drawn from the
fund of a racy, national, in no way articularised, particularised experience.
The refining process of culture is less perceptible here than in the works
of many other writers."
Dickens's models in style were Smollett and Fielding, and the great
essayists including Leigh Hunt and Lamb. He adapted their style in such a
vvay as to evolve a style which was essentially his own and surpassed the
originals. The highest quality of his style is its current or flow or move
ment. In discussing Dickens's characteristic style, Lauriet Lane, Jr. writes
in his introduction to the celebrated book, The Dickens Critics that "it is at
its strongest organic, at its richest poetic, at its most intense both organic
and poetic." ^/,.
If to critics Dickens seemed 'a clumsy cave artist', 'fantastic',
antique';—it is a fact that he was never altogether ignored. In his study of
Dickens's criticism, G. H. Ford shows that virtually all the important
novelists were affected by his work. Novelists as various as Graham
Greene, George Orwell, Somerset Maugham, and Joyce Cary have writ-
ten discerning appreciation of his ingenious style. E.M. Forster cited
Bleak House as a model of good style, and Percy Lubbock has shown how
in Bleak House and David Copperfield, Dickens showed a technique which
was "sound and good' and by no means a simple one.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. Dickens has remarkable power of describing natural scenes, jour-
neys and countryside.
2. "He is one of the masters of prose". (David Cecil).
3. His masters were Smollett, Fielding, and the great essayists, including
Leigh Hunt as well as Lamb.
4. His style has a universal appeal.
5. There is some dramatic and epic element in his style.
6. "His style is at its strongest organic, at its richest poetic, at its most
intense both organic and poetic." (LaurietLane). ^
15. DICKENS'S IMAGINATION
No creative art can be practised or cultivated without a fertile im-
agination. All great artists have been the possessors of great imaginative
minds. Dickens too had rich imagination. "Both the strength and
weakness of Dickens's humour and pathos," says Compton-Rickett, "lie
in his hypersensitive imagination."
The creation of an artist without creative imagination becomes dull,
stiff and wooden. The poetry of the Augustan Age is such only because the
poets had not the required sort of imagination. But the uncontrolled im-
agination also is dangerous, It leads to chaotic flights, far away from the
real world.
Charles Dickens possesses a great deal of this creative imagination.
It is best seen in his comic creations. "It is his comic figures we remember.
First, before we remember the books that contain them. He lives chiefly in
his comic characters, but they are so numerous, so astonishing, so al-
together delightful that a writer could hardly wish for a better hold upon
52 Dickens
posterity." But sometimes he fails to control his imagination. It gets I
logical and nonsensical. His creative imagination, however, is commen.
dable. It has created immortal figures such as Micawber and Wopsle.
Not to say of his characters, Dickens's imagination is exhibited in his
descriptions, his handling of plots and his painting of back-grounds. The
London of his novels becomes more real and more attractive than the real
London. The marshes appear to be more dangerous than they are.
Dickens possesses tremendous energy. Regarding his inexhaustible
creative fertility, it has humorously been remarked that he can create a
large number of people to inhabit a town or to elect a member for Parlia-
ment.
Dickens's hypersensitive imagination enables him to understand the
oppressed and the poor most sympathetically. This understanding makes
his novels full of pathos and sympathy for the under-dogs. Dickens
presents pathos by presenting pathetically and sorrowfully the unhappy
and miserable condition of children, by depicting the deaths of children,
by focussing attention on the tragic plight of prisoners and by such other
devices.
It is because of his sensitive and sympathetic imagination that he is
able to indentify himself with his subjects. It makes him now Pip, now
Little Nell and now David. There is much of genuine pathos in the novels
of Dickens only because his imagination is such. It at once takes him from
laughter to tears and Dickens is able to blend humour and pathos.
Through his tears, we may see the rainbow in the sky, for his humour and
pathos are really inseparable from each other. They are different faces of
the same game. It is like a sober music produced by the flow of perennial
waters.
But sometimes the love or exaggeration makes Dickens sentimental,
His fertile imagination tries to wring an extra tear from the situation. It
can make his characters sometimes too much grotesque and sometimes
too much near the caricatures. But this power has done the novelist more
good than harm.
POINTS To REMEMBER
1. Like all other great artists, Dickens too had a very fertile imagina-
tion.
2. His rich imagination stands manifested in his comic figures, in his
love for exaggeration, and the fantastic, fairy-like atmosphere in his
novels.
3. It is because of his sensitive and sympathetic imagination that he is
able to identify himself with his subjects.
4. It is his hypersensitive imagination that enables him to blend
humour and pathos. -
16. DICKENS'S MORALITY AND SOCIAL REFORM
serious Purpose Behind Dickens's Works
All the great novelists of the Victorian Era were more or less
oralists. They did not write for the sake of writing. Art for them was for
[he sake of life, and not for the sake of art. Charles Dickens also had a
serious purpose in his novels. In his novels, he plays the role of a moralist
and a prophet. It is because of his morality that he has become so popular.
Lord David Cecil has observed, "Even his imaginative genius is not
enough to account for Dickens's extraordinary popularity. Imaginative
genius can make a writer admired, but it cannot make him loved. And
Dickens is above all, loved. It would seem, there must be some deeper
reason. There is. it arises from Dickens's moral outlook, and his moral
outlook, unlike Thackeray's formed no part of his literary inspiration.
His humour, his imagination, his poetry could have appeared just as bril-
liantly if his moral outlook had been a different one. All the same, to write
about him without mentioning it at all is to write inadequately; for it is to
leave out the characteristic which gave its peculiar bias to his sym-
pathies, determined the emotional content of his every book." A Blend of
a Prophet and an Artist
This does not mean that Dickens is not a pure artist. Undoubtedly,
he is great as well as pure an artist. But he is something more than artist.
He is also a prophet. He is out to expound a gospel, a view of life, a scale of
values which he wishes his fellowmen to accept. But his gospel is very
simple. It does not appeal to the intellect, it is the result of intution rather
than of logic or learning. 'Even when he is prophesying, Dickens remains
the semi-educated Cockney.'
Experience—the Basis of His Moral Teaching
Dickens's moral teaching has its own force. It comes from conviction
born in experience, not in abstract thought; and experience acquired in a
world which, though crude and uncultivated, is yet in touch with the
central passions and aspirations of human nature, the great stained
crowded current of the world.
His Belief in the Good of Primary Impulses
Dickens gazed on the roaring, tawdry, sordid Vanity Fair of the
world, and these things seemed to be the source of all that is good in it.
They, therefore, became the standard by which he measured the value of
whatever he saw at work in the world. If anything encouraged man's
primary impulses, he thought it good, if it discouraged them he thought it
bad. He tended to suspect all institutions, churches, charitable societies,
government offices, laws, reformatories, because he felt they were at-
tempting to do by mechanical means the good which could only come
from the spontaneous action of the individual. Class-distinctions, the
aristocratic system were specially hateful to him because they checked the
natural free current of benevolence which should flow from one man to
another. Equally, he hated any theory of life or conduct which dis-
couraged this flow or spoke ill of the impulses which were its origin. He
54 Dickens
could not even feel much enthusiasm for virtues if they were sevej
and self-regarding—thrift, stern justice, the public spirit that sacrifices ai
individual for a cause. (David Cecih
Dickens's morality and philosophy is based upon a single beliefs
the paramount value of the primary, simple, benevolent impulses of man
his natural affections for home and mother and wife and sweet-heart, his
unconsidered movements of charity and gusts of gaiety, his instinctive
wish to love and laugh and give and share. A Conflict between
Human Kindness and Impersonal Institutions
In each of his novels, we see natural human kindness, pitted against
the soulless cruelty of an impersonal institution, an inhuman theory, or
simply individual selfishness. The iron Poor Law of Oliver Twist, and Cir-
cumlocution Office and debtors' prison of Little Dorrit, the corrupt legal
system of the ancient regime in The Tale of Two Cities and laissez-faire
theory, hostile to private charity of Hard Times, the selfish
epicureanism of Harold Skimpole, the avarice of Ralph Nickleby and
Serooge, the hypocrisy of Mr. Pecksniff—all are the evidences of his
moral bent and reformative zeal.
In each book, the characters fall into two groups: those on the side
of the right, humble, kindly, generous souls controlled by no systematic
principle, but by the spring of benevolence bubbling up within them, and
those on the side of the wrong, the hypocrites, misers, selfish. In the
former category fall characters like Gargery, Peggotty, Tom Pinch, Mr.
Buffin. In the latter category fall characters such as the Mudstones, Uria
Heep, Veneering, Fagin.
Dickens's gospel may appear to some critics to be crude. But it is not
slight or shallow. It is universal because the truth it enshrines is a univer-
sal truth.
His Concern for Social Reform
Besides being a moralist and novelist, Dickens was a great social
reformer. He used fiction as a platform for arousing social conscience
against the contemporary evils. In almost all his novels whether sad or
humorous, he lard his finger on the drawbacks and evils of Victorian
society. His chief merit as a social reformer lies in the fact that he could
moralise with a smile on his lips, and mix his sermonic powders in such
excellent jam, that his contemporaries did not realise for a while that he
was doctoring them for their good.
Dickens was a great humanitarian novelist. He harnessed his pen
for the amelioration of the miserable and pathetic conditions of the poor
factory-workers, little children groaning under the whips of tyrannical
school-masters, litigants moving about law-courts without getting any
justice, and prisoners subjected to the hardships of rigorous prison-life.
Dickens, however, did not take up the cudgels of social reform in his own
hands, nor did he work practically for the reform of the society. He was
not a Shaftesbury or an Owen. He was an artist and a novelist. So he made
his novels a weapon for social preaching. He rallied against the social,
itical economic, educational and legal drawbacks of his times. He did
pon
wish to reform society through specific legislation through Parlia-
n
t nor did he want to overthrow the existing order of society by
extra-"Lrtliamentary means. His aim was to shock his readers in their
hearts and P js by presenting before them a picture of social holloweness.
He made the people feel the pulse of society and impelled them to bring
reforms in every field of their social life.
In his novels, he attacked the injustices of the poor law, delays in
administration of justice, the cruelties of school-masters, imprisonment
for debts, and so on. But he was not a pioneer in these attacks. His relation
to his age in this respect, his beliefs, his moral and political philosophies
have been brilliantly charted by Humphrey House in his book, The Dick-
ens World:
"He seemed topical to thousands : he was not too topical for them to
see the point, nor too advanced to have the public conscience on his
side. Detached now from his time, he may seem more original and
adventurous than he was; for them he was only giving wider
publicity in 'inimitable' form to a number of social facts and social
abuses which had already been recognized if not explored before
him. He shared a great deal of common experience with his public,
so that it could gratefully and proudly say, "How true !" He so
exploited his knowledge that the public recognised its master in
knowing : but he also shared with it an attitude (o what they both
knew, and caught exactly the tone which clarified and reinforced the
public's sense of right and wrong and flattered its moral feelings."
So Dickens, the master of sunniest smiles and most unselfish tears,
showed his readers what they themselves thought and felt of the great
social problems which confronted them: or rather, reading him, they dis-
covered what they thought and felt.
Lack of Reflectiveness in His Reformative Zeal
Dickens's zeal for social reform has been criticised by Bonamy
Dobree and Miss Batho in their book The Victorians and After. "The pity is
that this giant never grew up intellectually. Whenever he touches upon
social reform or anywhere begins to think, he falls below the level of
second rate but the generous indignation that he shows is worthy of a fully
and complete man." The same view is held by Hugh Walker. According to
Hugh Walker, Dickens, the social reformer, lacks reflectiveness.
Humphrey House also says, "Whether it is true or not (that Dickens lacks
reflectiveness) the fact remains that a great number of his contem-
poraries—not all of them fools by the standards of the time—and a great
number after him—not all so wise—adopted his reformism seriously."
Several other novelists followed Dickens's reformative zeal and worked in
his way. Charles Reade in his novel, It is Never Too Late to Mend, shows
the rigorous life of the prisons as well as the life of the colonies. In Hard
Cash, he exposes the conditions of private lunatic asylums. Charles
Kingsley in his fantasy, The Water Babies, shows the evils of industrialism.
56 Dickens
Conclusion: Not Propagandist
Although Dickens was a social reformer in true literaiy sense, yet he
was not a blatant propagandist in the sense Bernard Shaw and Wells are.
He proved to be that rare type of reformer who could moralise with a
smile on his lips, and mix his sermonic powers in such excellent jam, that
his contemporaries did not realize for a while that he was doctoring their
good." (Compton-Rickett).
POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. There is a deep, serious purpose behind his novels. Dickens is not
merely a good entertainer, he is a reformer and moralist too.
2. He is thus a wonderful blend of a prophet and an artist.
3. His moral teaching is not abstract; it is based on experience.
4. He has a firm belief in the good of primary impulses. He believes that
an improvement of primary human impulses can do more good than
an improvement in legal or political system.
5. There is in his novels a conflict between human kindness and imper-
sonal institutions.
6. He has a deep concern for social reform with improvement of human
heart. In his novels, he attacked the injustice of the poor law,
delays in administration of justice, the cruelties of school-masters,
imprisonments fordebtandsoon.
7. Lack of reflectiveness in his reformation.
8. However, he is not a propagandist. ^
17. DEPICTION OF CHILDHOOD IN THE
NOVELS OF DICKENS
A Supreme Describer of Childhood
English literature has produced a number of magnets who have
taken interest and pleasure in depicting childhood and its pleasures.
Dickens, Lamb, De Quincey and Wordsworth have opened the territory
of the child's dreams and fears, his wisdom and blindness, his vision and
his views, his heart and his soul. But Dickens holds a supreme place
among them. None of the English novelists has superseded him as the
describer of childhood. The pictures of childhood in his novels are very
real and life-like. It has been rightly said that Dickens did not merely
describe a child but he himself became a child for the time-being.
"Steeped in atmosphere now dark and touched with a sinister magic, now
bright with pity and kindness, now radiant with the most enchanting high
spirits." Dickens makes childhood as one of the main themes of his
novels.
His Treatment of Childhood by Himself becoming a Child
"It is only when writing more or less in his own person, as David
Copperfield or as Pip that he succeeds in presenting character as com-
monly seen. This he can do so in the most masterly fashion, but then he is
writing as an adult remembering his childhood." He always cherishes the
memories of his childhood. And childhood always charms him, enchants

him, holds him in its magic spell. Not a single impression is left out, not a
single memory is forgotten. Everything appears fresh and lively. Hence,
the actuality and poignancy of these pictures of childhood always impres-
ses upon the readers. His Child-Heroes
Children are instinctive having strong imagination. They have both a
sensitive and sensational nature. They see life with no logic or philosophy.
They view it blindly and passionately, with curiosity and suspense. So are
the child-heroes of Dickens. This shows that Dickens has a thorough un-
derstanding of children.
The first halves of Great Expectations and David Copperfield are
among the profoundest pictures of childhood. David Cecil observes,
"Who that has read it can forget the vast, sinister marsh of Great Expecta-
tions, with the convict rising like a giant of fairy-tale from its oozy banks :
and the forge with its entrancing sparks : and kindly, clumsy Joe Gargery,
as they appear to the wondering, acute six year old gaze of Pip ? But still
better are the first hundred and sixty pages of David Copperfield the best
Dickens ever wrote, one of the very best in the whole English. Here for
once, Dickens seems not only living but life-like ; for though the world
that he reveals is more exaggerated, lit by brighter lights, darkened by
sharper shadows than that of most grown up people; it is exactly the world
as seen through the eyes of a child." Besides these two novels, a child,
terrified, unwanted, persecuted, helpless, is at the heart of Dickens's
other novels. Oliver Twist, Paul Dombey, Pip and David all remind us
their great creator.
Depiction of Child's Woes
Dickens presents with infinite sympathy the woe and sufferings of
child life. He is primarily interested in presenting the soorows, sufferings
and privations suffered by his child-characters. The hardships borne by
David Copperfield, under the tyrannical domination of Mr. Murdstone
and Miss Murdstone are brought out in a touchingly tender manner. We
are inclined to shed tears for the lot of little David as he washes bottles
and suffers the pangs of penury. A similar fate falls on Oliver Twist, who
again wins our sympathy for the cruel treatment meted out to him by the
parish administrators and mentors of workhouses. When Oliver asks for
more food and is reprimanded by the dispenser, we feel sympathy for the
poor boy. The lot of Pip in Great Expectations in the earlier chapters is
equally touching and moves us to sympathy for him. The wanderings of
little Nell with her grand-father are heart-rending and pathetic. Her death
moves us to tears. Dickens, thus focusses attention on the serious, sad,
pathetic side of children. "Of Dickens," says Gissing, "true sympathy
with childhood there can be no doubt."
A Real and Faithful Depiction of Child-life
"A word or two about the children whom he loved to bring into his
books and to make pathetic or amusing. First of course, we see little Nell;
58 Dickens
we see her because she is the midfigure in a delightful romance; but her
face is not very plain to us. She is innocent, walking among grotesque
forms of suffering and wrong; simplicity set amid quaint contortions. Her
death is not the dying of a little girl, but the vanishing of a beautiful dream.
Oliver Twist is no more real, and certainly less interesting. Into what sort
of man did this astonishing lad develop ? The children of Dotheboys are
writhing ghosts; perhaps they had lived in some other world and were sad
boys and afterwards came into Squeer's hands for purification. Sally
Brass's poor little slavery, is on the other hand, well realized, a good study
of childhood brought to the verge of idiocy by evil treatment."
(George Gissing). It is
to be noted that when Dickens is speaking through the mouth of a child, he
does not feel himself bound to modify facts to suit the standards of his age;
he allows himself to speak the truth. He does not in the least mind saying
that the eleven-year old David enjoyed his school-fellows' excitement
when he told them that his mother was dying. David says :
"If ever child were stricken with sincere grief, I was. But I
remember that this importance was a kind of satisfaction to me,
when I walked in the playground that afternoon while the boys were
in school. When I saw them glancing at me out of windows, as they
went up to their classes, I felt distinguished, and looked more
melancholy, and, walked slower. When school was over, and they
came out and spoke to me, I felt it rather good in myself not to be
proud of any of them, and to take exactly the same notice of them
all, as before."
Autobiographical Touches
Of Dickens's true and deep sympathy with childhood there is no
doubt. Dickens himself was exposed to the full horrors of life in Regency
London in the crudest possible way at the most impressionable age. He
being sent out to work at Warren's Blacking Factory is too well-known to
his readers. It left a wound in him that never healed. He was so affected by
the experiences that he never spoke of it to his children. Such experiences
Dickens had formed in his early life, created a passionate sympathy in his
mind for the little ones doomed to suffering. There is a great deal of
autobiographical element in his descriptions of childhood.
So Dickens has the curiosity, the zest and the tearing energy of a boy
just let loose from school. He is undoubtedly as remarked by
Compton-Rickett, "capital at a baby."
POINTS To REMEMBER
1. Dickens is a "Capital at a baby." He is a supreme describer of
childhood to rank with Lamb, De Quincey and Wordsworth.
2. He writes of childhood by himself becoming a child.
3. Childhood is the main theme of his novels.
4. He has given us immortal child-heroes in the form of Pip, David,
Nell and others.
5. His main interest lies in the descriptions of the woes and sufferings
of children.
6. He gives us a real and faithful depiction of childhood.
7. There are autobiographical touches in the description of childhood,
more especially in the description of childhood in David Copperfield.
18. AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL ELEMENT IN

DICKENS'S NOVELS
Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of literature; the subjective
and the objective. But it is very difficult to say which of the two is better
and which of the two should be preferred to the other. There are critics
who say that literature ought to be objective; but there are some others
who hold whether subjective literature should be able to fulfil its primary
function.
Robert Liddel points out that a novelist should depict only that
which he knows. Dickens knew himself best. The very first reading of
Dickens's novels makes it clear that Dickens is in and out auto-biographi-
cal. His novels are autobiographical both in spirit and body. Hugh Walker
has rightly remarked, 'The pen that wrote David Copperfield was often
dipped in its own blood.' The experiences of David are the experiences of
Charles Dickens. "Like many fond parents, I have in my hearts of hearts a
favourite child and his name is David Copperfield."
According to Somerset Maugham, "David Copperfield is in great
part autobiographical, but Dickens was writing a novel, not an autobio-
graphy, and though he drew much of his material from his own life, he
made such use of it as suited his purpose. For the rest he fell back on his
fertile imagination. Mr. Micawber and Dora were drawn after his father
and his first love, Mary Beadnell, Agnes, partly from his idealised
memories of Mary Hogarth and partly after his sister Georgy. David
Copperfield at the age of ten was put to work by his wicked step-father; as
Charles Dickens was by his father and suffered in the same way from the
'degradation' of having to mix with boys of his own age whom he did not
consider his social equals."
Those who have read Dickens's novels will find from even slight out-
line how largely he drew on his own experience and observation. Charles
Dickens is an unabashed subjectiviser and he largely digs out of his per-
sonal experiences. London which he paints in his novels is the London
which he has seen with his own eyes and characters he portrays, are the
characters and people he has met and talked with in real life. When he
describes childhood he is doing nothing but writing his own autobio-
graphy of childhood. He often subjectivises his experiences but with the
grand touch of imagination, he makes it so interesting that his novels ap-
pear both autobiographies and social documents.
Speaking about his early student life, Dickens says in David
Copper-field:
".... in a little room upstairs to which I had access (for it ad-
joined my own), and which nobody else in our house ever
60 Dickens
troubled. From that blessed little room, Roderick Random, Peregrine
Pickle, Humphrey Clinker, Tom Jones, The Vicar of Wakefield, Don
Quixote, Gil Bias, Robinson Crusoe came out, glorious host, to keep
my company. They kept alive my fancy, they, and the Arabian Nights,
and the Tales of the Genii.... when I think of it, the picture always
arises in my mind of a summer evening, the boys at play in the chur-
chyard, and I sitting into my bed reading as if for life."
The school-master, Mr. Creakle of David Copperfield, resembles the
worthless and brutal headmaster of the Wellington House Academy
which Dickens attended at the age of fifteen.
The lives of his child-characters are as tragic and full of drudgery as
was his own. Dickens's father was arrested for not paying off his debts and
sentenced for a short term to Marshaisea prison. His mother, the mother
of eight children, of whom Charles Dickens was the second, opened a
dingy sort of 'educational establishment' which failed. Dickens was only
of eleven years those days. He helped his mother in every sort by menial
occupation. To his great humiliation, he had to earn his own living by
labelling and blackening pots in a warehouse. He had to work there from
dawn to dusk. Similar to his conditions are David and Pip in their
childhood.
The love incidents of David, first with Dora and later with Agnes,
represent the two phases of Dickens's passion, the real idealized because
it was a failure, and the ideal sentimentalized because it was never con-
summated. Dickens's rise in life from a factory-boy to a reporter, and from
a reporter to a novelist has also been pictured with unmistakable vivid-
ness in the latter part of David Copperfield
In fact, his novels are as much autobiographical as the novels of his
masters, Smollett and Fielding are. Most of the novelists, as Mr. E.M.
Forste-r once said, derive from their personal experiences that they almost
invariably pretend that they do not. But Dickens was not a pretender, nor
was his range limited to his own experiences. He knew himself very well;
but he also knew the people he met in life, the characters he drew in his
novels. He fused his personality and his art together in such a manner that
his novels became both autobiographies and social documents— stories
as well as moral lessons.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. Dickens's best novels are autobiographal. "The pen that wrote
David Copperfield was dipped in his own blood " (Hugh Walker).
2. "David Copperfield is in great part autobiographical."
3. Dickens is an unabashed subjectiviser.
4. There are so many autobiographical touches and references in his
novels. For example, in David Copperfield, we get a picture of
Dickens's own childhood, education, career, love, marriage and also
the picture of his parents. _
19. DICKENS AS A TYPICAL VICTORIAN
The remarkable feature of the Victorian literature has been the
reflection of the spirit of the age. Almost every great novelist and poet of
this age made his literature the mirror of society. Tennyson was much a
typical Victorian as Dickens. The difference was that of medium. Dickens
reflected in his works the London of 1820's and 1830's. His stories showed
England, especially London, in all its colours, with its squares and shapes
and offices and murky slums and prisons and clamorous thorough-fares,
its churches covered with soot, its suburbs with their trim cottages and
tidy gentle spaces of open country.
During Dickens's life-time, dramatic changes took place. Electri-
city, railways, grey architecture, Industrial Revolution were all the
products of his age. And his books mirrored the whole transformation. It
was the Industrial England of grim cities where the poor died which be-
came the theme of his novels. London, worn out by hardship and despair
of its people, eclipsed by drudgery and squalor, echoed itself fully in his
novels.
There emerged, in his times, a new reading public. It resembled that
which had received Defoe a hundred years earlier with great interest and
respect. Like the people of Fielding's age, the Victorians were also
materialistic, eager for sensation, ready to learn and voracious in their
appetites. The Victorian novelist, therefore, had to be a philosopher,
humorist, psychologist, artist; he was to mingle slapstick and sentiment.
Whether his medium was realism, fantasy, farce or pathos, the Victorian
novelist had to make himself able to grip the imagination and attention of
the readers.
Like other master story-tellers of his age, Dickens also tried to
satisfy the tastes of contemporary public. He made his climaxes dramatic,
characters outlined, atmosphere tense with excitement. In order to make
his novels pen-portraits of the Victorian scene, he coloured his novels in
Victorian colour. The people of his age were sentimental; they liked
sen-timentalism. So Dickens poured out sentiment to them. He did in
Rome as the Romans must do. In order to make a coloured picture of his
times, he discoloured his own vision. "There is hardly a book of Dickens,"
says David Cecil, "which is not deformed by false sentiment, flashy
melodrama, wooden characters; as often as not the hero is one of them."
Dickens shared the limitations of his public; like his readers, he was
a petty bourgeois; like them he allied quickness of native wit, keen obser-
vation and sentimentality to an interest in external characteristics. Like so
many of his readers, he was a man of the town, of the New London. He was
an average nineteenth century cockney; but he had genius.
Like most Victorians, he was anxious to improve the world in his
own way; he detested frivolity and sexual license, especially in literature.
Like the people of his own age, he also desired to impose his own clearcut
prejudices on the latter.
62 Dickens
S.D. Neil has observed in this connection, "the literary giant best
fitted to feed this voracious, if inhabited, public was Charles Dickens, a
sturdy individualist of no great depth of thought, but richly endowed with
creative energy and showmanship. Dickens studies, by reason of the su-
perb range of his characters, unrivalled among English novelists and in-
cites comparison with Dostoievski. Dickens is immortal because he is
essentially of his time."
According to G.K. Chesterton, "Dickens stands first as a defiant
monument to what happens when a great literary genius has a literary
taste akin to that of the community. For this kinship was deep and
spiritual, Dickens did not write what the people wanted. Dickens wanted
what the people wanted. And with this was connected that other fact
which I have more than once insisted on, that Dickens and his school had
a hilarious faith in democracy and thought of the service of it as a sacred
priesthood. Hence, there was this vital point in his popularism that there
was no condescension in it. The belief that the rabble can be read between
the lines of all our con temporary writers, even of those writers whose rub
bish the rabble reads..... Dickens never talked down to the people. He
talked up to the people. He approached the people like a deity and
poured out his riches and his blood. This is what makes immortal bond
between him and the masses of men ... His power, then, lay in the fact that
he expressed with energy and brilliantly quite uncommon the things close
to the common mind."
But this commonness of mind does not make Dickens an ordinary
novelist. The commonness is not an inferior quality. The common mind
means that mind of all the artists and heroes and not of mob. Plato had the
common mind; Dante had the common mind. So the commonness means
the quality common to the saint and the sinner, to the philosopher and the
fool; and it was this that Dickens grasped and developed.
So Dickens's contemporary popularity, his rise and growth as a
novelist and his immortality lay in his being a mirror of society. To con-
clude one may quote once again the observation of S. D. Neil, "Dickens
is immortal because he is essentially of his time."
POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. Dickens represents in his novels the Victorion Age as Tennyson
represents in poetry.
2. He reflected in his works the London of 1820's and 1830's.
3. His books mirrored the whole transformation of the society due to
industrialization—electricity, rails, etc.
4. He pictures the squalor and materialism of his age.
5. He is a typical Victorian also because he wrote of the people and for
the people of his age according to their tastes and requirements.
Like the Victorians, he detested hate.
6. Dickens wanted what the people wanted.
7. This Commonness didn't make him an extraordinary novelist. m
20. DICKENS AND THE SOCIAL NOVEL
Legouis and Cazamian in their History of English Literature have
adequately emphasized and analyzed this aspect of Dickens. According to
them, the central feeling which gives life to his work is social. No novelist
before Dickens had treated the lower middle classes on such broad lines
or in so frank a way. He studies them not as a detached, superior kind of
observer, but as one on their own level; a sympathy, an immediate
community of impressions, and, as it were, an instinctive fraternity, thus
impregnate his study. By the tone of that pathos or of humour, the
mediocre lives on which he focusses his and our attention come, as if
naturally, to acquire the dignity of art. Such is the permanent foundation
of his realism. But below it, in the inner realms of consciousness, we feel
the quivering image, the anguish of soul-debasing poverty.
Because of his concern for the poor and the low, Dickens has his
place in the idealistic reaction. His influence combined itself with that of
Carlyle, whose authority as a teacher he accepted or felt. But his most
important significance is not that he shared in the philanthropic crusade,
that he showed up abuses, or prepared those fits of moral compunction
from which reforms have sprung. Despite the practical benefits which did
accrue from such a task, it cannot be said that Dickens was always happily
inspired in this direction, indeed, his art suffered from the bitter or
strained mood which usually goes with a thesis of denunciation.
Above all, he has stimulated the national sensibility which was
slowly wasting away in the dry atmosphere of a utilitarian age ; he has
re-established balance and more wholesome order in the proportionate
values of the motives of life. This psychological action is brought to its
most precise and most effectual pitch in his impassioned attack on the
frame of mind which supports the individualistic theory of the econo-
mists. And here the criticism of the novelist succeeds in shaking the moral
foundations of a doctrine. Dickens has contributed to the salutary
weakening of dogmatic egoism. On this point, his teaching comes into
line with that of Carlyle and Ruskin; he takes up his stand with prophets
of sentk.ient against the harder advocates of rationalism. In other
respects, his temperament holds him aloof from their mystic exaltation.
He retains a firm hold on reality, and never loses the sense of the average
conditions which all useful activities must fulfil. An ardent believer in
progress, moderate in his views, and of optimistic turn of mind, he lives
and thinks in complete accord with the middle-class opinions of his day.
And this middle class for Dickens is that of London, of the ancient
cities, and the agricultural districts of the south. He knows nothing about
the feverish existence of the working-classes in the midlands and in the
north, or if he does, his knowledge is very imperfect. The problems he
touches upon in the course of his novels do not concern the industrial
crowds which had recently developed but rather a class of long standing,
with settled and traditional characteristics. Instead of bringing us into
direct contact with the epoch of machinery, and the new world, he leads us
back towards the past. While his intentions are anything but reactionary,
his instinctive preferences tend in this direction. The customs and habits
64 Dickens
he describes most readily savour somewhat of the archaic ; only rarely
does he venture beyond the field of observation which he had viewed in
his youth. The joviality, the cordiality he depicts or teaches are those of a
society that is still partiarchal, and that has been just perceptibly altered,
but not invaded and upset by modern life. Railways will never be anything
else than a sensational wonder for Dickens; it is by the jingling of stage-
coach harness that his imagination is wakened into spontaneous play.
Just as the background in his novels dates from 1825 or 1830, and
underneath the symptoms of a changing age tends to link up with the
eighteenth century, so his inner nature attuned to the spirit of an
animated, picturesque, and familiar life, finds itself in harmony with a
fairly average and a permanent type of the English temperament. Dickens
appealed to the very heart of England, and she recognized herself in his
pages because he offered her a picture of herself which she loved to see;
he showed her an England at her best. In a nation of very mixed tenden-
cies—like every other nation in this respect—he singles out the features
of genial humanity and organizes them into a whole ; the author himself
assumes, and often gives to his characters, an expression of sympathy, the
smile of humour, and the cheeriness of a kind heart. This composite
portrait, in which not only Mr. Pickwick but many others have their
shares, has the value of a synthetic image; the moral preferences of Dick-
ens enter into every one of its lineaments. These preferences comprise,
with a warm expansiveness of heart, a liking for the peculiarities of char-
acter, and almost a taste for eccentric oddities; a realism both psychological
and descriptive, without system or rigour, which springs from a lively
sense of bouyant curiosity, full of an instinctive trust in life. Thus it was
that the very great success of Dickens's work had the efficacy of a deep
influence; that his novels told in favour of solidarity, against the egoistic
spirit of the age; and that his popularity, which waned for a time after his
death, he has now again come into his own, and no limit can be set to its
duration.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. The central feeling which gives life to Dickens is social.
2. He observes the lower middle classes not as a spectator but as a par-
ticipant in their life.
3. Dickens has a great concern for the poor and the needy. That is why
he has a place in what the historians call "the idealistic reaction."
4. Dickens becomes the prophet of the poor.
5. he deals with the social life of the middle class people of London.
6. He is not much concerned with the industrial classes. Instead of
bringing us into direct contact with the epoch of machinery, and the
new world, he leads us back towards the past.
7. The background in his novels dates from 1825 or 1830.
8. Dickens offered a picture of England which England loved to see.
9. But the picture of society offered by Dickens is not complete ; all
sections and strata of society are not treated. ^
, • - . . - ■ ...
21. A GENERAL ESTIMATE OF DICKENS AS A NOVELIST

A Novelist of Low Life
Dickens is the best of all the English novelists. Previous to his day, the
novelists only wrote of the life and adventures of the rich and aristocratic
sections of society. Dickens was the first to introduce to the reading public life
of the poor and the oppressed He had a very marked sense of humour, and his
appeal is to the heart rather than to the head. He rouses in us pity for the lot of
the poor whose sufferings he describes, and resent-N ment against those who
illtreated and exploited them. He had a special love for orphan children as he
had been left orphan himself and had suffered much creulty in his early years.
His Oliver Twist (1838) is a powerful indictment of poor children of his day.
A Novelist of Domestic Life
Dickens is pre-eminently the novelist of the hearth and the home and
nowhere does this note ring clearer and truer than in David Copper-field.
The love of his mother and his home is deep seated in the unfortunate little
hero ; throughout the chapters he betrays his affection for Blunderstone,
Rookery, and all its dear associations. Not less striking than the mutual love
of mother and son, is the loyalty of Agnes Wickfield to her father ; for
Dickens is with Shakespeare and Scott in desiring to depict the sympathetic
care and the charming solicitude of a daughter. There is, moreover, another
side of happy home life, illustrated by the dependence of Wilkins, Micawber
and his wife upon each other; the single-souled fidelity of Peggotty to her
mistress and little David completes the picture drawn by the novelist of
home life.
Dickens : "Capital at a Baby"
Dickens is particularly good with children, and there comes to mind at
once his delightful little Emily. But he is more than merely a charming
picture-painter of little boys and little girls; he never forgets to set down the
evils to which a faulty social system exposes young people, and by so doing
to make a powerful appeal for amelioration. In David Copperfield, he treats
particularly of child labour and the reform of schools. No one can be more
tender than Dickens in protecting the innocence of childhood and the purity
of young womanhood ; in the latter case, he comes once more into line with
Shakespeare and Scott.
His Humour
To write of Charles Dickens at all is to presuppose his humour; it was
the supreme quality of his genius. It was as a humorist that Dickens made
his name. Humour is the soul of his work. Even as a writer of true farce, we
suppose, Dickens has never been surpassed. Pickwick Papers abounds in
farce, now quite distinct from, and now all but blending with, the higher
characteristics of Humour. At his worst, he is capable of facetiousness as in
Nicholas Nickleby : "Madame Mantalini wrung her hands for grief and rung
the bell for her husband: which done, she fell into a chair and a fainting fit
simultaneously." The scene between the little David and the waiter, in
Chapter V of David Copperfied, seems to Gissing
66 Dickzns
"farce, though very good; country innkeepers were never in the habit of
setting a dish-load of cutlets before a litle boy who wanted dinner, and not
even the shrewdest of waiters, having devoured them all, could make,
people believe that it was the little boy's achievement; but the comic
vigour of the thing is irresistible."
But between Dickens's farce and his scenes of humour the difference
is obvious. In Mantalini, for example, we have nothing illuminating. He
amuses, and there the matter ends. But true humour always suggests a
thought, always throws a light on human nature. Both the Wellers (father
and son) are strictly humorous. Neither the old coachman nor his son is
ever sown in grotesque, or improbable situations: no one takes Mantalini
to his heart; but Tony and Sam Weller become in very truth our friends,
and for knowing them, we know ourselves the better. They are surprising
incarnations of the spirit of man, doomed to inhabit so variously. Sam, at
ease in the world, makes life his jest, and we ask nothing better than to
laugh with one who sees so shrewdly and feels so honestly. We look on,
and feel in our hearts the warmth of kindly merriment. In the celebrated
Mrs. Gamp, the same perfect method of idealisation, as in Shakespeare's
Falstaff, is used in converting into a source of pleasure things that in life
repel or nauseate. And in both cases, the sublimation of character and
circumstance is affected by humour that seems unsurpassable. Consider
Spenlow and Jorkins in David Copperfield, and Trodger's Martin
Chuzzlewit. Dickens had remarkable acquaintance with the Inn Waiter :
read the Waiter's autobiography in Somebody's Luggage.
His Pathos
Inseparable from the gift of humour is that of pathos. Sometimes,
indeed, his emphasis and reiteration lead to the charge against him of
mawkishness, e.g., in the death of Paul Dombey, or of Joe Gargery. But of
true pathos Dickens has an abundance, the earliest instance being that of
the death of the chancery prisoner in the Pickwick Papers. He is at his best
in bringing out the pathos of childlife. We see how closely the truly
pathetic and quick observation are allied in Dickens. Little Dorrit is strong
in both pathos and humour. Dickens's memories of childhood made his
touch very sure whenever he dealt with the squalid prison-world, and life
there was for him no less fertile in pathos than in humour. Pathos of a
graver and subtler kind is the distinguishing note of Great Expectations.
Perhaps, however, his best pathos is seen in the Christmas Book He com-
bines in himself Goldsmith's sweetness and Sterne's sensitive humanity.
His Style
Dickens is one of the masters of prose in his own way, though his
style cannot be commended for flow of pure idiom or command of subtle
melodies. He is often too much mannered. Facetiousness is now and then
to blame for an affected sentence, but he never wrote slovenly English.
Barnaby Rudge is written in a style, simple, direct and forcible. In narra-
tive, he is always excellent when describing rapid journeys. His easy,
graphic power first presupposes vision, and vision of extraordinary clear-
ness, too. In the story of David Copperfield's journey on the Dover Road,
we have as good a piece of narrative prose as can be found in English.
Equally good, in another way, are those passages of rapid retrospect, in
which David tells us of his later boyhood ; a concentration of memory
perfumed with the sweetest humour. The chapter entitled Our Domestic
Life is perfect writing, with perfect proportion of detail, with unflagging
interest. Another kind of descriptive writing appears in the funeral of old
Anthony, conducted by Mr. Mould, in Chapter XIX of Martin Chuzzlewit.
A fine piece of the grimly picturesque is Quilp's death. Better still is
the narrative in Barnaby Rudge of the day and night before the great
delivery. He is very strong in pure description and in elaborate picturing.
He is great in locality, and there is no English writer, or perhaps no writer
in any literature, who so often gives proof of wonderfully minute observa-
tion. It is an important source of his strength ; it helps him to put people
and things more clearly before us than, as a rule, we should ourselves see
them. One example is Peggotty's purse given to little David Copperfield
on his departure from Yarmouth, which was found to contain three bright
shillings, "Which Peggotty had evidently polished up with whiting for my
greater delight." No other novelist affords such instances of observation,
memory and imaginative force, all evinced in a touch of detail so in-
describably trivial—its very triviality being the proof of power. When
Dickens writes in his pleasant mood of things, either pleasant in them-
selves, or especially suggestive of humorous reflection, his style is fault-
less, perfectly suited, e.g., in The Uncommercial Traveller, he is almost
invariably happy in phrase and in easy flow of language, and fully equal of
the eighteenth-century essayists in light and deft handling of idiomatic
English.
In the words of Clutton-Brock, "Dickens was master of a sound and
even classical prose-style. His teachers were Smollett, Fielding and
Defoe; and he learned from them thoroughly. He wrote like a man, with a
masculine weight, clearness, and balance."
"In time, his style became mannered also. At its best it is neither
polished nor scholarly, but it is clear, rapid, and workmanlike, the style of
the working journalist. In the early books, it is sometimes trivial with
puns, Cockneyisms, and tiresome circumlocutions. This heavy handed-
ness of phrase remained with him all his life. In his more aspiring flights,
in particular, in his deeply pathetic passages, he adopted a lyrical style, a
kind of verse-in prose, that is blank verse slightly disguised."
Dickens's Interest in Social Reform
Though Dickens's works embody no systematic social or political
theory, from the first, he took himself very seriously as a social reformer.
His novels aroused public interest in many of the evils of his day, among
them boarding-school, in Nicholas Nickleby, the work houses, in Oliver
Twist, the new manufacturing system, in Hard Times, and the Court of
Chancery, in Bleak House. Deference to the fastidiousness of his public
excluded the crudest realism from his pictures of poverty, and he seems to
have built his hopes for improvement on the spread of the spirit of
benevolence rather than upon political upheaval or formal legislation. In
68 Dickens
more ways than one, his work suffered from his proccupation with social
problems. To it can largely be attributed the poetic justice of the conclusions
of many of his novels, the exaggeration of such characters as the Gradgrinds,
and the sentimental pictures of the poorer classes.
His Imagination
No English novelist excels Dickens in the multiplicity of his characters
and situations. Pickwick Papers, the first of the novels, teems with
characters, some of them finely portrayed, and in mere numbers the supply
is maintained to the very end of his life. He creates for us a whole world of
people. In this world, he is most at home with persons of the lower and
middle ranks of life, especially those who frequent the neighbourhood of
London.
The Autobiographical Note in His Novels
Dickens's novels contain a great deal of autobiography; David
Copperfield contains a large amount of autobiography. His early knowledge
of low life of London supplied material for Oliver Twist, his schooldays for
Nicholas Nickleby, his visit to the Marshalsea, where his father was
imprisoned, for Little Dorrit, his life in a law office for treatment of legal
matters in Bleak House and other novels. Dickens has thrown light on the
society of his days, with the impact of the Industrial Revolution, when
children were employed in factories, where most of the schools were
inefficient and selfishly motivated like Mr. Creakle's school, and even law
fell into hands of selfish people. Being written in the first person, the novels
of Dickens excite the readers' sympathy for the hero more easily than it
would have done otherwise.
Dickens's Limitations
Dickens has several virtues and merits as a novelist. But these should
not make us blind to his faults. The first complaint against Dickens the artist
in that his plots lack construction; they are stage plots; there is too much
coincidence in them ; the endings are huddled and unnaturally happy. A man
like Micawber would not have succeeded anywhere, not even in Australia.
Oliver Twist meets suddenly an old gentleman who turns out to be a
relative. Emily and Steerforth are miraculously cast upon Yarmouth beach.
Dickens wrote from day to day for serial publication, with the printer's
devil at his heels the whole time. He did not plan his books in advance, never
saw them as a whole in his imagination. They grew up in his hands from day
to day, after running amuck and playing havoc with the imagination of the
author. Gissing too concedes these faults in Dickens. He says : "In his plots,
unfortunately he is seldom concerned with the plain motives of human life.
Too often he prefers some far-fetched eccentricity, some piece of
knavishness, some unlikely occurrence, about which to weave his tale. And
this, it seems to me, is directly traceable to his fondness for the theatre. He
planned a narrative as though plotting for the stage."
Quiller-Couch describes his plots as "at once stagey and illknitt,
repetitive, poor in invention." He writes: "to the end, Dickens the artist
is hag-ridden by this business of 'plot' which for him meant stage-plot. It
hampers him in book after book, as its silly exigencies perpetually get in
the way of the reader's pleasure..."
The second charge against Dickens is concerning his characters. It is
complained that they are often "wooden" and static. They do not change,
except rarely, as in the case of Pip. They bear labels and ticket-descrip-
tions. For instance, Mr. Micawber makes punch and waits for something
to turn up. Mr. Dick composes a petition and gets lost with King Charles's
head. Mr. Jaggers bites his finger. Barkis telis Davy that he "is willing.'
Stephen Zweig says, "It is by outward signs that Dickens makes the in-
dividuality of a character recognizable. He gives the schoolmaster
Creakle a very deep spluttering voice. His Uriah Heep has hands that are
perpetually cold and clammy...." The characters of Dickens are all one-
sided, entirely good or entirely evil. They are not complex beings, confus-
ing mixtures of good and evil as most human-beings are.
The women-characters of Dickens are either idyllic heroines or
shrill-voiced, harsh termagants, perpetually complaining. Mrs. Joe
Gargery is a typical example of them. George Gissing writes about them :
"They are treated by their male kindred with great, often extraordinary
consideration. Yet their characteristic is acidity of temper and boundless
licence of querulous or insulting talk. The rear business of their lives is to
make all about them as uncomfortable as they can. In the highways and
byways of life, by the fireside, and in the bed-chamber, their voices shrill
upon the terrified ear.'
It is also complained against Dickens that he always preaches a
moral in his work. He wants to point out faults in social institutions; he
scourges vices like hypocrisy and excessive pride. This charge against
Dickens is treated by many critics as a sterling merit in him. His novels
proved to be a great boon to his generation.
Writing on the faults of Dickens, Quiller-Couch remarks: "He was a
writer of imperfect or hazardous literary education: but he was also a man
of iron will and an artist of firecest literary conscience." Henley
enumerates the faults of Dickens as a novelist as follows: "The faults of
Dickens were many and grave. He wrote some nonsense; he sinned
repeatedly against taste; he could be both noisy and vulgar; he was apt to
be a caricaturist where he should have been a painter; he was often maw-
kish and often extravagant; and he was sometimes more inept than a great
writer has ever been. But his work, whether good or bad, has in full
measure, the quality of sincerity. He meant what he did; and he me?/ * "
with his whole heart."
In a burst of indignation, Flaubert remarked against Dickens: "How
little he cares for art ? Not once does he mention it. An ignoramus ! A
giant of good fellows but second-rate."
70 Dickens
His Merits : His Defence
The fame of Dickens as a novelist has suffered serious fluctuations.
In his own life-time, he was worshipped almost as a god. Then there was a
severe reaction against this exaggerated hero-worship, he was accused of
every imaginable fault. His plots were tawdry; his characters were theatri-
cal ; his psychology was false; he was too prone to preaching and moralis-
ing. We see his achievements today in a better perspective, being able to
tubulate his faults and virtues much better. Still, the modern generation
tends to look down patronizingly upon him, because he did not construct
his novels as well as the writers of today. We forget, however, that though
we construct novels better than Dickens ever did, yet he was a wonderful
creator who could create a world of his own at will. Unfortunately, the
moderns cannot create life with the ease and spontaneity of Dickens. We
are a generation without faith and hope and we keep groping in the dark-
ness.
The defence of Dickens has been undertaken by Chesterton with a
great deal of love and zeal. He emphasizes the enormous creative power
of Dickens, saying that he was a giant, though to modern eyes these Vic-
torian giants may seem to be "malformed." Chesterton accuses the critics
of facile criticism, "though they could make the sun and moon better;
but they have also the depressing consciousness that they could not make
the sun and moon at all. A man looking at a hippopotamus as an enor-
mous mistake; but he is also bound to confess that a fortunate inferiority
prevents him personally from making such mistakes."
Dickens possessed superabundant creative energy. It tends to over-
flow his moulds, refusing to be contained within any set limits. His work is a
rich, tropical jungle, difficult to trim, prune and keep within bounds. It is an
amazing, miraculous world which has suddenly sprung into life at the
touch of a great master. His stories are fascinating, though there is su-
perfluous action in them. They run helter-skelter in all directions. The
immortal characters of Dickens are unforgettable and there are legions of
them, though many of them tend to be grotesques and eccentrics. It is also
true that with a few exceptions, they don't grow or change. Like the moon,
they ever present the same unchanging face to us. Many of his characters
are caricatures, but caricature is an art as much as portrait-painting.
Chesterton speaks of the grotesquely of Dickens's pictures. He
writes: "The sentiment of the grotesqueness of the universe ran through
Dickens's brain and body like the mad blood of the elves. He saw all his
streets in fantastic perspectives, he saw all his cockney villas as top-heavy
and wild, he saw every man's nose twice as big as it was, and every man's
eyes like saucers.... Its merit is precisely that one of us could have con
ceived such a thing, that we should have rejected the bare idea of it as
miracle and unreason. It is the best of all impossible worlds."
The greatest tribute ever paid to Dickens came from Tolstoy who
wrote to an English friend: "All his characters are my personal friends. I
am constantly comparing them with living persons and living persons with
them. And what a $/w7> there was in all he wrote."
The grostesquery of Dickens's pictures was not entirely invented by
him. English life contained within itself elements of such grotesqueness in
those times. The truth of his pictures was often undeniable. Many of his
portraits are as truthful as art ever can be. Betsey Trotwood, Mr.
Micaw-ber, Mr. Nickleby, the Pecksniffs, Dora and many others were
faithful portrayals of reality, though the artist's vision might have
distorted or exaggerated a detail here or there.
The art of Dickens was a radical force in changing English society.
Dickens wrote castigating the social evils of his times. Bad schools, or-
phanages badly run, offices badly administered, justice tardily moving,
Courts of Chancery, circumlocution offices, debtor's prison all provoked
his anger and were powerfully depicted. Bernard Shaw calls Dickens "a
sort of unphilosophical radical, with a complete disbelief in government
by the people and an equally complete hostility to government in any
other interests than theirs. He exposed many abuses and called
passionately on the rulers of the people to remedy them ; but he never
called on the people themselves."
The work of Dickens offers a message of hope to his readers. The
world of Dickens is full of hope and charity. In this world, we constantly
find people drinking punch, dining on turkey and plum-pudding, skating,
dancing, laughing. Dickens offers to the reader through his books the
boon of an everlasting Christmas—huge, roaring fires and all sorts of
good things to keep company. Andre Maurois suggests that there is
a"Dickensian paradise", as there is a Mohammedan paradise. Mr.
Micawber represents the spirit of this world, a jolly, happy-go-lucky per-
son whose spirit not all the worst trials and tribulations of life can crush.
The quality of Dickens's art as a force for social good has been
universally acknowledged, even by those critics who find fault with him
on aesthetic grounds. David Cecil writes in his book, Early Victorian
Novjlists : "Dickens may be considered disappointing purely as an artist.
But he is something more than an artist. He is also a prophet. He is out to
expound a gospel, a view of life, a scale of values which he wishes his fel-
low-men 10 accept. His gospel has its own force; it comes from conviction
born in experience, not in abstract thought. It centres round a single
belief—a belief in the paramount value of the primary, simple,
benevolent impulses of man, his instinctive wish to love and laugh and
give and share."
Forster pays a much more full-throated tribute to the work of Dick-
ens as a force for moral good: "It will be remembered of Dickens always
that he desired to set right what was wrong, that he held no abuse to be
unimprovable, that he left none of the evils named exactly as he found
them, and that to influences drawn from his writings were due not a few of
the salutary changes which marked the age in which he lived."
Despite, numerous faults—faults of exaggeration, mawkishness,
excessive sentimental ism and melodrama, lack of proportion in the aes-
thetic sense, Dickens remains one of the great novelists of the world. He
brought a whole new world to life, creating a host of characters at will by
72 Dickens
the magic of his pen. He was a great creator, unrivalled in his age for sheer
power of imagination. He was a wonderful weaver of tales, which, though
not trimmed and pruned, have continued to fascinate generations of
readers. Above all, he was a great humanist who used the power of his pen
to heal the wounds from which mankind was suffering. He remains an
honoured figure among the greatest novelists of all time. In the temple of
fame, he occupies a safe seat by the side of Babac, Victor Hugo, Hardy
and Tolstoy.
"With Shakespeare, Dickens is the most English of writers, and like
Shakespeare, he has conquered the world. The faults of Dickens are the
faults of English characters; and there in their richest abundance he has
expressed an exuberant fertility of device, a daemonic energy of creation
and a vast universal charity to which there is only one parallel in litera-
ture." (George Samson).
His Humour and Pathos
It is very likely that the reputation of Dickens will be maintained
chiefly as a humorist. His humour is broad, humane, and creative. It gives
us such real immortals as Mr. Pickwick, Mrs. Gamp. Mr. Micawber, and
Sam Weller—typical inhabitants of the Dickensian sphere, and worthy of a
place in any literary brotherhood. Dickens's humour is not very subtle, but
it goes deep, and in expression it is free and vivacious. His satire is apt to
develop into mere burlesque as it does when he deals with Mr. Stiggins and
Bumble. As for his pathos, in its day, it had an appeal that appears
amazing to a later generation, whom it strikes as cheap and maudlin. His
devices are often thirdrate, as when they depend upon such themes as the
deaths of little children, which he describes in detail. His genius had little
tragic force. He could describe the horrible, as in the death of Bill Skyes;
he could be painfully melodramatic, as in characters like Rosa Dartle and
Madame Defarge ; but he seems to have been unable to command the
simplicity of real tragic greatness.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. Dickens is a novelist of low life.
2. He is a novelist of the common life.
3. Dickens is a "Capital at a baby" ; his depiction of child-life creates
for him a special place among the novelists.
4. He is a great humorist and ranks with Fielding or Shakespeare.
5. He blends humour with pathos.
6. In spite of his carelessness, he is one of the masters of English prose.
7. Dickens is a social reformer in addition to his being an artist.
8. He has a rich imagination too. That is why, he is able to fuse together
the elements of realism and fantasy.
9. There is an autobiographical note in his novels.
10. His main blemishes are carelessness, loose plots, caricaturing cheap
pathos, his over-zealous concern for preaching. ^
22. LIMITATIONS OF DICKENS AS A NOVELIST

Dickens, undoubtedly, has been one of the most favourite friends of j,is
readers all over the English reading world. But he should consider him not
only as an entertainer or friend, but also as an artist. Thus viewed from the
technical points of view, he has some faults and limitations.
Defects in Plot-Construction
The plots of his novels are too loose to be developed coherently.
Sometimes, they fail to have even the unity of action. There are too many
loose ends and sub-plots in his plots. Terribly lengthy descriptions of
travellings and other such scenes also hamper the development of his plots.
David Cecil observes, "Dickens cannot construct, for one thing. His books
have no organic unity: they are full'of detachable episodes, characters who
serve no purpose in furthering the plot." He is careless and deficient in
plot-making. Defects in Characterization
His characters are caricatures and exaggerated figures. Though ex-
tensive in numbers, his range is limited in quality. He knows only the lower
middle class very well. He fails when he tries to portray characters from high
class of the society. Miss Havisham is a failure of Dickens when considered
from the view-point of characterization. So are other characters drawn from
the highest strata of the society. Most of his characters are far apart from the
life that we know in daily experience. In James Oliphant's opinion, "the
prime defect of Dickens was the lack of insight into character." It was
seldom if ever that Dickens got near the heart of his characters. Baker has
also pointed out that Dickens's affair was with characters not with character,
to portray the infinite diversity of mankind, not to analyse the individual. His
characters do not react upon each other ; in truth they do not act at all. Taine
has observed, "His characters do not grow and change as they would if
presented as living whole." (But Taine exempts Great Expectations from this
charge.) Dickens also fails in portraying serious characters. According to
Lord David Cecil, "his serious characters, with a few exceptions, like David
Copperfield, are the conventional, virtuous and vicious dummies of
melodrama." He cannot draw complex, educated, aristocrate types. He
realises personality of his character with unparallelled vividness, but he does
not understand the organic principles that underlie that personality.
Limitations of His Realism
Another striking limitation of Dickens is regarding his realism.
Realistic details in his novel seldom give the impression of reality. Dickens's
world appears to be a fantastic world with its men and women fantastically
exaggerated. His real world soon dissolves into the fairy-land since he
transforms the reality into an atmosphere far more highly coloured. He
subordinates the truth of every feature to emotional and picturesome values.
74 Dickens
Excess of Pathos
There is excess of pathos in his novels, and excess of everything is
bad. His pathos often changes into sentimentality and offends the critical
taste owing to sheer lack of restraint. "He overstates. He tries to wring an
extra tear from the situation ; he never lets it speak for itself." So his
pathos is artificial and exaggerated.
Lack of Artistic Finishing
Want of artistic and finishing touch is another glaring defect in
Dickens's art. He writes very rapidly and in doing so, he sacrifices balances
for the sake of intense effect. "Among the English novelists," says
Cazamian, "Dickens is neither the most consummate artist, nor the finest
psychologist, nor the most accomplished realist, nor the most seductive of
tale writers : but he is probably the most national, the most typical, and
the greatest of them all."
Grammatical Pitfalls
There arc grammatical circumlocutions in his language and man-
nerisms in his style. His mannerisms are many and they do not make for
good in his novels. He makes use of catch-words. His style is neither
polished, nor scholarly, but it is clear, rapid and workmanlike. His is a
style of a working journalist. In his early period, his language is full of
trivia] puns and cockneyisms.
Excess of Melodrama
Dickens also shares some of the faults of the lime. He shares its
faults of taste, its love of melodrama, its exuberant vitality, its belief in the
sharp division of humanity into sheep and goats. His novels often
become morality plays in which the good angels battle for soul of man.
Indifference to the Themes of the Human Imagination
The detractors of Dickens do not place Dickens in the great tradi-
tion of novel. According to F. R. Leavis, "Dickens was a great genius and is
permanently among the classics. But the genius was that of a great
entertainer, and he had for the most part no profounder responsibility as a
creative artist. In his opinion. Dickens does not belong to the great
tradition of the English novel, because he lacks, as compared with Jane
Austen, George Eliot, James Conard and D. H. Lawrence, a total sig-
nificance of a profoundly serious kind. Even Santayana, one of the best
critics of Dickens, remarks that "in spite of his ardent simplicity and
openness of heart, how insensible Dickens was to the greater themes of
the human imagination—religion, science, politics, and art. Perhaps
properly speaking, he had no ideas on any subject; what he had was a vast
sympathetic participation in the daily life of mankind. What entered into
his imagination as a child is to be found in the world of his novels and
those things that could not enter, remained for ever outside the world.
Conclusion
Briefly speaking, negative criticism of Dickens is so much hammer-
ing that it confuses the reader to conclude, what possible claim should
have considered Dickens a great novelist. His faults are many. His struc-
ture is loose ; his plots are incoherent, long and tiresome ; his men and
women are either purely good or purely bad ; his world is fantastic and
lop-sided : his morality is an affair of melodramatic black and white : his
pathos is exaggerated and artificial.
So "any severe criticism of Dickens as a novelist must seem, at first
glance unkind and unnecessary. In almost every house, he is a welcome
guest, a personal friend who has beguiled many an hour with his stories,
and who has furnished us much good laughter and few good tears.
Moreover, he has always a cheering message. He emphasizes the fact that
this is an excellent world, that some errors have crept into it due largely to
thoughtlessness, but that they can be easily remedied by a little human
sympathy. That is a most welcome creed to an age over-burdened with
social problems; and to criticise our cheery companion seems as discour-
teous as to speak unkindly of a guest who has just left our home. But we
must consider Dickens not merely as a friend but as a novelist, and apply
to his work the same standards of art which we apply to other writers, and
when we do this, we are sometimes a little disappointed." {W. L.
Long).
In spite of all these attacks on him, there is a great deal of art in his
novels. He is really worthy of more praise than denunciation. He is cer-
tainly a great genius and a classic novelist. He is the most native and most
national of the English novelists. He is, as Carlyle called him, "the good,
the gentle, high-gifted, ever-friendly, noble Dickens." Above all, he is
perhaps the greatest of the entertainers.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. Plots—loose, incoherent, improbable, unmanageable ends.
2. Characters—Caricatures and exaggerated figures ; limited range—
people of aristocratic or intellectual classes not portrayed properly ;
lack of insight into character; characters don't grow and change.
3. His novels seldom give the impression of reality; there is a great deal
of fantasy, fairy-tale atmosphere, exaggeration and improbability in
his novels.
4. There is an excess of pathos in his novels.
5. His novels lack artistic finishing.
6. There are grammatic pitfalls also; his style is that of a working jour-
nalist.
7. There is also an excess of melodrama and theatricality in his works.
8. Dickens is indifferent to the themes of human imagination, such as
science, religion, politics and art. —
23. THE MODERN REACTION AGAINST DICKENS

Charles Dickens was the most popular novelist in his own age. But
as the Victorian Age passed on, his reputation declined. In his own times,
Dickens was hailed as the master of the sunniest smiles and most unselfish
tears. He was regarded as the greatest and the most national of the
English writers.
76 Dickens
With the advent of the modern age, came new explorations and dis-
coveries, new interpretations and theories. Sentimentalism was replaced
by rationalism, emotion by reason, heart by mind. With these new chan-
ges, of course, the fame of Dickens has seen a mixed reaction.
Ifor Evans has pointed out ihat Dickens did not possess that full
vision of life which makes Tolstoy supreme among the novelists of the
world. Percy Lubbock has also propagated that a novelist must have a
definite point of view and he must have an undeviating attitude to his
themes. Mr. Carrutheres has said that the novels should live upto a new
philosophical concept of the universe. Dickens did not have such concep-
tion or philosophy. But short of this, he had everything. Like all great
artists, he saw the world as if it was an entirely fresh experience seen for
the first time, and he had an extraordinary range of language from comic
invention to great eloquence. He created characters and situations with a
range that had been unequalled save Shakespeare's.
The reputation of Dickens fell with the fall of the ideals and the tastes
of the people of his age. When Dickens died in 1870, something had gone
out of English life that was irreplaceable. No sooner did the tastes change
than Dickens became popular again with all classes of reading-public.
Referring to the enduring popularity of Dickens as a novelist, Prof.
Saintsbury has observed in The Cambridge History of English Literature
(Vol. VIII), "More than a century has, indeed, elapsed since his birth and
nearly half a century since his death : but instances could be produced of
reputations which, after towering for at least as long, have dropped to a
much lower level, if they have not fallen altogether. Complaints un-
doubtedly, are, sometimes made that his atmosphere is becoming dif-
ficult to breathe ; and, though the lungs which feel this difficulty are
probably rather weak, their complaint must be registered. But in regard to
the.other point, there is no possibility of rational and well-informed
doubt. It is probably safe to say that no author in our literary history has
been both admired and enjoyed for such different reasons; by such dif-
ferent tastes and intellect; by whole classes of readers unlike each other.
He is 'made one with Nature,'not indeed, by a Shakespearean Univer-
sality—for there are wide, numerous and, sometimes, unfortunate gaps in
his appeal—but by the great range of diversity of that appeal."
Prof. Saintsbury in another book, The English Novel, writes, "There is
probably no author of whom really critical estimates are so rare. He has
given so much pleasure in so many people—perhaps there are none to
whom he has given more pleasure than to some of those who have
criticised him most closely—that to mention any faults in him is
upbraided as a sort of personal and detestable ingratitude and treachery. If
you say that he cannot draw a gentleman, you are told that you are a
parrot and a snob, who repeats what other snobs have told you; that
gentlemen are not worth drawing; that he can draw them; and so forth. If
you suggest that he is fantastic, it is reproachfully asked if poetry is not
fantastic and if you do not like poetry ? If you intimate small affection for
Little Nell and Little Paul, you are a brute ; if you hint that his social
crusades were often quite irrational and a foe of 'the people.' If you take
exception, to his repetitions, his mannerisms, his tedious catch-processes of
various kinds, you are a 'stop-watch critic' and worthy of all the generous
wrath of the exemplary and Redescriptions are arch-true : and they can be
made by persons who know Dickens and enjoy Dickens a thousand times
better—who admire him in a manner a thousand times more really
complimentary—than the folk who simply cry, 'Great is Dickens' and will
listen to nothing but their own sweet voices."
Another modern crticQuiller Couch has observed in his book, Charles
Dickens: "But you will say perhaps 'Granted his amazing popularity, granted
too his right to assume on it—was it really deserved ? To this question I
oppose for the moment my opinion that were I asked to choose out of the
story of English literature a short list of the most fecund authors, I should
start with Chaucer, Marlowe, Shakespeare, Donne. Dryden, Pope, Samuel
Johnson, Burke, Gibbon, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Shelley, Keats, Carlyle,
Dickens, Browning. If compelled to reduce the list to three, choosing the
three most lavishly endowed by God with imagination for their fellows'
good, I almost think that among all God's plenty, I should choose, as
pre-eminent stars, Shakespeare, Burke and Dickens. Milton, of course, will
stand apart always, a solitary star; and Chaucer for his amazing invention
less even for what he did than for what he did it at all, Keats for infinity of
promise and to exclude Scott seems almost an outrage on human kindness.
Yet if it comes to the mere wonder-work of genius—the creation of men and
women, on a page of paper, who are actually more real to us than our daily
acquaintances, as individual as the most eccentric we know, yet as universal
as humanity itself. I do not see what English writer we can choose to put
second to Shakespeare save Charles Dickens. I am talking of sheer creative
power, as I am thinking of Tasso's proud saying, next to God himself, no one
but the poet deserves the name of Creator. You feel of Dickens as of
Shakespeare that anything may happen ; because it is not with them as with
other authors ; it is not they who speak. Falstaff or Hamlet or Sam Weller or
Mr. Micawber : it is the God speaking. They are harps upon which the large
wind plays: and as that is inimitable there is no limit to their utterances."
So 'despite his manifold blemishes and drawbacks as a literary artist,
Dickens is, perhaps, the most popular of the English novelists.' He,
without any doubt, enjoys even today an enduring popularity. ^
24. SELECT LITERARY OPINIONS ON DICKENS AS
A NOVELIST
(1)
Dickens's Characterisation
Most diverse opinions have been expressed as to Dickens's mastery of
that highest part of the novelist's art, which we call characterisation.
Undoubtedly, the characters which he draws are included in a limited range.
Yet I question whether their range can be justly termed narrow as
78 Dickens
compared with that commanded by any other great English novelist ex-
cept Scoit, or with those of many novelists of other literatures except Bal-
zac. But within his own range Dickens is unapproached. His novels do not
altogether avoid the common danger of uninteresting heroes and insipid
heroines, but only a very few of his heroes are conventionally decla-
matory like Nicholas Nickleby, and few of his heroines simper sentimen-
tality like Rose Maylie. Nor can I for a moment assent to the
condemnation which has been pronounced upon all the female characters
in Dickens's books, as more or less feeble or artificial. At the same time, it
is true that from women of a mightier mould Dickens's imagination turns
aside; he could not have drawn a Dorothea Casaubon any more than he
could have drawn Romola herself. Similarly, heroes of the chivalrous or
magnanimous type, representatives of generous effort in a great cause,
will not easily be met with in his writings : he never even essayed the
picture of an artist devoted to art for her own sake.
It suited the genius, and in lateryears perhaps the temper of Dickens
as an author, to leave out of sight those 'public virtues' to which no man
was in truth less blind than himself, and to remain content with the il-
lustration of types of the private or domestic kind. We may cheerfully take
to us the censure that our great humorist was in nothing more English
than in this that his sympathy with the affections of the hearth and home
knew almost no bounds. A symbolisation of this may be found in the
honour which, from the books and Christmas Numbers, Dickens, doubt-
less very consciously, paid to the one great festival of English family-life.
'Dickens is capital at a baby.' Even when most playful, most farcical con-
cerning children, his fun is rarely without something of true tenderness,
for he knew the meaning of that drearest solitude which he has so straight
to the heart as in David Copperfield— the solitude of a child left to itself.
Another wonderfully true child characer is that of Pip in Great Expecta-
tions, who is also, as his years progress, an admirable study of boy-nature.
For Dickens thoroughly understood what that myseterious variety of
human kind really is, and was always, if one may say, so on the look-out for
him. He knew him in the brightness and freshness which makes true
in-genus of such delightful characters rate enough in fiction, as Walter
Gay and Mrs. Lirriper's grandson. He knew him in his festive
mood—witness the amusing letter in which he describes a
water-expedition at Eton with his son and two of his irrepressible school
fellows. He knew him in his precocity, the boy of about three feet high at
the George and Vulture, "in a hairy cap and fustian overalls, whose garb
bespoke a laudable ambition to attain in time the elevation of an
hostler," and the thing on the roof of the Harrisburg coach, which when
the rain was over, slowly upreared itself, and patronisingly piped out the
inquiry : "Well now, stranger, I guess you find this almost like an
English afternoon, hey!" He knew the Gavroche who danced attendance
on Mr. Quilp at his wharf, and those strangest, but by no means least true
types of all the pupil-teachers in Mr. Fagin's academy.
But these, with the exception of the last-named which show much
shrewd and kindly insight into the paradoxes of human nature, are of
course the mere croquis of the great humorist's pencil. His men and
women, and the passions, the desires, the loves, and hatreds that agitate
them, he has usually chosen to depict on that background of domestic life
which is in a greater or lesser degree common to us all. And it is thus also
that he has secured to himself the vast public which vibrates very dif-
ferently from a mere class or section of society to the touch of a popular
speaker or writer. The types of character which in his fictions he chiefly
delights in reproducing are accordingly those which most of us have op-
portunities enough of comparing with the realities around us; and this
test, a sound one within reasonable limits, was the test he demanded. To
no other author were his own characters ever more real; and Forster ob-
serves that, "What he had most to notice in Dickens at the very outset of
his career, was his indifference to any praise of his performances on the
merely literary side, compared with the higher recognition of them as bits
of actual life, with the meaning and purpose, on their part, and the
responsibility on his, of realities, rather than, creations of fancy." It is,
then, the favourite growths of our own age and country for which we shall
most readily look in his works, and not look in vain; avarice and
prodigality; pride in all its phases; hypocrisy in its endless varieties,
unctuous and plausible, fawning and self-satisfied, formal and moral;
and, on the other side, faithfulness, simplicity, long-suffering patience,
and indomitable, heroic, good humour. Do we not daily make room on
the pavement for Mr. Dombey erect, solemn, and icy, alongside of whom
in the road Mr. Carker differentially walks his sleek horse ? Do we not
know more than one Anthony Chuzzlewit laying up money for himself
and his son, and a curse for both along with it; and many a Richard
Carston, sinking, as the hope grows feebler that Justice or Fortune will
at last help one who has not learnt how to help himself ? And will not
prodigals of a more buoyant kind, like the immortal Mr. Micawber
(though, may be, with an eloquence less ornate than his), when their boat
is on the shore and their bark is on the sea, become, "perfectly business-
like and perfectly practical,' and purpose, in acknowledgement of a
parting gift we had neither' hoped nor desired to see again, bills, or, if we
should prefer it, a bond, or any other description of secruity ? All this will
happen to us, as surely as we shall be buttonholed by Pecksniffs in a state of
philanthropic exultation; and watched round corners by, humble but
observant Uria Heeps : and affronted in what is best in us by the worst
hypocrite of all, the hypocrite of religion, who flaunts in our eyes his
greasy substitute for what he calls the 'light of terewith.' His economy is
less strict with characters of the opposite class, true copies of Nature's
own handiwork—the Tom Pinches and Trotty Vecks and Clara Peggottys,
who reconcile us with our kind and Mr. Pickwick himself, "a human-being
replete with benevolence," to borrow a phrase from a noble passage in
Dickens have a warmth which only the creations of Fielding and Smollett
had possessed before and which, like these old masters, he occasionally
80 Dickens
,gUrcs of h<
not too intensely elaborated a? ** kind when vU?
hand, he carries his hahit»« i u/'g'nals from rea life rm tul t an

index of a «^&*""«* a Par.icu.a phrase do du?"
frequently condemned in him Xf'i? exaggeration whtch ?s Sn

sensitive; and in the nrerJi !' .5 re was no charge to whirh hi, so
sensational romance as RL?K , to such conventional rhJ", m
; he ,s not
jnmg, a demon, whereas Sykes is rhar £ . u that unreal hand
,h,ng a bruIe
certainly he at times makS hi c h ' " ' - On theotter
no doubt, largely due to his inclination towards the grotesque, which a
severe literary training might have taught him to restrain; thus he liked to
introduce insane or imbecile personages into fiction, where, as in real life,
they are often dangerous to handle. It is to his sense of the grotesque,
rather than to any deep-seated satirical intention, and certainly not to any
want to reverence or piety in his very simple and very earnest nature, that I
would likewise ascribe the exaggeration and unfairness of which he is
guilty against Little Bethel and all its works. But in this, as in other instan-
ces, no form of humour requires more delicate handling than the
grotesque, and none is more liable to cause fatigue. Latterly, Dickens was
always adding to his gallery of eccentric portraits, and, if inner currents
may be traced by outward signs, it may be worthwhile to apply the test of
his names, which become more and more odd as their owners deviate
more and more from the path of nature. Who more simply and yet more
happily named than the leading members of the Pickwick Club—from
the poet, Mr. Snodgrass, to the sportsman, Mr. Winkie, Nathaniel, and
Daniel; but with Veneering and Lammie, and Boffin and Venus, and
Crisparkle and Grewgious—be they actual names or not—we feel in-
stinctively that we are in the region of the trans-normal.
Another ingenious enthusiast has catalogued the numerous callings,
professions and trades of the personages appearing in Dickens's works. I
cannot agree with the criticism that in his personages the man is apt to
become forgotten in the externals of his calling—the barrister's wig and
gown, as it were standing for the barrister, and the beadle's cocked hat and
staff for the beadle. But he must have possessed in its perfection
the curious detective faculty of deducting a man's occupation from his
manners. To him nothing wore a neutral tint, and no man or woman was
featureless. He was, it should be remembered, always observing; half his
life he was afoot. When he undertook to describe any novel or unfamiliar
kind of manners, he spared no time or trouble in making a special study of
his subject. He was not content to know the haunts of the London thieves
by hearsay, or to read the history of opium smoking and its effects in Blue-
books. From the office of his journal in London, we find him starting on
these self-imposed commissions, and from his hotel in New York. The
whole art of descriptive reporting, which has no doubt produced a large
quantity of trashy writing, but has also been of real service in arousing a
public interest in neglected corners of our social life, was, if not actually
set on foot, at any rate reinvigorated and vitalised by him. No one was so
delighted to notice the oddities which habit and tradition stereotype in
particular classes of man; a complete natural history of the country actor,
the London landlady, and the British waiter might be complied from his
pages. —A. C. Ward.
(2)
Dickens's Blemishes
Dickens wrote rapidly. His strenuous energy was not always a sub
stitute for careful art. His faults in taste and in style, the failings of his
intuitive verve, are obvious; his literary individuality lacks polish. He
j 82
Dickens
sacrifices balance for the sake of intense effects; his expression obey?
monotonous habits; he repeats himself to excess. His pathos is cheap
or exaggerated; his imagination in its continual effort to emphasize the
character of things tends rather to distort them ; his vision, fond of
agitated outlines, is apt to lose the very sense of repose. There is working
at the very core of his genius, a persistent spirit of Romanticism, which
subordinates the actual truth, like the soberness of every feature to enio.
tional or picturesque values; his realism is stirred by a feverish force of
hallucination. And throughout the whole of his work the effusion and the
expression of self disturb or contradict the relative objectivity, without
which there could be no novel of real life. At every turn in his stories, we
come upon the favourable or unfavourable opinions of the author—a
kind of sentimental commentary on his own work; and these instances of
bias, intensified by polemical preferences and arguments, too often bore
or annoy the reader. —Cazamian, A History of English Literature.
(3)
Dickens's Merits
These blemishes, which the contemporaries of Dickens found easy
to tolerate, while the succeeding generation censured them severely, are
to-day seen in a more mellow perspective as connected with the sovereign
gifts of an inspired artist. As a creator, Dickens is prodigious. The picture
he has painted of the social world is one of the richest in the range of
literature. His perception of things and of character is remarkable for its
direct keenness and fresh vigour: while as it is by the writer's personality,
it possesses the quality of an incomparable liveliness. There is nothing
scientific about it, nor does it seek to be so. It takes from reality only what
interests it; and as the needs which it obeys are those of emotion and
humour, the real is organized into a show of varied interests, always
intense in effect, and of a tone either dramatic or facetious. Into this world
no one can penetrate unless he has bowed to the artist's will: but such is
the power of his charm that our critical faculty is disarmed. Few are the
readers wholly proof against the spell.
—Cazamian, A History of English Literature.
(4)
At the first glance, our eye is caught by the swarming host of human
figures. Over the vast fresco of his work, Dickens has thrown them in
plenty; theygive to every part the pulsation of life itself. Still, their quality
is far from equal. The writer has not created them through one and the
same intuition of their original beings; he has not felt them all grow upon
him with one and the same impcrviousness. Their features may have
been suggested from the outside by a caprice of the imagination, by a
preconceived feeling, or by the demands of the plot; they may represent
superficial or deductive intentions; instead of being nourished from the
deeper personality of the novelist, they may be, as it were, engrafted upon
more exterior elements—mere desires for antithesis or effect, Then it is
that, being less directly connected with the very substance of their maker,
they more closely resemble one or other of his features, and less closely
resemble life. They bear the stamp of his caprice, of a bent in his mind, of
some partiality in his outlook; and being devoid of any lineaments proper to
themselves which might have played the part of an addition or a corrective,
they are nothing but that impoverished expression of their creator's
personality. There is in the work of Dickens a whole range of artificial
creatures, arbitrarily drawn by his somewhat crude dramatic sense, by his
hasty aversions, by his taste for drollery which often approaches caricature.
And so it happens that his personages have no other interest but what they
may owe to satire, melodrama, or farce.
But into the satire, pathos, or farce, many of his heroes infuse the
superior virtue of an irresistible vitality. These bear a no less recognizable
imprint of their origin; a Pickwick, a Sam Weller, a Jangle, a Micawber, a
Peggotty, a Dick Swiveller, a Marchioness, quite as much as a David
Copperfield, are members of one family, whose common father is easily
divined ; they all have something of his readily compassionate humanity,
and some gleam of his humour. Nevertheless, jhey are themselves and
develop according to their own principles. So extreme is their diversity that
they exemplify in every respect the essential individuality of living-beings.
But they all have an irrefutability, a witchcraft in them; no one thinks of
discussing them; they come forth, and we accept them; they possess the
solidity, the volume of three-dimensional figures; the personality which
supports them has transferred itself entirely into them, has shaped them out
according to the mysterious instinct of all its powers. Their creative process,
identical with that which one can find in the masterpiece of the stage, is
carried through with admirable abundance and variety. Yet here again we
find many grades. The best of the personages are not usually those whom
Dickens has studied most deliberately and consciously. It is not often that his
traitors, heroes, or heroines have quite as much flavour, as much
vivaciousness or irresistible truth, as the less prominent characters which he
has dashed off with a free hand. In the episodical parts of his work, his
spontaneous verve very often joins an unforgettable vigour to the literal
accuracy of the outlines. And it is here, perhaps, that his masterly skill is
seen at its best. —Cazamian.
(5)
Dickens's Language and Style
Dickens is a great writer by virtue of the spontaneity of his verve, and
this with a minimum of art. His vocabulary has superabundant wealth; it
wells up naturally and easily'; all the inherent genius of the English race for
concrete perception goes to nourish it. It carries with it, and turns to use, the
contents of other veins of speech—learned words, technical terms; but the
main inexhuastible stream is drawn from the fund of a racy, national, in no
way, particularized experience. The reigning process of culture is less
perceptible here than in the works of many other writers. Dickens, like
Carlyle, has his touches of vulgarity—hardly perceptible, at once forgotten
under the spell of his delicately generous heart. The
84 Dickens
highest quality of his style is its movement; a movement which is at times
strained and difficult to follow, but, in its uninterrupted outward flow
carries on the narration or dialogue without any fear of stagnating inertia'
In certain respects the conversations in Dickens's novels are unequalled •
the most familiar tones, those of artless comedy or of expressive self
revelation, have in the mouths of his characters a frankness, anap.
propriateness, reaching perfection. On the other hand, when the situation
tends be artificial, and the varve less spontaneous, an unreal note is imme-
diately perceptible in the dialogue. For the latter has no value in itself,
Dickens does not seek to be objective by system and rule; those among his
personages who are replete with life have a voice of their own, just as they
have an individual physiognomy; the others speak in a somewhat artificial
tone, which sounds like a thinly veiled echo of the writer's own voice.
—Cazamian,y4 History of English Literature.
( «)
Dickens's Humour
This art has a deep human quality. As its chief instruments are tears
and laughter, and above all the poignancy and flavour of their fusion,
Dickens is a prominent figure in the lineage of humorists. His humour,
that is to say, the temperament of his reaction to the alternate aspects of
life, is rich because it is formed of intense elements, his sensibility being
keenly alive to the moving significance as well as to the odd nature of
things. But this alone would not constitute humour, if it did not contain a
principle of self-control, the faculty to dominate and to mix, according
to the preferences of an intuitive art, the successive complementary im-
pulses of his being. As a humorist, Dickens is amenable to discipline, to a
psychological duality, one side of his mind watching the other. It is due to
the presence of this salutary element that his art, threatened in other
respects with a too definite Romanticism, acquires restraint, dignity, and
the complexity ofmanifold planes, which, otherwise, it might have lacked.
—Cazamian.
( 7)
We find, therefore, in most of Dickens's novels three or four widely
different types of character; first, the innocent little child, like Oliver, Joe,
Paul, Tiny Tim, Little Nell, appealing powerfully to the child love in every
human heart; second, the horrible or grotesque foil, like Squeers, Fagin,
Quilp, Uriah Heep, and Bill, Sykes; third, the grandiloquent or broadly
humorous fellow, the fun maker, like Micawber and Sam Weller; and
fourth, a tenderly or powerfully drawn figure, like Lady Dedlock of Bleak
House, and Sydney Carton of A Tale of Two Cities, which rise to the dignity
of true characters. We note also that most of Dickens's novels belong
decidedly to the class of purpose or problem novels. Thus Bleak House
attacks "the laws, debtors; Nicholas Nickleby, the abuses of charity schools
and brutal schoolmasters; and Oliver Twist, the unnecessary degradation
and suffering of the poor in English work-houses. Dickens's serious pur-
oSe was to make the novel the instrument of morality and justice, and
whatever we may think of the exaggeration of his characters, it is certain
that his stories did more to correct the general selfishness and injustice of
society toward the poor than all the works of other literary men of his age
combined. —William J. Long, English Literature.
(8)
Dickens's Limitations
Any severe criticism of Dickens as a novelist must seem, at first glance,
unkind and unnecessary. In almost every house, he is a welcome guest, a
personal friend who has beguiled many an hour with his stories, and who has
furnished us much good laughter and a few good tears. Moreover, he has
always a cheering message. He emphasizes the fact that this is an excellent
world; that some errors have crept into it, due largely to thoughtlessness, but
that they can be easily remedied by a little human sympathy. That is a most
welcome creed to an age over-burdened with social problems; and to criticise
our cheery companion seems as discourteous as to speak unkindly of a guest
who has just left our home. But we must consider Dickens not merely as a
friend, but as a novelist, and apply to his work the same standards of art
which we apply to other writers ; and when we do this we are sometimes a
little disappointed. We must confess that his novels, while they contain many
realistic details, seldom give the impression of reality. His characters, though
we laugh or shudder at them, are sometimes only caricatures, each one an
exaggeration of some peculiarity, which suggest Ben Jonson's Every Man in
His Humour. It is Dickens's art to give his heroes sufficient reality to make
them suggest certain types of men and women whom we know; but in
reading him we find ourselves often in the mental state of a man who is
watching through a microscope the swarming life of a water drop. Here are
lively, bustling, extraordinary not the reality creatures, some beautiful, some
grotesque, but all far apart from the life that we know in daily experience. It
is certainly of these characters, but rather the genius of the author in
managing them, which interests us and holds our attention. Notwithstanding
this criticism, which we would gladly have omitted, Dickens is excellent
reading, and his novels will continue to be popular just so long as men enjoy
a wholesome and absorbing story.
—William J. Long, English Literature.
(9)
Dickens's Characters, Plot and Setting
Adapting with many reservations, Dryden's characterisations of
Shakespeare, one may say of Dickens that he was of all the Victorian
novelists the man of most comprehensive soul. He saw life, as no other
novelist had seen it, from the point of view of the poor of a great city.
Possessed of a buoyant temperament, it is the more remarkable that he was
not deceived by the blatant assurances of industrialism, but sought to
mitigate its evils. He worked for practical reforms without advocating any
change in the system of society because he believed that when institutions
86 Dickers
and their administration were remedied, the fundmental goodness of
human nature would make the reform of individuals an easy matter.
Nearly all his bad characters are capable of conversion, and many are
converted. Through most of his life he addressed his appeals for reform of
the middle classes, and though towards the end there are signs that he was
turning from hope in them to hope in the aristocracy, his pictures of the
upper classes are almost always prejudiced and exaggerated, generally
inaccurate, seldom kindly. His basic belief in the primary benevolent im-
pulses of man—affection, charity, gaiety, fun, kindliness, spontaneity—
brought within the compass of his sympathy any man or woman in whom
he discerned the working of these impulses.
But he had not a Shakespearean understanding of evil. His uncon-
verted "bad" people are saved from absolute condemnation only if, like
Silas Wegg or Mrs. Gamp, they can be delineated grotesquely. The char-
acters therefore tend to fall into two classes, almost as sharply differen-
tiated as are the Virtues and Vices of the old moralities. But Dickens was
not a creator of types; his figures are seldom truly representative of
humanity at large. When he iraws from observation of real people, as in
his portraits of Landor and Leigh Hunt, the result is caricature. He is the
best when peopling a world of his own, devising with creatures of his own
imagination, distorted reflections of someone else but are themselves. No
one has ever encountered a Mrs. Gamp or a Silas Wegg; but they are alive in
their own right. To object that Dickens exaggerated is to question the very
basis of his art. "It would be as sensible," says an excellent criiic, "to
criticize a gargoyle on the ground that it is an exaggerated representation of
the human face" as to criticize Pecksniff because he is an exaggerated
representation of a hypocrite. This creative imagination is exercised
upon literally hundreds of characters, each unlike all the rest, so that in-
dividual traits distinguish one charlatan from one another, one shabby
old woman from another, one villain from another, even one good man or
"hero" from another. This intense individualisation is accomplished by
emphasizing the innumerable external qualities which are presenting
different combinations and permutations in every man and woman, mark-
ing the distinction of each from other. Dickens is far less alert to the un-
derlying traits in which all human beings share and share alike. The
colonel's lady and Judy O'Grady may be sisters under the skin but since
Dickens does not look beneath the surface he is not struck by the family
resemblance. His is essentially a grotesque art, the art of caricaturist, even
when the result is not, properly speaking, caricature. But though to secure
an effect a weakness is over-emphasized, there is unerring insight in
detecting weakness. He sees the outward man rather than the inward mo-
tive; there is little effort to trace the development of character; and when
once the idiosyncrasy or "humour" is established, the person either
remains what he is to the end of the story or else undergoes a violent and
unconvincing change at the close for the sake of the plot. A disconcerting
feature of Dickens's work is the juxtaposition of the fantastic and the
real. Creatures who live only in his imagination though, there, with
v,..jxampled vitality, jostle with people drawn from actuality. Similarly,
melodramatic incident protrudes with startling suddenness from a
context which is real. Limelight and daylight play upon the scene at the
same time. Like Scott and unlike Jane Austen, Dickens focusses the
interest upon characters and episodes irrelevant to the main story—
The st.uctural centre of interest—Far long stretches of narrative—the
principal plot—often a tangle of intrigue so elaborate that the reader
follows it with difficulty or is quite indifferent to it—is neglected, while
the vital, though nominally subordinate figures live and move before us.
For plots, Dickens relied with cheerful brazenness upon the shoddy
and paltry devices of romance—the disguised lover, the longlost heir,
mistaken identity, the supposed dead who turn up in the nick of time,
and other such tricks of the trade. But though Dickens's craftmanship
and taste are alike defective, reflecting as they do the vulgarity and false
sentiment of his age and class, the setting of these plots is almost
always admirable. From the Gothic romancers, he inherited a love of the
fantastic in places, houses, objects, and names. He rendered marvellously
the sights and sounds and smells of London, the fog, the drizzle, the slime,
the dust, the crowded streets, the City, the law-courts, the West-End, the
suburbs. At further removes, he was equally successful and equally at
home, as in the scenes beyond London in David Copperjield and Great
Expectations. When he ranged beyond his own intimate experience, as in
the Italy ofLittle Dorrit or the America of Martin Chuzzlewit, he was not at
ease.
—A.C. Baugh, The Literary History of England
SPECIAL INTRODUCTION
1
A TALE OF TWO CITIES : AN INTRODUCTION
Different Titles
In the preface to A Tale of Two Cities Dickens discusses the main
idea of the novel that when he was acting with his children and friends, in '
Wilkie Collins' drama of The Frozen Deep in 1857, the main idea qtA Tale of
Two Cities began to strike him. But because of his family circumstances he
could not develop that idea into a novel. In January 1858, the idea
haunted his mind, and he wrote, "growing inclinations of a fitful and un-
defined sort are upon me sometimes to fall to work on a new book." For
this new book many titles began to strike his mind. One of These Days,
Recalled to Life, The Thread of Gold, and The Doctor of Beaurais were
some of these titles. Out of them The Thread of Gold was used by him for
book second, though it was modified as "The Golden Thread". Eventually
the present title A Tale of Two Cities seemed to him more appropriate
than any other, therefore he gave the final touch to the present title, A
Tale of Two Cities. The Novelist's State of Mind
When Dickens wrote this novel he was facing his personal troubles.
This deep personal struggle was the result of the separation between him
and his wife; relations with his wife became bitter because of his love affair
with a young actress, Ellen Ternan. After the separation which took place
in June 1858, she left not only Dickens but also London, a city which she
loved most. Ellen Ternan was installed by him in a separate esta-
blishment, and soon afterwards he reached God's Hill near Rochester
where he lived till death. Thus it is quite sure that when he wrote A Tale of
Two Cities, he was not enjoying the perfect peace of mind. The Device of
two Heroes
Dickens uses the device of two heores in this novel. Both Carton and
Darnay who are generous fellows, love Lucie, daughter of doctor M.
Man-nette, very passionately. Both of them reach the higher level with the
help of their worthy and moral actions. Darnay takes part in the
Revolution and is awarded capital punishment but Carton who loves
Lucie, the wife of Danray very truly, rescues Darnay by putting himself in
the prison and making Darnay free. At the end of the novel Carton is put to
death and his sacrificial death makes him the hero of the novel while the
contribution of Darnay to the Revolution and his sufferings due to his
taking part in it add
Special Introduction 89
a strong point to Darnay as the hero of the novel. Thus the novel basically
deals with the theme in which two heroes exist enjoying equal reputation
as the heroes of the novel. \ Historical Background
Though the novel deals with the story of Mannette Lucie, Darnay
and Carton, basically it highlights the background of the French Revolu
tion which was a great political upheaval .... The evils of the taxation, a
land owning system and the exploitation of the poor led to the revolution.
The broken state of national finances under King Louis XVI aggravated
the situation in the nation. In July 1789 the Bastille was stormed by a Paris
mob and the disturbances continued after this incident. In 1792, the
monarchy was overthrown and France was declared a Republic with
Liberty, Equality and Fraternity as its purposes. The year 1793 saw the
'reign of terror' and the King and the Queen being guillotined. In 1795
some sort of stability was established when Napoleon Banaparte emerged
as the undisputed ruler. The action of A Tale of Two Cities also lies
between 1775 and 1793 that includes the time of Revolution. It must be
kept in mind that the French Revolution was not the main theme of the
novel, otherwise the novelist would have highlighted the Revolution
completely. Really speaking, the novel manifests very few incidents that
belong to the Revolution, though the novelist clearly declares that the
actions of the novel belong to the period between 1775 and 1793. The
novelist deals with some of the events of the French Revolution, such
as the stroming of the Bastille, the senseless fury of the mob, the Reign
of Terror, and the indiscriminate exectutions carried out by the revolu-
tionary tribunals after perfunctory trials of the suspects. The novelist's
main purpose in doing so is to highlight the fact that when the mob goes
out of control, it becomes as irrational and brutal as its oppressors had
been. The novelist also reveals the fact how these incidents influenced the
individuals who were not related to the revolution. Because of these
public events domestic life of many individuals was marred as we observe
in the case of Doctor Manette, whose family life was completely shattered
due to it.
Carlyle's Views on the French Revolution
Carlyle's famous book, 'The French Revolution' was the main
source of Dickens's historical scenes and events that he presents in his
book, ,4 Tale of Two Cities. The novelist who had gone through the book
°f Carlyle many times, was deeply influenced by it. There are three types
of indebtedness of Orexens to Carlyle, first he directly borrows the scenes
a
nd the descriptions of Carlyle; secondly, he deals with indirect use of
characters and events, and thirdly the suggestions that Dickens transfers
10
different characters or combines into new form for novel purpose,
belong to Carlyle. Another example of direct borrowing is the murder of
°ld Foulon who had once said that the people should eat grass if they had
?ot bread. Carlyle in his book points out that the suburb of Saint Antoine 18
a sort of symbol of the lower classes. Dickens also places the Defarges
a
«d their wine shop in this suburb. The novelist's accounts of the trials,
90 A Tale of Two Cities
prison procedures, tumbrills, and the guillotine also belong to Carlyle
directly, though the characters of Mrs. and Mr. Defarge are the indirect
descriptions. Carlyle mentioned a brewer living in Saint Antoine who
became a leader of the revolt. Similarly, Carlyle had devoted a few
chapters to an account of the insurrection of the women and had
described the role of the female leaders. The portrayal of Mrs. Defarge is
the result of the above said suggestion of Carlyle. Another indebtedness
to Carlyle is his portrayal of the character of Gabelle.
The Influence of Frozen Deep
As it has been pointed out, when Dickens was writing A Tale of Two
Cities, he was deeply influenced by the Frozen Deep, a play of Wilkie
Col-lins, in which he himself was acting. In that play the story reaches its
climax with the sacrificial death of a hero who is put to death in saving the
life of one who won his beloved. The main characters in the play are
Richard Wardour, Frenck Alderscey and Lucie, Gayford. When Lucy
decides to marry Frank Richard, Richard starts on a dangerous sea voyage
to the frozen north, and later on, Frank too is assigned to the same adven-
ture. When the exploring party is shipwracked, two of the survivors,
Richard and Frank are chosen to help." When Frank is exhausted, it
seems Richard would leave him to die under the passion of jealousy. But
at the final stage Richard saves Frank at the cost of his life and he dies.
This triangular sacrifice theme has been highlighted by the novelist
through the character of Darnay, Lucie and Carton and at the end of the
novel the sacrificial death of Carton reminds us of the last scene of the
play, The Frozen Deep.
Zanoni as a Source
Bulwer Lytton's novel Zanoni is the other source which Dickens
used for the writing of A Tale of Two Cities; the novel Zanoni is related to
the life of a man, Zanoni who has achieved earthly impartiality on the
condition that he would give up all earthly passions that include love also.
Zanoni who is in love with a beautiful lady, Viola, is conditioned to
choose either temporary happiness with the girl or the earthly immor-
tality. The theme of the novel is passions of Zanoni who eventually
sacrifices his own life to save Viola's life : though she also dies later on.
The early movements of the novel take place in Italy. Later on, the action
moves to Paris and at the final stage when the novel reaches its climax, it
deals with French Revolution. Here Viola is sentenced to the guillotine
and all efforts to save her prove useless. Zanoni feels that the only way to
save her is to die for her.Since he is theoretically able to live for ever if he
abandons her, he is bound to make a supreme sacrifice to prove his love.
He takes Viola's place in the condemned group and makes arrangements
for her to escape with a young man who is also her lover. Zanoni, then,
accepts death without feeling pain or distress. Dickens also develops the
character of Carton in this light and Carton's sacrifice at the end of the
novel can be compared with that of Zanoni. Thus, 'The Frozen Deep' and
'Zanoni' provide Dickens with the idea of the sacrifice of one lover for
another. He also uses French Revolution as the background of his novel.
A Talc of Two Cities in order to make his incident more convincing. He

stablishes a resemblance between two lovers Darnay and Carton so that
acrifice of the latter for the former may not become unconvincing. The
Reasons of the Heros's Death
Dickens shows definite ideas for the narration of his novel,/* Tale of
Two Cities, the scenes like the sacrifice of one lover for another, substitu-
tion before the execution of the sentence of death, the French Revolution
are the results of the definite ideas. Now what he needs was a reason for
his hero's being sentenced to death. Those who were condemned to death
during the French Revolution were generally aristocrats. So Darnay is an
aristocrat but he disfavours the evil practices of his class. He emigrates to
England before the terror. Through this incident the novelist esta' 'ishes a
balance of actions between the two centuries and he tries to justify the
title when many of his major characters sometimes act in France and
another time in England. Darnay falls in love with Lucie in England while
he is imprisoned in Paris. Later on, Carton, the sincere lover of Lucie
reaches Paris and at the cost of his life he rescues Darnay.
Publication of the Novel
Like other novels by Dickens,/! Tale of Two Cities, also appeared in
a serial form. First of all, it appeared in a weekly magazine 'All The Year
Round'. The instalments of the novel were published in the magazine be-
tween April and November 1858. In July he complained to Forster that
small portions........ drive me frantic." George Woodclock points out,
regarding the publication of this novel, "the rapid writing in brief
weekly instalments had helped to keep the prose tight and economical."
Dickens pruned as he had never done before, and the novel, considered
as a story, is generally and justly thought to be the best he had written.
Dickens also believed that A Tale of Two Cities, was the best novel he had
written. In October, 1859, he wrote to Wilkie Collins, "I am very glad you
like it so much. It has greatly moved me in the doing and Heaven knows
that I have done my best and believed in it." In a letter to F.J. Reghier he
stated, "I hope, it is the best story I have written."
Assessment of the Novel
Some critics state that A Tale of Two Cities, is not a characteristic
novel of Dickens. According to them, there was the lack of the strongest
imagination and humour in this book. John Gross thinks that 'A Tale of
Two Cities' is a thin.... melodrama and fails to present the society in depth
and the novelist's theory of history was primitive. However, A Tale of Two
Cities remains an outstanding book and one has to agree with Zabel
when he'says, "It is certainly to be allowed that the tale does not show
Dickens's art at its highest mark of zest, spontaneity, and vividness. It
lacks the free invention and exuberance that fired him from 'Pickwick
Papers' to 'David Copperfield', as it also marks a lapse from the complex
analysis of society he achieved in Dombey and son, Bleak house and little
Dorrit. The fable pursues both melodrama and romantic sentiment which
in his other two shorter novels, 'Hardtimes' and 'Great Expectations'; are
subdued to stricter realism, a sharper psychological truth, a more con-
centrated poetry of conception and artistry. These qualifications granted,
A Tale of Two Cities remains one of Dickens's significant books. It is his
most serious essay in the history .....A Tale of Two Cities was the book
that opened the final phase of his career. It shows him at an important
juncture in his personal imaginative life.
2
THE STORY IN OUTLINE
This novel is deeply concerned with the period of French Revolution
and it presents the political situation of England and France of that
period. That period was marked by the corruption of aristocracy and the
sufferings of common man at their hands. The novelist's main purpose is
to highlight the sufferings of common man and its revolt against the
criminal behaviour of artistocracy.
Alexandre Manette, a young physician of abilities started his prac-
tice in Paris before the French Revolution. After being married to an
English lady he became the father of baby girl. In the company of his wife,
daughter and his faithful servant Ernest Defarge, Manette was, indeed, a
happy man who also enjoyed his reputation as a good social being.
One day in the third week of December in the year of 1775, on a
cloudy moonlit night Manette was requested to attend an urgent case by
two noble men, in a house which was few miles away from Paris. When he
wished to refuse them, they compelled him to follow them. Since they
were armed and the doctor was not, he had to visit a solitary house where
he found two patients, one young peasant girl whose modesty had been
outraged and her younger brother of seventeen years who had a wound of
sword thrust. The girl was lying in trouble and pain while the boy was ab-
solutely on the edge of death because of the serious wound.
The boy narrated the story before the doctor how his sister was raped
by the two noble men savagely. The father of the boy could not tolerate
the shock and died. The boy had taken her ill-fated sister to place which
was beyond the reach of the seducers. The boy also tried to attack those
noble men but since he was an experienced fighter, he was deeply
wounded by them with their sword. After narrating the whole operation
the boy died the same night and the girl also expired a week later.
The doctor was offered a rouleau of gold because he attended those
two patients, though none of them could survive. The doctor refused to
accept it and left it on the table but the next morning the rouleau of gold
was left at his door in a little box that was bearing his name. The doctor
was deeply shocked to realise the operation under which the boy and the
girl died. Therefore, he decided to inform the minister, privately, regard-
ing those two cases of which he was the best witness. After a deep medita-
tion his conscience allowed him to contact the minister, though he was
aware of the fact that those criminal nobles were too powerful and en-
joyed aristocratic reputation in society.
Next morning just after he had finished the letter, he received a call
from a lady, the wife of Marquis Evremande. Through a source the lady had
come to know that her husband was involved in the rape of that girl and he
was responsible for the painful death of that girl, her brother and her father.
That lady who came with her son, Charles, told the doctor that she was
keenly desirous of knowing all the details of the rape case and she wanted to
help the family and the only surviving sister of that unfortunate girl. She laid
emphasis on the fact that because of the involvement of her husband in that
case it was her moral duty to investigate the case properly. But the doctor did
not believe her and refused to help her in this case. When the lady departed
from there, he posted the letter to the minister.
The same night at about nine O'clock a man in a black dress knocked at
the door of the doctor's house and requested him to attend an urgent case that
was in the St. Honare. The doctor who accompanied them, found that after a
little distance he was gagged and bound. From a dark corner two brothers
came out and identified the doctor. The Marquis showed the doctor that
letter which he wrote to the minister, regarding the rape of that girl, and he
put it to burn in the light of a lantern.
With this incident starts the beginning of the miseries of the doctor and
his whole family. Without any trial he was brought to Bastille where he was
put in a cell. None could know about his disappearance and he had to spend
eighteen years of misery, drudgery, pain and humiliation in that cell of
Bastille.
During his imprisonment one day in the last month of the tenth year he
got the opportuntity and wrote a letter to his family, giving full description
of his disappearance. His wife died due to the shock of her husband's
miseries. His daughter was put under the care of his bankers, Tellson and
Company. Later on she was brought to England by Jarvis Lorry, a loyal
servant of Telson and Company. In England she was brought up by Miss
Pross.
After some period the younger sister of that unfortunate girl who raped
by the two noble men, was brought to the colony of fishermen at the sea
shore. She came in contact with Earnest Defarge, the faithful servant of the
doctor Alexander Manette. Earnest Defarge and that girl decided to be
united. In order to support his family, Defarge started a wine shop in St.
Antoine quarter of Paris. Since he was also affected by the wave of
Revolution, he organised a band of revolutionaries called Jacquerie. The
revolutionaries' main purpose was to destroy aristocracy. Therese Defarge,
wife of Defarge and sister of the raped girl showed a bitter hatred against
aristocracy. She began to keep an eager eye for spies and used to record
names of those people who were devoted to guillotine. The interesting
feature of the wine shop of the Defarges was that it was situated in St.
Antoine, the poorest and the most desperate part of Paris. The hatred of
Therese Defarge inspired her to become the leader of the revolutionary
women of St. Antoine.
After eighteen years in the Bastille, Dr. Manette was released and his
faithful servant Earnest Defarge brought him to his wine shop. Dr.
Manette was introduced to the revolutionary band by Defarge. Soon after
jarvis Lorry reached the very place, alongwith doctor's daughter Lucie.'
Dr. Manette Lorry and Lucie left Paris for London where Dr. Manette
was expected to be restored to health and sanity.
Charles Darnay, nephew of the Marquis of St. Evremonde had been
disgusted with the system, prevailling in France. Therefore he decided to
give up his privileges and property and came to England to earn his
livelihood. As a French tutor he started to lead a decent living in England.
He also visited France at interval in order to perform his promise to his
mother that he would amend his father's wrong. His frequent visits to
France created suspicion in England regarding his character. He was
charged with the offence of passing on information to the hostile court of
France as regards the disposition and deployment of the army of England
and also about army to be sent to America. John Barsad, a spy whose real
name was Soloman Pross was the chief prosecution witness in the case
and Mr. Stryver the chief defence counsel. Mr. Darnay, Carton and
Mr. Stryver often visited Dr. Manette's residence in Soho. Darnay was
passionately in love with Lucie when he disclosed the story of his love for
Lucie. Mr. Manette promised to help him at the proper psychological
moment. Sydney Carton, the junior counsel at the old Bailey trial of Dar-
nay, also began to love Lucie. Carton was also aware of the fact that Lucie
would prefer Darnay to him in the sphere of love. But when Lucie came to
know about his love for her, she assured him that she would be his life-
long friend. This assurance changed his character completely and he gave
up his selfishness. A spirit of sacrifice for the sake of Lucie began to
dominate him and he proved his sacrifice by going under the guillotine.
The date of the marriage of Lucie and Darnay was settled. On the
morning of the marriage Darnay disclosed his true identity that he was the
nephew of one of his persecutors and son of the other. Dr. Manette was
deeply shocked to hear it. Because he never thought to marry his daughter
with the son or the nephew of those two evil brothers who were respon-
sible for the sufferings he had to tolerate during eighteen years. However,
he had to compromise with the circumstances and Lucie and Darney were
happily married and Dr. Manette continued to live with them. Dr.
Manette was so much shocked that after the departure of Lucie and Dar-
nay for honeymoon he relapsed into a state of insanity and became insane
for nine days. During these nine days Mr. Lorry and Miss Pross attended
him and on the tenth day he came to his normal conviction. Darnay and
Lucie returned and started to look after Dr. Manette. After few months
Lucie gave birth to a girl child.
During this period, the Revolution began to affect the whole of
France. Workers, peasants, labourers and and the poor started to become
staunch revolutionaries. Mrs. and Mr. Defarge began to serve as the
leaders of the band of revolutionaries. One of the members of the band,
Jacqueries killed the Marquis of Evremonde because his child had been
crushed under the wheels of his carriage. Revolutionaries of St. Anotoine
had taken a vow to exterminate and finish the Evremonde's family
forever. Defarge got success in getting an important document from the
prison cell at Bastile where Dr. Manette had passed years of condemned
life. That document gave account of his mysterious disappearance and the
whole story which was related to it. After the day of the storming of the
Bastille people started their plan of revenge. Foulon, an ex-minister who
once asked the people to eat grass in lieu of bread, was hanged on a lamp
post. In order to chop off the heads of the members of aristocracy an in-
strument was invented, which was known as Guillotine. Many innocent
people were also killed under the blade of the guillotine.
Darnay received a letter from his agent Gabelle who was in prison of
Abbaye in Paris. He was imprisoned because he acted for an emigrant.
Darnay started his journey to France in order to save the life of his agent
friend. As soon as he reached Paris, he was also arrested and put in the
prison of La Force. Dr. Manette also sensed the danger to Darnay; there-
fore he reached Paris along with his daughter. In this work Lorry, the loyal
servant of Tellsons and company (Bankers), helped Dr. Manette very
much on the advice of Lorry. Dr. Manette declared before the
revolutionaries that he was the prisoner of Bastille. On hearing him, they
offered him a warm reception. The doctor, being a former Bastille
prisoner, became popular with the French crowd and he got success in
managing to save Darnay from mob violence. It took Dr. Manette fifteen
months to secure the release of Darnay, his son-in-law. But Darnay was
rearrested the same evening and was imprisoned in Conciergerie. This
time the Defarges appeared as the chief accusers. Dr. Manette was given
out as the third main witness. He protested that he was not an accuser but
he was silenced by the fatal document which he had written against
Evremonde and had hid in his cell. This document sealed the fate of
Darnay and the jury passed death sentence on Darnay within twenty
four hours.
Lucie was in great trouble and she was absolutely helpless. When
Sydney Carton came to know about it, he decided to save Darnay for the
sake of Lucie. He remembered now he, once declared before Lucie that he
would be prepared to lay down his life for one she loved. He decided to
take place of Darnay at the guillotine. He knew very well that Lucie's true
happiness depended on the release of Darnay. Therefore he forced one of
the police officers to make him enter the prison without much difficulty.
He threatened the police officer to expose his past activities unless he
acted according to his desires. He had to promise Carton to take him into
the cell in which Darnay was imprisoned. Since there was close physical
resemblance between him and Darnay, it was not difficult for him to take
the place of Darnay.
The same night he visited secretly the wine shop of the Defarges and
came to Jonow that Madam Defarge was determined to denounce Lucie
and her father. She planned it after the execution of Darnay. Therefore
Carton requested Lorry to take Dr. Manette and his daughter out of
Paris and to England early in the morning before the actual execution of
Darnay. Thus he arranged for the safe departure of Doctor Manette all
J
with his daughter.
Darnay did not believe in the plan of Carton who asked him to
become Carton and to escape from the cell. But later on he drugged him
and he changed his clothes and ordered Barsad to carry the unconscious
Darnay to the waiting carriage where Dr. Manette along with his daughter
and Lorry was waiting for him. Thus Darnay could be freed from the
confinement and Manette left Paris for England with him. On the way the
officers examined the papers and allowed them to pass on from there.
When Madam Defarge came to the doctor's house, she encountered
Miss Pross who did not let her come in. Miss Pross seized Madam Defarge
round her waist and when Madam Defarge failed to free himself from her
grip, she tried to get hold of her pistol which exploded and caused the
death of Madam Defarge.
The same afternoon Sydney Carton who took the place of Charles
Darnay was put to death. He died without feeling any pain because of his
satisfaction of saving the life of that person whom Lucie loved. Thus, he
sacrificed his life for the sake of the happiness of Lucie whom he loved
and worshipped like a true lover.
_
3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Barnaby Rudge
Though Dickens has not been regarded as a novelist of historical fic-
tion, on two occasions he had to produce historical fiction. The first his-
torical novel of Dickens was 'Barnaby Rudge' in which he narrated the
story of Gordon Riots. Led by Lord George Gordon these riots ocurred in
London and the parliament was compelled to repeal the Act of 1778 for
the relief of the Roman Catholics. Though Dickens never sympathised
with Roman church in any other work, his portrayal of the Gordon riots
and the treatment of Lord Gordon are extremely impartial, excellent and
fair. The novelist uses this subject as the main theme of the novel 'Bar-
naby Rudge'very successfully and points out, "No account of the Gordon
Riots having been to my knowledge introduced into any work of fiction,
and the subject presenting very extraordinary and remarkable features, I
was led to project this tale." A Tale of Two Cities
A Tale of Two Cities is a second attempt at historical fiction by Dick-
ens and this time the French Revolution was his subject. For historical
fiction it is essential to ascertain and verify the facts that are related to
history. Dickens is very careful, regarding the verification of historical
facts. In the preface to the first edition of'Barnaby Rudge' he points out
that in order to bring historical truths to his fiction, he would like to con-
sult the best authorities. In the same manner while writing A Tale of Two
Cities, he consulted the best authors. He admits it in his preface to the
first edition of A Tale of Two Cities whenever any reference (however
light) is made to the condition of the French people before or during the
Revolution, it is truly made, on the faith of trustworthy witnesses. It has
been one of my hopes to add some thing to the popular and picturesque
means of understanding that terrible time, though no one can hope to add
anything to the philosophy of Mr. Carlyle's wonderful book." The Theme of
'A Tale of Two Cities'
Dickens claimed that Carlyle's famous book, 'The French Revolution'
v/as studied by him again. Being highly impressed he met Car-Me in 1840.
Both liked each other and this acquaintance chanced into friendship. That
Dickens had great admiration for Carlyle, has also been confirmed by
Forster who states in his book. 'The Life of Charles Dickens', an admiration
for Carlyle increased in him with years, and there was no one whom in later
life he admired so much, or for whom had a more profound regard." Before
going through, A Tale of Two Cities, it is necessary to understand the social
and the political conditions of England and of France in the light of French
Revolution. Before and during the eighteenth century the spirit of
democracy was generally condemned and regarded as a negation of ordered
government. The monarchs who used to govern by divine right, enjoyed
power over great part of Europe. These monarchs were supported by some
groups who belonged to the different classes of society.
Conditions in England
At that time England was touched by the spirit of democracy. A
political Revolution in which political power was wrested from the hands of
the king and court by the Parliament, started the Reformation. Despite all
this the real spirit of democracy was absent from England. In the seventeenth
century there started a bitter battle between the powers of the knrj and the
parliament which changed into the civil war and the powers of the king were
superseded by the rights of the masses. But as it has been clarified earlier,
this parliament was not representative of common people, merely, because
the right to vote was given only to aristocratic class, while the middle and
lower middle class people were deprived of their democratic rights. Despite
all this the political and social conditions of England were far better than in
France or any other country of Europe. It was because of the broad opinion
of the upper class people who showed great interest in the improvement of
the social conditions of the middle and lower class people. Dickens
highlights the social and political scene of England in Victorian age and he
declares openly that the main conflict was between the haves and the
havenots'.
Conditions in France
The social and political scene of France was worse than that of
England. Though the democratic spirit had started to touch the political
walls of France, the French Parliament was regarded as the assembly of lay
and clerical landowners who were the representatives of the third estate
whom the French King called from time to time to give advice and vote
money. But the State General had not been called since 1614 and was
never called again till 1789. This provided the monarchy with free hand
and it became absolute. The clergymen and the noblemen were contented
with this state of affairs, because their privileges, including the privilege of
exemption from direct taxation, were not diluted and tampered with. In-
deed, this exemption was a relic of the feudal times when the priests who
"prayed for all" and the noble men who fought for all" had important
places in society. However, the continuance of such privileges in the
seventeenth and the eighteenth century was offensive to the middle and
the lower classes who disfavoured these privileges strongly. The economic
conditions of the peasants started to become worse. Since the clergymen
and nobles were exempted from the taxes, charges of taxes upon the com-
mon men were doubled and redoubled and it created the sense of dissatis-
faction among them. The exploitation of the lower and the middle class
people at the hands of upper class society was not only obvious in the
taxation policy, but also in the policy of employment for the high govern-
ment posts. According to this new policy, the lower and middle class
people were strongly denied the high posts in the churches and the
government offices, despite their high qualifications.
Effect of America and England
Political revolt is always inspired by the economic difficulties.
Therefore a major section of the French society started to demand social
and economic equality. They demanded employment in Churches, Army
and other offices. They were not prepared to be regarded as the
second-rate citizens as compared to aristocracy. In those days, in other
countries of Europe the spirit of democracy resulted in freedom in their
countries, specially the freedom of America and new change in the
economic structure of the society of England developed the sense of
revolt in France against absolutism. In other words these were two
streams that directed the French revolution, one came from England while
another belonged to America.
Effect of the French Intellectuals
Besides English thinkers like John Ruskin, the French intellectuals
also developed the democratic outlook of the French people and inspired
them to revolt against the exploiting nature of aristocracy. Montesquieu
in his work, 'Spirit De Louis' (Spirit of laws) criticizes the French govern-
ment and advocates the constitutional pattern of England. He strongly
exploded the myth of the theory of the Divine Rights of the king. Voltaire
started a devastating attack on the absolutism of French government and
the unwated privileges of the aristocracy which disturbed the normal life
of the French people. Lock, Lord Shaftsbury, Rousseau also disfavoured
the exploitation of the common people at the hands of the aristocracy and
they directed the people to revolt against any type of exploitation.
Effect of the American War
The American war of independence also influenced the French
people. The slogans of liberty which Americans used for the struggles of
their freedom, encouraged the French to fight against the aristocracy.
Madam Champan points out in this regard, "Our youth flew to the wars
waged in the new world of liberty and against the rights of thrones. Liberty
prevailed; they returned triumphant to France and brought with them the
seed of Independence."
Terrorism of Revolt against the Regime
Before the actual occurrence of the French Revolution in the year
1789, France had witnessed the rise of the armed terrorist bands and was
anxious to overthrow the influence of absolutism. While from the intel-
lectual point of view it was the period of intellectual development and
politically it was the period of great distress, it was the period when intel-
lectuals like Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot etc. satirised the
French political and economic system. They shook the people out of their
faith and prepared them for revolution. Words like liberty, equality and
fraternity began to strike the common people and they began to agitate
for free trade, free agriculture, free industry, free production and free dis-
tribution. This had its effect on the minds of the people. When they were
forced to apply this effect in practice they started revolutionary activities
which changed into terrorist activities such as the executions of the aris-
tocrats.
Harsh Realities as the Source of the Revolution
It has been discussed earlier that behind the French Revolution it
was the economic factor that inspired a political change. In those days the
common French life was marked by the hard economic realities. The
luxurious life of aristocracy added to the general difficulties of the people.
Indeed, the thoughts of England and France gave the idologicai base to
the revolution. At the same time harsh economic realities forced them to
act readily in that direction. Therefore it can be clearly admitted that the
French Revolution was the result of the inspiration of the intellectuals on
the one hand and the harsh economic realities on the other. The reign of
Loius XVI (1774-79) was very calamitous, tumultuous and full of restless-
ness. Thus the social and political conditions of the lower classes were
very deplorable. They could be arrested at any time and condemned to a
cruel imprisonment simply on the basis of a lettre de cachet which was
nothing but a warrant from a noble or one of the king's ministers. King
Louis was a slow-witted, sleepy, self-indulgent fellow with no interests ex-
cept hunting. His wife, Marie Antoinette dominated him so much that
France became the purse for her pleasures. When the king finally con-
vened the meeting of the council, there was complete bankruptcy and ex-
citement began to move the whole country. On July 11,1789, Necker, the
Protestant Finance Minister of France, was dismissed from his post by the
king. Tension began to mount with this news and the crowd attacked the
swins and German mercenaries who were helping the aristocrats at that
time, with this attack the French guards also joined the mob to force the
foreigners to leave their camps. Then everyone thought of the Bastille
where arms and ammunition could be had in plenty. These arms could tilt
the balance in favour of the mob. On July 14, the Bastille fell and the news
that the French army had supported the mob, gave a firm base to the
100 A Talc of Two Cities
revolution. The convocation of the French parliament raised the hopes of the
peasants that some legal emancipation would be available to them.
Financial Mismanagement
Since there was the worst disorder during the reign of Louis XVI, tne
economic inequalities among people increased rapidly. Though Louis
agreed to accede to some demands that were put up by a group of people this
agreement could not quench the fire of Revolution. This fire con-tinued till
the end of the monarchy. Then on September 20, 1792 the dec-laration of
the first republic was made but the terrorism continued till July 1794 and
ended with the end of Robespierre, the most gifted and the grandest
revolutionary figure of the period of French history.
'A Tale of Two Cities' and Historical Background
Indeed, Dickens penned A Tale of Two Cities with historical back-
ground of French Revolution. While writing the novel, the novelist kept,
direct touch with the French and English history of that time. There is a fine
delineation of political events, though the novel also deals with other aspects
like love. The novelist gives many pages to the exploitation of the poor at the
hands of the aristocracy. Later on, he discusses the fury of the revolutionaries
who also committed some evil deeds. The novelist admits the influence of
Carlyle and the historical background of the novel in the preface to the novel.
"Whenever any reference is made to the conditions of the French people
before or during the Revolution, it is truly made on the faith of trustworthy
witness. It has been one of my hopes to add something to the popular and
pictureque means of understanding that terrible time, though no one can hope
to add anything to the philosophy of Mr. Carlyle's wonderful book."
4 PERSONS AND
PLACES
(Alphabetically arranged)
A. Persons
1. Charles Darnay or Charles Evremonde : He is a French aristocrat
who gives up all his touch with his aristocratic background because he
cannot tolerate the exploitation of the poor at the hands of the aristocrats.
Despite his revolutionary outlook, he is captured by the revolutionaries and
put to the capital punishment, merely because he has taken birth in
aristocratic family.
2. Doctor Alexandre Manette : He is a physician who is forced by
Evremonde brothers to visit a girl and boy who are the victims of Ev-
remonde brothers. Doctor Manette makes a complaint to the government
officials but Evremonde brothers capture him and imprison him for eighteen
years. During these eighteen years he loses the balance of his mind. After
eighteen years when he is freed, he is supported and cured by his daughter
Lucie Manette.
3. Gabelle: He is a village postmaster who works for the Evremonde
family by collecting rents and taxes from the tenants of the family.
4. Gaspard: He is one of the inhabitants of St. Antoine. His son is
killed by Marquis's carriage. Latei on he murders Marquis and is arrested
for the murder.
5. Jarvis Lorry : He is a senior employee of Tellson's bank. He
proves to be the most serious worker of his bank. As a sincere friend of Dr.
Manette, he supports Dr. Manette and his daughter Lucie very carefully.
6. Jeremigh Cruncher : Jeremigh or Jerry Cruncher is an odd
job-man and messenger who occupies a seat outside the bank. His work is
{o dig out dead bodies from their graves and sell them to surgeons. He
calls his business an honest work.
7. Lucie: Daughter of Dr. Manette, Lucie Manette is the heroine of
the novel. She is one of the great sufferers in the novel. In her childhood
she suffers because she leads the life of an orphan. When she is married to
Charles Darnay, her husband is captured by the revolutionaries and is
sentenced to death. At last, Sydney Carton who loves her sincerely, res-
cues Darnay by putting himself in place of Darnay.
8. Madame Defarge: She is wife of Monsieur Defarge. Her sister has
been the victim of Evremonde brothers. Therefore she becomes a leading
member of the revolutionary group. She takes keen interest in the blood-
shed of the aristocrats. She proves to be a fearless, heartless and blood-
thirsty lady.
9. Marquis Evremonde : One of the Evremonde brothers, Marquis
Evremonde is responsible for the arbitrary imprisonment of Dr. Manette.
Later on, he crushes by his carriage the son of Craspard who murders him
after this incident.
10. The Mender of Roads : He is a kind of itinerant labourer whose
main job is the mending of roads. After this, in the story he becomes a
wood sawyer.
11. Miss Pross : She is a house keeper of Lucie Manette. She loves
Lucie so much that she is jealous of those who visit Lucie. She is a source
of humour in the novel.
12. Mansquer Ernest Defarge : A Frenchman who had been a ser-
vant of Dr. Manette, becomes the leader of the armed mob which attacks
the Bastille and captures it. He has a soft corner for Dr. Manette and his
family, though he takes an active part in the death punishment of Charles
Darnay.
13. Roger Fly: A spy who is closely connected with one of the main
characters, Barsad or Solomon, another spy. What is important about him
is that he is declared as dead, though he is alive.
14. Seamstress : She is a poor young girl who has been captured for
no fault of hers. After a brief trial she is sentenced to death. Her death
scene presents very pathetic situation.
15. Solomon : He is a spy, introduced at the time of the first trial of
Darnay. He is the brother of Miss Pross. He plays significant role in the
rescue of Darnay.
16. Stryver: He is an advocate who is practising as a reputed lawyer.
He is the source of entertainment because of his self-conceit and inflated
ego. He often praises his own personality.
17. Sydney Carton : One of the most effective characters of the
novel, Sydney Carton deserves to be recognised as the hero of the novel
because he is always busy in bringing happiness in the lives of others. He
sacrifices his own life the sake of Lucie whom he loves very deeply. He is
the symbol of renunciation and resurrection in the novel.
18. Three Jacques ; Jacques was a name which was used for every
revolutionary in France and was drived from the word Jacobins.
19. The Vengeance : She is one of the revolutionary women in St.
Antoine. She is very much devoted to Madame Defarge. Because of her
cruel and implacable disposition she earns the nickname of 'The Venge-
ance'.
B. Places
1. The Bastille : The word Bastille stands for a building. It was the
name given to a fortness built in 1370, for the defence of Paris. Later on, it
began to be used as a prison.
2. Beauvais : It is the name of an ancient French city noted for its
Cathedral and its tapestry weaving. Dr. Manette is introduced as a native
of Beauvais. Therefore, he is often referred to as the doctor of Beauvais.
3. Clerkenwell: Mr. Jarvis Lorry lived in this part of the city. It is the
name of a district in London.
4. Conciergerie: This too was the name of a prison, built in the middle
ages, and was used mainly for political purposes. It is also known as the
Palais de Justice.
5. Dover: It is a sea port on the east cost of England and the. port
nearest to the Coast of France. It is sixty miles from London.
6. La Force: La Force is prison in Paris. It is meant for debtors who
could not repay their debts.
7. Old Bailey: It is the name of a law-court which was situated be-
sides the notorious Newgate Prison in London. Prisoners were kept in the
jail, brought next door to old Bailey for trial and, if sentenced to death,
hanged in the street outside until public executions were stopped in 1866.
8. Palace of the Tuileries: It is the name of the Paris home of the king
of France when this country was a monarchy. It was built in 1566 and be-
came the Bastille, an object of hatred to the revolutionaries.
9. Prison of the Abbaye : It was a prison in Paris, which was much
hated by the populace of the city. In this prison Crabelle was imprisoned
when he wrote a letter to Darnay in England to come to Paris to save him.
10. Saint Autoine : This was the name of the suburb in Paris. The
destitutes of this suburb formed the core of the revolutionaries during the
revolution.
11. Soho : It was the name of a district in west central London of
Oxford street, and Shaftesbury Avenue. The area was fashionable in 17th
and 18th centuries. It also had literary importance.
12. Tellson's Bank: This bank is supposed to have been situated near
Temple Bar in London. Temple Bar was a gateway which divided the
strand from Fleet street and marked the Western boundary of England.
13. The Tower: It is related to the Tower of London, where those
accused of treason, like Charles Darnay, were imprisoned.
14. Two Cities: Two Cities stands for Paris and London. The whole
action of the novel moves around these two cities.
15. White Friars : It is the name of a locality where Jerry Cruncher
lived with his family. It was the district between the Thames and Fleet
street, and once had been a refuge for criminals and bankrupt debtors.
5
THE TITLE OF THE NOVEL
Introduction
A Tale of Two Cities of Charles Dickens is a wonderful novel in the
sense that it deals with the happenings which occur in two cities. While
describing the incidents and characters of London and Paris the novelist
maintains an obvious balance. He portrays both French and English char-
acters without any artificiality. Since the novelist's aim is to highlight the
impact of French Revolution or French society, his French characters are
characterized in the light of French Revolution. Secondly, it has been ad-
mitted by historians that the English also suffered because of this revolu-
tion and there was a departure of many French aristocrats to England. We
find in the novel that many characters who belong to Paris, take a
per-manant departure from it and reside in London. Thus, the main
actions of the novel take place in Paris and London.
Different Titles of the Novel
In the preface to A Tale of Two Cities, the novelist points out how the
main idea of the novel came into his mind when he was acting with his
children and friend in a drama, Frozen Deep of Wilkie Collins, in 1857.
He admitted that the odd circumstances of his family did not permit him
to develop the main idea of the novel. In January 1858 the idea again
haunted his mind, and he points out, .... Growing inclinations of a fitful
and undefined sort are upon me sometimes to fall to work on a new book.
For this new Book he thought up many titles. 'One of These Days'
... 'Recalled to Life', The Thread of Gold' and 'The Doctor of Bcaurais'
were some of these titles. Later on, "The Thread of Gold' was used by him
for Book II, though it was modified as 'The Golden Thread'. Eventually,
the present title A Tale of Two Cities seemed to him more appropriate
J 04 A Tale of Two Cities
than any other, therefore he gave the final touch to the present title, A
Tale of Two Cities. The Picture of London
In the first chapter of the first book the novelist gives a favourable
picture of the state of things in London in 1775.
"In England there was scarcely an amount of order and security j0
justify much national boasting. Daring-burglaries by armed men, and
highway robberies took place in the capital itself every night; families
were publicly cautioned not to go out of town without removing their fur-
niture to upholsterers' warehouses for security. The highwayman in the
dark was a city tradesman in the light, and being recognized and chal-
lenged by his fellow tradesman whom he stopped in his character of the
captain, gallantly shot him through the head and rode away, the mail was
waylaid by seven robbers, and the guard shot three dead and then got shot
dead himself by the other four, in consequence of the failure of his am-
munition after which the mail was robbed in peace. That magnificent
potentate, the Lord Mayor of London, was made to stand and deliver on
Turnham Green, by one highwayman, who despoiled the illustrious crea-
ture in sight of all his retinue, prisoners in London jails fought battles
with their turnkeys and the majesty of the lay fired blunderbusses in
among them loaded with rounds of shot and ball: thieves snipped off
diamond crosses from the necks of noble lords at court drawing-rooms,
musketeers went into St. Giles's to search for contraband goods, and the
mob fired on the musketeers, who fired on the mob, and nobody thought
of putting these occurrences much out of the common way.
In the midst of them the hangman, ever busy and ever worse than
useless, was in constant requisitions, now stringing up long rows of mis-
cellaneous criminals, now hanging a house breaker, on Saturday who had
been taken on Tuesday, now burning people in the hand at New gate by
the dozen, and now burning pamphlets at the door or Westminister Hall,
to-day taking the life of an atrocious murderer, and tomorrow of the
wretched pilferer who had robbed a farmer's boy of six pence.
Again in the first two chapters of the second book Dickens describes
the wretched conditions of Tellson's Bank and old Bailey. The description
of old Bailey is indeed lurid.... The jail was a vile place, in which most
kinds of debauchery and villainy were practised and where diseases were
bred, that came into court with the prisoners, and sometimes rushed
straight from the dock at the Lord Chief Justice himself, and pulled him
off the bench. It had more than once happened, that the Judge in the black
cap pronounced his own doom as certainly as the prisoners, and even died
before him. For the rest, the old Bailey was famous as a kind of deadly inn
yard, from which pale travellers set out continually, in carts and coaches,
on a violent passage into the other world, traversing some two miles and a
half of public, street and road, and shaming few good citizens, if any.
The Picture of Paris

On the other hand the picture of Paris was deeply influenced by the volution.
Before the revolution the tyranny of the government officials re 0j)vious
everywhere. But later on the revengeful feelings of the common class of
France changed the atmosphere. The novelist describes it in the following
lines:
Military officers destitute of military knowledge, naval officers with no
idea of a ship, civil officers without a notion of affairs, brazen ecclesiastics, of
the worst world, worldly with sensual eyes, loose tongues, and looser lives,
all totally unfit for their several callings, all lying horribly in pretending to
belong to them but all nearly or remotely of the Monseigneur, and therefore
foisted on all public employments from which anything was to be got, these
were to be told off by the score and the store. People not immediately
connected with anything that was real or by lives passed in travelling by any
straight road to any true earthly end, were no less abundant. Doctors who
made great fortunes out of dainty remedies, for imaginary disorders that
never existed, smiled upon their courtly patients in the ante-chambers of
Monseigneur. Projectors who had discovered every kind of remedy for the
little evils with which the state was touched, except the remedy of setting to
work in earnest to root out a single sin, poured their distracting babble into
any ears they could lay hold of at the reception of Monseigneur.
Better Presentation of Paris
Chesterton thinks that Dickens's description of the city of Paris which
he did not know very well, is almost better than his description of the city of
London which he knew very well. Darnay, the hero of the novel belongs to
Paris and later on he shifts from Paris to London but when he comes to fight
with the main actions, he again comes in France. So is the case of Dr.
Manette who is born in London but serves as a doctor in Paris. Becuase of his
long sufferings he too changes the place of his residence but later on, he has
also to come back to Paris. Besides, the author describes the Bastille, Saint
Antoine etc., these places are deeply related to the French Revolution. As far
as the comparison between London and Paris is concerned, Paris is more
important and better presented than London, merely because the novel has
been penned in the background of French Revolution.
Appropriateness of the Title
Though the novel's main plot is very powerful, we also find many
sub-plots in it. "The two story lines introudced in the first book are broguht
closer and closer together in the second; four weekly numbers set in London,
two in Paris, and the Chateau, then three in London, two in Paris : then two in
London, two in Paris: and finally one in London. The London tale slowly
narrows four, three, two, one upto Darnay's reversal (the London equivalent
to the Revolution), while the Paris narrative looms correspondingly large.
It is as if Saint Antoine in person were hammering at the door of
house in Soho, louder and louder, with the echoes in the street. In the
second book the Paris narrative does in fact break in on the London tale
when chapter XXI, began in Soho, suddenly swiches from "the little circle
in the dark London window" to "the footsteps raging in Saint Antoine
after off." After a few Revolutionary scenes we are brought back to Lon.
don again for Darnay's crucial decision to go to France. The two talcs are
violently juxtaposed, equated, and finally even joined at least in setting.
During the whole alternating Montague of the Paris and London tales
clusters of symbols not only differentiate the two parts (Paris : ragged
people, dirty streets, gloomy skies, London : the quiet corner, the plain
tree in the garden), but also equate them and thus prepare for their join,
ing at the end of the second book (Paris : footsteps, tempest; lightning,
London : footsteps, tempest, lightning). Everything is in readiness for the
merging of the two tales." (Taylor Storch)
In the third book we again find the shifting of the scene. The story is
deeply connected with both the cities and the title is indeed the ap
propriate one. ^
6 PLOT CONSTRUCTION
Introduction
A Tale of Two Cities is the best example of the fact that Dickens is
one of the most successful story writers. Like other novels,^ Tale of Two
Cities also contains a realistic approach. What is most important about
the story is that the readers eagerly wait for the next incident. The novel
contains a well-constructed plot which does not suffer from any undue
interruption or digressions. The author has shown very distinguished
capacity for condensing his material so that the narration of the story is
marked by an economy which provides the plot with a remarkable com-
pactness. No sub-plot runs with the main plot of the novel. Bee -use of this
aspect, a unity of impressions can be observed in the novc . Prolixity and
diffuseness which often mar the works of Thackeray, do not touch this
novel and the speed of the story runs in the straight line without halting
anywhere on the way. Another feature of the plot is that it keeps moving
at a fast pace without creating the feeling of boredom in the readers.
Themes of the Novel
The story of this novel deals with a group of private individuals who
are somehow drawn into the whirlpool of a great public and political
event which is known as French Revolution. There are two themes, resur-
rection and renunciation which dominate the novel. Resurrection means
death and re-birth, which appears in the novel in various forms. Dr.
Manette is recalled to life from his prolonged imprisonment in the Bas-
tille, and after this he recovers from his madness. Thus, in the case of Dr.
Manette, a double resurrection can be marked. First of all, he had been
buried alive in the imprisonment from physical point of viewand secondly
from the mental point of view he had lost his memory. The character of
narnay also contains a resurrection because he is saved from impending

Heath as many as three times in the course of the novel. Carton though he
does not escape from death, also shows resurrection because about him it .
imagined that he would lead new life in another world.This sacrificial death
is in itself a resurrection because it stands for his moral regeneration. The
theme of renunciation is obvious in Darnay's relinquishment of his ancestral
property, and title, and Carton's sacrifice of his life for the sake of woman he
loved. Thus, these two themes, Resurrection and Renunciation are
developed by the novelist against the background of French Revolution.
Though the novelist tries to highlight the true nature of French revolution,
his main attention remains on these two themes. Deep Connection between
Private Lives and Public Events
The author is expert in constructing the plot on the ground of the deep
connection between private lives and public events. John Forster, a
renowned critic opines that the domestic life of a few simple private people
in this novel is knitted and interwoven with the outbreak of a terrible public
event so much skillfully that both seem to be made of each other. Dr.
Manette, who is a private individual, suffers, due to his long imprisonment in
the Bastille. After this, a revolutionary storm takes place in the Bastille and
crushes the tyranny of the despotic government and the callous upper
classes. Dr. Manette becomes a hero of this kind because he has been a
victim of upper class. Like Dr. Manette, Charles Darnay is too private an
individual who belongs to the aristocratic class but who has kind heart for the
deprived and the neglected. The revolutionary mob demands his death
merely because he belongs to the class of aristocrats. Besides Dr. Manette
and Charles Darnay, Lucie and Madame Defargcare two characters whose
private lives are closely connected with the public events. Madame Defarge's
sister has been molested by Evremonde brothers. Therefore she is a leading
character of the revolutionary group. Both Defarges are private individuals,
their role in public events is very prominent. Through the rise and decline of
his characters the novelist presents the fate of the social order. Melodrama
and Suspense
The plot of the novel is the most unique one of all the novels of Dickens.
The note of the melodrama and suspense dominates the story very
realistically. From the beginning to the end a mysterious atmosphere is felt
by the readers. The presentation of many major characters like Dr. Manette,
Mr. and Miss Defarge, Mr. Lorry, Sydney Carton is very noteworthy because
of the background of suspense. Not only on the characters, many events such
as the honest job of Jerry Cruncher, the letter of Dr. Manette, death of Rober
Cly, escape of Darnay etc. create the best kind of suspense. The novelist
carries the melodramatic element upto the end of the novel. Not one or two or
more than two characters to die but a mob of aristocrats has to give up life at
the hands of revolutionaries. In fact, the novelist's presentation of
melodramatic atmosphere is purely based on French Revolution that he
intended to highlight in this novel.
Humour and Pathos

Like other novels, A Tale of Two Cities also deals with humour and
pathos and their blending. The start of the novel, when Dr. Manette is
presented as a ghost because he has been freed from the imprisonment after
eighteen years, is very pathetic. Doctor's madness always creates the best
kind of pathos. Other events that provide the plot with pathos, are the
sacrificial death of Carton, Lucie's grief over the death punishment of
Darnay, Darnay's care for his wife and his baby etc. The note of humour is
quite obvious in the actions of Lorry, Madame Defarge and Jerry Cruncher.
Shifting of Actions
The actions in the story of the novel often shift from London to Paris
and from Paris to London. But this shifting is so much natural that no
confusion is felt by the readers. Whenever the scene changes from one place
to another, we can adjust our minds quickly. As the differences of the
actions are concerned, the actions of Paris are more horrible than those of
London. In London the life is smooth and quiet while Paris is always
highlighted with great tension. Most of the humour scenes also belong to
London while pity and terror are dealt with when we are taken to Paris.
Other Features of the Plot
Among the other important features of the plot construction of A Tale
of Two Cities, doubling parallelism is the most outstanding. Charles Darnay
and Sydney Carton are the doubles who closely resemble each other
regarding their physical appearance. This resemblance is so much
significant that Darnay's escape becomes possible only because of it. Carton
goes to the prison- cell where Darnay has been imprisoned and places
himself in the place of Darnay. Thus Darnay is released while Carton is
sentenced to death. This doubling has been criticised by some critics and
they have argued that this doubling creates an unnatural dramatic effect. The
use of symbolism is another important feature of the structure of the novel.
For example, the spilling of wine is a symbolic incident which prepares us
for the subsequent spilling of of blood in the streets of France. In the same
manner Bastille stands for the tyranny and despotism of the upper class and
that of the government of king Louis. The echoing footsteps which Lucie
hears in her house symbolize the misfortunes and dangers which are to
happen in her family. The dancing of the Carmagnole is a symbol of the
ferocity and uncontrollable fury of the revolutionary mob. Madame Defarge
stands for hatred and evil while Lucie becomes the symbol of love and
goodness.
Shortcoming of the Plot
A Tale of Two Cities has been appreciated because of its interesting
story but it has also been criticized for its faults and weakness. For example,
the narrative becomes too leisurely. The novelist has described Stryver's
desire to marry with Lucie in two chapters; he could have dealt with this
aspect in one chapter. In the same way three chapters are
developed to the description of the nature of Marquis Evremonde. These

chapters could also have been within limits. A.W. Ward, a famous critic
outlines the characteristics of the plot conclusion of A Tale of Two Cities in
the following lines:
In my opinion, A Tale of Two Cities is a skilfully, though not perfectly
constructed novel, which needed but little substantial alteration in order to
be converted into a not less effective stage-play. And with such a design,
Dickens actually sent proof sheets of the books to his friend Reginer, in the
fearful hope that he might approve of the project of its dramatisation for a
French theatre. Cleverly or clumsily adapted, the tale of the Revolution and
its sanguinary vengeance was unlikely to command itself to the imperial
censorship but an English version was, I believe, afterwards very fairly
successful on the boards of the Adelphi, where Madame Celeste was
certainly in her right place as Madame Defarge, an excellent character for a
melodrama, though rather wearisome as she lies in wait through half a
novel.
The construction of the story is, as I have said, skilful but not perfect.
Dickens himself successfully defended his use of accident in bringing
about the death of Madame Defarge. The real objection to the conduct of
this episode, however, lies in the inadequacy of the contrivance for leaving
Miss Pross behind in Paris. Too much is also, I think, made to turn up the
three words "and their descendents"—non-essential in the original con
nection by which Dr. Manette's written denunciation beomes fatal to
those he loves. Still, the general edifice of the plot is solid : its interest,
notwithstanding the crowded background, concentrated with much skill
upon a small group of personages, and Carton's self sacrifice, admirably
prepared from the very first, produces a legitimate tragic effect. At the
same time the novelist's art vindicates its own claims. Not only does the
story contain several narrative episodes of remarkable power such as the
flight from Paris at the close, and the touching little incident of the
seamstress, told inDickens's sweetest pathetic manner but it is likewise
enriched by some descriptive pictures of unusual excellence: for instance,
the sketch of Dover in the good old smuggling times, and the mezzotint of
the stormy evening in Soho. Doubtless, the increased mannerism of the
style is disturbing, and this not only in the high-strung French scenes. As
to the historical element in this novel, Dickens modestly avowed his wish
that he might by this story been able to add something to the popular and
picturesque means of understanding that terrible time, though no one can
hope to add anything to Mr. Calyle's wonderful book. But if Dickens
desired to depict the nobility of the ancient regime, either according to-
Caylyle or according to intrinsic probability, he should not have offered,
in his Marquis, a type historically questionable and unnatural besides.
The description of saint Antoine, before and during the bursting of the
storm has in it more of truthfulness, or the semblance of truthfulness, and
Dickens'^s perception of the physiognomy of the French workman is, I
think,, remarkably accurate. Altogether, the book is an extra-ordinary
'tour de force', which Dickens never repeated. £
CHARACTERIZATION IN THE NOVEL

Introduction
Charles Dickens, one of the greatest creators of characters jn
English fiction, is expert in the presentation of a large diversity of
charac-ters in his novels. Indeed, he aims at the portrayal of the infinite
range and variety of mankind. He does not bother himself in analysing
the individual. His genius was for the extensive, not the intensive vision.
Despite this fact, this novel is remarkable because of individualized
characters.
Individualization
A Tale of Two Cities deals with individualized characters. Every
character becomes a distinct person in his or her right. All the characters
differ from one another. For example, Dr. Manettc who is the victim of
fits of insanity, is an outstanding character. Mr. Lorry, the old bachelor
who has grown grey in the service of Tellson's bank is another remarkable
character who differs from other characters. Sydney Carton and Charles
Darnay who are similar to each other physically, are also distinctive char-
acters. Lucie stands for an entirely different type of womanhood from that
which is represented by Madame Defarge. A great and sharp contrast be-
tween these two women is very outstanding. Miss Pross also belongs to
different category. Mr. Stryver and Jerry Cruncher are other individual-
ized characters though they belong to the minor category. Thus, the
novelist makes all the characters individualized in this novel.
Importance of Dialogue
A Tale of Two Cities affords ample evidence of Dickens's greatness
as a remarkable master of character portrayal. Definitely, he tries to reveal
very wide range in this novel. Many characters are memorable because of
their outstanding traits. What is very remarkable in his characterization is
that he presents his characters either through incidents or through
dialogues. John Forster, a bosom friend of the novelist points out in this
connection, "To rely less upon characters than upon incident, and to
resolve that his actors should be expressed in the story more than they
should express themselves by dialogue, was for him hazardous and can
hardly be called an entirely successful experiment.
Conclusion
Charles Dickens is a master painter. He bears resemblance to Wil-
liam Shakespeare in the field of characterization. Boundless variety of
humanity is one of the distinguishing features of his art of character
portrayal. Baker, in the Vllth volume of History of the English Novel,
remarks, "Charles Dickens's affair was with characters, not with charac-
ter, to portray the infinite diversity of mankind, not to analyse the in-
dividual. His genius was for the extensive, not the intense vision." Dickens
was acquainted with various people, he had knowledge of a stupendous
range of life. Dickens's characters may be classified under three heads.
The first category refers to those live characters who may perhaps have had
their germs in peculiarities or eccentricities whom Dickens was -malty
acquainted with, but developed and transfigured them into something richer
and more peculiar. The second category refers to those characters who range
from the richest to the boldest class. Thirdly, there are conventional good
people, or conventional bad people who belong to the next category; they are
not characters, they love personality. So far as (he delineation of female
characters is concerned, he has not achieved that much of success. The chied
reason is that he was not sufficiently acquainted with female mind and heart.
He could not understand the complications of the lady's heart. However, he
has succeeded in depicting Mrs. Betsay and Pcggotty. Delineations of the
children seem to be Dickens's speciality. He is at his best in the delineations
of children like David, Naddles, Steerforth and Pip. He describes them with
a remarkable skill and makes them highly impressive. His comic characters
receive his greatest attention. His talent as a character painter finds its best
expression in the creation of grotesque characters like Mrs. Micawber, Vriah
Heep, Wemmick and Wopstle. According to Lord David Cecil, Dickens's
characters are not merely individuals but symbolic figures. It is contributory
cause of their gigantic stature that they arc symbolic figures. _
8
THE THEMES
Introduction
For a good novel the writer needs not only valuable plot and
praiseworthy characterization but also interesting theme. Charles Dickens's
novels arc of great importance because they contain very remarkable
themes. Though some of his novels like 'Pickwick Papers', 'Oliver Twist',
'Great Expectations' and 'David Copperfield' are based on child exploitation
problem,/! Tale of Two Cities is quite different from the above said works,
merely because it reveals many social and moral problems in detail. Since
the background of the novel is French Revolution, it deals with the historical
facts. At the same time the writer discusses some moral problems in it.
Various themes of the novel are so much interlinked that the structural unity
of the novel is never disturbed by them.
Theme of Exploitation and Injustice
Through an interesting story the novelist throws light on the problems
of exploitation and injustice in society. First, he tells us how the aristocrats
used the common class as the vehicle of their entertainment and exploited
them for the sake of their individual pleasure. We come to know in the
beginning about a girl and a boy who are the victims of Ev-remonde
brothers and they had to give up their lives. Later on, when Dr. Manette
helps them and tries to inform the government official about this
exploitation he is also captured and imprisoned for eighteen years. Not ony
this but Evremonde crushes the child of a poor man and shows no sympathy
over his death. The injustice and exploitation is shown also on
the part of the mob of revolutionaries. The novelist says that the moh
revolutionaries is like demons who have no contact with humanity Th°f
visages of the men at the grindstone arc not at all human.
The grindstone had a double handle, and turning at it modi
were two men, whose faces, as their long hair napped back when th
whirlings of the grindstone brought their faces up, were more hoi
nble and cruel than the visages of the wildest savages in their moll
barbarous disguise. False eyebrows and false moustaches were stuck
upon them, and their hideous countenances were all bloody ami
sweaty, and all awry with howling, and all staring and glaring with
beastly excitement and want of sleep. s
«n
Dickens was clearly influenced by the violence of the mob Here k
the scene in which the mob rushes towards the Bastille to take revenJ3
against the aristocrats.
fe
C
Cannon, musket, fire and smoke, but, still the deep ditch the single
drawbridge, the massive stone walls, and the eight great towers. Slight
displacements of the raging sea, made by the falling wounded. Flashing
weapons, blazing torches, smoking waggonloads of wet straw, hard work
at neighbouring barricades in all directions shrieks, volleys, execrations,
bravery without stint, boom, smash and rattle and the furious sounding of
the living sea, but, still the deen ditch, and the single drawbridge, and the
massive stone walls and the eight great towers, and still Defarge of the
wine-shop at his'eun grown doubly hot by the service of four fierce hours.
Hobsbaum' however, says that the storming of the Bastille is a poor
affair—it is far below the description of the same event in Carlyle. For
him the scene is mechanical, clumsy and needless jingle.
The novelist shows the scene of the hanging of Foulon in a vivid manner.
Down and up, the head formost on the steps of the building now, on
his knees, now on his feet, now on his back dragged and struck at, and
stifled by the bunches of grass and straw that were thrust into his face by
hundreds of hands, torn, bruised, panting bleeding, yet always
beseeching for mercy, now full of vehement agony of action, with a small
clear space about him as the people drew one another back that they might
see, now, a log of dead wood drawn through a forest of legs, he was hauled
to the nearest street corner where one of the fatal lamps swung and there
Madame Defarge let him go—as a cat might have done to a mouse and
silently and composedly looked at him while they made ready, and while
he besought her, the women passionately screeching at'him all the time,
and the men sternly calling out to have him killed with grass in his mouth.
Once he want aloft, and the rope broke, and they caught htm shrieking;
then, the rope was merciful, and held him and his head was soon upon a
pike, with grass enough in the mouth for all Saint Antoine to dance at the
sight of.
Theme of Love
The theme of love is the most appealing theme because of its depth.
Sydney Carton's love is presented as one of the main motivating forces.
Many characters show love for one another. Miss Pross who is a caretaker 0f
Lucie, loves her very much. Dickens remarks, "It was in vain for Madame
Defarge to struggle and to strike. Miss Pross with the. vigorous tenacity of
love, always so much stronger that hate clasped her tight, and even lifted her
from the floor in the struggle that they had.The two hands of Madame
Defarge buffeted and tore her face, but Miss Pross with her head down,
helped her round the waist, and clung to her with more than the hold of
drowning woman."
Charles Darnay, Dr. Manettc and Lucie Manette are the characters who
love one another very much. Besides all these characters, Sydney Carton is
the symbol of love because he sacrifices his life for the sake of one whom he
loves very much K.G. Fielding points out regarding the love theme:
"Love standing for all the forces of life, lasting power and
goodness is shown to be as strange and wonderful as the steps which
lead Madame Defarge to her fate, as the ways by which the hidden
account comes to light, of the prisoner of One Hundred Five, North
Tower, as the first meeting of Carton and Darnay, or the reunion of
Miss Pross and her brother Solomon and as the essentially profound
secret and mystery of every human creature .... to every other."
Theme of Double
A Tale of Two Cities has been regarded as a tale of two heroes. The
theme of double had obvious attraction for Dickens and he uses this theme in
many of his novels. In Martin Chuzzlewit we have the double presentation of
Montague Tigg and Jonass Chuzzlewit. The latter comes back from his
murderous journey half expecting to find himself asleep in his own bed. It
seems that Dickens was highly influenced by Edgar Allan Poe, whose short
story, 'William Wilson' is a classic story in the theme of double. In 'William
Wilson' Poe assigns his own date of birth, January 19 to Wilson. In the same
manner Dickens assigns his own initials to the two heroes, Carton and
Darnay, in A Tale of Two Cities. In David Copperfield we also find the
initials of the author. In Little Dorrit two principal characters, Clehham and
Dorrit share the initials of Charles Dickens.
John Gross points out that Charles Darnay shares the initials of
Dickens and he is the normal hero of the novel. According to John Gross,
"his sharing of the initials with his creator is" pretty well the only interesting
thing about him. John Gross continues, "otherwise he is a pasteboard
character, completely undeveloped. His position as an exile, his struggles as
a language teacher, his admiration for George Washington are so many
openings thrown away." Gross further points out—"Carton is a far more
striking figure. He belongs to the line of cultivated wastrels who play an
increasingly large part in Dickens's novels during the second half of his
career, culminating in Eugene Wrayburn, his closest predecessor as his
114/4 Tale of Two Cities
name indicates, is the luckless Richard Carstone of Bleak House. He haj
squandered his gifts and drunk away his early promise : his will is broken
but his intellect is unimpaired." Carton represents the harassed modern
consciousness: the persistent human desire to live beyond good and evil.
He regards the moral sense not an innate part of the consciousness, but as
a meddlesome alien with a penchant for vitiating pleasure and restricting
freedom. Although gifted, he has dissipated away his early promise. He
has the power to extract essence from a jumble of details, yet he does not
succeed in his profession, he revealed the plan to Stryver. It is this fact
which leads John Gross to exclaim: "In a sense, his opposite is not Darnay
at all, but the aggressive Stryver, who makes a fortune by picking his
brains." Not only Carton is not interested in improving his fortune, he is
indifferent under tnc sun. He is completely resigned to failure. He is al-
ways harping on the fact that "I am like one who died young. All my life
might have been."
Theme of Resurrection
The main theme of A Tale of Two Cities is not the depiction of com-
mon life in the two cities of London and Paris alone, nor is it only a novel
about the French Revolution. Its central theme is a Christian theme of
resurrection which means the image of Jesus Christ rising from his grave
on the third day of his Crucifixion. In this novel, resurrection has also
been related to renunciation. It is said that Dickens derived both these
themes from Wilkie Collins's play, 'The Frozen Deep'.
The Resurrection theme progresses through the lives of Dr.
Manette, Darnay, Carton, Roger Cly, Old Foulon, Solomon (or Barsad)
and Jerry Cruncher. These characters in the novel are resurrected in one
way or the other.
The theme of resurrection is presented at the very beginning when
Mr. Lorry, who is travelling by the mail coach to Dover, sends a message
to Tcllson's Bank through the messenger Jerry Cruncher. The words of
Lorry's message are recalled to life. These words are very significant as
Mr. Lorry accompanied by Miss Lucie Manette is going to Paris to bring
Dr. Manette to England. Dr. Manette's imprisonment is like death, his
release is an act of resurrection. His long imprisonment of 18 years seems
to Mr. Lorry a kind of burial in a grave from which Dr. Manette comes
out. This image occurs to Lorry's mind frequently. The dozing Mr. Lorry
in his imagination holds a conversation with the dead man whom he is to
dig out from his grave. Alter this imaginary conversation Mr.Lorry in his
fancy begins to dig, dig, with a spade. The return of Manette from in-
sanity to sanity is a second resurrection. This resurrection is brought
about by Lucie's nursing, service, loving care and affection.
i
9
SYMBOLISM IN 'A TALE OF TWO CITIES'
Introduction
There is an abundant use of symbols and symbolic imagery in A Tale of
Two Cities. Symbolism stands for the use of an object or an idea or a person
in a greater or deeper sense than literally conveyed by that object, idea or
person. The author uses symbolism in order to give a deeper sense to his
writing. The symbolic meaning is generally veiled and it lends additional
meanings to those which are clear on the surface. A Tale of Two Cities is full
of symbolic objects. Symbolism has become an essential element of the
structure of this novel.
The Woodman and the Farmer
In the very beginning two symbols are obvious; the woodman sym-
bolizes the fate while the farmer stands for death. According to the author,
these woodmen and the farmers work continuously and silently, and no one
may hear them as they go about the muffled steps. Here the woodman and
the farmer are not merely workers in the wood and killers in the field
respectively but the farmer represents the fate while the latter symbolizes
death. The complete idea of the presentation of them is that fate and death
are doing their work in France in order to ruin general happiness and to bring
destruction.
Mail Coach
Another symbolic significance can be found in the journey of the mail
coach which the author describes in the second chapter. The author regards it
as an uphill journey, passing through the hill, the harvest, the mud. The
horses become mutinous and they desire to take the coach backward. With
dropping heads and shaking tails, the horses laboriously make their way
through the thick mud floundering and stumbling as if they were going to
fall to pieces. This depressing state of affairs becomes very gloomy because
of the atmosphere of suspicion all over and around the mail coach. The
guards suspect the passengers while the passengers are also doubtful about
the guards. The coachman is also doubtful about the journey and he thinks
that the horses are not fit for the journey. The whole affair in this regard is
symbolically described with the meaning that the revolutionary effects
dominate the whole France.
Spilling of Wine
The wine shop is the chapter in which the author describes hew a cask
of wine gets broken in the street by accident and the wine is spilled on the
ground. Since the colour of the wine is red, it stains the ground in the suburb
of Saint Antoine in Paris where it is spilled. A large mob rushes towards the
spilling wine and tries to drink wine from the little pools. The result is that
many people look red because of the colouring wine. In fact the spilling of
wine is symbolically presented as the shedding of blood. It gives hint to the
fact that when the French Revolution would break out, plenty of blood
would be seen in the streets. The author describes the scene in the following
lines:
The lime was to come, when that wine would be spilled on fhestrec
stones, and when the slain of it would be red upon many there. Ortnd Mills
Another example of writer's device of symbolism is the description
of a mill which grinds wheat into flour. The author remarks about the mill
that the people of Saint Antoine had undergone a terrible grinding and
regrinding in the mill The mill grinded young people into the old.
Though people worked in the flourmill, the children in the suburb had
ancient laces and grave voices and upon their faces, and also upon the
faces of the grown-up people, the sign of hunger was clear. The symbol of
the mill grinding and regrinding, not wheal but human beings,
anticipates the symbol of the grindstone that comes alter a long period in
the story. The enraged members of the revolutionary crowd arc described
as sharpening their body, not chest knives, bayonets and swords at a
grindstone which has a double handle and which is being worked furiously
by two men. Both the mill and the grindstone become the symbols of
the destruction which the people face in France. The novelist presents
carmagnole, the name of a song and dance among the French
Revolutionaries in 1793. To Lucie the dancing of the carmagnole be-
comes a dreadful sight. The novelist points out that no battle could have
been half so terrible as this dance was. All these pictures, the spilled wine,
the mill, the grindstone, and the carmagnole create a deep emotional ef-
fect. The scenes symbolise the violence.
Echoing Footsteps
Hundreds of People is another chapter in which the echoing
footsteps are introduced by the novelist as the symbols of those incidents
that arc to happen. Sydney Lucie often hears the echoes of footsteps when
she sits alone in a corner in her hoi.se. Sydney Carton remarks in i his case
that if it is true, there would b;1 a great crowd coming one day in the lives of
all of them. The novelist points out in this connection : "These were
among the echoes to which bocti sometimes pensive, sometimes amused
and laughing, listened in the echoing corner, until her little daughter was
six years old. However, to her heart, the echoes of her child's tread came,
and those of her own dear father'* always active and self-possi «-cd. and
those of her dear husband's rte< d • be l< Id !n fact these echoing step*
are the symbol of the coming o, ih u . tempest, namely Fretu h K«., lu
tion. Stone Building
In the chapter, The Gorgon's Head' ihere is the description ol tin
Chateau which belongs to Evrcmonde. The novelist informs that Chateau
is a heavy stone building with a large stone courtyard ix.lore it. and .J stone
staircase. It was a "stony tnisircs* altogether, with heavy stone
balustrades, and stone urns, and stone flowcrn. and stone faces ol men,
and stone heads vi' lions, in ail directions, as if the Gorgon's head had
surveyed it, when if was finished two centuries ago." In fact this aspect of
the Chateau is s\ rabolicand the author emphasises the story aspect of the
Chateau which has also a :arge number of stone faces depicted on the out-
side of its walls. These stone faces are the symbols of the hard-hcartedness
Special introduction 117
and callousness of ihc Evremonde race which has owned this ehaleau and
resides in it. This race also commits several cruelties on the poor in it.
Since Marquis is a completely cruel crealurc, he shows no emotion at any
place. When the author says that ir. Chateau there is no place where stone Is
not seen, he wants to convey the fact that Maquis has no soft corner for the
poor and he was a perfect incarnation of cruel-hcarlcdness. Charles
Darnay who also belongs to Evremonde family, gives up his ownership of
the Chateau. This incident is symbolic and the true meaning of this inci-
dent is that Charles Darnay refuses to adopt the cruel ways of life, which
were of his father. Later on, Charles proves lo be a true sympathiser of the
poor and he is to suffer for the wrongs of his father.
The Bastille
Again and again we hear about the Bastille, a place where hundreds
of prisoners are kept. Many have to suffer in the Bastille. All the
revolutionaries decide to storm the Bastille. Here the writer intends to
convey the fact that the revolutionaries decided to kill all those who had
the least pity for the poor. A group of revolutionaries rushes towards the
Bastille in the leadership of Defarge and Madame Defarge. Many officials
and aristocrats arc crushed and put to death. This place, the Bastille, and
all the incidents, related to it, are symbolically significant. La Guillotine
Like the Bastille, La Guillotine is a symbol of hard and cruel ac-
tivities. But at La Guillotine, these activities are carried on by the revolu-
tionary mob. If the Bastille symbolizes the tyranny of King Louis XVI, La
Guillotine stands for the tyrannized behaviour of the revolutionaries. It
becomes "the national Razor which shaved close.'* h is regarded as the
sign of the degeneration of the human race. La Guillotine is ;i symbol of
the brutalities and the barbarities which are committed by 'he poor and
the downtrodden when they come into power. It is as ugly and hateful as
the Bastille. Some Characters as Symbols
Some of the characters in the novel are also expressed through sin-
cere symbols. For example, Madame Defarge stands for the unlimited
hatred and evil because she always shows bloodthirsty altitude. Her
revenge is indeed more than the tyranny through which she has lo pass.
Hatred, revenge and violence become the parts of her spirit and she often
registers the names of the aristocrats. Because of her wrong altitude many
innocent people have to die in vain. The novelist presents her in order to
show the cruel aspect of the revolutionaries. Miss Pross, on the other
hand, stands for love. Her love for Lucie is deep and sincere. In her con-
test with Madame Defarge, the latter is killed with her own pistol and
Pross escapes, defeating her. This incident is absolutely symbolic and the
author conveys the fact thai hatred and evil are self-destructive and in the
contest between love and hatred, the victory of love is sure. Sydney Car-
ton also stands for the: true spirit of sacrifice. This sacrifical death sym-
bolises the ways for which Jesus Christ fought and sacrificed his life.
Conclusion
William H. Marshall, a renowned critic points out thaM Tale of Two
Cities is a story about rebirth through death and that therefore Dickens
reveals many symbols of life and death. The symbols of death seem to win
the symbols of life in order to emphasize the final rebirth through death
which is symbolised by Carton's sacrificial death. Blood, stone and wine
are the principal symbols, used by Dickens.
10 STYLE OF 'A TALE OF TWO
CITIES' Introduction
Among Dickens's contribution to the English fiction, his style is one
of the greatest achievements. He treats characters, plots, and descrip-
tions, his special forms of expression, his techniques of creating
audiovisual and emotional situations in a wonderful manner. In fact he
writes long and detailed sentences and uses circumlocution instead of
simple, forthright statement. Sentimentalism is his unique quality which
dominates many of his novels. In 'A Tale of Two Cities' the first interview
between Lucie and her father, Doctor Manette, and the farewell scene
between Charles Darnay and Lucie in Paris are, indeed, sentimental situa-
tions. In his novels, the characters prove their love more convincingly by
their actions than by their words. But his clear purpose was to make his
readers see, feel, and hear and he wanted to make his style perfect.
Precision of Diction
The novelist worked to achieve precision of diction. These words
denote not only exact literal meaning, but they are also capable of extend-
ing meanings and interpretations. For example, the follwing sentence, "It
was the best of times, it was the worst of times" contains the fact that each
pair of alternates relates precisely to the year 1775 and it can be extended
to relate to every period in history. The following passage contains the
precision of diction.
"He was a man of about sixty, handsomely dressed, haughty in
manner, and with a face like a fine mask. A face of a transparent
paleness, every feature in it is clearly defined, one set expression on
it. The nose, beautifully formed otherwise, was very slightly pinched
at the top of each nostril. In these two compressions of dents, the
only little change that the fact ever showed, resided. They persisted
in changing colour sometimes and they would be occasionally di-
lated and contracted by something like a faint pulsation; then, they
gave a look of treachery and cruelty, to the whole countenance."
Imagery
The use of Dickens's imagery is very striking. Geoffrey Thurley, writ-
ing about the depth of the imagery of A Tale of Two Cities observes :
"Some indication of the depth of Dickens's imagery in this
novel is revealed by comparison with say, Zola's Germinal where so
many of Dickens's revolutionary metaphors and camera angles
appear, shorn of their acute poetic relevance if pushed to more
violent extremes. The underlying sexuality of the predominance
of the women in the proletarian rising erupts furiously in Zola's
hands, where Carton is offered as a sacrifice to the devouring sexual
goddess Maigrat, the odious class traitor who runs the settlement
shop and sells goods to the miners' wives in return for the use of
their bodies, is literally castrated by the haggard proletarian
witches, crazed with hunger and seeking revenge on the whole
world of men."
imitation
In characterization Dickens has imitated the methods of the
eighteenth and early nineteenth century novelists, notably Smollett and
Sir Walter Scott. But the fact is that he'has superimposed his own style.
Caricature, which became the trademark of Dickens's early works and
which his readers came to expect, is used sparingly in A Tale of Two
Cities. The de-emphasis on this aspect of Dickens's style disturbed his
readers, but the serious tone of Dickens's later works precludes comic
caricature. The wildness and eccentricities of Miss Pross are a foil for
Lucie Manette's gentleness and ladylike comportment. Jerry Cruncher's
hoarse voice, close set eyes, spiked hair and ridiculous clothes serve as a
comic contrast to the ultra conservative Mr. Lorry and his literal employ-
ment of the term "Resurrectionman" is a light but significant rendering of
the resurrection theme. Jerry illustrates another stylistic device that Dick-
ens borrowed, the tag. Jerry repeatedly refers to himself with tag "an
honest tradesman". He identifies his wife by the tags "Aggcrawayter" and
"floppin". Mr. Lorry carries the tag, "a man of business." Tags are very
useful to the reader. They permit him to make immediate identification
with a character when the character reappears. When Dickens refers to
the lion, the jackal, the man of delicacy or The Vengeance, the reader
calls forth a distinct mental image, whether Dickens is using the term
literally or satirically.
Unnecessary Details
In his best writing and his worst, the habits that constitute his style
persist, and as in the work of other great stylists these habits call attention
to themselves, regardless of the success or failure of particular passage.
Nevertheless, the passage of greatest excellence—what in poetry used to
be called the "beauties" deserve our closest attention, for we are inter-
ested in Dickens's style, after all, only because it is so often brilliant.
Orwell likens such details to "florid little squiggles on the edge of the
paper"—and he includes among them not merely physical objects given in
the setting, but also bits of narrative, scraps of dialogue, all the trivia of
plot and character. "Everything is piled up and up, detail on detail,
embroidery on embroidery, and the result, concludes Orwell, is like a
wedding cake, as much beyond criticism as the rococo "either like it or
you do not like it."
Conclusion
A renowned critic points out regarding all the aspects of Dickens's
style. A Tale of Two Cities belongs to Dickens's later period, and shows
considerably greater restraint of style than his earlier works. Carton's end
is wholly dignified and not sentimentalized, and the whole book is charac-
terized by a tautness and economy of expression. In A Tale of Two Cities
Dickens has set out to write a novel of action and hence allows his charac-
ters to develop in relation to the incidents, not pausing to examine them
minutely or digress into byplay. In the brief glimpse of Jerry Cruncher's
domestic distress may be seen the delight in comic Cockney characters,
and in Miss Pross the tendency to caricature, but Dickens is gripped by his
plot and its inricate working out.
Against the background of London and Paris, the novelist has the
opportunity to fill in a background of city life always brilliantly suggested
by Dickens, study particularly the descriptions of seething St. Antoine,
and in contrast the quiet atmosphere of Soho and the busy prosperity of
Tellson's Bank. In the descriptions of them Dickens conveys the wildness
and grotesqueness of the mob which has run amok by an artist's use of
colour, refer particularly to the scene of the revolutionaries sharpening
their weapons in the courtyard when all the horror of blood and disorder
is vividly brought to life.
It will be observed that Dickens often uses the poetical device of per-
sonification with great effect: thus, when he wants to speak of the citizens
of St. Antoine, they become "the Saint", wary and ragged, and the guil-
lotine, according to Defarge, is "the sharp female, newly born". This has a
sinister suggestion in accordance with the mood of revolutionary Paris,
and sparingly employed by Dickens, is highly effective, compare also the
dead Marquis, surveyed by the Gorgon of Death.
"The style of Dickens has generally been praised as very effective and
suited for the purpose. F.R. Leavis goes to the extent of saying that in ease
and range of his style there is no greater master of English than
Shakespeare. Cazamian says, "Dickens is a great writer by virtue of the
spontaneity of his verve, and this with a minimum of art. His vocabulary
has superabundance of wealth, it wells up naturally and easily, all the in-
herent genius of the English race, for concrete perception goes to nourish
it. It carries with it, and turns to use the contents of other veins of
speech-learned words, technical terms, but the main inexhaustible
stream is drawn from the fund of a racy national, in no way articularised
experience. The refining process of culture is less perceptible here than in
the works of many other wirters. Dickens, like Carlyle, has his touches of
vulgarity— hardly perceptible, at once forgotten under the spell of his
delicately generous heart. The highest quality of his style is its movement
which is at times strained and difficult to follow, but in its uninterrupted
onward flow, carries on the narration or dialogue without any fear of
stagnating inertia. In certain respects the conversations in Dickens's
novel are unequalled, the most familiar tones, those of artless comedy or
of expressive self-revelation, have in the mouths of his characters a
frankness, anap-
propriateness reaching perfection. On the other hand, when the situation
tends to be artificial, and the verve less spontaneous, an unreal note is
immediately perceptible in the dialogue. For the latter has no value in
itself. Dickens does not seek to be objective by system and rule, those
among his personages who are replete with life have a voice of their own;
just as they have an individual physiognomy, the others speak in a some
what artificial tone, which sounds like a thinly veiled echo of the writer's
oWn voice. -
11 THE HERO OF THE NOVEL
Introduction
About the hero of the novel, many critics have opined different
opinions. Since there are three male characters, Dr. Manette, Charles
Darnay and Sydney Carton, who dominate the novel by their actions,
every one of them is regarded as the hero of the novel. Dr. Manette whose
pathetic story has been detailed throughout the novel, can be recognised
as the most outstanding character or the hero of the novel. Charles Dar-
nay may be confused as the hero because he is a sincere lover of Lucie, the
heroine of the novel and the daughter of Dr. Manette. Darnay's claim of
being the hero becomes obvious when he is married to Lucie. Sydney Car-
ton, very extraordinary character has also been taken as the hero of the
novel because of his sacrifice which he makes at the end of the novel. For
the sake of Lucie's happiness, he sacrifices his life because he loves her
very sincerely. Thus the question of hero in the novel is interesting and
outstanding.
Dr. Manette—First of all, it is necessary to throw light on all these
three characters and to determine their characters as the main characters
of the story. Dr. Manette has, indeed, some qualities of a hero, though he is
a broken man when he is released from the Bastille after eighteen years. In
the beginning of the novel we come to know that Dr. Manette is a man
of humanitarian outlook. He does not tolerate the exploitation of the
Evremonde brothers. He writes a letter to the minister in this regard,
butEvremonde brothers kidnap him and he is imprisoned by them for
eighteen years. During these eighteen years his wife dies and his daughter
Lucie is brought up by some other person. After this release, he is cared
for by his friend, Mr. Lorry and his daughter Lucie. There are many
qualities in his character, which determine him to be a true hero. First
he is a courageous man who not only dares to complain about the Ev-
remonde brothers, but he angrily rejects the money, offered by the Ev-
remonde brothers for his services. When he goes to France with Lucie in
an attempt to rescue Charles, he shows himself fearless of the mob and
gets himself appointed as visiting physician to the prison. He does his
best to rescue his son-in-law but his own letter which he wrote during his
imprisonment, becomes the cause of the death punishment of Darnay.
Thus he proves to be a tragic hero who is helpless, pathetic and miserable
at the time of the death punishment of Darnay.
Darnay—Darnay, son of one of the Evremonde brothers, husband of

Lucie Manette, an aristocrat in France and a tutor in England is also
recognised as the hero. He is introduced to his mother who comes to Dr.
Manette to know the ill character of her husband. Darnay, his real name is
Charles Evremonde but he hates the ways of life of his family so much that
he decides to give up his family and reaches London in order to lead a
peaceful life. Though he is so rich that he can enjoy his life, he reaches
London and earns very little money by labouring as a tutor. He does his
work in London very honestly. He wants to forget his past and his family
because his father had always exploited the poor. Because of his virtues
Lucie decides to marry him. Later on, the keeper of his Chateau is captured
by the revolutionaries. Since the keeper is a poor man and he has served
Evremonde family honestly, he thinks it his duty to help the keeper. He
reaches Paris where he is arrested and sentenced to death. Sydney Carton
comes to rescue him but he does not allow Carton to do any activity
cautiously. Thus, Darnay is also a man of character and he deserves to be
called as the hero.
Carton—Sydney Carton, though he is being discussed after Dr.
Manette and Darnay, enjoys higher place than other so-called heroes of the
novel. He is presented in the beginning of the novel as the assistant to Stryver
who is a renowned advocate. Carton is introduced as the most pessimistic
person who has no object in his life. He takes wine in large quantity and
expresses himself through his sentiments. He is an insincere person,
regarding his career. He confesses before Stryver that he believes only in his
present, that is why he never cares for the earning of money. When he comes
in touch with Dr. Manette, he has great sympathy with the doctor and his
family. He proves to be a sincere lover of Lucie. He recognises before her that
he loves her very sincerely and for the sake of her happiness he would not
hesitate in sacrificing his life. What he says is put to action by him in the
concluding chapters. Darnay, the husband of Lucie, is captured by the
revolutionaries and put to the capital punishment. Just before his death
Carton places himself in the place of Darnay in the prison and faces the death
punishment fearlessly. Before his death the viewers feel that, his was a
peaceful and prophetic face. Thus with his Sacrifice the tragedy of Darnay is
averted and Manette's family is rescued from ruin. Besides this we are told
that in his childhood Carton had been a brilliant schoolboy, full of promise.
The novelist allows him to play important part in the main action of the
novel. Many critics agree with the view that he is the novelist of the
characters of ,4 Tale of Two Cities. The following lines describe his quality
in a very faithful manner.
Carton is the only person in the book to undergo a drastic development.
At his first introduction Dickens takes care to present him in a characteristic
pose : and nearly opposite another wigged gentleman with his hands in his
pockets, whose whole attention, when Mr. Cruncher looked at him then or
afterwards, seemed to be concentrated on the ceiling of the Court. This is
elaborated a few pages later: Allowing for my learned friend's appearance
being careless and slovenly if not
debauched .... and kept up consistently to that our early impressions are
11 wholly unfavourable. Whenever Carton appears, he is the same moody
and morose lounger, (ii, 13), 'a dissolute dog, who has never done any o0d,
and never will' (ii, 20). The build-up involves every aspect of barton, his
character and his appearance, his conduct, speech, and movements. In the
Court he sat leaning back, with his torn gown half off him, his untidy wig
put on just as it happened to light on his head after its removal, (ii, 3) his
hands in his pockets." Conclusion
Thus, among the three characters, Dr. Manette, Darnay and Carton,
Carton really enjoys the true place of a hero. Specially, he symbolises the
basic theme of renunciation and resurrection. In this connection it can be
accepted that Sydney Carton deserves to be the most worthy hero of the
novel A Tale of Two Cities. The last words that he utters at the end of the
novel bear the best testimony of the fact that he is an example of the heroes'
self-sacrifice.
"It is a far, far better thing that I do, than I have ever done, it is a
far better rest that I go to than I have ever known."
John Gross, a famous critic points out:
A Talc of Two Cities is a tale of two heroes. The theme of the double
has such obvious attractions for a writer preoccupied with disguises, rival
impulses, and hidden affinities that it is surprising that Dickens did not
make more use of it elsewhere. But no one could claim that his handling of
the device is very successful here, or that he has managed to range the
significant forces of the novel behind Carton and Darnay. Darnay is, so to
speak, the accredited representative of Dickens in the novel, the normal
hero for whom a happy ending is still possible. It has been noted, in-
terestingly enough, that he shares his creator's initials and that is pretty well
the only interesting thing about him. Otherwise, he is a pasteboard
character, completely undeveloped. His position as an exile, his struggles as
a language-teacher, his admiration for George Washington are so many
openings thrown away.
Carton, of course, is a far more striking figure. He belongs to the line of
cultivated wastrels who play an increasingly large part in Dickens's novels
during the second half of his career, culminating in Eugene Wrayburn: his
clearest predecessor, as his name indicates, is the luckless Richard Carstone
of Bleak House. He has squandered his gifts and drunk away his early
promise, his will is broken, but his intellect is unimpaired. In a sense his
opposite is not Darnay at all, but the aggressive Stryver, who makes a
fortune by picking his brains. Yet there is something hollow about his
complete resignation to failure: his self- abasement, in front of
Lucie, for instance, "I am like one who died young .....I know very well that
you can have no tenderness for me." For, stagy a figure though he is, Car
ton does suggest what Thomas Hardy calls "fearful unfulfilments", he still
has vitality, and it is hard to believe that he has gone down without a strug
gle, the bottled-up frustration which Carton represents must spill over
somewhere. f
12
SELECT LITERARY CRITICISM
( 1 ) The Interweaving of
Domestic Life With a Great Public Event
In a letter Dickens worte "I set myself the little task of making a pjt.
turesque story, rising in every chapter, with characters true to nature, bui
whom the story should express more than they should express themselves
by dialogue.
There is no instance in his novels, excepting this, of a deliberate and
planned departure from the method of treatment which had been
pre-eminently the source of his popularity as a novelist. To rely less
upon character than upon incident, and to resolve that his actors should
be expressed by the story more than they should express themselves by
dialogue, was for him a hazardous, and can hardly be called an entirely
successful experiment. With singular dramatic vivacity, much construc-
tive art, and with descriptive passages of a high order everywhere (the
dawn of the terrible outbreak in the journey of the Marquis from Paris to
his country seat, and the London crowd at the funeral of the spy, may be
instance for their power), there was probably never a book by a great
humorist, and an artist so prollific in the conception of character, with so
little humour and so few rememberable figures. Its merits lie elsewhere.
Though there arc excellent traits and touches all through the revolu-
tionary scenes, the only full-length that stands out prominently is the pic-
ture of the wasted life saved at last by heroic sacrifice. Dickens speaks of
his design to make impressive the dignity of Carton's death, and in this he
succeeded perhaps even beyond his expectation. Carton suffers himself to
be mistaken for another, and gives his life that the girl he loves may be
happy with that other, the secret being known only to a poor little girl in
the tumbril that takes them to the scaffold, who at the moment has dis-
covered it, and whom it strengthens also to die. The incident is beautifully
told, and it is at least only fair to set against verdicts not very favourable as
'his effort of his invention, wht was said of the particular character and
scene, and of the book generally, by an American critic whose literary
studies had most familiarized him with the rarest forms of imaginative
writing:
Its portrayal of the noble-natured castaway makes it almost a
peerless book in modern literature, and gives it a place among the
highest examples of literary art. The conception of this character
shows in its author an ideal of magnanimity, of charity unsurpassed.
There is not a grandeur, lovelier figure than the half-wrecked,
self-devoted Sydney Carton, in literature or history and the story
itself is so noble in its spirit, so grand and graphic in its style, and
filled with a pathos so profound and simple, that it deserves and
will surely lake a place among the great serious works of
imagination.
I should myself prefer to say that its distinctive merit is less in any of
•1S conceptions of character, even Carton's than as specimen of Dickens's
power of imaginative story telling. There is no piece of fiction known to
Lc jn which the domestic life of a few simple private people is in such a
manner knitted and interwoven with the outbreak of a terrible public
cVCnt, that the one seems but part of the other. When made conscious of
the first sultry crops of a thunderstorm that fall upon a little group sitting
jn an obscure English lodging, we are witness to the actual beginning of a
icmpesl which is preparing to sweep away everything in French. And, to
the end, the book in this respect is really remarkable. —John Forster
( 2 ) Terror : Suspense : Sensational
Events in 'A Tale of Two Cities'
In his second historical novel,/! Tale of Two Cities (1859), Dickens set
himself to produce, not merely something very different, "a story of
incident", as he put it, in which the actors should express themselves
through the story rather than in the dialogue. It is the only one of his novels
that he called a tale. He had read Carlyle's French Revolution, and been
carried away by it, his ambition was to tell such a story as would convey the
effect that tremendous book had upon himself. And, further, he was now
aspiring and learning to emulate his friend Wilkie Collins, in the neat dove
tailing of plots and the calculated administration of those ancient
stimulants, terror and suspense, the novel that resulted stands out from the
rest with the same distinctness and incongruity as characterized by 'Hard
Times,' a few years before. Carlyle is stated to have sent Dickens two
cart-loads of books and other material for the task, but it is not recorded that
Dickens read these. It was not a historical study of the revolution that he
had in mind. He would write "a picturesque story", to reproduce his in
italics, packed with the sensational events that would hold a theatre
spellbound, for he had in his mind's eye all along what would go well on the
stage, and was bitterly disappointed when his friend Rcgnicr did not think fit
to accept it for dramatisation in a French theatre. Apart from the comic
intervention of Miss Pross and the thoroughly Dickensian figure of Jerry
Cruncher, he deliberately abstained from humour ;ind even from his usual
raeiness and abandon. He had to think of the dignity of history. 'Barnaby
Rudge' had been romance of a mixed type, though mainly sombre, this was
to be the romance of terror and suspense in purer form, of violent passions
and of death in its most spectacular and appalling shape, with human
magnanimity bracing itself for the last defiance and showing the world a
noble example of self-sacrifice.
A Tale of Two Cities is not tragedy : it is not sharply profound, and
austere. Rut ii is a powerful story, and the culminating scene, when Sydney
Carton atones for a misspent life by his act of self-immolation, is nobly
conceived and has made many a heart beat. The subordinate figures., the
young aristocrat, who owes his life to Carton's devotion, the heroine, the
bloodthirsty revolutionaries, Madame Defarge and the rest of the women of
the Terror, are creatures of melodrama which he did his best to authenticate
from such books as he had time to read and from other sources. But
his own recollections of the days of mail coaches are diligences, of an era
that is, which was that of many episodes in his other novels, and all that hi
had seen with his own eyes in his many sojourns in France, served him wen
enough in such incidental pictures as that mail going over Shooter's Hill the
Royal George Hotel at Dover, the quiet sanctum of Tellson's Bank' the
closing scene, the flight from Paris.
—Ernest A. Bak. ( 3 ) The Resurrection
Theme in 'A Tale of Two Cities'
Talking of resurrection as his central theme, Dickens provides on the
one hand thoroughly imagined, earth-bound illustrations of it, while on the
other hand he insists on a transcendental meaning. Seventeen years before,
when writing American Notes, Dickens had described with horror the
system of solitary confinement at the Eastern Penitentiary in Philadelphia.
Occasionally, in the corridors of the prison, he says, one may hear the sound
of a shoemaker's last, but no prisoner ever sees a human face except those of
warders. "He is a man buried alive", Dickens writes, to be dug out in the
slow round of years. This is the germ of A Tale of Two Cities. ("Buried
Alive" was one of the titles proposed for it.) At the start of the book Dr.
Manette has been in solitary confinement for eighteen years, making shoes.
Crossing to France to bring him back Jervis Lorry is, we are told "on his
way to dig someone out of the grave"-some one who has been "buried alive
for eighteen years". In his dreams on the journey Lorry keeps enacting
different versions of this resurrection:
He would dig, and dig, dig—now with a spade, now with a great key, now
with his hands—to dig this wretched creature out. Got out at last, with earth
hanging about his face and hair, he would suddenly fall away to dust. (Book
I Chapter 3). Jerry Cruncher is a ressurection man. He digs bodies from
graveyards to sell as anatomical specimens. Another contributor to the
ressurection theme is the secret agent Roger Cly who feigns death and
comes to life again. He arranges an elaborate funeral for himself, but the
coffin contains only paving stones and earth. As Carton chants from the
burial service:
I am the Resurrection and the life, saith the lord he that believeth
in me, though he were dead, yet shall he live : and whosoever liveth
and believeth in me, shall never die.
The quotation inserted into the narrative with no explanation of who in the
novel it is supposed to be occurring to represents a stout effort on Dickens's
part to shove his readers on to a higher plane so that they would not mind
too much the injustice of Carton's death. And it works. But when we look
back from this to Jerry Cruncher exemplifying the resurrection theme by
digging up a coffin full of paving stones, we sense the same gap between a
solid event and the attachment of "symbolic" import to it that we felt
between Captain Cuttle's sea and Paul Dombey's.
—John Carey.
(4)
A Highly Artificial Melodrama
The first number of'All the Year Round' which came out in April 1885,
carried the first instalment of a new novel,/! Tale of Two Cities. This was
Dickens's second and last historical novel in the sense that in it he
deliberately turned to a period well in the past and dramatized well-known
public events. It has long been one of his most widely read stories, yet
though everyone relishes the vivid atmosphere of the opening or the heady
scenes of the storming of the Bastille, there is little to be said for Dickens's
account or use of the French Revolution. For the only time, rierhaps, in his
novels, Dickens falsifies a picture in the interest of a preconceived attitude:
this was doubtless unconscious, but the fact remains that he has allowed his
fear of violence and the power of the mob to blind him to the idealistic
beginnings of the Revolution, so that its inspiration seems merely the lust
for blood and power. Nor does the prison theme, continued from Little
Dorrit, have anything like the inclusive power it has in the earlier book. The
hero (or perhaps anti-hero) Sydney Carton represents a stage between
Richard Carston of Bleak House and Eugene Wrayburn of Our Mutual
Friend, but Dickens seems to have little real human interest in him : he is
merely a figure, and the sense of wasted potential is given in no more than
diagrammatic form, neither are his limitations and weaknesses anywhere
seen in relation to the society which bred him. He is, in fact, as the heroes of
his self-sacrifice show, only the hero of a highly artificial melodrama.
—A. H. Gomme.
(5)
The Historical Elements in 'A Tale of Two Cities'
As a historical novel in any literal sense, A Tale of Two Cities has
obvious limitation. It attempts no really panoramic view of either the
English or the French political world of those critical years. Barnaby Rudge,
its precursor in the use of popular uprisings, was much more thorough in
that respect. A single State Trial suffices to give us the tone of English
public life under George III. As for the Revolution in France, only two
actual episodes are taken out of history and re-enacted in the novel, the fall
of the Bastille and the lynching of old Foulon, and in both Dickens follows
Carlyle very closely. None of the great personalities of the Revolution
comes on the scene, and only the executioner Samson is mentioned among
them.
Where Dickens did take hints from life in shaping his characters, they
were derived from personalities who played extremely minor roles in
history. The first spark of the revolutionary wine merchant Defarge seems to
be found in the scanty reference Carlyle makes to a real wine merchant,
Cholat, who led the amateur cannoneers at the Bastille and took charge of
the escort which failed to save De Launay, governor of the fortress, from the
rage of the populace. The germ of Dr. Manette was undoubtedly contained
in the prisoner, queret-Demery, whose letter, begging the man who has
imprisoned him for news of his wife, provides the
pathetic note on which Carlyle ends his account of the fall of the Bastii|e
And it has been said that Stryver, the bullying, bombastic lawyer who
thrives by picking Carton's misused brain, was based on Edwin James Q.C.,
a mid-Victorian barrister whose court-room style Dickens had wit.' nessed
on one occasion. But Defarge, Stryver, and even Dr. Manette, are
secondary characters, the figures in the centre stage, Darnay, Carton, and
Lucie, have their sources within Dickens, they are the products of self,
projection, of transmuting memory, and in part of a half- reasoning, half,
intuitive conception of the moral destiny of man.
(6)
Dickens's View of the French Revolution in
The one thing that everyone who has read A Tale of Two Cities
remembers is the Reign of Terror. The whole book is dominated by the
guillotine—tumbrils thundering to and fro, bloody knives, heads bouncing
into the basket, and sinister old women knitting as they watch. Actually,
these scenes only occupy a few chapters, but they are written with terrible
intensity, and the rest of the book is rather slow going. Bui A Tale of two
Cities is not a companion volume to 'The Scarlet Pimpernel'. Dickens sees
clearly enough that the French Revolution was bound to happen and that
many of the people, who were executed, deserved what they got. If, he says,
you behave as the French aristocracy had behaved, vengeance will follow.
He repeats this over and over again. We are constantly being reminded that
while "My Lord" is lolling in bed, with four liveried footmen serving his
chocolate and the peasants starving outside, somewhere in the forest a tree
is growing which will presently be sawn into planks for the platform of the
guillotine. The inevitability of the Terror, given its causes, is insisted upon
in the clearest terms.
And Dickens is very sure that revolution is a monster. That is why
everyone remembers the revolutionary scenes in A Tale of Two Cities, they
have the quality of nightmare, and it is Dickens's own nightmare. Again and
again, he insists upon the meaningless horrors of revolution— the mass
butcheries—the injustice, the ever-present terror of spies, the frightful
blood lust of the mob. The descriptions of the Paris mob—the description,
for instance, of the crowd of murderers struggling round the grindstone to
sharpen their weapons before butchering the prisoners in the September
massacres—outdo anything in 'Barnaby Rudge'. The revolutionaries appear
to him simply as degraded savages in fact, as lunatics, he broods over their
frenzies with a curious imagination.
—George Orwell. ( 7 ) Dickens's View
of the French Revolution In 'A Tale of Two Cities'
The French Revolution compels Dickens to acquire a theory of history,
however primitive. Crush humanity out of shape once more, under similar
hammers, and it will twist itself into the same tortured forms. The
lutionaries return evil for evil, the guillotine is the product not of
re
a,c
depravity but of intolerable oppression. If Dickens's sympathies
hift towards the aristocrats as soon as they become victims, he can also
s
.oW a grim restraint; he underlines the horror of Foulon's death, strung
S
0 with a bunch of grass tied to his back, but he never allows us to forget
So Foulon was. Nor does he have any sympathy with those who talk of
the Revolution, "as though it were the only harvest under the skies that
had never been sown," although he himself is at times plainly tempted to
treat it as an inexplicable calamity, arising of the sea (the gaoler at La
Force has the bloated body of a drowned man, and so forth) or a rising of
rjre; the flames which destroy the chateau of St. Evremonde blow from
the infernal regions, convulsing nature until the lead boils over inside the
stone fountains. But cause and effect are never kept out of sight for long.
Pickens is always reminding himself that the Revolution, though "a
frightful moral disorder, was born of unspeakable suffering, intolerable
oppression, and heartless indifference." Society was diseased before the
fever broke out: the shattered cask of wine which at the outset falls on the
crippling stones of Saint Antoine is scooped up in little mugs of "muti
lated ea rt he nwa re. —John Gross.
( 8 ) The Significance of the
Character of Charles Darnay
Darnay seems at first sight a harmlessly decent young man, one of
Dickens's straight romantic leads, the equivalent of Edward Cheater is
'Barnaby Rudge'. Yet this is a facile view, the result of ignoring the third
dimension Dickens's characters have-Cities is the story of the innocent
bourgeois doctor imprisoned by an unscrupulous elite; it is also the story of
the responsible young aristocrat who disinherits himself out of disgust at
his own class and tries to atone by a life of hard work. When we see
Darnay as the representative of a class that needs to atone for a his-
torical culpability, he acquires new interest and depth. This repre-
sentativeness emerges most plainly in the conversation, he holds with his
uncle, the Marquis, after dinner in the chateau on the night of the
Marquis's murder. When the uncle deplores the decline of aristocratic
privilege, Charles replies with a straight repudiation. If the estate falls to
him, he says—
"It shall be put into some hands better qualified to free it
slowly (if such a thing is possible) from the weight that drags it
down, so that the miserable people who cannot leave it and who
have been long wrung to the last point of endurance, may, in
another generation, suffer less, but it is not for me. There is a curse
on it, and on all this land." {Book II, Chapter).
Dornay's answer when his uncle sarcastically inquires how he in
tends to live under his "new philosophy", is characteristically Dickens's
"work". Thus, man speaks for his philosophical position—Marquis
Evremonde unequivocally for the conservatism of "1' ancient regime,
Darnay for the new liberalism. —Geoffrey Thurey.
(9)
Faults in the Story of
Though Dickens hoped it was his best story, many moderns and
near-moderns have named it his worst. George Saintsbury, George Gis$
ing, and Arnold Bennett have found it unimpressive, an anomaly amonp
Dickens'^ work, though Gissing had the perception to see that Dickeni
had produced "something like a true tragedy". Another disappoint^
group was made up of those who preferred the Dickens of Pickwick
Papers; still another, of those who found the presentation of French
cul-ture and manners distorted or defective, and yet a third, of those who
questioned Dickens's optimism in his portrayal of a beautiful city with a
beautiful people and a Rousseauistic peasantry. There has also, more
per-tinently been a complaint about the mixture of realism with
contrivances of suspense, coincidence, and sensationalism. Here Dickens
himself had some opinions worth noting. He liked to observe that life is
full of odd ties of circumstances and fortune, and of 'A Tale of Two
Cities', he says specifically:
I am not clear respecting that canon of fiction which forbids
the interposition of accident in such a case as Madame Defarge's
death. Where the accident is inseparable from the passion and emo-
tion of the character, where it is strictly consistent with the whole
design, and arises out of some culminating proceeding on the part
of the character which the whole story has led up to, it seems to
become an act of divine justice. And when I use Miss Pross to bring
about that catastrophe, I have the positive intention of miking that
half comic intervention a part of the desperate woman's failure, and
of opposing that mean death, instead of a desperate one in the
streets, which she-wouldn't have minded, to the dignity of Carton's
wrong or right, this was all design.
This may not justify Dickens's use of coincidence to the taste of every
reader; but it shows that he held it to be more than mere contrivance,
either because it was in fact realistic or had thematic relevances beyon«1
the claim of realism.
A final point of attack has always been the high romanticism of
Carton's sacrificial death, which is seen as an outcropping of Dickens's
insensitivity to psychological nuance. Placed beside George Eliot and
Flaubert, he can indeed be made to look a caricaturist. But there are other
perspectives on his work which show us, through all his apparent flatness
and simplicity, a vision unique in fiction, one in which the caricatures, the
plot-tricks and the large blunt emotions lock in, as behind a series of
floodgates, a vast expanse of mythic contemplation involving mysterious
figures (Sydney Carton, Madame Defarge), fateful journeys (the Marquis
to his death, Darnay to his survival, Carton to his salvation), and a world
in flames or darkness, yearning for the light. —Charles E. Beckwith.
(10)
Sentimentality in
The general conception of 'A Tale of Two Cities' is so grand that one
• temped to overlook the novel's technical faults. But faults there are,
Jlme of them unforgivable and are no more persistent here than in some f
the earlier novels but, as always, they are unpalatable to the modern
reader. Lucie Manette's heart-rending union with the father she has never
ôwn is simply not prepared for:
"And if, when I shall tell you of name, and of my father who is
living, and of my mother who is dead, you learn that I have to kneel
to my honoured father, and implore his pardon for having never for
his sake striven all day and lain awake and wept all night, because
the love of my poor mother hid his torture from me, weep for it,
weep for it! —(Book I, Chapter 6)
The illustrious analogue here is the reunion of Cordelia and Lear, but
to define the differences between the two scenes is merely to become im-
patient with Dickens.
Similarly, Sydney Carton's declaration of love to Lucie is entirely
possible, even noble, but it is undermined by sentimentality:
In my degradation, I have not been so degraded but that the
sight of you with your father, and of this home made such a home by
you, has stirred old shadows that I thought had died out of me. "Will
you let me believe, when I recall this day, that the last confidence of
my life was reposed in your pure and innocent breast, and that it lie?
there alone, and will be shared by no one ?"
What is wrong in this passage is not so much the emotional situation,
which we could be persuaded to believe in, as the language: there are too
many dreams, and souls, and homes, and innocent breasts.
—G. Robbert Strange.
(11)
The Reality—Fantasy Mix in
*A Tale of Two Cities'
The reality-fantasy mix runs through all Dickens's work. In 'A Tale
of Two Cities', the plot seems to bring us merely a straight-forward story
of adventure, danger, and suspense, with a certain amount of commen-
tary, characterization, and atmosphere added. But without violating
reality, Dickens has managed to give everything—including the plot—a
colouring of fantasy. The basic detail—the basic fact of the whole
enterprise is the Revolution itself. But it is the effect of the Revolution, its
immediate and shocking effect, on individuals that suits Dickens's
toetamorphosizing imagination best, hence its horrific and terrific
^pects, its nightmare side in the Terror and in its prelude, the September
17
^2 Massacre. His treatment of historical event in Barnaby Rudge
s
hows the same tendencies. On the one hand, he is interested in a niofltent
of history—the anti-Catholic riots inspired by the half-mad Lord Gordon
in the late eighteenth century. On the other, it is its bloodiness, violence,
and insanity that attract him, countering the rationalism and rigour that
Victorian society in general, and his own personal life in particular, so full
of demands and obligations, thrust upon him. Outward fact and psychic
impulse here probably served each other:
Madness is thematic also in 'A Tale of Two Cities'. Dr. Manette is
mad, or so disoriented as to be mad in effect, when his daughter is first led
to him. He is mad from his senseless imprisonment of eighteen years or,
worse than senseless, the imprisonment to which he is condemned as the
result of an accidental discovery made while performing a virtuous act.
After he is rescued, he is brought back to health through love and care.
But then the pressure of outside events—the fear of having to enact the
whole nightmare over again, either in his own person or in that of others
he loves—forces his madness to return. And this time it is true madness; a
doubling of the original condition, a sense that one is never to be free.
Doubling in this sense, and in many senses, plays a role in the significant
structure of the book. It is not of course the same thing as madness: but it
is related in the sense that when anything is doubled, neither half can be
said to make up the whole reality so that each alone is incomplete, a
deficiency or distortion: though both together, in a specific situation, may
only mean a reinforcement of nightmare. Thus Charles Darnay's double
arrest, the sudden casting of Dr. Manette in the role of accuser, are espe
cially apt irony since he had earlier been cast in the role of injured in
nocence. These have been criticized as forced or rigid ; but equally they
can stand, symbolically, as instances of the contradictory nature of subjec
tive experience, even of the self, in relation to events. Certainly, Dr.
Manette had as much reason, or more to curse the house of Evremonde,
as to honour and protect his son-in-law : and one basic lesson of the
Revolution was that as it gathered strength it turned on itself. This at least
seems to have been Dickens's feeling. —Charles E. Beckwilh.
( 1 2 ) Dickens's Faith in
Regeneration
The doctrine of determinism was derived from Carlyle, as was the
contrast between sham and reality and ihc faith that the historical process
was ultimately for good. In the preface to the novel, Dickens explained
that it was intended to be "a popular and picturesque means of under-
standing that great time, though no one can hope to add anything to the
philosophy of Mr. Carlyle s great book." And its most insistent theme was
the same as that of the French Revolution : that certain conditions must
always lead to anarchy and anarchy destroys itself: "There is not in
France, a blade, a leaf, a root which will grow to maturity under conditions
more certain than those that have produced this horror. Sow the same
seed of licence and oppression over again, and it will surely yield the same
fruit according to its kind."
Yet in the French Revolution the faith in regeneration was almost
ironical, while in the novel it was no less strong than the impression of
menacing destiny. Even in the darkest scenes there is the steady sugges
tion of a brighter future in which "the evil of this time" will be "gradually
making expiation for itself and wearing out." It is to be found not only in
Carton's final vision. Each of the three men grouped about Lucie
Manette is "recalled to life". Her father regains his, on release from the
Bastille, her husband's life is restored by his deliverance from La Force,
and Carton finds his by seeking to lose it. As he paces the solemn streets of
Paris on the night before he gives himself up in place of Darnay, the words
of the service at his father's grave-side persistently arise in his mind, "I am
the Resurrection and the Life, saith the Lord; he that bclievcth in me,
though he were dead, yet shall he live", and as he watches the skies darken
before dawn, "the night turns pale and dies, while it seems as if Creation
were delivered over to Death's dominion", until "a glorious sun rises with
the new day" and seems "to strike those words to his heart." As he faces
death beneath the guillotine they recur again; not simply as a pious en
ding, but as a vital expression of a Christian ethic, which all alone has been
contrasted with the savagery of the revolution from the hint that the spy
Barsad was like Judas and the lingering scene about the wayside cross as
Monsieur the Marquis passes on to his death at the hands of one of the
revolutionary Jacquerie. —K.J. Fielding.
(13)
The Design of the Novel and
the Theme of Inevitability
It is easy to find improbabilities in the plot but it has the design
Dickens intended; rising from the dramatic scene on the Dover Road at
the opening of the story, and leading up to the sensational climax, at
which Carlyle declared, "It's wonderful" and Forster turned white with
admiring approval. Only Wilkic Collins hinted, he could have done it bet-
ter, and Dickens turned on him promptly with the fair retort that if it had
been "done in your manner it could have been overdone, too
elaboratedly trapped, baited, and prepared." The intention of the work
was not to create a mystery or arouse suspense, but to reveal a developing
pattern both in the relations between the characters and a great historical
event, and "to show, by a backward light, what everything had been work-
ing to—but only to suggest until the fulfilment comes."
Yet the success of the story depends less on the mere mechanics
of the plot than on the way its themes and incidents arc fused and con-
centrated by the choice of graphic symbols. The blood red wine outside
Defarge's shop, the blue flies searching for carrion in the Old Bailey, the
spectre-white dust covering the figure hidden under the coach, the golden
thread, and the dark storm gathering over Dr. Manette's house which was
to burst over Paris, all intensify the effect of the rapidly succeeding scenes.
They are given equal importance in the way they are used to emphasize
the major theme of inevitability by recalling the past and suggesting the
future. "It is always preparing," Madame Defarge tells her husband. "It
must be so," declares Carton. "It could not be otherwise," says Darnay,
while from the first, before the story opens, there is the ominous
knowledge that "It is likely enough that, rooted in the woods of France
134 A Tale of Two, Cities
and Norway, there were growing trees already marked by the Woodman
Fate to come down and be sawn into boards, to make a certain movable
framework terrible in history." —J. K. Fielding.
(14)
Politics as (he Central Theme in
It is important that the last novel he wrote in the fities should have
been 'A Tale of Two Cities', for it is the only one that has politics as a
central theme. The main impression it leaves on its readers is of the horror
and bloodiness of the revolutionary atmosphere, and the grim idea of
vengeance epitomized in Madame Defarge. There in the most
melodramatic form is an idea of the Terror taken over by many from
Burke : but its place in the scheme of Dickens's work is with the mob in
The Old Curiosity Shop and with the Gordon Riots (in Barnaby Rudge).
But in spite of the obvious hatred that Dickens has for the mad and un-
controllable fury of the mob, he uses the description of it to express, or to
work off, something of his own neurotic impatience and anger. He
danced and slaughtered with the crowd.
A plain thesis can be extracted from the book 'A Tale of Two Cities';
the aristocrats deserved all they got, but the passions engendered in the
people by misery and starvation replaced one set of oppressors by
another. One artistocrat can be rescued to repent and live in the decent
quietude of England, one individual can assert his goodness against the
double evil of the rest. But the concentration of emotion is never on Char
les Darnay, it is all on the wild frenzy of people who have committed
everything to violence. Dickens hated and feared such violence; there is
not a sign of approval or defence of it, he attributes every kind of
monstrous wickedness to its leaders, but he projects into his treatment of
it his own feelings of desperate importance in the face of the problem of
political power. —Humphry House.
(15)
Dickens's Projection of Himself in the
Characters of the Novel
Lucie is the central figure of the novel; and while her husband who
has no conflict in his feelings about her, is no more than a shadow, the
self-sacrifice shown by Sydney Carton is obvious, and even the story of her
father's love for her is one entirely of resignation. In the scene between
her husband and father, Dr. Manette also triumphs over his love, like
Carton and agrees to give her up, even though, he says, "She is everything
to me, more to me than suffering, more to me than wrong."
As an "imprisoned" figure in the story, one might have expected to
find that Dr. Manette was closer to Dickens than anyone else in the novel,
and this seems to be borne out by other characteristics. When Manette is
in despair, he is like Dickens in feeling a compulsive need for action, for it
was equally the character of his mind to be always in singular need of
occupation. We know him as a man of great firmness of purpose, strength
of resolution, and vigour of action as a man who is aware of a "suppres-
sion always shut up within." Undoubtedly, Dickens identified himself
with Carton, with Charles Darnay, and perhaps with all the characters in
the story, but possibly with none more th?n with the father for at this time
he still meant to keep to the declaration that in the "Violated Letter", in
which he had said of Ellen that she was as "innocent and pure, and as good
as my own dear daughter."
Part of the interest of the story lies in the way in which Dickens uses
so many simple characters to express his own complex sense of life. As
everyone recognizes himself into two between Carton and Darnay. As
Carton gazes in the mirror, he sees Darnay as all that he might have been
and similarly, we are shown Carton as the man who has "fallen away from"
all Darnay is. Yet this would fail in its effect if we did not also feel
Dickens's striving to express his sense of the nature of personality through
Manette's divided consciousness, though the twin figures of the St. Ev-
remondes again divided in the opposition of uncle and nephew, in the
powerful human forces released by the long suppressed Revolution, and
in the wonders that he writes "all of us have hidden in our breasts, only
needing circumstances to evoke them." Such figures and incidents are
multiplied and deepen the effect of the story, an aim of which appears to
be to express the impression Dickens had of the mystery and purpose of
life. —K. J. Fielding.
(16)
The Humour of Dickens and His
Mastery of the Grotesque
The humour of Dickens is his greatest quality. It makes everything
he wrote unmistakably characteristic of him. it appears in the turn of his
phrases in a certain indirectness of statement which throws into relief a
comic element in anything he wishes to describe. It is even more obvious
in his most typical characters. The characters most typical of Dickens are
not the heroes and heroines of his novels, not the ordinary persons whose
originals are to be found in any company of middle-class Englishmen, but
those persons, of obvious station but striking individuality, who may have
an important bearing on the plot but would be equally welcome if they
had none. Sam Weller and his even greater father, Mrs. Gamp, Captain
Cuttle, Mr. Micawber are unlike any other characters in fiction, ft has
been objected that they are not true to life. It might indeed be difficult to
find their exact prototypes, but they are unmistakably alive. Every phrase
they utter is redolent of their individuality. Collectively, they sum up
much of the humour of English life in Dickens's time.
Closely connected with his power of humorous characterization is
Dickens's mastery of the grotesque and terrible. The dwarf Qulip in The
Old Curiosity Shop, Dennis the hangman in Barnaby Rudge, Uria Heep
in David Cop per field are as characteristic of him in their way as any of the
economic figures. The ultimate source of true humour is a certain inde-
pendence and individuality of outlook; and the same eyes which found
much to excite laughter in their survey of the world found much to excite
fear. And they found much to excite tears. Though a proneness to labon
the pathetic is one of his faults, Dickens's pathos gives much of its value J
his work. Such a character as Little Nell in The Old Curiosity Shop j,^
sentiment without any sentimentalism. —A.J. WyQt,
(17)
Fairy Tale Quality of 'A
Tale of Two Cities'
He thus began the writing of 'A Tale of Two Cities' at the most in-
tense point of his emotional life. Its historical theme joined with a per-
sonal crisis that was bound, given Dickens's nature as an artist, to express
itself in his fable. What resulted is a plot that has superficially viewed a
traditional fairy tale quality. It is a plot of old wrongs (Dr. Manette's
eighteen-year imprisonment in the Bastille by the wicked St. Evremon-
des) visited upon two romantic lovers (Lucie Manette and Charle Dar-
nay, virtuous son of the exiled St. Evremonde) who, caught and divided in
a great political cataclysm that wreaks the vengeance of the wronged upon
their aristocratic oppressors are almost made victims of the upheaval's
rough injustice. Dr. Manette's prison letter denouncing the St. Evremon-
des and all their heirs, but are saved for a happy life and mankind's fairest
hopes by the sacrifice and death of another man (Sydney Carton).
Darnay's physical counterpart, who has allowed great gifts to sink into
disappointment, self-disgust, and drunken habits, who leaves Lucie
hopelesly, and who finds salvation in giving his life that the girl may be
happy and a new world may be inherited by her children. That is the fable,
roughly summarized. It is a fable because it reduces life to a scheme of
ideal ends and values. —Morton Dauwen Zabel.
(18)
•A Tale of Two Cities' and
the French Revolution
In dignity and eloquence it (A Tale of Two Cities) almost stands alone
among the books by Dickens. But it also stands alone among his books in
this respect, that it is not entirely by Dickens. It owes its inspiration
avowedly to the passionate and cloudy pages of Carlyle's "French
Revolution". And there is something quite essentially inconsistent between
Carlyle's disturbed and half-sceptical transcendentalism and the original
school and spirit to which Dickens belonged, the lucid and laughing
decisiveness of the old convinced and contented Radicalism. Hence the
genius of Dickens cannot save him from making a picture of the French
Revolution, which is delicately and yet deeply erroneous. Both tend too
much to represent it as a mere elemental outbreak of hunger or vengeance,
they do not see enough that it was a war for intellectual principles, even for
intellectual platitudes. We, the modern English, cannot easily understand the
French Revolution, because we cannot easily understand the idea of bloody
battle for pure common sense; we cannot understand common sense in arms
and conquering. In modern England common sense appears to mean putting
up with existing conditions. For us, a practical politician really means a man
who can be thoroughly
trusted to do nothing at all; that is, where his practicality comes in. The
prench feeling at the back of the Revolution was that the more sensible a
man was, the more you must look out for slaughter.
In all the imitators of Carlyle, including Dickens, there is an obscure
sentiment that the thing for which the Frenchmen died must have been
something new and queer, a paradox, a strange idolatry. But when such
\y\,y 1 -an in the streets, it was for the sake of a truism, when those cities
were saaken to their foundations, they were shaken to their foundations
bya truism.
I have mentioned this historical matter because it illustrates these
later and more mingled influences which at once improve and as it were,
perplex the later work of Dickens. For Dickens had in his original
mental composition capacities for understanding this cheery and sensible
element in the French Revolution far better than Carlyle. The French
Revolution was, among other things, French, and, so far as that goes,
could never have a precise counterpart in so jolly and autochthonous an
Englishman as Charles Dickens. But there was a great deal of the actual
and unbroken tradition of the Revolution itself in his early radical
indictments; in his denunciation of the Fleet prison there was a great deal
of the capture of the Bastille. There was above all, a certain reasonable
impatience which was the essence of the Republican, and which is quite
unknown to the Revolutionist in modern Europe. 'The Old Radical' did
not feel exactly that he was "in revolt", he felt if anything that a number of
idiotic institutions had revolted against reason and against him Dickens, I
say, had the revolutionary idea though an English form of it, by clear and
conscious inheritance. Carlyle had to rediscover the Revolution by a
violence of genius and vision. If Dickens, then, took from Carlyle (as he
said he did) his image of the Revolution, it does certainly mean that he
had forgotten something of his own youth and come under the more com-
plex influences of the end of the nineteenth century. —G. K Chesterton.
(19)
Doubling and Its Role
Doubling of one kind and another, whether as indication of madness
or simply as a prime technique of symbolism in the fantasizing of reality,
recurs throughout the book. The most obvious example is the physical
resemblance of Charles Darnay and Sydney Carton which looks on the
surface like a trick, a plot device that hurts both theme and charac-
terization. Yet if we move away from the realistic and literalistic, we can
see this form of doubling as a representation of two worlds, the social or
collective on the one hand, the individual or subjective on the other.
—Charles E. Beckwith.
•
CHAPTERWISE DETAILED SUMMARY OF 'A
TALE OF TWO CITIES'
BOOK THE FIRST : RECALLED TO LIFE

Chapter I
THE PERIOD
The Social and Political Conditions of England and France
As a representative, the novelist discloses the social and political
nature of the period to which the story of the novel belongs. He says, "it
was very complex period because externally it was the best period, while
internally it was known as the worst period. It was the period when
England was being ruled by King George III whose queen, Charlotte
Sophia was a woman with a plain face; France was being ruled by King
Louis XVI whose queen Marie Antoinette, was a woman with a fair face.
In both the countries, the upper class was the victim of the notion that
everything was going on well in their countries.
Lack of Law and Order and the Divine Rights of the King
Since in this period the lack of law and order started to dominate the
whole society, common people started to die under two forces that were
termed as fate, and death. In the year 1775 England was marked with a
series of spiritual revelations like those of Mrs. Southcott, the religious
visionary who made her prophecies in rhyme. In France, authorities in-
cluding the king, were busy in making paper money and in spending it.
Highway robberies were very common in London, the English capital.
Fights between the prisoners and their wardens and the snatching of
diamonds from the noble lords in their drawing rooms by the thieves were
often heard of by the people. The result of such happenings was the tor-
ture and hanging of common people. Instead of maintaining the
economic policies of their countries because the worst form of economic
policies created such disaster, the common people were asked by the aris-
tocracy to believe in the divine rights that the kings had. But this belief
could not stop the triumph of fate and Death over the common people.
Comments
This chapter directly throws light on the causes of French Revolu-
tion that since the king and his ministers were doing only one work, the
spending of money, the common people started to starve and they were
forced to commit crimes. But when they were caught, they were put to
Chapterwise Detailed Summary 139
death- Such was the chaos under which both England and France were
passing at that time.
Chapter II THE MAIL jVlail Coach to
Dover
The mail coach lumbered up Shooter's hill on its way to Dover on a
Friday night, late in November 1775. There were three passengers in the
coach, one of them being Jarvis Lorry, of Tellson's Bank, who was going
to Paris on business. Since the highway robberies were common, a
well-armed guard accompanied the coach. During the journey the
passengers did not talk with one another because they were suspicious
of one another. Because of this suspicion they were very alert. IVfr. Lorry
and His Message
Suddenly the coachman declared that he had heard a horse at a
canter coming up the hill. The announcement caused a tension among the
passengers. Then a voice from the darkness was heard, which wanted to
verify whether it was Dover coach or not. When the guard asked the
stranger to stop at a distance and to disclose his business with the Dover
coach, the stranger announced that he had a message for Mr. Lorry, who
belongs to Tellson's Bank and who was one of the occupants of the coach.
The message was that Mr. Lorry shold wait for Miss Manelte at the port of
Dover before the crossing to France. While this message was being
declared, all the persons at the coach were alert—two of the occupants
had shut the door and pulled up the windows. Mr. Lorry returned the
message with the note, "Recalled to life". Jerry and others were puzzled at
the message of Mr. Lorry because the message of Mr. Lorry did not reveal
any clear information.
Comments
This chapter began with the actual action of the novel. Jarvis Lorry,
the confidential clerk in the Tellson's Bank, was concerned in bringing
Dr. Manette back to life and freedom. Tellson's Bank, with its offices in
both London and Paris stands for a strand which unites two cities, as men-
tioned in the novel. We also come to know the social and the political
conditions of England and France that even the passengers who were
travelling together, were suspicious of one another.
Chapter III
Jerry Back to London

The three passengers in the Dover coach now sat inside and when
the coach travelled on to Dover, each passenger was lost in his own
thoughts. The messenger Jerry, had already turned back and was on his
ây to London, though he stopped quite often at ale house along the road
in order to take drink. The message of Lorry also confused Jerry so much
l
hat many times he took his hat off to scratch his head. Under the state of
infusion he rode back with the message, "Recalled to Life".
Mr. lAtrry in the State of Thoughts

During the journey of the coach, the passengers started to cloze When
the coach lumbered, jolted, rattled, and bumped upon its tedious way, the
passengers on the coach continued to be mysterious to one another. The
three passengers who were mystery to others, felt uneasiness when other
passengers dozed away. The darkness around them created mysterious
atmosphere and their thoughts began to wander in search of something. Mr.
Jarvis Lorry, an employee of Tellson's Bank who had been entrusted with an
objective by his employers, was on his way to dig out a grave of some one.
When he dozed, in his dream he visualised meeting with a ghost whom he
would dig out of the grave. He imagined himself asking the ghost how long
he had remained buried in the grave. On hearing Mr. Lorry, the ghost
replied that he had been buried almost eighteen years ago and he had given
up all hope to come out of the grave. Indeed it was an imaginary
conversation of Mr. Lorry, who was going to bring a person who had been
released from the prison after eighteen years. The burial in the grave stands
for the imprisonment of that person.
Comments
In this chapter the readers came to know about Mr. Alexander Manette
who was released from the imprisonment after eighteen years. Mr. Lorry
was going to Paris to meet him and to bring him back to London. The
novelist, indeed, succeeds in creating the mysterious atmosphere and the
symbolic expression of the ghost is very remarkable.
Chapter IV
PREPARATION
Mr. Lorry Meets Miss Manette
When (he mail reached Dover, in course of the forenoon the hc.id
waiter of Royal George hotel welcomed Mr. Lorry. Mr. Lorry was the only
passenger to go to the hotel, while the other two alighted on the way. Mr.
Lorry was provided with the best room, named 'Concord' in the hotel. On
reaching his room he asked the waiter whether he could have a boat. He
asked the waiter that a lady would be coming to meet him and whenever she
came, the waiter should inform him. Instructing ihe waiter, he left the hotel
for the sea beach. In the afternoon when he returned from the beach to the
hotel, he ordered a bottle of wine. He began to drink the wine and just when
he was going to finish it, the waiter informed that a young lady, named Miss
Manette was wishing to meet him. Miss Manette was the lady whom he had
been expecting for a long time. When Mr. Lorry arrived in the room, he saw a
young lady in a riding cloak. On seeing her he began to think how he had
supported her in her childhood. Miss Manette told him that she had received
a letter from the bank regarding the discovery of some property of her poor
father and was asked to travel to Paris and communicate with one of their
representatives. Mr. Lorry informed that he was the representative referred
to, and he was ready to accompany her on the journey. Miss Manette
informed Mr. Lorry that she was keenly interested in knowing about the
business about which the
Bank had informed that she would come to know through the representative
(Mr. Lorry). Breaking the ice regarding the business Mr. Lorry informed her
that her father, Mr. Manette whom she had always thought to be dead, was
alive and after eighteen years of imprisonment at Bastille, he had been
freed. He told her that her father was a gentleman of Beauvis and was
recognised as a reputed doctor. Before her birth he was well established and
a highly-spirited person. He married with an English lady who faced much
agony after Mr. Manette's imprisonment and at last she died in England; at
that time Lucie, her daughter, was only two years old. The affairs of the
Manettes were managed by Tellson's Bank and after the death of her mother
and disappearance of her father, it was Mr. Lorry who brought her to
England, and supported her.
Unconsciousness of Miss Manette
Mr. Lorry informed her that her father was alive in France and that she
was going to meet him. It was the business for which she had been called
there. He also expected that the long term of misfortune might have changed
Mr. Manette; therefore, she should not lose her heart, if she marked any
intolerable change in him. On thinking that she was going to see a ghost of
his father, Miss Manette fainted and Mr. Lorry had to call for help. A wild
looking woman, clad in red, came running into the room in advance of the
hotel servants and took command of the situation. She ordered hotel
servants to bring smelling salts, cold water and vinegar so that Miss Manette
could be brought back to her consciousness. Miss Pross is introduced in this
chapter and it is informed, that she was the personal maid of Manette and
was accompanying Miss Manette on her journey to France.
Comments
Here we come to know that Miss Manette and Mr. Lorry are making
preparations to go to Paris. About Mr. Manette the novelist lets the readers
know that he is living with Mr. Earnest Defarge, his old servant.
Chapter V
THE WINE SHOP
Blood-coloured Wine
From London the scene transfers to Paris, to one of the poorest suburbs.
Saint Antoine where poverty-stricken people lived in squalor. Since a large
cask of wine had been dropped and broken in that street, red wine started to
flow over the rough paving stones. When the people came to know that wine
was flowing out of the cask, they suspended their work and rushed to collect
it. Some people knelt down, scooped up wine in their hands and sipped it.
The hands and mouths of all those who sipped the wine, also became red due
to the red colour of the wine. When a person put his finger that had been
dipped in wine on the wall, he cried out the word 'blood'.
Hunger-stricken People
The word hunger seemed to be prevalent everywhere. All those men,
women and children who lived in this Parisian suburb, were, indeed,
poverty-stricken people. Very poetically the novelist points out that
hunger stared down from the smokeless chimneys, and stared up from the
filthy streets in this suburb. Hunger was written in every small loaf of
bread in the baker's shop. Indeed, hunger was the keynote of life here and
elsewhere in the city.
The Owner of the Wine Shop
A bull-necked martial looking man of thirty was the keeper of this
wine shop. On the whole he looked good-humoured but at the same time
he looked to be an implacable man also, though he was a man of strong
resolution and determined purpose. His wife, Madame Defarge was a
stout woman of nearly his own age. She used to sit in the shop behind the
counter with her watchful eyes. As the wine shop keeper re-entered the
shop after having witnessed the spectacle of the spilled wine outside, he
saw three men who addressed him as Jacques and he too called them by
the same name. After a brief conversation, Mr. Defarge directed them to
the staircase.
Reaching of Mr. Lorry and Miss Manette
Defarge then turned to two other persons, Mr. Lorry and Miss
Manette who had come from London to Paris for a special business. In
fact both of them had come to meet Dr. Manette and to bring him with
them to London. When Manette was imprisoned, the keeper of the wiine
shop was his domestic servant. After a brief conversation with Mr. Lorry
and Miss Manette, Defarge took them up the dingy stairs to the garret
above. The three Jackques who were already there, were peering through
tthe key hole of the door of the garret and were watching the unfortunate
man inside. When Mr. Lorry and Miss Manette reached the room where
Mr. Manette was busy in shoe-making, Mr. Manette did not take the
notice of those who were around him.
Comments
This chapter contains the atmosphere of suspense and mystery, spe-
cially in the description of the wine shop and its keeper. The novelist in-
troduces three more characters, Dr. Manette, Defarge, and Mrs. Defarge
in this chapter. The spilling of wine is a symbolic expression of the bloody
scenes of the revolution. The novelist also gives hint to the fact that
poverty and hunger were the main cause of French Revolution. The com-
ments on poverty and hunger are poetical but they are absolutely vivid
and real.
Chapter VI
THE SHOE MAKER
Dull Condition of Dr. Manette
The white-haired man who was busy in shoe making was the former
Bastille prisoner, Dr. Manette. Defarge greeted him but he replied very
faintly. His voice was so faint that his life seemed pitiable and dreadful.
His body was so inactive that his mental processes were slow and reaction
delayed. Practically, he had lost his memory. Eighteen years of solitary
confinement had made him dull, benumbed his senses and converted him
into more or less a dumbfounded creature. This use of sense organs and the
speech had resulted in all this. He went to Defarge who provided him ^jth a
shelter. He gave him a place in a garret in the upper story of his house. There
he established himself as a shoe maker. Meeting with Dr. Manette
When Mr. Lorry and Miss Manette came along with Defarge to Dr.
Manette, the latter recognised neither of them and did not respond to their
qustion. This shocked Miss Manette and she became hysteric. By and by
affectionate association and touch of Mr. Lorry revived him. Lucy decided
to take him to London so that he might forget the bitter memories of
imprisonment and behave like a normal person. Even at the time of
departure his behaviour was abnormal. Later on, he was seated in the coach
and all of them, Mr. Lorry, Miss Manette and Dr. Manette started their
journey to England.
Comments
The novelist highlights the effects of long imprisonment on Dr.
Manette in the chapter. The loss of memory of Dr. Manette was the
psychological evil effect of long imprisonment. Pathos is the keynote of
the whole chapter. The way Mr. Manette meets Miss Manette, is pathetic
and sentimental. Since Book First ends with this chapter, the title of the
Book I 'Recalled to Life' becomes obvious in the departure of Manette to
London where he is expected to be recalled to life. _
BOOK THE SECOND "THE GOLDEN THREAD"
Chapter I
FIVE YEARS LATER
Tellson's Bank in London in 1780
Tellson's Bank in London was a recognised old-fashioned place in the
year 1780. The bank was situated near Temple Bar and was a very small,
very dark, and very incommodious place. However, its smallness, its ugliness
and its incommodiousness were the subject of pride for the men who used to
run this Bank. Aged persons were employed in it. If some young person was
given employment in it, he was provided with certain duties so that he might
be kept hidden from the public view till he became old. He was allowed to
do his duties in the main office when he looked old like his fellows. Herry
Cruncher, and old jobman used to sit outside the Bank. The duty of Cruncher
was to serve as an occasional porter and messenger, and he also served as the
living sign of the bank. By his side his son, Jerry, a boy of twelve who was the
very image of his father, used to sit. Conjugal Life of Jerry Cruncher
Jerry Cruncher could never maintain good relations and went to church
for prayer regularly. The religion was the thing that Mr. Crunch could not
tolerate in the character of his wife. Whenever she prayed, he thought that
she was praying against him. Many times she explained that she worshipped
for his welfare and for his prosperity but he did not believe in her statement
and threatened her to stop all type of prayer. In
his opposition to his wife's offering prayers, he also took the support of
his son. The hands of Cruncher always looked dusty and Jerry could never
understand why his father's hands were rusty because there was no visible
reason for it. Jerry Cruncher often regarded himself as an honest trades-
man. Comments
Tellson's Bank is described in detail and the novelist takes a sacrastic
view of the legal system in which death sentence was awarded for the most
petty offences. The novelist points out, "Accordingly, the forger was put to
death, the utterer of a bad note was put to death, the unlawful opener of a
letter was put to death, the purloiner of forty shillings and six pence was put
to death: the holder of a horse at Tellson's door who made off with it, was
put to death; the partocoiner a bad shilling was put to death; the sounder
of three-fourths of the notes in whole gamut of crime, were put to death."
The rusty hands of Jerry Cruncher created curiosity in his son and in
his wife who is a lady "of an orderly and industrious appearance." Her
husband often misbehaves with her merely because she is
religious-minded. He says to her, "You are a nice woman ! what do you
mean by flopping yourself down and praying against me ? I would not put
up with its aggrawayter. "He attributes his failures to his wife's prayers.
Chapter II SIGHT An Errand for Jerry
When Jerry Cruncher went inside the Bank, he was told by one of the
ancient clerks to proceed to old Bailey, the central criminal court of Lon-
don, and deliver a message to Mr. Lorry. He was also asked to be at the old
Bailey till Mr. Lorry required him to be there. The ancient clerk
deliberately held and superscribed the message and handed it over to
Jerry. On reaching his destination he gave it to one of the doorkeepers
who allowed him to enter the court. When Mr. Cruncher reached there,
Mr. Lorry was sitting with the defence lawyers, Stryver and Carton. Jerry
drew the attention of Mr. Lorry who also stood up to look for him.
Charles Darnay as a Criminal
After a few minutes the judge entered the court and when the
prisoner was brought in, everybody in the court looked at him very eagerly.
The prisoner who was a man of twenty-five, good looking and plainly
aressed in black, was Charles Darnay. He had already pleaded not guilty
to the charge of treason against him. It was alleged by the prosecution that
he was a Frenchman who was journeying frequently from London to Paris
and back and he was providing French informations to the British govern-
ment. Darnay stood quietly when the charge was listed against him. The
trial was now to be resumed and the Attorney General was ready to speak.
Suddenly to his left he saw sitting Dr. Manette and his daughter Lucie.
The prosecution had summoned these two persons as the witnesses
against the accused.
Chapterwise Detailed Summary \ 45
Comments
Darnay is none else but Charles Evremonde who was disgusted with
the entire system of French revolution and renounced his claim to all the
property there and earned his living in England as a tutor of French. How-
ever, his frequent visits lo France created suspense and he is imprisoned in
a case of treason which is being heard at the old Bailey, which was famous
as a kind of deadly innyard, from which pale travellers set out continually, in
carts and coaches on a violent passage into the other world."
Chapter II
DISAPPOINTMENT
John Barsad : The First Prosecution Witness
According to the message of the Attorney General to the jury, the
prisoner who was in the dock, though young in years, was an experienced
person, regarding the treasonable activities. The jury argued that the
punishment of such crime was death. The first witness to be examined by the
prosecution was a man, named Barsod. The prosecution regarded him as a
noble patriot who had provided the evidence to prove that Charles Darnay
had been working against the English interests and sending important
information to France. However, the defence counsel, Mr. Stryver, tried to
argue that John Barsad was an unfaithful person and he himself had been
taking part in many objectionable activities." Roger Cly who had been
temporary servant of the prisoner, also described Darnay as a spy of enemy
but defence counsel also proved his evidence to be completely unreliable.
Mr. Lorry's Evidence
Now it was the turn of Mr. Jarvis Lorry to stand in the witness box. He
was aksed by the Attorney General if he (Lorry) had seen the prisoner on a
certain Friday night in November 1775, when he (Lorry) had travelled from
London to Dover by the mail coach. The reply of Mr. Lorry was that it was
impossible for him to identify the accused because he and the other two
passengers in the coach had all been wrapped up to their ears in their cloaks
on account of the bitter cold. When Mr. Lorry was asked if he had seen the
accused anywhere before now, Mr. Lorry replied that he had certainly
witnessed him on the boat when he was returning from France in the same
month of the same year. The accused had come on board a little after
midnight and was the only passenger who had come at that ungodly hour. In
other words, Charles Darnay had travelled to England from Calais by the
same boat by which Mr. Lorry had come to England along with Miss
Manetteand Mr. Manette.
Evidence of Miss Manette
Next witness was Miss Manette who informed the court that she had
seen the accused on the boat by which she came from France to England.
She admitted that the accused had been very kind to her and to her father
during the journey. She further said that before boarding the boat the ac-
cused had some secret talk with two Frenchmen who were holding some
papers. She informed that he was travelling on account of a delicate and
difficult business. According to Miss Manette, Mr. Darnay had some
busi-ness which kept him between France and England and he often
travelled between these two countries. Mr. Darnaryalso opined before
Miss Manette that in the dispute between England and America,
England adopted some unreasonable ways. The close resemblance
between Darnay and Carton
After this Dr. Manette was called as witness but he could not provide
anything important regarding Darnay's case. The next witness who gave
the evidence, informed that he had seen the accused only once in the cof-
fee room of a hotel, waiting for a person. After this Sydney Carton passed
a note with few words to the defence counsel, Mr. Stryver. After reading
the note, Mr. Stryver asked the witness if he marked any resemblance
between the accused and the man (Sydney Carton) who sat nearby in the
court and who was an assistant to Mr. Stryver). Now the resemblance
between the accused and Carton was so close that the witness felt some-
what confused. The confusion proved that the witness might have mis-
taken in identifying the person who was waiting for someone in the Coffee
room of 9 hotel.
A disappointment for the crowd in the court
The defence counsel, Mr. Stryver argued that the first prosecution
witness Barsad was a hired spy, traitor and one of the greatest scoundrels.
The second witness, Roger Cly, according to Stryver was the friend and
the partner of Mr. Barsad and other witnesses could prove nothing about
the crime of Darnay. After this the jury retired to discuss the matter
among themselves. After a short time it submitted its verdict to the judge
who then declared that since the accused was not found guilty, he was
being acquitted. Mr. Lorry then wrote down the word 'Acquitted' on a
piece of paper, and gave it to Jerry Cruncher to be taken immediately to
Tellson's Bank for the information of his Boss. The crowd took the judge-
ment as a disappointment because they were expecting that the accused
would be put to death on a charge of treason and that he would enjoy the
sight of his death soon. Comments
This chapter contains many remarkable features. First of all, there is
an atmosphere of suspense, specially the witnesses like Barsad, Rogerly,
Mr. Lorry, Miss Manette create very healthy suspicion. The novelist also
introduces Sydney Carton in this chapter, whose resemblance with Mr.
Darnay plays an outstanding role in the novel. At present this
resemblance nullifies the whole case of Mr. Darnay and he is acquitted
even without any warning.
Chapter IV CONGRATULATORY
Improvement in Dr. Manette
The decision was a great relief not only to the accused and his coun-
sel, Mr. Stryver but also to Dr. Manette, and Miss Manette. Many persons
including them gathered around Charles Darnay to congratulate him on
his escape from death. Dr. Manette was now slightly changed, though he
often remembered the days of his imprisonment in Bastille. There was a
considerable improvement in his appearance. In the company of his
daughter he felt a kind of peaceful pleasure. To him she was the golden
thread that united him to past and to present. Her voice, her face and the
touch of her hand had a strong beneficial impact on him.
Dr. Manette's distrust and dislike
Darnay kissed Lucie's hand when the latter came to congratulate the
former on his release from capital punishment. Later on, it was Stryver who
thanked Darnay warmly. Mr. Stryver was, at that time, feeling quite puffed
up with pride at his achievement in having so argued the case as to have
gained the release of his client. When Dr. Manette looked at Charles Darnay,
his face became frozen for a moment, and then he remembered something
which made his eyes curious. The curious look which was in the eyes of Dr.
Manette, was an intent look which deepened into a form of dislike and
distrust and also it contained a sense of fear. With this strange look in his
eyes, the doctor's wit seemed wandering. Lucie marked a sea change on his
face and she decided to take him back to the home immediately. A carriage
was brought and both the fathe r and the daughter departed from there. After
a short time Mr. Lorry also left the place and the place began to become
peaceful. Nobody remembered Carton's part in the court proceeding. Mr.
Stryver knew the note which was written and passed by Mr. Carton during
the proceedings of the case.
Carton's disappointment
When only Charles Darnay and Sydney Carton were left behind,
Carton asked Darnay to have something to eat in a nearby tavern. Darnay,
too, accepted this suggestion. Both of them went to a tavern where they sat
and Darnay began to eat while Carton started taking wine. During the course
of conversation Carton proposed a toast of health to Miss Manette and
Darnay joined him pleasingly. Carton then ordered another bottle of wine for
himself, though it was objected to by Darnay since he had already emptied
one bottle. Carton replied to Darnay that he had become a regular drunkard
because on this earth nobody cared for him : he too cared for nobody. Thus
he was neglected and disappointed fellow. Darnay was very grateful to
Carton because his escape could be possible only when he (Carton) used his
(Carton's) natural liabilities. After this Darnay left the place. Carton
continued drinking still; he felt asleep in his chair in the tavern. However,
before his falling asleep in a state of intoxication he said to himself that he
felt no sympathy for the man who closely resembled him.
Comments
In this chapter all the important characters appear and the action of
main plot starts. The novelist reveals the fact that Dr. Manette has started to
improve but the sight of Darnay haunted him so much that he again began to
remember his days of imprisonment. Yet Darnay who is to be marked with
Lucie in the later chapters, comes in close contact with her.
.... . •. »•"■•■
This chapter throws some more light on the character of Sydney Carton who
is presented as a frustrated fellow. Carton points out about himself: '•1 am a
disappointed drudge, sir, I care for no man on earth, and no man on earth
cares for me." Thus, he is a solitary kind of person who finds peace in
drinking wine. Darnay suggests to him, "you might have used your talents
better." But Carton's melancholy does not let him go deep into the statement
of Darnay.
Chapter V
THE JACKAL
Mr. Stryver and Carton
Mr. Stryver was a well-known barrister at the old Bailey. He was
recognised as a talkative and unscrupulous man and courageous. During the
preparation of his case for the court, he used to avail of the services of
Sydney Carton. Barring this work 'Sydney Carton was an idle fellow who
was least interested in any work. He seldom thought of his future. The
intimacy between Carton and Stryver was also because both of them were
heavy drinkers. But quantity of the liquor they used to take together, would
have been enough to float a king's ship. The companionship between them
was so close that people began to remark that although he was not a lion (lion
stands for a leader or a hero) he (Carton) was indeed a jackal (jackal means
that person who performs degrading tasks for another). His services to
Stryver were very remarkable and to some extent, Stryver's success could be
possible because of him.
Carton's Services
Carton used to go to Stryver's chambers at night in order to help him,
regarding the legal cases that Stryver used to put in the court next day. In the
past Carton used to go to Stryver's chambers after being awakened by the
tavern waiter from his sleep (Carton had fallen asleep in his seat in the
tavern while drinking after Darnay's release from the prison). Stryver met
Carton very informally and enquired about the proceedings in the court.
Stryver told Carton that he had utilised his resemblance with Darnay in the
release of Darnay.Carton then occupied his seat in the office of Stryver and
put a couple of wet towels on his head in order to find some relief from the
effects of his excessive drinking. When Carton finished his work, both
Carton and Stryver began to take drink.
Stryver's success and Carton's failure
Stryver and Carton had been class fellows at Shrewsbury school.
Stryver now pointed out to Carton that Ca rton had not changed a bit since
his school days and he was still the same old "seasaw Sydney, up one minute
and down the next, now in the spirits and then in despondency." Sydney
fully agreed and added that even his luck was still same that he used to have
in his school days. As a boy he used to help his school friends in their home
work, in the same manner he was helping his friend, Stryver in his
professional work.
Chapterwise Detailed Summary l 49
Stryver often remarked that his reputation was the result of his hard
work and if Carton had also done hard work, he would have built up his
career. Carton and Stryver opine about Miss Manette
After having taken the drink, Stryver passed the comment about Miss
Manette that she was a pretty girl and that everybody admired her in the
court. Carton did not agree with Stryver in this regard. He thought that the
court was not the place where beauty could be judged and he regarded Miss
Manette as a golden-haired doll. With this remark the meeting of Stryver and
Carton ended and both of them left for their beds.
Comments
This chapter is not remarkable as far as the development of the plot is
concerned but it throws very strong light on the characters of Mr. Stryver and
Sydney Carton and their relations with each other. Since Carton does nothing
but devotes himself to helping others, he is regarded as a Jackal while
Stryver who earns great fame as an advocate is recognised as a lion. The
chapter also provides a healthy blending of humour and pathos. There is a
touch of pathos in the description of Carton's life as an aimless man with no
ambition and no goal in life. The chapter closes with the note of pathos upon
Carton that, "Sadly, sadly, the sun rose; it rose upon no sadder sight that the
man of good abilities and good emotions incapable of their directed exercise,
incapable of own help and his own happiness, sensible of the blight on him
and resigning himself to let it eat him away."
Chapter IV
HUNDREDS OF PEOPLE
Visit of Mr. Lorry to Dr. Manette
Dr. Manette and his daughter Lucie lived peacefully in a quiet locality
of Soho in London. Mr.Lorry who was the friend of Dr. Manette often visited
the residence of Dr. Manette. Mr. Lorry was now going to dine with
Dr.Manette on a Sunday afternoon, after four months of the trial of Darnay in
the court. Mr. Manette was now well improved and was now practising as a
doctor. He was now using one room of his residence as his consulting room.
Due to his practice he was able to earn sufficient money to support himself
and his daughter (before his imprisonment he was practising as a doctor in
Paris). Originally, he belonged to the town of Beanvais in France but later on
he had to shift to Paris where he led his life with his wife who was English
and his daughter, Lucie. When Mr. Lorry arrived at Dr. Manette's residence
that Sunday afternoon, the Doctor and his daughter were not at their
residence. Then Mr. Lorry was received by Miss Pross, Lucie's nurse and the
housekeeper of Dr. Manette. Miss Pross, informed Mr. Lorry that she was
highly fed up with the house because hundreds of people had started visiting
the house. She also told him that Dr. Manette was not normal. Even then and
he often felt disturbed during the nights and was heard walking up and down
in his room. She also said that on such occasion it was Lucie who could
provide
easiness to him. Mr. Lorry realised that despite a prosperous and graceful
life Dr. Manette could not forget his prison days.
Lorry with Darnay and Carton
After a short time Dr. Manette entered the house along with his
daughter Lucie. Lorry did not see hundreds of visitors with whom Miss
Pross felt fed up. Soon after the arrival of Lucie and her father Darnay also
reached there in order to see Dr. Manette and Lucie. Darnay narrated the
incident about a prisoner who had buried a piece of paper under the floor of
his cell in the well-known London prison, called the Tower'. When Darnay
mentioned this incident it produced a disturbing effect on the mind of Dr.
Manette. Another visitor who came there was Sydney Carton who also
seemed to be a frequent visitor to that place like Mr. Lorry and Mr. Darnay.
During the conversation Carton said that according to his thinking, one day a
huge crowd would come into the lives of those who were present in that
house by then: then the roar of a cloud was heard. After a heavy rain when
the visitors left the place there was a halt to the rain. Actually when Miss
Pross said that hundreds of crowd often visited the house of Dr. Manette, she
meant Darnay and Carton of whom she was jealous only because they took
too much time of Lucie.
Comments
This chapter shows that Mr. Lorry is a frequent visitor to the house of
Dr. Manette who has now settled in London with his daughter. Other regular
visitors are Sydney Carton and Charles Darnay. The chapter throws
sufficient light on Miss Pross who was deeply attached to Lucie, Miss
Manette ; that is why she is very jealous of those who come to Dr. Manette's
house and take too much time of Lucie. She cannot tolerate Darnay and
Carton who often visit the house of Lucie. During the conversation at Dr.
Manette's house, Carton remarks, "there is a great crowd coming one day
into our lives." Later on, we find that a great crowd really comes into the life
of Carton and those to whom he is talking. After this remark the stormy rain
is introduced by the novelist in order to symbolise the inner conflicts of the
characters. Thus with the help of symbolism and prophecy we are able to
measure the misfortunes through which the characters have to pass.
Chapter VII
MONSEIGNEUR IN TOWN
Monseigneur in Twon as a Powerful Man
Monseigneur, (a French word which was used in France for eminent
persons or persons of exalted rank, such as, princes, cardinals, and highly
placed noble men), was a powerful and rich man who used to offer
fortnightly receptions in a grand hotel in the city. In those receptions he used
to invite important persons. Since he was spending too much money on these
receptions and on his luxurious ways of living, he was becoming poor. In
order to get financial aid, he married his sister to a rich former general who
did not belong to a noble family. As a member of the French
c0urt and the essence of the aristocratic class he required four lavishly
attired servants to serve him his morning chocolate. IVionsieur the
Marquis as a Guest
One day there was reception in a hotel, in which about sixty
pow-dered, perfumed and brocaded aristocrats took part. Monsieur the
Marquis who was the chief guest, was standing apart from the guests.
Even the host, namely Monseigneur had not paid much attention to him.
Thus it was quite clear that the relations between Monsieur the Marquis
and Monseigneur were not so cordial as they used to be in the past. The
killing of a child by the Marquis' carriage
After the reception, Monsieur the Marquis came out from the hotel
and sat into his carriage which was driven by his coachman. The carriage
was being driven at a very fast pace and the Marquis did not pay attention to
the speed. Even when the carriage passed through a street, the coachman
did not lessen the speed. In a few seconds the carriage itself stopped with a
heavy jolt and it was found that it has run over and killed a child. When
Marquis wanted to know why the carriage stopped, a tall-man showed
him the dead body of a child and told him that he was responsible for the
death of the child. Marquis took out a coin of gold and gave it to the man
in order to compensate the death of the child. He also said to that tall man
that it was very strange why people could not care for the safety of children.
The name of the locality in which this incident occurred, was Saint
Antoine. The next moment, the owner of the wine shop in this locality,
appeared and tried to console the tall man who was the father of the child.
The Marquis threw another coin of gold to the wine owner Defarge. But
Defarge returned the gold coin to the Marquis and disappeared in the
wine shop. Marquis had disappeared in the wine shop. He felt insulted at
the behaviour of Defarge and he declared that he would definitely avenge
the misbehaviour of Defarge. He declared that he would gladly ride over
any one of the people of that locality and exterminate them from the
earth. Comments
The novelist again presents the picture of decayed aristocracy. The
manner in which the extravagance of Monseigneur has been described in
the beginning of the chapter, is intended to convey to the readers the con-
trast between the luxurious life of the aristocracy and the extreme poverty
of the common people. Monseigneur represents the entire French Aris-
tocracy. There is plenty of irony and satire in the whole chapter. Madame
Defarge stands as the symbol of unyielding fate itself, silent, expression-
less, an almost timeless figure as she knit without the pause.
Chapter VIII MONSEIGNEUR IN THE
COUNTRY Marquis and Spy
After causing the death of the child the Marquis of Evremond drove
his carriage swiftly through the pitiable streets of Paris and reached his
castle situated in the open country. Through a beautiful natural scenery
the carriage reached there. The crops in the fields were not far better for
they had not been helped by the nature itself. By this time evening had fallen
and the carriage had reached atop hill. A person who was repairing the road,
looked at the carriage in a fixed maner as it passed and then ran ahead of it to
the top of the hill and gazed at it again as it passed. After that the carriage
rolled quickly down the hill into the little village which was inhabited by
poor people. Marquis passed through the village where he stopped for a little
because a fellow whom he had seen a few moments back, reappeared again
and caught his attention. The Marquis asked this fellow who was the mender
of the road, who had a blue cap, as to why he had looked at his carriage so
fixedly. Trie fellow replied that he had been looking at this carriage for a
long period. On hearing it, the Marquis called the local postmaster,
Monsieur Gabelle and instructed him to be on the lookout for that vagrant
fellow. Having given instruction to the postmaster the Marquis started on his
journey again.
Marsh reply of the Marquis to the widow
After a short time the carriage of Marquis was stopped by a lady who
informed him that her husband had died. Marquis asked naughtily what he
could do if her husband had died. The woman replied that her husband had
died of sheer poverty and now she wanted a slabofstoneora piece of wood on
which her husband's name might be inscribed. She wanted to put that piece at
the head of her husband's grave in order to be able to identity his grave.
Marquis did not reply to her and drove away from there.
The Expectation of the Marquis for Darnay
When the Marquis arrived at his chateau which was a very beautiful
building, he asked a servant whether his nephew Charles Darnay had come
from England or not. When the servant replied in the negative, the Marquis
looked somewhat troubled.
Comments
During the journey of the Marquis two incidents occurred- Marquis
Evremonde was one of the two brothers who were responsible for the
miseries of Dr. Manette. The first incident is that some persons are presented
in search of Marquis and; later on, Marquis asks the postmaster to enquire
why he (Marquis) is being spied by some one. Later on, the same person will
murder Marquis. The second incident is about the widow who wants only a
piece of wood or a stone on which she wants to inscribe the name of her
husband, but the Marquis refuses to do so. Through this incident the novelist
shows the stone-heartedness of aristocrats.
Chapter IX THE GORGON'S HEAD
Meeting of Darnay with Marquis
The Marquis went up the staircase of his chateau and entered his
apartment of three rooms ; his bed-chamber and two others. Presently,
Marquis's nephew, Charles Darnay arrived and joined his uncle at the table.
During their conversation the readers came to know that no affection existed
between the uncle and the nephew. Charles Darnay
hated the French social system in which the poor have to suffer for no fault
of theirs. He declared that he would not share his parental property, merely
because his guardians had been exploiting the poor for a long period. He
decided that he would rather give up his family name and stay in England.
But his uncle disagreed with him and opined that the poor could be ruled
only by the tyranny and oppression. Thus the uncle decided to carry the
system till his death. The death of the Murquis
The Marquis then wished good night to Darnay and ordered the servant
to escort the guest to his bed. The Marquis himself went to his own luxurious
bedroom and retired for the night. But in the morning he was found dead.
The knife had been driven into his heart. A piece of paper with the following
words was attached to the knife, "Drive him fast to his tomb this, from
Jacques." Comments
In this chapter the readers came to know about the contrast between the
views of the Marquis and those of his nephew who had just come from
London to Paris to see his uncle, Marquis. Marquis Evremonde firmly had a
faith in the privileges of the upper classes in France and does not think that
the poor should be given any right. The statement that he gives about the
rights of the poor is "Repression is the only lasting philosophy. The dark
deference of fear and slavery will keep the dogs obedient to the whips." The
nephew, Charles Darnay, on the other hand, opined that the poor should be
given some rights and that the upper class had always been unjust towards
them. Particularly, he criticises his dead father and his living uncle on the
ground that they had done a lot of injustice to the poor, especially for the
tenants. In this regard Darnay points out, "Even in my father's time, we did a
world of wrong, injuring every human creature who came between us and
our pleasure, whatever it was, why need I speak of my father's time, when it
is equally yours ? Thus Charles Darnay was deadly against the existing class
structure and class divisions in France. Darnay was a man of republican
sympathies. Therefore, he himself recognised that he had no desire to inherit
the family property after the death of his uncle. He said that he had already
decided to renounce all claims not only to this property but also to this
country because he had now permanently settled in England. But the most
important incident of this chapter is the assassination of Marquis, during the
same night. In the morning Marquis's dead body was found with a knife
driven into his heart. It was Gaspard who murdered Marquis because his son
was run over and killed by the carriage of Marquis. Gaspard had started
spying on Marquis in order to slay him.
Chapter X
TWO PROMISES
Settling of Darnay as a Teacher
After a year Darnay settled himself as a teacher of French language in
England. He taught this language to those English young men who
were keenly interested in the study of a living language which was spoken
all over the world. Though as a simple teacher he had to face a lot of dif-
ficulties, he was not disappointed because he was already prepared for it.
Since he had already given up all his claims to his ancestral property in
France as a protest against the callous and brutal manner in which the
poor were treated by the rich in France, he was bound to face poverty.
Darnay's declaration of love affair with Lucie
Darnay had been in love with Lucie Manette since the very time
when he saw her in the court of London, but he never confessed his love
affair before her, though he often visited the house of Dr. Manette and
asked for his permission to speak to him about it. Dr. Manette at once
realised that it was the love affair between Lucie and Darnay, about which
he wanted to speak. Therefore he was permitted to speak before him.
Darnay at once told the doctor that he loved Lucie very deeply and he
could not live without her. He said, "If ever there were love in the world, I
love her." Other lovers of Lucie
Darney then wanted to know through the doctor if there was any
other man who was also in love with Lucie and desired to marry her. Dr.
Manette told Darnay, though he had no firm idea about this fact, accord-
ing to him, Carton and Stryver also visited his house and met Lucie often.
When Darnay wanted to disclose his personal facts to Dr. Manette, the
latter refused to listen to the former and asked him to narrate it after the
marriage. Doctor conferred, either Carton or Sydney might also offer his
hand to Lucie.
Dr. Manette's Worse condition
Having taken the approval of Dr. Manette about his marriage with
Lucie, Darnay left Manette's house for his lodgings. During that night Dr.
Manette's mental condition worsened and he was heard using his
shoemaker's tools in his room. Lucie was alarmed by the sound and she at
once went to him to give comfort. It was quite sure, Dr. Manette was
men-jally disturbed, there might be two reasons of his disturbance, either
the thought of the separation of Lucie after her marriage or the real
identity of Darnay moved the mind of Dr. Manette. Comments
In this chapter the novelist attempts to develop the character of
Darnay, though he fails to add something about him more than what the
readers know by this chapter. The mental disturbance of Dr. Manette
causes the tragic effect but the readers fail to know the reason of his
mental disturbance. There can be two causes of the disturbance of Dr.
Manette. Either he could not tolerate the separation of Lucie, which was
sure to happen after her marriage with Darnay or he had recognised the
real identity of Darnay that he was Charles Evremonde, the son of Mar-
quis Evremonde who was responsible for the ruin of his life and his family.
Chapter XI
A COMPANION PICTURE
IVfr. Stryver's decision to propose marriage to Lucie
That very night when Darnay proposed to marry Lucie. Stryver also
declared before Sydney Carton that he was going to marry a lady who would
bring no money to him. After this he made it clear that the lady whom he was
going to make his mistress, was Lucie who was once described by Sydney as
a golden-haired doll. Mr. Stryver said that he was a rapidly rising man of
some distinction. It would, therefore, be a piece of good fortune for Lucie to
get a husband like him. Mr. Stryver then advised that Sydney Carton should
also now think in terms of marriage and should find some woman who could
look after him. Mr. Sydney said, "Find out some respectable woman with
little property, and marry her, against a rainy day." Sydney Carton answered
that he would definitely follow his suggestion.
Comments
Mr. Stryver, who bullies his way ahead in life, continually empties
Sydney Carton's keen legal mind in exchange for a few bowls of alcoholic
punch. In this chapter Stryver discloses his intention to marry Lucie Manette.
It is very interesting to note that Stryver is sure of his marriage while Lucie
knows nothing about him. Mr. Stryver here appears to be a highly egoistical
and pompous man, feeling very proud of his position and his wealth. He says
in lofty tone, he will accept Lucie though she will bring no dowry to him.
According to him, Lucie is a very lucky girl because a rising man or towering
personality like him is going to marry her. Thus, the chapter deals with the
pride of Stryver on the one hand, and the sense of humour on the other.
Chapter XII
THE FELLOW OF DELICACY
Mr. Stryver's false hope
Mr. Stryver was soon going to take a long vacation because the courts
were going to be closed. He was ready to leave for London, he decided to
reveal the facts of his mind to Lucie. He was sure that on hearing him
regarding his decision of the marriage, Lucie would be very happy, thinking
that some towering personality was going to take her hand, but when Mr.
Stryver was on his way to Soho in order to see Lucie, he felt like having a
word with Mr. Lorry of Tellson's bank which was situated on the way. Mr.
Lorry had became an intimate friend of the Manettes, and Stryver came to the
conclusion that he should first mention the subject of his marriage to him.
According to his plan, he entered the bank and expressed his desire to talk
with him.
Opposition of Mr. Lorry
Mr. Stryver informed Mr. Lorry about his intention to make an offer of
his marriage with Lucie. Mr. Stryver was deeply shocked when he found that
Mr. Lorry strongly opposed the proposal of Stryver, regarding his
marriage with Lucie. In fact, Mr. Lorry said that this proposal of Stryver
would cause a pain to Dr. Manette and Miss Manette.
Visit of Mr. Iôrry to the Manette
Mr. Stryver could not understand the reason why, according to Lorry,
Dr. Manette and his daughter would not welcome his proposal of marriage.
Mr. Lorry suggested to Stryver that he would go to the house of Dr. Manette
and disclose his plan of marriage. Lorry further said that if his proposal was
not accepted by Manette, he should give up his idea of marrying Lucie for
ever. Mr. Stryver, then, agreed to the suggestion to Lorry. Accordingly, Mr.
Lorry reached the residence of Dr. Manette and informed him about
Slryver's proposal of marriage with Lucie. After a little discussion with Dr.
Manette he came back and called Stryver to let him know about the results of
his meeting. Mr. Stryver asked him what the result of his talk with Manette
was. Mr. Lorry informed that he was now confirmed in the opinion which he
had already expressed to him on this subject. He further told Stryver that his
proposal of marraige would not be welcomed by Dr. Manette and Lucie
Manette. Mr. Stryver at once said that by refusing his proposal Lucie was
going to commit a blunder for which she would definitely repent in her life.
After this he decided to abandon his intention.
Comments
This chapter also contains a humorous treatment of Mr. Stryver's
character. The worldliness of Mr. Stryver looks ridiculous, the sense of
self-importance is so much with him that he thinks, he is too big for any
place. He goes to Tcllson's Bank and meets Lorry and in pompous manner
informs him that he is going to marry Lucie. Mr. Lorry knows that his
intention is like a bubble and Manette would never welcome it. The
statement of Stryver that Lucie would repent later on, creates humorous
atmosphere. "Young women have committed similar follies often before, and
have repented them in poverty and obscurity often before. Mr. Lorry, you
cannot control the mincing vanities and giddiness of empty-headed girls.
You must not expect to do it or you will always be disappointed. I tell you,
you will always be disappointed. I tell you, I regret it on the account of others,
but I am satisfied on my own account."
Chapter XIII THE FELLOW OF NO
DELICACY Attachment of Carton with Dr. Manette and
Lucie
Sydney Carton, as it has been already mentioned, often visited Dr.
Manette's residence. However, whenever he went there he was found to be in
a hopeless and dejected state. He developed some kind of attachment not
only with the house of Dr. Manette, but also the surroundings of the house.
Even the street in which the house was situated and the pavements were
familiar with him. He used to walk in the nearby streets and came very late on
certain nights.
Confession of Carton's Love for her
One day in the month of August Sydney Carton went to the house of Dr.
Manette with a certain purpose and began to converse with Lucie when she
was alone. He confessed before her that he was leading a ruined life and there
was no possibility of any change in his life. Lucie was somewhat surprised
when she heard him talking in this manner. But she felt pity at his condition
because while uttering his statement there were tears in the eyes of Carton.
Therefore she asked him if she could do anything for him in order to bring
change in his life. Carton disclosed his desire that he wanted to keep all that
he confessed secret; so he expected that she would never disclose the secret
of his life. Lucie gave him assurance and Carton further said that he would, if
the need ever arose, gladly give his life for Lucie's sake or for the sake of
anyone whom she loved. He said clearly that Lucie should be aware of the
fact that there was a man ready to sacrifice his life for her sake. Saying these
words, Carton left the house of Lucie.
Comments
In this chapter we came to know that Sydney Carton is in deep love
with Lucie Manette, though he confesses before Stryvcr that he regards
Lucie merely as golden haired doll. We find in this chapter that he goes to
Lucie Manette secretly and speaks to her in confidential manner about his
love. We also come to know that Carton is a man of frustrated temperament.
He thinks that his life is so much wasted that it is difficult for him to mend it.
Therefore he calls himself a profligate who is sure to sink lower and lower in
course of time. He says, "I am like one who died young. All my life might
have been." At the same time, he tells Lucie that for her or for anyone whom
she loves, he would like to sacrifice his life. These words are prophetic
because ultimately Carton puts his life to sacrifice for the sake of Lucie.
Chapter XIV
THE HONEST TRADESMAN
The funeral of a spy
Jerry Cruncher, the odd job man and messenger who always sat outside
Tellson's bank waiting for work for which he wanted to be paid, always
regarded himself as an honest tradesman. One day when he was waiting on
his stool, a funeral procession passed through the street. It was the most
disorderly procession because instead of keeping silence, some of the
participants in it were crying that strong action must be taken against all the
spies. When the case was inquired, Jerry came to know that it was a funeral
of a spy, called Roger Cly. This person had appeared as a prosecution
witness against Charles Darnay at old Bailey. There was only one mourner
who was accompanying the hearse, but even this mourner fled from the
scene when a mob surrounded the hearse, shouting death to all spies. The
mob would have opened the coffin in order to dishonour and disgrace the
body of the dead spy, but some counsels prevailed and the mob had to take
the hearse to the church of St. Pancras where the coffin was buried in the
grave yard.
Jerry Cruncher in a fishing expedition
That day Jerry Cruncher came late and he told his wife that he was
going on a fishing expedition that night. At about one O' clock that he
went out of the house, apparently on a fishing expedition, young Jerry
who was pretending to be asleep, was eager to know his father's move,
ments; later on he too, slipped out of the house following his father's
movements. The purpose of young Jerry was to find out the mysteries of
the honest trading of his father. On his way Jerry was accompanied by one
of his friends. It was expected that this friend would share him in business
of fishing expedition after the two other fishermen picked up one more
comrade on the way. The three men went on, while young Jerry followed
them at a distance without the knowledge of any one of them.
The digging out of Roger Cly's coffin
The three men finally entered the churchyard where Roger Cly was
supposed to have been buried during that day. After this they started to
dig the grave of Sir Roger Cly. After having worked at this digging opera-
tion for a while, the three men took the coffin out of the grave and opened
it. At this point Jerry got frightened of what was going on, and he started
running homewards. It seemed to young Jerry, as he ran that he was being
pursued, by the coffin. By this time the boy was deeply frightened at the
sight of the digging of the grave.
The actual business of Jerry Cruncher
Next day when Jerry woke up in the morning, he found that his father
was holding Mrs. Cruncher by her ears and was knocking her head against
the bed. In fact Jerry Cruncher was beating his wife because she often op-
posed his business. According to Jerry Cruncher, because of her activities,
his business had been suffering a lot. Mrs. Cruncher was trying to argue
that she had always tried to be a good wife. It was now clear to young Jerry
that his father's actual business when he pretended that he was going on a
fishing expedition was to dig out the dead bodies from the graves with the
help of his business partners and he used to sell these dead bodies to the
doctors who used th£m medically, that day young Jerry asked his father
the meaning of resurrection man. His father answered that resurrection
man was a tradesman who had scientific goods that consisted in the bodies
of human beings. The boy said to his father that he would also like to
become a resurrection man. Jerry Cruncher felt very happy on hearing
that his son was also going to adopt his father's honest trade of digging out
dead bodies from fresh graves and selling them to doctors for their medi-
cal use.
Comments
This chapter is replete with humorous comments. Even the most
pathetic funeral scene is described with comic elements. It is supposed
that the funeral belongs to the spy Roger Cly whom we have already met
in the court as a prosecution witness at the time of Darnay trial. The
manner in which Jerry Cruncher behaves, is highly humorous. He earns
money through obnoxious method but he calls his business honest trade.
p0r the sake of anatomical purpose he used to sell dead bodies that he
used to dig out of the graves. The incident when he goes to Churchyard to
jig out the dead body, creates an atmosphere of suspense and horror,
particularly when his son follows him secretly and on seeing his father
with a dead body he loses his sense, there is an atmosphere of awe and fear
which affects the readers very much. But when his son discloses next day
that he will also adopt the same business, the story loses its awful aspect
and becomes very humorous. The closing of the chapter is made with the
following statement of Jerry Cruncher, "Jerry, you honest tradesman,
there is hope not that the boy will yet be a blessing to you, and a recom-
pense to you for his mother."
Chapter XV
KNITTING
Defarge and his companion as road menders
After one year of the assassination of Monsieur the Marquis one day
when drinking began earlier than usual in the wine shop of Monsieur
Defarge, men had started to enter the wine shop ostensibly to drink but
actually their purpose was different. At first Monsieur Defarge, himself
was not visible anywhere; however, at noon time, he made his appearance
in the company of another man. Other man who was member of roads in
blue cap, was the same man who had met Monsieur the Marquis in a vil-
lage on the way when the latter had been driving from Paris to his
chateau. Since both the men had travelled over a long distance, they were
very much dusty and thirsty. Their arrival at the wine shop lighted a kind
of fire in the hearts of the people living in this locality, known as Saint
Antoine.
The experiences of the mender of Roads
Monsieur Defarge ordered his wife to give a drink to his companion
who was referred by him as Jacques. In fact, Defarge addressed everyone is
in his wine shop as Jacques. The fact was that Jacques was the name with
which every revolutionary was addressed. The person who came with
Defarge, was also revolutionary and known as Jacques. The menders of
roads said that he was going to narrate the incident which had occurred
eleven months back. According to him, he had seen a tall man with his
arms bound to his sides being taken down the hill by six soldiers. There
was bleeding on the face of the tall man and it was covered with dust.
Several times he fell on the way due to uneasiness but the soldiers laughed
at him and made him get up each time. The soldiers took him into the
village where the people came out of their houses and looked at the
prisoners and at his captors. The tall man was put in a jail during that
night and the next day he was carried to a fountain in the village where a
gallows forty feet high was erected by the workmen. It was said that the tall
man had been arrested because he had murdered Marquis. Later on, the
tall man was hanged. He was none else but Gaspard whose son was killed
by the wheels of the carriage of Marquis. Later on, in order to avenge the
death of his son he murdered Marquis.
Destruction of Chatean and of the Heirs of Marquis

After the narration of the story of tall man by the mender of the roads,
it was decided that the chateau which belonged to Marquis and all the heirs
to the property be 'registered' for destruction and extermination. Registration
meant the destruction of the chateau and the heirs of the family of Marquis
by the hands of the revolutionaries who were also known as Jacques. The
meaning of registration was that Madame Defarge would knit the names of
the chateau and the descendents and heirs of the family of the Marquis into
her own stiches and symbols. It also explained why Madame Defarge was
always busy knitting. She maintained a record of those who were to be
shown no mercy when the time came, that is, when the revolutionaries seized
power. An advantage of maintaining a record in this manner was that
nobody barring Madame Defarge would be able to decipher it. In other
words, government spies and the police would be able to make nothing of
the designs which Madame Defarge sewed into her knitting. Wish of the
mender of the Road
After the completion of this business, Monsieur and Madame Defarge
took the mender of the road to Versailles because this man from the
countryside was very keen to have a look at the king and the queen of
France. In order to watch the royal procession a crowd had gathered in the
streets of Versailles. When the king along with the queen passed in their
carriage through that way the mender of the road cried, "Long live the king,
long live the queen, long live everybody and everything." Obviously the
mender of the road was unable to know what he was doing. He did not
realise that Monsieur and Madame Defarge were the bitter enemies of the
king and the queen to whom he was wishing a long life. However, Monsieur
Defarge did not scold the mender of roads. On the contrary, Monsieur
Defarge said to him, "You are the fellow we want. You make these fools
believe that it will last forever. Then they are the more insolent and it is
ended." Monsieur Defarge meant that the increasing self-complacency and
insolence of the French nobility would hasten their doom.
Comments
Monsieur Defarge comes with the information that the killer of
Marquis Evremonde has been put to capital punishment. The killer was
Gaspard whose son was killed by the carriage of Marquis Evremonde. The
information about the capital punishment of Gaspard is given to Defarge by
the mender of roads. The mender of the roads who comes with blue cap,
discloses the story before all the Jacques. Madame Defarge registers the
entire race of Evremonde family and the chateau which belongs to that
family. The registration means that the whole race of Evremonde family and
the chateau would be doomed to destruction. Though a sombre and grim
atmosphere affects the whole chapter, few humorous touches also occur in
the course of narration. Specially when the mender of the road presents
himself, his manners throw light on the healthy humour. While narrating the
story of the hanging of Gaspard, the mender of roads never fails to make a
suitable gesture with his hands to lend
concreteness and vividness to his account. For example, when he says that
he had seen a man hanging by the chain of the carriage of the marquis, road
mender makes a few gestures and says, "Like this" when he says that he saw
a tall man with his arms bound to his sides, the roadmaker makes the use of
his cap to represent a man with his elbows bound fast at this hips and says
'like this'. Thus his frequent use of'like this' creates a sense of humour.
Chapter XVI
STILL KNITTING
Barsad, the new government spy of Saint Antoine
Monsieur and Madame Defarge came back to their wine shop in Saint
Antoine after having shown the royal procession to the mender of roads and
having sent him back to his work in the countryside. On the way back,
Monsieur Defarge talked with a policemen who was actually on the side of
revolutionaries and who used to give to Monsieur Defarge whatever secret
information he could glean from official sources. Defarge had learnt from
that policeman that a new spy had been commissioned in Saint Antoine and
this spy was an Englishman whose name was Barsad. In fact he was the same
man who had appeared as the chief prosecution witness against Darnay at
the latter's trial in London. Defarge passed a comment to his life that she
should register the name of Barsad in the file.
Disappointed Defarge
During that night Defarge looked disappointed. When his wife asked
him about his problem, he replied that because of the long term of revolution
he was losing his patience. His wife tried to make him understand that
vengeance and retribution always needed a long time to come. She quoted
the example of earth quake which always took a long time in coming, but
which destroyed every thing when it came.
Coming of Barsad at wine shop
Next day a man at the noon time appeared at the wine shop and Mrs.
Defarge at once recognised him because her husband had already given
proper hints about his personality. This man ordered a drink and conversed
with Madam Defarge in order to collect proper information for his work.
But he did not know that he was dealing with a formidable woman who
could give no information to him. Then Defarge appeared and he was
addressed by the spy as Jacques, but Defarge refused that he was one of the
Jacques. The spy then asked Defarge if he knew about Gaspard whose son
had been run over by the carriage of the Marquis and who murdered the
Marquis and who had been hanged for this cirme. Defarge clearly replied
that he knew nothing about Gaspard. The spy then informed Defarge that
Miss Lucie Manette was going to be married to Charles Darnay, the nephew
of the Marquis. Defarge was greatly surprised on hearing the spy. After the
departure of the spy, Defarge told his wife that his wish was that he would
be the husband of Miss Manette who should not be married to Darnay,
because Darnay had already been registered in the 'knitting'. Since Darnay
was the nephew of Marquis,
162 A Tttle of Two Cities
Defarge had no sympathy with him while the latter had great sympathy
with Dr. Manette and his daughter, Lucie Manette because they had suf.
fcred a lot due to the hard treatment of the aristocrats of France.
Mar-quis was also responsible for their sufferings. Defarge knew this fact
very well. Comments
In this chapter we find that Barsad who had appeared as the chief
prosecution witness against Darnay at the latter's trial in London and who
was a government spy in England, comes to Saint Antoine and enters the
wine shop as a customer in order to get proper information about Defarge
who knows the former already and asks his wife to register Barsad's name
in her 'knitting'. The chapter reaches its climax when Barsad breaks the
news of the marriage between Lucie and Darnay. It brings a great shock to
Defarge and his wife because they have already registered the name of
Darnay because he belongs to the family of Evremonde. Defarge's
comment on her wife that she is "a great woman, a strong woman, a grand
woman, a frightfully grand woman" is very remarkable for the purpose of
the characterisation of Mrs. Defarge.
Chapter XVII
ONE NIGHT
Preparation for Marriage of Lucie
Lucie is engaged in a long talk with her father on the eve of her mar-
riage to Charles Darnay. She confessed before her father that she was very
happy because she was going to marry a man with whom she was deeply in
love and who also loved him with the same intensity and sincerity. His
father said that he was also glad with her marriage because she was now
going to start her domestic life. He informed her that at the time of his
imprisonment he used to dream of her and her mother. He also confessed
that the happiness which he derived from his domestic life, was the
supreme kind of happiness which he could never experience after the
death of her mother or his wife. In the marriage only Lorry was invited,
Miss Pross was to act as a bridesmaid. The marriage was to make no
change in their place of residence. In order to increase the accommodation
for the ceremony of marriage Dr. Manette acquired few more rooms.
Comments
For the purpose of the development of the plot this chapter is less
important. Since there is the presentation of preparation of marriage,
both Dr. Manette and his daughter Lucie bestow their affection on each
other. Lucie discloses her happiness regarding her marriage with Darnay;
on the other hand Dr. Manette recollects his bygone days when he used to
lead his domestic life with his wife.
Chapter XVIII
Dr. Manette's mental shock
The time of the marriage had come, Charles Darnay called Dr.
Manette and talked with him secretly. During his conversation he
confessed his real identity before Dr. Manette. When Dr. Manette came to
know that Darnay belonged to the family of Evremonde who was
responsible for the ruin of his family, he was deeply shocked. After the end
of the conversation Dr. Manette had lost his peace. He looked as the jjjost
disappointed being. Alter this the whole party which included Dr. Manette,
Lucie, Darnay, Miss Pross, and Mr. Lorry went to a neighbouring church in
two carriages. There both Lucie and Darnay were happily inarried. Then the
party came back to the house of Dr. Manette where the breakfast was
served. Both Lucie and Darnay set out on their honeymoon leaving Dr.
Manette to the care of Mr. Lorry and Miss Pross. After the departure of
Lucie and Darnay, a strange change was marked in Dr. Manette. He started
his business of shoe making and was unable to recognise anybody. Mr.
Lorry tried to question him but the doctor did not reply properly. He only
muttered that he was making a young lady's walking shoe. He continued his
work silently up to nine days. During these nine days Mr. Lorry stayed at
the house of Dr. Manette. Mr. Lorry was deeply worried about the doctor.
He regularly wrote the letters to Lucie but he did not inform her about the
worst position of Dr. Manette. Comments
When Darnay discloses his real identity to Dr. Manette, it brings a great
shock to Dr. Manette. Dr. Manette is unable to tolerate that his daughter,
Lucie has been married to the member of the family of Ev-t remonde who put
him to a long imprisonment and who was responsible for the ruin of his life
and his family. Despite a great shock the doctor maintains his condition and
he lets the marriage take place but after the departure of Lucie and Darnay his
position worsens and he resumes his previous mental condition. Thus this
chapter causes a feeling of disappointment and adds the tragic effect to the
main plot.
Chapter XIX
AN OPINION
The recovery of Dr. Manette
Dr. Manette seemed to have recovered from his mental shock on the
tenth day. When Mr. Lorry reached the room of Dr. Manette, he found that
Dr. Manette had put aside the shoe maker's bench and tools and he was
reading at the window as if nothing had happened to him. But still there
were some signs of illness on the doctor, because when Lorry asked how
many days had passed from the marriage of Lucie, the doctor could not
count the days properly and he said clearly that the marriage took place the
previous day. But in other aspects, he was fit and able to reply the questions
of Mr. Lorry.
Dr. Manette's departure to London
Mr. Lorry decided to probe into the mind of Dr. Manette in order to
find out if there was a danger of the doctor's having another attack of
mental illness in the near future or in coming days. With that purpose in
I his mind Mr. Lorry described the condition of Dr. Manette before the
' doctor as if it were the condition of some other patient. The doctor
seemed to understand that Mr. Lorry was trying to analyse the case of the
doctor but the doctor did not give any sign that he had known the situa.
tion very well. So the doctor too continued replying the question of Mr
Lorry without letting him know that he had known the facts of Lorry's
questions. After a long discussion Mr. Lorry felt satisfied because, accord,
ing to the diagnosis of the doctor, there was no immediate cure of the
doctor's sufferings. Doctor Manette also agreed with Lorry that the shoe
maker's bench, tools, leather and shoes should be removed from his room
so that the sight of these articles might not remind him of any shock that he
had been engaged in such occupation during the prison days. After three
or four days the doctor left for London in order to join his daughter and
son-in-law.
Comments
This chapter discloses Dickens's keen interest in psychoanalysis.
Dr. Manette remained in a state of insanity for nine days during which he
worked busily at this shoe making. On the tenth day he recovered from his
mental aberration. Mr. Lorry who was deeply concerned with the mental
condition of the doctor, showed great tact and discretion in the manner in
which he probes into the mind of the doctor. He questions Dr. Manette
like a skilled psychoanalysist. He talks with Dr. Manette as if he were talk-
ing about some other patient, not about the doctor himself. Indeed, it is a
matter of great surprise that Mr. Lorry talks with the doctor in a highly,
impersonal and detached manner. This is how he presents his interroga-
tion before the doctor.
Chapter XX
A PLEA
Cartoa : a friend of Darnay
After the return of Dr. Manette Lucie and Darnay from London,
Sydney Carton was the first person who turned up to offer his congratula-
tion to the newly married couple. After offering the congratulations,
Carton declared that he was keenly interested in talking with Darnay
privately. After a long discussion Carton said that he was keenly anxious
in talking to Darnay, his bosom friend. Darnay replied that he (Darnay)
was already obliged to him (Carton) because it was he (Carton) who
res-cused him from the punishment of law. Because of this incident (when
Carton had drawn the defence counsel's attention to the fact that Carton
and Darnay resembled each other in their physical appearance to such an
extent that anybody, and especially the prosecution witness being then
interrogated, could have mistake and for the other) Carton tried to make
light of the service that he had done to Darnay and said that he (Carton)
was like a dissolute dog who had never done any good to any one. He
further said that he was never able to do any good: also in future he would
not be able to help anyone. He then asked for the permission of Darnay to
come to his house whenever he felt his necessity in his life. Carton re-
quested him that he (Carton) wanted to come to his (Darnay's) house at
odd hours, without having to make a formal appointment or giving a for-
Chaptenvise Detailed Summary \ 65
flial notice of his intended visit. He said that Darnay should treat him as a
piece of furniture of which nobody took care. Darnay assured him that he
Jyould show no objection when Carton would visit his residence, accord-
ing to his desire.
Support of Lucie for Carton
After the departure of Carton, Darnay regarded him as an unfor-
tunate and reckless person but Lucie opined that Carton was a special
kind of person who deserved special kind of consideration and sympathy.
Lucie further asked her husband to be generous and sympathetic towards
Carton and never to find out his faults. She said that Carton's heart had
many wounds and she had seen them bleeding. Darnay assured her that he
would never hurt him and show considerate feelings towards him. It
pleased Lucie.
Comments
This chapter throws healthy light on the character of Carton who
wishes to become a bosom friend of Darnay. Before becoming his fast
friend, Carton discloses his shortcomings and weaknesses of his character
before Darnay. About Carton one thing is again emphasised that he is a
man who does not hesitate in criticizing his own character. In this respect
he is quite contrary to Stryver who takes great pleasure in praising himself
and who fears a lot when he becomes the subject of criticism before
others. When Stryver speaks of himself, revealing good aspect of his life,
Carton says clearly that he is good-for-nothing. But this man (Carton)
symbolises the self-sacrifice in the concluding chapters. Since this chapter
is entitled as a plea, it is because Lucie puts plea in favour of Carton
and asks her husband Darnay to be generous and kind-hearted towards
Carton. When she says about Carton that she is, "sure that he is capable of
good things, gentle things, even magnanimous things, it is the strongest
plea of Lucie in favour of Carton.
Chapter XXI
ECHOING FOOTSTEPS
Lucie in doubts
Since all kinds of sounds were audible in the house of Dr. Manette, it
was a wonderful place. Lucie often would sit in the house in a peaceful
mood, she used to listen to the echoing footsteps of years. There was
something coming in the echoes which moved her heart very much. She
began to live in constant fluttering of hopes and doubts. Among these
echoes that she heard, there was the sound of footsteps of her own
early death, she felt deeply disappointed at the cruel-heartedness of her
husband in her imagination that when she would die, he would leave her
and go from there.
Some other development
With the passing of time there came some other developments
regarding the plot. Lucie became the mother of a daughter whose name
was also Lucie. She had also given birth to a son but the boy died soon
after his birth. That little girl was the source of great pleasure to Lucje Lucie
herself was the golden thread binding the whole family closely together.
Lucie also heard in the echoes of years certain friendly and soothing
sounds. The steps of her husband were strong and tough among them while
those of her father were firm and stable. Sydney Carton \ regular visitor to
the house of Lucie, came not more than six or seven times in a year. He used
to visit her house without being invited and he never drank wine in his
house. Little girl of Lucie was fond of him and he too, showed great
affection to her. Mr. Stryver was now a married man whose wife was an
ostentatious widow with great property and with three sons. Stryver tried to
put these boys under the charge of Darnay who was working as a tutor of
young children, but Darnay refused to become the tutor of these boys; it
offended Mr. Stryver much.
Political happenings
There were some disturbing news that were coming from France. It
seemed as if some great storm were brewing in that country. One night in
July in theyear 1789, Mr. Lorry came to Dr. Manette's house and sat down
by the side of Lucie and her husband, Darnay. He informed them that the
French customers of Tellson's Bank were sending all their money to
England because of the disturbed political situation and the uncertainty
which the country was facing. Indeed, the conditions of France were going
from bad to worse. The way the government of king Louis XVI was acting
and the manner in which aristocrats were behaving were the sources of great
disappointment for the common people of France. It was the time when the
rich were becoming richer while the poor were at the edge of starvation.
Harsh poverty of life was taking the common people to the revolutionary
steps. The poor people started to organize themselves and prepared to make
the use of violent methods to seek redress for their grievances. The people of
the suburb of St. Antoine were already organized under the leadership of
Monsieur Defarge who was being actively supported by his wife, Madame
Defarge.
Defarge, a revolutionary
One morning Monsieur Defarge called his followers to get ready for an
assault on the Bastille which was a fortress, being used as a prison and it was
stormed by the revolutionaries on July 14, 1789. The revolutionaries had
already collected weapons and arms. In a huge quantity all types of weapons
and arms which included muskets, swords, bayonets, knives, axes, bars of
iron and wood, gun powder, cartridges, were collected and were distributed
among the revolutionaries of Saint Antoine, with a loud roar of indignation.
The mob of revolutionaries, which was led by Mr. and Mrs. Defarge started
to move towards the Bastille. The multitude of these revolutionaries moved
like a rising sea wave till they reached their destination, with alarm bells
ringing and drums beating. During the attack on the Bastille the deep ditches
were crossed and the double drawbridge, the massive stone walls and the
eight great towers were no longer insurmountable obstacles. The guns were
firing and the air was full of fire and smoke. Numberless Jacques were
running
Chaptenvise Detailed Summary 167
with great courage and dare. There was the sight of Hashing weapons,
blazing torches, fire and smoke and the running Jacques. A white Hag was
seen from within Bastille. The firing was stopped and then the negotia-
tions with the officers of the government started. The Bastille had been
surrounded without any resistance. The crowd rushed into the great
prison under the leadership of Defarge. There were sounds of tumult,
exultation and deafening noises of rejoicing among the revolu-
tionaries. The first action of revo'utionaries was to free the prisoners.
The next action of Monsieur Defarge was to ask for cell number 'one
hundred and five', 'North Tower'. Going into that particular cell with a
couple of his followers, Defarge began to dig the wall of the chimney.
After this he ordered his men to collect the rubbish and the mortar. There
he found a paper in which Dr. Manette had written his bitter experience
during his imprisonment. Madame Defarge : As Executioner
The revolutionaries shouted that the governor who had ordered to
shot the mob, should be punished for his ill act. Every revolutionary
declared that it was a matter of capital punishment. The governor accor-
dingly was seized by the revolutionaries and he was brought to the place
where Defarge declared his death punishment. Madam Defarge put her
foot upon the neck of the governor who had already been given many
blows by the crowd and been thrown down, and with her hands she cut off
his head with her knife.
Comments
The novelist highlights the revolutionary activities of France in
1789. Lucie has a little daughter who is a source of great happiness to her.
She gives birth to a son but her son also dies. Stryvcr is also a married man
with three children. Life for Dr. Manette and others has been fairly easy
and smooth. But soon Lucie hears the echoes of footsteps. In words
which are ominous, the author says, "But there were other echoes, from a
distance^ that rumbled menacingly in the corner all through this space of
time, and it was now, about little Lucie's sixth birthday, as of a great storm
in France with a dreadful sea rising." The scene then shifts to Paris where
the poor and the oppressed people have been groaning under the wrongs
and injustices, done to them by the upper class. The poor, especially in the
suburbs of Saint Antoine have been organising themselves for a revolt
against the authorities. They have been collecting arms and weapons and
have been making preparations for an assault upon the Bastille, the
notorious prison which had become to them a symbol of tyranny and the
exercise of arbitrary power. The revolutionary activities are conducted
under the leadership of Mr. and Mrs. Defarge. The revolutionaries cap-
ture the Bastille which has fallen into their hands without any resistance.
After the release of the prisoners, the governor of the prison is caught and
brought before Madame Defarge who with her own knife, cuts off his
head. Seven other men are also brutally killed. In the midst of all this
tumult Monsieur Defarge goes to cell number 105, North Tower and digs
out the paper which Dr. Manette had written and buried it in a corner
under the chimney. This paper proves to be remarkable document and

creates a tragic effect in the coming chapters. The second half of this
chapter which describes the assults on the Bastille, is highly sensational.
An awful effect is caused by the destruction and brutal killings of the
revolutionaries. The description of the violence here is based on Carlyle's
history of the French Revolution which was studied by Dickens many
times in order to maintain the atmosphere of the French revolution in his
book.
Chapter XXII
THE SEA STILL RISES
The Vengeance
The inhabitants of saint Antoine celebrated the fall of Bastille for
full one weak, by embracing and congratulating one another. Madame
Dcfarge was the president of the revolutionaries. Madam Defarge who
was often busy in !he work of knitting, was well aware of the spies. There-
fore no spy could enter her wine shop. There was another woman who sat
beside Madame Defarge. She was also busy in the work of knitting. This
woman had, by her ferocity been given the name 'The vengeance'.
Old Foulon
When Monsieur Defarge returned and entered his wine shop, he was
very much breathless. He ordered all those who were present in the wine
shop to listen to him silently. According to him, he had very urgent news
for them. After this he informed that old Foulon had been arrested and
had been brought to Paris as a prisoner. Defarge also reminded the Jac-
ques that old Foulon was the same man who said that the poor starving
people if they had no bread, should eat grass. Defarge also said that a
rumour was spread by the well wishers of old Foulon, that the latter had
died and had been buried. But actually the enemy of the common people,
Old Foulon was still alive and Defarge asked this Jacques to be ready to
take their long awaited punishment. After the end of the speech of
Defarge, a large crowd of Jacques began to move towards hotel de
ville.The crowd had all kinds of miscellaneous weapons. A large number
of women were also with the crowd and Madame Defarge was the leader
of the women group. At that time she was armed with knife and was crying
vengeance and terrible threats like a fury. Reaching the hotel De ville, the
crowd shouted for old Foulon to be brought outside. Old Foulon who was
already bound with ropes and had a large stack of grass tied to his back as a
reminder that he had asked the people to eat grass was now dragged out-
side and was badly beaten by the mob. Grass and straw were put into his
mouth forcibly and later on, he was hanged by a rope from a lamp post. At
his miserable and horrible death all the people of Saint Antoine danced
and expressed their success through the cries of laughter. Foulon's death
was not the only evil deed of that day but when somebody informed that
old Foulon's son in law must also be killed, the mob decided to murder
that poor fellow. The mob was informed that Foulon's son-in-law was
coming from Paris with a guard. People seized him and his guard and he
Chapterwi.se Detailed Summary 169
waSalso murdered like his father-in-law. After this murder the mob began io
come back to Saint Antoine. That night Monsieur Defarge informed his
wife that the revolution for which they had been waiting so anxiously, had
reached its last stage. Madame Defarge replied that indeed it had come to its
last point. In fact the expectations of the people of Saint Antoine were being
fulfilled. Comments
This chapter deals with the horrible revolutionary violence. The people
of Saint Antoine were presented in a terrible and bloody mood. When these
people come to know about Old Foulon who had asked the poor to eat grass,
if they do not have bread, the mob ran towards the hotel jn which Foulon
was staying. The mob demands Old Foulon in the follow-jngstatements:
"Give us the blood of Foulon. Give us the heart of Foulon. Give us the
body and soul of Old Foulon. Rend Foulon to pieces, and dig him into the
ground that grass may grow from him."
The result of all this is that Foulon is hanged. After this, the son-in-law
of Old Foulon is also killed. This chapter deals with the bloodshed of the
revolution.
Chapter XXIII
FIRE RISES
The chateau and the revolutionaries
There was a significant change where Marquis used to live. Marquis
had been murdered in his sleep but despite his death people could not forget
the injustice and evil deeds committed by the Marquis and other members of
Evremonde family to which Marquis and Darnay also belonged. It was
decided by the revolutionaries that the chateau of the Evremonde family
should be set on fire and reduced to ashes so that no member of the
Evremonde family might escape. One day a man appeared at noon time near
the village and accosted the mender of the roads and called him Jacques. The
mender of the roads discussed with him about the starvation which
dominated the countryside. The mender of the road also addressed the
stranger as Jacques. The stranger was eager to know the exact situation of the
chateau of the Evremonde family. The mender of the roads gave him
necessary direction so that he might do his work safely. When the people of
the village had taken their meagre night meal, they did not go to sleep
immediately but came out of doors and remained there. A lot of whispering
then took place among them. After the advancement of the night a number of
lights appeared at the chateau and after this the Chateau was put to fire and
destroyed. During the burning, the servant at the chateau rushed out and
began to shout frantically for help, but nobody came to save the chateau
which was left to itself to burn. Soon the edifice had been reduced to ashes.
Gabelle, the man who had been in charge of the Chateau found himself
utterly helpless. He was indeed a lucky man because he was spared by the
revolutionaries who decided to end each and every thing which reminded
Evremonde family.
Comments
This chapter deals with the destruction of the chateau by the
revolutionaries. This chateau belongs to Marquis Evremonde who was
hated and who later on, was murdered by the revolutionaries. The fire is
presented by the author in the following words.
"The chateau burned : the nearest trees, laid hold of by the fire, were
scorched and shrivelled, trees at a distance, fired by the four fierce figures
begirt the blazing edifice with a new forest of smoke. Molten lead and iron
flowed in the marble hasin of the fountain, the water ran dry."....
The description of the fire presents a sombre quality to the whole
chapter. Four men had been sent by the revolutionaries to commit this act of
arson. The mender of roads was a witness to the conflagration. The fire is
also seen by all the inhabitants of the village near which the chateau was
situated. No attempt at all is made by anyone to extinguish the fire because
nobody had any sympathy with the Evremondes who had been known for
their cruelty.
Chapter XXIV
DRAWN TO THE LOADSTONE ROCK
The year 1792
Alter three years the members of the family living in their residence in
Soho (in London), had listened to the echoes of the footsteps of the people.
Disturbing news had been coming to them from France. They had came to
know that the French court, a hotbed of intrigue and corruption as it had
been, had gone, Royalty had also gone. It was the year 1792 when the king
and the queen of France, had been imprisoned like many other aristocrats.
Mr. Lorry's Visit to France
One day Mr. Lorry informed Charles Damay that he had been asked by
Tellson's bank to go to Paris in order to wind up the matters of the Paris
branch of the bank. In those days there was great danger in going to France
because of the political disturbances but Mr. Lorry was not a coward and he
decided to perform his duty at any cost. Mr. Lorry believed that those French
noblemen who had entrusted their financial interests to the Paris office of
Tellson's bank, should not suffer any loss because of any weakeness on the
part of the bank. Mr. Lorry said that he was leaving London that very night
and Mr. Jerry Cruncher was also going with him as his attendant.
Charles Darnay with an Envelope
During the conversation between Mr. Lorry and Charles Darnay, the
latter saw an envelope in the hands of Mr. Lorry who informed him that he
did not know anybody by the name of Marquis St. Evremonde to whom the
letter was addressed. The Tellson's bank received the envelope from France
to pass on to some Marquis Evremonde. Charles Darnay at once realised
that the letter was for him because after the death of Marquis Evremonde
he was the only heir to his property. This fact that Darnay was
Chaptenvise Detailed Summary 171
no one but a member of Evremonde family, was known only to pr. Manctte
because at the time of the marriage of Lucie, Darnay disclosed his real
identity to his father-in-law but the others were unaware of his real identity.
Gabelle in danger
Charles Darnay took the letter from Mr. Lorry and told him that he
(Darnay) knew Marquis Evremonde very well and that he would give the
envelope to the right person. After a while, when he was alone, Darnay
opened the envelope and re-read the letter thoroughly. Gabelle, the village
postmaster and the keeper of the Chateau, had written this letter. Gabelle
informed in his letter that he had been imprisoned by the revolutionaries and
the Chateau had been fired by the revolutionaries. He concluded the letter
with the information that now he was in the prison of the Abbbaye in Paris,
and that his life was in danger. Since he was the employee of Evremonde
family, he expected Marquis Evremonde and Charles Darnay, to save his life
from the clutches of the revolutionaries. The charge against Gabelle was that
he was guilty of treason in having acted on behalf of an emigrant to protect
his interests. Charles Darnay lost the peace of his mind when he went
through the letter. It was his moral duty to save Gabelle who was a faithful
servant of Evremonde family and who was in hot water; he decided to leave
for France the same night. But before his departure he did not want to inform
Lucie and Dr. Manette about his purpose of going to France. He thought that
Dr. Manette and Lucie must knew about his mission after his departure.
Therefore, before the night of his departure he wrote two letters, one to Lucie
and another to Dr. Manette. In his letter he cleared his object of leaving
London and explained the circumstances under which he was bound to help
Gabelle. He gave these letters to a porter and ordered him to post them after
his departure. After this he hired a carriage and set out for Dover in order to
take a boat to France where Gabelle was urgently waiting for him.
Comments
Two important developments in the plot are seen in this chapter.
The important thing is that there is the difference of three years between
this chapter and the preceding one. In 1792 the conditions in France
had deteriorated and the revolutionaries were becoming stranger and
stronger. Tellson's bank finds it necessary to send an agent to its Paris
branch in order to take a report of the financial interests of those
noblemen who had left France and who had been regular clients of the
bank. The second development is related to the character of Darnay who
decides to help Gabelle, a keeper of Chateau of Evremonde family.
Gabelle writes a letter to him that he is in danger and he needs his help.
Darnay realises his duty and leaves London for Paris in order to fulfil his
moral duty. He does not inform his wife and his father-in-law in this
regard. This chapter also presents the dutiful and loyal character of Mr.
Lorry. He not only shows his faith in the work of Tellson's bank, but he
does these deeds with great sincerity. ^
BOOK THE THIRD, "THE TRACK OF A STORM"
Chapter I
IN SECRET
Real Identity of Darnay
Mr. Lorry and Charles Darnay travelled to France in the month of
August in 1792. During the journey they were separated from each other.
Darnay knew very well about the plan of Mr. Lorry though the latter was
not aware of any plan of the former. After landing in France, Darnay had to
face a lot of difficulties because every town and every village was under the
control of the revolutionaries with the slogan. "Rupublic, one and
indivisible of liberty, Equality, Fraternity, or Death." When he arrived in
the town of Beauvais, he was rescued by two revolutionaries. The
situation became very difficult for him when he was besieged by a
threatening crowd who called him an emigrant. However a local post
master saved him one day when he was staying at a wayside inn. One of the
revolutionaries came to him and told him that since he was an aristocrat,
he must hire an escort to take him to Paris and he must pay for the escort
in cash. This was the way through which Darnay was bound to give
money. Since Darnay had no alternative, he gave the money that had been
demanded by two mounted patriots wearing caps and tricolour cockades,
armed with guns and spears. On the way when Darnay and the other two
men were escorting him, the mob shouted that he was a traitor and that
his life was forfeit to the people. Outside Paris, Darnay was stopped again
and asked to present the papers. At this barrier, Monsieur Defarge was
there and he was then convinced that Darnay was Evremonde and he
should be imprisoned. Darnay confessed clearly that he belonged to Ev-
remonde family and he was going to help Gabelle, the keeper of his
family's Chateau, thus the revolutionaries came to know the real identity
of Darnay.
Imprisonment of Darnay
When Darnay was imprisoned and was being taken away to La
Force, Monsieur Defarge disclosed his identity and asked Darnay if he
was the same man who had married Lucie, the daughter of Dr. Manette.
When Darnay replied in affirmative Monsieur Defarge realised before
him that he must not have come to France in such situation when La Guil-
lotine was in active operation. La Guillotine was a heavy blade which was
being used to behead the aristocrats and noblemen. Darnay requested
Defarge to inform Mr. Lorry that his friend, Darnay had been arrested by
La Force. He also told Defarge that Mr. Lorry was an employee of
Tellson's bank and he was in France for his official work. Defarge said
very clearly that his first duty was to serve his country's moral values and
since he was an aristocrat, it was not possible for him to help him. Darnay
thought that it was useless to make any further entreaty to Defarge. After
this Darnay was carried under armed escort to the prison of La Force
where he was put into a cell. Darnay who was separated from his wife,
child and friends, also realised that he was facing a great danger. He began to
pace up and down in his cell. He began to think about Dr. Manette who had
also been imprisoned for eighteen years and who began to make shoes in his
abnormal state.
Comments
This chapter is important from the point of view of Darnay's character.
Darnay who once determined not to recall the impact of Ev-remonde blood,
has to go back to France as Marquis Evremonde. The conflicts under which
he has to pass are grave and serious. He thinks it his moral duty to free
Gabelle from the clutches of revolutionaries because Gabelle does not
deserve the punishment which is being imposed upon him. He decides to
save Gabelle but op the way he faces numberless difficulties. Not only the
revolutionaries but the officials of France mistake him and regard him as a
danger to their country. However, he escapes with the help of a post master
but, later on the mob, led by Defarge, seizes him and he has to disclose his
real identity, the result of which is his hard imprisonment like his
father-in-law. Dr. Manette, though the latter was imprisoned by the
aristocrats, while the former by the revolutionaries, the chapter highlights
the pathetic condition of aristocrats who are held as prisoners. The prison
where Darnay is confined, is described as a gloomy prison, dark and filthy,
and with a horrible smell in it. "All the prisoners who are confined in such
cells, belong to the class to which Darnay belongs. The pathetic atmosphere
of the sufferings of these aristocrats is obvious in the following lines.
"Ghosts all! The ghost of beauty, the ghost of stateliness, the ghost
of age, all awaiting their dismissal from the desolate share ...... " In fact the
novelist has tried to disclose the tragic atmosphere of the period in which
the aristocrats were pathetically mishandled by the revolutionaries.
Chapter II THE GRINDSTONE Arrival of
Dr. Manette and Lucie in Paris
Tellson's bank was situated in the Saint Germain, a quarter of Paris, in
a wing of a large building. Mr. Lorry who was accompanied by Jerry
Cruncher, reached there and started to function according to his plan. When
Mr. Lorry was doing his work in his bank, two persons suddenly entered his
room. Seeing them Mr. Lorry was astonished because the two figures were
Dr. Manette and his daughter, Lucie. After getting the letter of Darnay, Dr.
Manette had also set out for Paris. The child, Lucie, and Miss Pross were
also with them. They came to know that Darnay had been arrested by
revolutionaries and he had been sent to prison. Mr. Lorry was deeply
shocked when he came to know about it.
Manette and Revolutionaries
The revolutionaries had installed a huge grindstone outside in the
courtyard of the big building where the bankn was situated. These
revolutionaries were sharpening the stones and making them their weapons,
such as hatchets, knives, bayonets, and sherds. Dr. Manette who
was an cxprisoner of the Bastille, was perfectly safe in Paris, yu
revolutionaries had great sympathy for him because he had been beasth
illtreated by the aristocrats. Dr. Manette after knowing that Revolu"
tionaries had great affection for him, decided to approach the hiohei
authorities of revolutionaries to free his son in-law, Darnay. He was per.
fectly sure that he would be able to free his son-in-law. Therefore he dis-
closed his desire before the mob of revolutionaries and the crowd began
to shout, "Live the Bastille prison help for the Bastille. Prisoner's relative
in La Force save the prisoner Evremonde at La Force."
Comments
This chapter reveals another development in the plot. Lucie and Dr.
Manette leave London after getting the letter of Darnay because they
know, Darnay will face many struggles in France. There they came to
know that Darnay has been arrested by the revolutionaries. Therefore
they reach Tellson's bank where they meet Mr. Lorry. The most remark-
able dramatic element starts when Dr. Manette reaches the place where
the mob of revolutionaries welcomes him. Dr. Manette is highly pleased
to find his place among the revolutionaries and he utters his desire to set
free Darnay from the imprisonment. But there the Doctor realises that
the revolutionaries are thirsty for the blood of aristocrats. The scene of
revolutionaries' earnest desire to shed the blood of aristocrats is a vivid
presentation of French Revolution in which even the aristocrats who did
not deserve it, had to suffer at the hands of the revolutionaries.
Chapter III
THE SHADOW
Disappointed Lucie
Mr. Lorry realised that it was not proper to keep Lucie and her child
in the bank. He thought that by keeping them there he would be sheltering
the family of an emigrant prisoner in the bank. He realised that by
keeping them in the bank he would be violating the trust of bank
authorities. Therefore he, at once, arranged to hire lodgings for Lucie, her
child and Miss Pross. That night Monsieur Defarge visited Mr. Lorry at
the bank. Mr. Lorry had seen this man seventeen years back, when he had
gone to the wine shop of Defarge in the company of Lucie in order to take
the released Dr. Manette. Monsieur Defarge came with a note in the
handwriting of Dr. Manette that Darnay was completely safe and in his
note he urged Mr. Lorry to let the bearer of the note see Lucie so that the
latter might be convinced. Monsieur Defarge was accompanied by his wife
and a woman, who was called the vengeance which was the name by which
a close female comrade of Madame Defarge was known. She was as cruel
as Madame Defarge. With Defarge and his wife Mr. Lorry reached the
new lodging where Lucie was residing with her child and Miss Pross. This
new lodging was specially hired for Lucie. Though Dr Manette had
assured her that Darnay would be saved from the clutches of the
revolutionaries. Madame Defarge saw the sign of distress on her face. In-
deed, this distress was because her husband, Darnay was facing a lot of
ubles in the prison of La Force. Lucie asked Madame Defarge to be t'-nd

to her husband but Madame Defarge replied that the poor women I'd not
have any pity for the aristocrat prisoners. What they wanted was he warm
blood of aristocrats. When Lucie and Mr. Lorry were left by the Visitors,
Lucie told Mr. Lorry that Madame Defarge had created a great
,jsappointment for her and now she had no hope regarding the life of
Darnay. Comments
This chapter throws light on the character of Madame Defarge who is
full of hatred for Lucie and her child because she is the wife of Darnay, a
member of Evremonde family. When Lucie appeals to Madame Defarge to
be kind hearted to Darnay, Madame Defarge clearly replies that the poor
class had been ill treated by the aristocrats so severely that ne pity is
possible for Darnay. She says, "all our lives we have seejiojir sister women
suffer in themselves and in their children, poverty, nakedness, hunger,
thirst, sickness, misery, oppression, and neglect of all kinds. We have borne
this a long time." These words are ominous and Lucie tells Mr. Lorry that
the visit of Madame Defarge has cast a shadow on all her hopes. This
chapter is also important because it fills the atmosphere with anxiety and
suspense.
% Chapter IV
CALM BEFORE STORM
Optimistic Dr. Manette
After leaving Lucie and her child with Mr. Lorry, Dr. Manette passed
four days among the revolutionaries. During these four days eleven hundred
defenceless prisoners of both sexes and all ages had been killed by the
revolutionaries. This evil deed of horror and terror has darkened the whole
atmosphere of Paris. Dr. Manette stayed a night with Darnay in the prison
and there he witnessed how the revolutionaries were functioning and how
the prisoners were given a summary trial one after the other in quick
succession and were put to death. These revolutionaries informed him that
Darnay could not be freed and he was to be put to the same trial. Despite all
this Dr. Manette was optimistic and he thought that soon he would be able to
get Darnay freed from the prison. Regarding Darnay's release he was as
hopeful as Lucie was regarding her father, Dr. Manette's madness. Dr.
Manette had also been appointed to the post of doctor for three prisons
including the prison of La Force in which Darnay was put. He narrated all
these things to Lucie and he assured her that he would be able to bring sweet
messages from Darnay to her.
Political development in France and Darnay's imprisonment
A new beginning had been made in France and King Louis XVI had
been beheaded by revolutionaries. The republic of Liberty, Equality,
Fraternity, had also been declared. After few days of the death of the King,
his wife, Marie Antoinette was also put to death. More than fifty thousand
revolutionary committees were functioning all over the country. A
revolutionary tribunal was acting most powerfully in Paris. Despite such

great success of the revolutionaries, Dr. Manette was still hopeful that
Darnay would soon be released from imprisonment, though it was quite
clear that very soon Darnay was going to be put to death. Comments
Like previous-chapter this chapter also highlights the main events of
French Revolution. We find some brutal activities carried on by the
revolutionaries. Because of these brutal activities this period had been
regarded by the historians as the Reign of Terror. The novelist reveals the
fact that eleven hundred prisoners of both sexes and ages were killed by the
revolutionaries. The novelist also describes the event of 1793 when King
Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette were killed in January and
October respectively. The horror of the atmosphere is presented by the
author through the description of Guillotine. "Above all, one hideous figure
grew as familiar as if it had been before the general gaze from the
foundations of the world, the figure of the sharp female called La Guil-
lotine. It was the national blade which shaved close. It sheared off so many
heads that the ground it most polluted, was a rotten red. It hushed the
eloquent, struck down the powerful, abolished the beautiful and good.
Twenty friends of high public mark, twenty one living and one dead, it had
lopped the heads off, in one morning in as many minutes.
Chapter V
THE WOOD SAWYER
Lucie's dejection
Darnay had been in prison for fifteen months. During this period Lucie
had become thoroughly dejected because her husband was sure to be
murdered. Every day, through streets the tumbrels were carrying
condemned prisoners to the place of execution. There were lovely girls,
pretty women and handsome young men, and beautiful children among the
prisoners. Lucie who was very beautiful, lost much of her brightness, and
colour because she always imagined that she would become widow very
soon.
Lucie's visit to Darnay
One day Dr. Manette told Lucie that there was an upper window in the
prison from which Charles Darnay could see Lucie in particular part of the
street if Lucie went and stood therein the afternoon. Lucie was glad to know
that there was an opportunity to show herself to her husband, though there
was much distance between that place and the window of the prison. From
that day she started going daily to that particular place. Dr. Manette
suggested to her that she should not make any sign or gesture towards the
prison window and she should be satisfied with the thought that her husband
was getting her glimpses from the cell of La Force. Every day Lucie went
there with her little daughter. One day a man who had once been a mender of
roads and who had now become a wood cutter or wood sawyer and who had
taken a shop in that street, marked that Lucie was a regular visitor of that
place.
\ Chapterwise Detailed Summary
177-
f he Carmagnole
One day when Lucie and her child stood there in the street as usual, a
crowd of people reached there, dancing like demons. They were dancing
to the tune of a popular revolutionary song. They were keeping a fero-
cious time that was like a gnashing of teeth in unison. Their dance was so
fierce that no fight could have been so dreadful and frightening as their
dance. This dance was known as 'Carmagnole'. Lucie could not tolerate
the fierceness of the dance. That night Dr. Manette told her that Darnay
was going to be put on trial. Though the doctor was still hopeful, regard-
ing the release of his son-in-law, Lucie was highly disappointed after
hearing this news. Comments
The chapter does not present any primitive development in plot. Dr.
Manette's too much optimism regarding the release of Darnay is extra-
ordinary. The only thing which is very distinguished in this chapter is the
demoniac dance of the revolutionaries which is known as Carmagnole. In
fact this dance is introduced merely to show the horrible atmosphere of
the country and the novelist tries to highlight the demon-like activities of
the revolutionaries. This dance is the symbolic expression of the mentality
of revolutionaries.
Chapter VI
TRIUMPH
Darnay's trial
There were five judges in the tribunal besides the public prosecutor
and the jury. The trial of Charles Evremonde who was also known as Dar-
nay, was about to begin. Besides him, there were twenty other prisoners to
be tried that day. Out of them, fifteen were called and were tried first.
Within riitety minutes their judgement was declared and they were con-
demned to death. After this started the case of Darnay. There was Car-
magnole, a large crowd among whom were also Dr. Manette and Mr.
Lorry. The public prosecutor declared that Charles Evremonde was an
emigrant whose life was forfeit to the republic under a decree which had
banished all emigrants and under which any emigrant returning to
France was liable to the capital punishment. When asked by the judges,
Darnay replied that he was not an emigrant within the sense and spirit of
the decree to which the public prosecutor had referred. He further said
that he had been living in England for a short period and he was doing
hard work for his livelihood. He informed the court that he had been
married to a French girl, Lucie, daughter of Dr. Manette who had also
been a victim of the aristocrats. Darnay continued his argument and
wanted to present Gabelle as a witness in his case. Release of Darnay
Gabelle was then called as a witness in the court. This man informed
the court that he had been put in the Abbaye prison and that he had been
released only three days back and had been summoned here. After this he
stated some facts regarding Darnay. Dr. Manette was next witness who
argued in favour of Darnay's release. The result of the statements of these

witnesses was that the jury had to pass judgment in favour of Darnay and an
order to release him was passed by the jury. The happiness of Dr. Manette
and Lucie knew no bounds. Dr. Manette thought that he had been able to
return all the services of his daughter to his father, that she did during the
days of his mental illness.
Comments
Regarding the development of the plot this chapter is of great im-
portance, because after a long time it brings some relief to the characters and
the readers, regarding the tension which arose after the imprisonment of
Darnay. The trial through which Darnay has to pass is very vivid. After the
release of Darnay the happiness of Dr. Manette and of Lucie is very striking;
even the mob desired the release. Therefore the writer points out, "No
sooner was the acquittal pronounced, than tears were shed as freely as blood
at another time, and such fraternal embraces were bestowed upon the
prisoner by as many of both sexes as could rush at him, that after his long and
unwholesome confinement he was in danger of fainting from exhaustion."
Lucie's happiness is also very immense. "In fact she faints on account
of her sense of relief when the news of her husband's acquittal is com-
municated to her and when her husband appears before her as a free man. In
this connection the author tells us that "when her husband stood upon his
feet, she dropped insensible in his arms. Darnay tells her, when she recovers
that no other man in all France could have done for him what her father had
done."
Chapter VII
A KNOCK AT THE DOOR
Re-arrest of Darnay
Despite Darnay's release, Lucie was still troubled, regarding the safety
of her husband. There was a type of fear in her mind, which she could not
express. She smelt suspicion and distrust in the whole atmosphere. Since the
people of Paris were still vengeful; therefore innocent people like Darnay
were still in danger and they might be put to death at any time. On the same
evening when Darnay had come home after his release strange sounds of
footsteps on the stairs were heard by Lucie : therefore she became very
nervous. When Dr. Manette opened the door, he found four rough men in
redcaps, armed with bayonets and pistols. These men asked for Charles
Evremonde who was also known as Darnay. They again wanted him
arrested as the prisoner of the Republic. With great surprise Darnay wanted
to know the reason for this development. One of the men said that Darnay
had been denounced by three persons, two of whom belonged to the suburbs
of Saint Antoine. These three persons were Defarge, and two others. In fact
this other person not named at this stage was Dr. Manette. Everybody in the
house took the re-arrest of Darnay as a bombshell.
Chapterw'tse Detailed Summary 179
Comments
An unexpected development takes place after the emotional relief of
the preceding chapter. This development gives rise to the fresh tension and
anxiety in the minds of the readers and the characters of the novel. Dr.
Manettc who feels exultant over his achievement in saving the life of
parnay, feels great shock when Darnay is again taken into custody with the
charge that he is a prisoner of the Republic. The rearrest Of Darnay is highly
dramatic and leaves an electrifying effect on us.
Chapter VIII A HAND AT CARDS Miss
Pross meets Barsad and Carton
Miss Pross alongwith Jerry Cruncher went to the market in order to buy
the needs of daily life for the family. During the course of her shopping she
suddenly comes in touch with her brother Solomon whom she had
mentioned at many occasions. This man had disappeared from her life many
years back but she could never forget him in her life. She used to remember
him often in an admiring tone. When she saw him, she burst in tears and
began to call him. Solomon who had become spy under the name of Barsad,
was now in Paris and he was working as a spy for the revolutionary
government in Paris. He told his sister that she should not call him, by his
real name because it would be a danger for him. Just after it Carton came on
the scene and he told Miss Pross that he had already met Mr. Lorry though it
had been decided between him and Mr. Lorry that his presence in Paris
should not be made known to anybody else. Carton fully recognised the
solemnity as Barsad. Barsad forced into submission
After this, Carton carried Barsad to Mr. Lorry's lodgings in Tellson's
bank and he told Mr. Lorry about the rearrest of Darnay. Mr. Lorry was
greatly shocked when he came to know about it. Carton further told Mr.
Lorry that a private discussion was going to take place between him and
Barsad. During the private discussion Carton told him that he could be of
great service to him. He further told him that he did not do according to his
will, he (Carton) would disclose his (Barasad's) previous ill acts to the
British government. The previous acts of Barsad were so much dirty that
after their disclosure he was sure to be sentenced to death by revolutionary
tribunal. At first Barsad tried to wriggle out of the situation but then Jerry
Cruncher who had overheard a bit of this talk, dis^ closed that Barsad's
friend, Roger Cly was not really dead. Hearing Jerry Cruncher Barsad
became highly nervous. Jerry said that after the death of Roger Cly his coffin
was supposed to contain his dead body but when Jerry took the coffin out of
the grave because his business was to sell dead bodies to the doctors, he
found the coffin empty. Barsad was now highly nervous and he agreed to do
according to Carton.
Carton's secret plan to save Darnay
Barsad was in those days a turnkey at the prison of the concierge
where Darnay was being kept as a prisoner after his rearrest. Barsad said
clearly that no escape from the prison was possible. Carton said that he
had not proposed anybody's escape but what he wanted was to put himself
in place of Darnay so that Darnay might be saved from death, though he
was sure to be sentenced to death in place of Darnay. According to Carton
it was possible because of the physical resemblance between him (Carton)
and Darnay. Comments
This chapter is of great importance because of the development of
the plot. First of all we find Barsad who is introduced as Solomon, the
long lost brother of Miss Pross who recognises him very soon but she is
asked by him not to call him by his real name. After this we happen to
meet Jerry Cruncher who is in Miss Pross's company at the time he steps
forward and identifies him as the spy witness who had appeared in the trial
against Darnay at old Bailey. Another development is related to Sydney
Carton who also appears on the scene just when Jerry has recognised that
Barsad was the man who had appeared at the old Bailey. Miss Pross is
surprised to see Carton in Paris because Carton's arrival in Paris is known
only to Mr. Lorry. This chapter also throws light on the mental alertness
of Carton who is presented in the previous chapter as an idle and a useless
fellow because he says about himself that he is good for nothing. Carton's
forcing Barsad to put him in prison in place of Darnay reveals sense of
sacrifice and his love for Lucie. Lastly, we come to know that Roger Cly is
not dead but his death was drama for others.
Chapter IX
THE GAME MADE
Warning of Mr. Lorry to Cruncher
After Jerry Cruncher had disclosed the falsehood of Barsad that the
death of Roger Cly was a drama, Mr. Lorry started to look at Jerry with
new light. In fact the former had known the latter's illegal and evil trade
that he used to dig out dead bodies from their graves and used to sell them
to surgeons for medical purpose. Mr. Lorry questioned Cruncher in this
case and Cruncher too accepted and said that in order to earn extra money
he did it. Lastly, Mr. Lorry warned him not to do such evil thing in future.
Conversation between Carton and Lorry
Carton told Mr. Lorry that he had conversed with Barsad and with
the help of Barsad he would be able to reach Darnay's cell. Mr. Lorry
asked how Carton's access to Darnay in his cell would help Darnay when
the latter was bound to be put to death. Carton's reply was vague but he
assured Mr. Lorry that since he had been sincere to Lucie and her father,
he would do his best in helping Darnay escape from prison. Mr. Lorry told
Carton that since his work in Paris was over, he was going back to
England. He also said that since his boyhood he had been sincere to his
work, though at present he was seventy eight years old. He further said
that throughout his life he had been a bachelor, therefore no one would
weep over his death. But Carton objected and said that since Lucie was
deeply attached to him, she would definitely weep over his death.
Chaplenvise Detailed Summary 181
Carton's Plan
Carton informed Mr. Lorry that being a vagabond and a man of rest-
less habits, he would wander in the streets for several hours and he would
be present at Darnay's trial next morning. In the course of his aimless
wanderings that night, Carton went towards the prison of La Force where
he saw the wood sawyer who had his shop in the nearby street. The wood
sawyer who was a complete stranger to Carton, said that sixty three per-
sons had been beheaded by the Guillotine that day and that the ex-
ecutioner had now started complaining of fatigue. Leaving that place
Carton went to the shop of a chemist and there he put a piece of paper
before the chemist who gave him the required thing. After paying the bill
he came back. In fact he purchased a drug, the effect of which was com-
parable to that of chloroform. He continued his roaming about in the
streets of Paris and by the side of river he stayed til! dawn. Then he slept
on the riverside. The sun was shining brightly when he woke up in the
morning. Taking a cup of coffee and bread he reached the place of trial
where Mr. Lorry, Dr. Manette and Lucie were already present.
The Trial
Then started the trial of Darnay. The public prosecutor argued that
the prisoner, Charles Evremonde who was also known by the name of
Darnay, had been released on the previous day but had been rearrested a
little later, that he was a suspected and denounced enemy of the republic,
an aristocrat, a member of the family of tyrants and a member of the race
which had been proscribed in France. The public prosecutor demanded
death for the prisoner. The president of the tribunal asked the name of
the persons who had denounced Darnay ; the public prosecutor replied
that Darnay had been denounced by Mr. Defarge, and Dr. Manette. When
the name of Dr. Manette was spoken, it was a matter of surprise for all.
Dr. Manette at once stood up to deny the fact that he had been one of the
denouncers of Darnay. Monsieur Defarge was then produced as a witness.
He explained that when the Bastille had been stormed by the revolu-
tionaries, he had dug out the floor of cell number one hundred and five,
north tower and there had found a written paper in the handwriting of Dr.
Manette. According to Defarge, this paper was a sufficient proof of the
fact that Darnay deserved death punishment. Comments
It is indeed a very long chapter in which very important events occur.
First of all, it throws light on the character of Carton who says about him-
self that he is a vagabond and a man of restless habits. Carton's meeting
with the wood sawyer and his going to the shop of a chemist are the ac-
tivities, according to his plan. Wood sawyer's reference to the Guillotine
as a barber whose function is "to shave its victim with its sharp razor,"
symbolizes the harsh activities of the revolutionaries. While wanderiug
hither and thither, the following words from the Christian burial service
occur to him, "I am the resurrection and life, saith the lord : he that
believeth in me, shall never die." These words give us a hint of what is
going to happen in future, regarding Carton. Since resurrection is the
theme of the novel, this word strikes us more effectively. The next impor.
tant development of plot in this chapter is the trial of Darnay. Dr
Manctte's letter is presented before the president of the Guillotine as a
witness against Darnay. The contents of this paper create a strong feeling
of suspense and horror in the minds of readers.
Chapter X
THE SUBSTANCE OF THE SHADOW
Dr. Manette's Account
The president of the tribunal ordered a court official to read out the
paper which was produced by Defarge. Accordingly, the paper was read
and it was found that it contained the bitter experiences of Dr. Menette
who passed eighteen months in prison of Bastille. This story was written
by Dr. Manette and he buried it into his cell. In fact he thought that he
would die; therefore in that stale he wrote it and buried it, he narrated all
those circumstances in which he was caught and imprisoned. His motive
was that after his death people must know how Evremonde family had
done injustice in his life.
Dr. Manette, a victim of the Evremonde Brothers
The incident which had occurred in the life of Dr. Manette, was of
1757. One day in the night of December when he was walking along the
river side in Paris, a carriage in which there were two young men suddenly
stopped by him. These two young men ordered him to get in the carriage.
Finding any resistance to be useless, the doctor complied with the direc-
tion, given by these two young men. After this the doctor was carried to
the countryside where he was put in a solitary house. Then he was brought
into a chamber where a young beautiful lady was crying and shrieking in a
miserable condition. Again and again she was uttering the words, "My
husband, my father, my brother." The lady had a high fever and was having a
fit of madness. The doctor gave some medicine to her and then he was
escorted to another room in which a boy of seventeen years was weeping
because of great pain which resulted from a deep wound in his breast. The
young boy explained to the doctor that the two men standing behind him,
were responsible for all that which had happened to him and to his sister
whom the doctor had already visited. One of these two young men
brought the girl for his sexual gratification. The boy had come to rescue
his sister from these devilish people. But he was brutally attacked by these
men and he was- seriously wounded. The doctor did his best by giving
proper medicines to the boy but he could do nothing and the boy died.
Then he was forced to attend the girl. He had to live by her side for seven
days till she died. These two gentlemen gave him a heap of gold coins but
he clearly refused the money. After reaching home he felt that it was not
possible for him to keep the case a secret and he wanted to disclose this
injustice to the general people. Therefore he wrote a letter to the minister
of justice, informing him ail that had happened with that girl and the boy.
After a few days the wife of one of these two brothers came to him and she
said that she was the wife of Evremonde and she was greatly shocked to
know how her husband and her husband's brother had done injustice to
the boy and the girl. The lady came with her child whom she called Char-
les. The doctor's servant at that time was Ernest Defarge. That night when
the doctor was sitting with wife of Evremonde, a man came and called him
to attend a very urgent case. Without any suspicion the doctor left his
house with that man. But when he sat by the side of that man in his car-
riage, he found that he was Evremonde with his brother. They showed him
the letter which he had written to the minister of law and brought him to a
cell where they kept him for eighteen years. In this cell he wrote a letter
giving full details of his misfortunes. At the end of the letter the doctor
pronounced curse upon the whole generation of Evremonde. He wrote
"and the then and their descendants to the last of their race. Alexandre
Manette, unhappy prisoner, do this last night of the year 1767 denounce
to the times when all these things shall be answered for. I denounce them
to heaven and to earth." Darnay's punishment
Charles Darnay who was Charles Evremonde, was the son of one of
the two Evremonde brothers who were responsible for the ruin and the
death of young man and girl who were attended by Dr. Manette. At the
end of the letter Dr. Manette denounced Charles Darnay who also
belonged to the family of Charles Evremonde. Another fact related to this
story was that Madame Defarge was the sister of that unfortunate girl who
was raped by Evremonde brothers. Because of miserable death of her
sister Madame Defarge was thirsty for the blood of the whole family of
Charles Darnay. After the end of the letter the crowd shouted that the
prisoner did not deserve sympathy and he must be put to death. Last of all,
Charles Darnay was sentenced to death and ordered to be put to death
within twenty-four hours of the order. Comments
This is also a very important chapter because it discloses all the
mystery which is related to story of the novel. The mysteries of Dr.
Manette, Charles Darnay, Madame Defarge, the letter of Dr. Manette,
are all disclosed in a dramatic manner. The readers came to know about
the mystery of madness of Dr. Manette. The letter, written by the doctor,
caused a sense of pathos and though the doctor was in favour of the
release of Darnay, his letter became a hard witness and proof which put
Darnay to death. Indeed the whole chapter creates a very successful
dramatic effect upon the readers. Another important aspect of the chapter
is that all those characters who seem to be separate from the main plot,
begin to belong to the main plot after the end of this chapter. For
example, those who live in London and those who belong to Paris are all
concerned with the main plot. Mr. and Mrs. Defarge are very important
characters of the main plot while in the beginning they seem to be far away
from the main story. Last of all, Darnay's end is presented with the most
tragic effect because he had to face all those misfortunes which belonged
to his father and his uncle. Thus, it is quite obvious that the chapter is of
great importance because it loosens the situation of climax and becomes the
key to all the mysteries of the novel.
Chapter XI
DUSK
The Appointment of Lucie
Lucie was already at the place where Darnay was put to trial. During
the trial and the order of his death she tried her best to control her grief. She
conversed with a heavy throat with her husband. But soon the guards came
and she was stopped by them from talking with her husband. Then the
guards began to carry him to the prison. Indeed, it was a very tragic scene.
Lucie could not tolerate the final separation and she fainted at that place. It
was Sydney Carton who brought her to a coach outside. Dr. Manette said
that despite this judgment he would not remain idle and he would approach
the public prosecutor and the president of the tribunal again and plead for
the release of Darnay.
Comments
This chapter deals with the best kind of pathos. Lucie's grief is the
source of this pathos. Carton is presented as a well-wisher of Lucie and later
on it is he who helps her and saves Darnay. Despite the heavy punishment Dr.
Manette again expresses his optimistic approach regarding the release of her
son-in-law.
Chapter XII
DARKNESS
Carton's going to Madame Defarge's shop
Sydney Carton who had already a plan to save Darnay, now went to
Saint Antoine and entered Defarge's wine shop. There he heard some
conversation which was going on between Mr. and Mrs. Defarge. Besides,
there were also some Jacques. Defarge was of the opinion that the death
punishment of Defarge was the source of satisfaction for all the Jacques. He
also argued that no ill ideavshould be shown to Lucie and her child. He
thought that only Charles Darnay belongs to the Evremonde family ; Lucie
and her child were of Dr. Manette's race. But Madame Defarge had different
ideas and she argued that since her sister had been ruined by two Evremonde
brothers, she would avenge herself upon everybody who belonged to
Evremonde family. It was quite clear to Carton that Lucie and her child were
also in trouble and they might be murdered by the Jacques. Dr. Manette's
Insanity
Dr. Manette who had tried to approach the president of the tribunal,
came back very late in the night. When he returned, it was quite clear that the
things were not going in his favour. His absence of mind showed that his
plea had been rejected and Darnay was sure to be put to death. He took off
his coat and asked where his shoemaker's bench and tools were. He said that
he was going to coronlete the shoes which he had been doing for a long
period. All the persons who were present there realised that
because of the death punishment of Darnay, Dr. Manettc had lost his
mental balance.
Carton's meeting with Lorry
Sydney Carton met with Mr. Lorry and he gave instructions to him.
First of all he informed Mr. Lorry that Madame Defarge was going to put
Lucie and her child into some danger. He asked him to leave Paris with
Lucie, her child and her father. Mr. Lorry was to make arrangements for
the departure of all of them and was to wait for Carton in the courtyard of
Dr. Manette's lodgings. Mr. Lorry was to order the coachman to drive
away as soon as Carton came to join him.
Comments
The chapter is not much important for the development of the plot.
Only two important events occur: first, the insanity of Dr. Manette, and
secondly, Carton's preparation to save Lucie and her family.
Chapter XIII
FIFTY TWO
Darnay's letter to Lucie and Dr. Manette
In the prison of the Conciergerie there were the condemned
prisoners who were waiting for the capital punishment. Among these fifty
two prisoners there were different types of people. There was a former
general of seventy whose wealth could not save his life. There was also a
poor seamstress whose poverty could not free her from the capital punish-
ment. Darnay wrote a long letter to Lucie, in which he explained how he
was unaware of the long imprisonment of Dr. Manette. He wrote that he
never thought, his father and his Lucie were responsible for the miseries
of Dr. Manette. He wrote a letter to Dr. Manette and he explained the
same thing. At the end of his letter he requested Dr. Manette to look after
Lucie and his child after his death. Though he thought about many per-
sons, Sydney Carton was never in his mind.
Carton's Role
Like other prisoners Darnay was also waiting for his death. The
clock was running in a routine way. At two O'clock the door of Darnay's
cell opened and Sydney Carton entered. Darnay was much surprised to
see Carton but the latter said that because of his acquaintance with one of
the prison wardens he could enter the former's cell. After this he asked
Darnay to take off his boots and put on those which Carton was wearing.
Darnay argued that escape from the prison was not possible but Carton
replied that he had not been asked for any suggestion. After this he forced
Darnay to put on his boots and clothes in the name of his (Darnay's) wife.
Since Darnay did not agree with Carton, Carton took out a handkerchief
from his pocket and put it on the nostirls of Darnay. The handkerchief
containd the sleep inducing liquid drug which he bought from a chemist's
shop. Now Darnay became unconscious and Carton put on the clothes of
Darnay and Darnay was made to put on his clothes by him. Then he called
Barsad, a spy to come in.
Escape of Darnay
After this Carton asked Barsad to carry unconscious Darnay on
his back and to tell the fellow wardens that one of the visitors had fallen
unconscious. Since there was close resemblance between Carton and
Darnay, no one would doubt the statement of Barsad. According to
Carton everybody would believe that the unconscious fellow was the same
visitor who entered the prison to visit a prisoner. There was no alternative
before Barsad and he was bound to obey Carton. Barsad was bound to
carry the unconscious man to the carriage in which Mr. Lorry was waiting
for him. After a short lime the Jailer came with the list of condemned
prisoners and opening the door of the cell of Darnay, called the name of
Charles Evremonde. Carton in the disguise of Darnay allowed the jailor
and came in a large room where people were waiting among the prisoners.
There had been the seamstress who had been a fellow prisoner with Charles
Evremonde in the prison of La Force. Since she also knew Carton, she at
once realised the situation and asked Carton if he was going to die for the
sake of Darnay. Carton replied, he was going to die for the sake of the wife
and the child of that man. She requested Carton to let her hand open
because she was terribly frightened at the situation. Darnay's
Departure from Paris.
Barsad carried the unconscious Darnay to the carriage of Mr. Lorry
who immediately started the carriage to London. Others who were in the
carriage were Lucie, her child and Dr. Manette. Miss Pross and Jerry
Cruncher were left behind to note the situation and they were asked to a
light carriage which might overtake the carriage of Mr. Lorry. Then the
carriage of Mr. Lorry came to the barrier. The soldiers asked Mr. Lorry to
show the papers. Showing the papers, Mr. Lorry further started his jour-
ney and entered the reign of the British.
Comments
The chapter deals with the performance of the plan of Carton who
sacrifices his life for the sake of the pleasures of Lucie. The novelist is well
aware of any artificiality in the situation : that is why, the situation
remains very natural, despite many horrible and terrible actions. The
•chapter finalises the tragic effect of the novel and all the misfortunes
which belonged to many characters, are accepted by Carton with a sense
of sacrifice.
Chapter XIV THE KNITTING DONE
Madame Defarge's meeting with Jacques
At the time when fifty two condemned prisoners were waiting for
their death. Madame Defarge called Jacques for a special meeting. In the
meeting she said that her husband was not in favour of the ruination of the
lives of Lucie and her child. She argued that since both Lucie and her
child belonged to the race of Evremonde, she was determined to take
away their lives. Though Charles Evremonde was going to be put to death,
she demanded the death for Lucie and her child also. Regarding Dr.
Questions & Answers 187
Manette, she said that he had been a sufferer at the hands of Evremonde
brothers; therefore he desired to live fearlessly on this earth.
Death of Madame Defarge
After this Madame Defarge decided to meet Lucie. She wanted that
Lucie must be denounced by revolutionaries since her (Lucie's) husband had
been put to death by them. On the basis of this denouncement she wanted to
declare death sentence to Lucie. She wanted to use wood sawyer as a witness
in the case of Lucie because he had seen Lucie coming daily in the street and
looking at the window of the cell of Darnay. When Madam Defarge arrived
at the lodging of Lucie, the latter had left the place. Miss Pross was alone in
the room. She had sent Jerry Cruncher to go and wait for her with a light
carriage near the cathedral. There she would join him so that both of them
might go to the place where Mr. Lorry's party had reached. Madame Defarge
asked Miss Pross about Lucie but Miss Pross did not answer clearly. The
result was that Madame Defarge forced her to tell about Lucie but Miss Pross
caught the waist of Madame Defarge with her hands. In this struggle the
pistol which Madam Defarge carried in her bosom, went off and the bullet hit
herself and she died at the spot. Leaving Madame Defarge's lifeless body on
the ground, Miss Pross left the house in order to join Jerry Cruncher at the
cathedral. Because of the flash and the crash of the pistol Miss Pross had lost
her hearing.
Comments
This chapter highlights the ruthless and dangerous nature of Madame
Defarge, who plans to take away the life of Lucie. Because of her horrible
plans she neglects her husband and becomes a bloody character. But her
death at the lodging of Lucie lessens the tragic effect and produces a sense of
poetic justice for the readers. Through her death scene the novelist presents
very interesting dramatic situation.
Chapter XV
THE FOOTSTEPS DIE OUT FOR EVER
Waiting for Madame Defarge
Now there was the time when the fifty two condemned prisoners were
being put to death. The vengeance sat knitting and waiting for Madame
Defarge. But there was no sign of Madame Defarge. Then the tumbrils in
which there were fifty two prisoners came. The vengeance was still waiting
for Madame Defarge and she was desperate. The time had come when
Charles Evremonde was going to be executed. People thought, Madame
Defarge would enjoy the sight of the death of Charles Evremonde but she
was not there.
Sublime and prophetic death of Carton
After the beheading of many prisoners, the supposed Evremonde was
called and he descended from the tumbril. The seamstress was also with him
and he was holding her hand as she had asked. After the beheading of some
more prisoners, she was called. She kissed the
supposed Evremonde and went to her doom. Before his turn the words of
Jesus Christ began to strike his mind "I am the Resurrection and the life,
he that believeth in me, though he were dead, yet shall he live; and who so
ever liveth and believeth in me shall never die". Thus Carton sacrificed
his life for the sake of the girl whom he loved deeply.At the time of his
execution his face contained so much peace that people appreciated him
for his extraordinary courage. Some of them said that he seemed to be
sublime and prophetic at the time of execution. Thus because of his
sacrifice for his love, there was heavenly glow on his face. Comments
The whole story comes to its end with this chapter. The death of
Madame Defarge provides the readers with the sense of poetic justice. At
the same time the execution of Carton, supposed Darnay creates the most
pathetic situation. The words of Bible strike the mind of Carton at the
time of his execution; the novelist too clarifies that the resurrection is the
main theme of this novel. But this chapter reveals a major defect that the
novelist closes the novel without letting the readers know the effects of
Carton's death on Lucie, Darnay, and Dr. Manette. One thing is quite
clear that with his supreme sacrifice Carton enjoys the position of a tragic
hero. The following statement that he utters before his death, reveals his
nature, "It is a far, far better thing that I do, that I have ever done, it is a
far, far better rest that I go to than I have ever known."
•>
CHARACTER SKETCHES
MAJOR CHARACTERS 1. DR. MANETTE

Introduction
Dr. Manette is, indeed, one of most remarkable character of A Tale
of Two Cities. Though he is not the hero of the novel, he is the central
figure and the events of his life indicate the different phases of the French
revolution. We meet him in the lodgings of Defarge and we are informed
that he has been freed after the imprisonment of eighteen years. About
his physical appearance it is told that "he had a white beard raggedly cut,
but not very long, a hollow face, and exceedingly bright eyes. The
hollow-ness and thinness of his face would have caused them to look large,
under his yet dark eyeborws and his confused white hair, yet they had been
really otherwise, but they were naturally large, and looked unnaturally so.
His yellow rags of shirt lay open at the throat, and showed his body to be
withered and worn. He, and his old canvas frock, and his loose stockings,
and all his poor tatters of clothes, had, in a long seclusion from direct light
and air, faded down to such a dull uniformity of parchment-yellow, that it
would have been hard to say which was which." But this presentation does
not reveal his sufferings under which he has to pass during the eighteen
years. The novelist points out that the faintness of his voice was pitiable
and dreadful. "It was not the faintness of physical weakness, though con-
finement and hard fare no doubt had their part in its deplorable
peculiarity, that it was the faintness of solitude, was disuse. It was like the
last feeble echo of a sound made long ago. So entirely had it lost the life
and resonance of the human voice, that it affected the senses like a once
beautiful colour faded away into a poor weak stain, so sunken and sup-
pressed it was, that it was like a voice underground." His honesty
The circumstances under which Dr. Manette had been imprisoned
are presented to us at the last stage when a paper written in his
handwriting, is produced by Defarge in the court of Revolutionary
Tribunal. He is the victim of the hard treatment of aristocrats. He is
thrown into imprisonment by Evremonde brothers because he has
reported against them to the government authorities. These young men
were responsible for the death of a boy and a girl and they forced the
doctor to visit the boy and the girl but he could not save them from death.
The boy told him, his sister was raped by the Evremonde brothers.
When he reported to the government authorities against them, he was
imprisoned for eighteen years. It was his honesty which was responsible for
his misfortunes. During his imprisonment his English wife died and his
daughter Lucie was left alone.
His mental shock
When Mr. Lorry and Lucie arrive at the shop of Defarge to receive Dr.
Manette, he has lost the balance of his mind. His memory has become so
weak that he forgets his own daughter, Lucie and his friend Mr. Lorry. But
after a short living with his daughter his memory comes back and he begins
to recognise both his daughter and Mr. Lorry. He settles in England and
starts practising as a physician and surgeon. In this connection the author
says, "His scientific knowledge, and his vigilance and skill in conducting
ingenious experiments, brought him otherwise into moderate demand and he
earned as much as he wanted." Despite this, whenever he receives any
shock, he falls into a state of insanity. For example, when Darnay says how a
prisoner wrote about his better experiences in a letter and buried it into his
cell, he or Dr. Manette begins to remember his past and he falls into a state of
shock and looks ill. However, on this occasion he recovers himself quickly.
Later on, when he comes to know about the real identity of Darnay, he again
receives a shock. He again loses his mind when Darnay has been condemned
to death. Thus he becomes a man of nervous temperament after his
imprisonment of eighteen years.
His love for daughter
An important aspect of his character is that he loves his daughter, Lucie
deeply. In other words, we can say that Lucie is his only reason for living.
Whenever he is shocked by any incident of his past, it is the smiling face of
Lucie, which gives him peace and brings normal position to him. The
novelist says in this regard:
"Only his daughter had the power of charming this black brooding
away from his mind. She was the golden thread that united him to a past
beyond his misery, and to a present beyond his misery, and the sound of her
voice, the light of her face, the touch of her hand, had a strong beneficial
influence with him almost always." Darnay too knows that the affection
between him and his daughter is "so unusual, so touching that it can have
few parallels." Knowing that the separation from Lucie would ruin the
doctor, Darnay makes his residence in the same house in which the doctor
and his daughter have been living.
An important revolution
Though Dr. Manette belongs to an upper medium class family, he
proves to be a striking revolutionary. In the beginning he revolts against the
injustice, perpetrated by the aristocrats. He tries his best in saving the girl
and the boy who are the victims of Evremonde family. He writes a complaint
in this connection to the government. But Evremonde brothers find out that
letter and seize the doctor. He is imprisoned for eighteen years. After his
release he gets an important position among the revolutionaries. In the
beginning he used to walk among revolutionary
Character Sketches 191
terrors of Paris with a steady head. The author describes his position during
that period in the following words:
"Silent, humane, indispensable in hospital and prison, using his heart
quickly among assassins and victims, he was a man apart. In the exercise of
his skill, the appearance and the story of the Bastille captive removed him
from all other men. He was not suspected or brought in question, any more
than if he had indeed been recalled to life some eighteen years before, or
were a spirit moving among mortals."
Mouthpiece of Dickens
K. J. Fielding, a renowned critic points out that through the character of
Dr. Manette, Dickens identifies himself. The critic says, "When Manette is
in despair, he is like Dickens in feeling a compulsive need for action, for it
was equally the character of his mind to be always in singular need of
occupation ; we know him as a man of firmness of purpose, strength of
resolution and vigour and action, as a man who is aware of suppression,
always shut up within him. Undoubtedly, Dickens identifies himself with
Carton, with Charles Darnay, and perhaps with all the characters in the story,
but possibly with none more than with the father for at this time he still
meant to keep to the declaration in the violated letter in which he had said of
Ellen that she was as innocent and pure and as good as my own dear
daughter."
Conclusion
Indeed, Dr. Manette is one of the most effective characters of A Tale of
Two Cities. Jack Lindsay, an outstanding critic points out,y4 Tale of Two
Cities is built up from the episode of Dr. Manette's unjust imprisonment and
its whole working out is concerned with the effects of that unjust
deprivation of light and joy : effects which entangle everyone round the
Doctor and recoil back on his own head in unpredictable ways. The doctor's
fate is thus for Dickens, a symbol of the Revolution, its deeds, causes, and
consequences."
2. LUCIE
Introduction
Lucie is the only daughter of Dr. Manette and his English wife. After
the imprisonment of Doctor Manette and the death of his mother Tellson's
Bank takes the charge of her support. When we first see her, she is a young
lady of not more than seventeen who possesses a short, slight pretty figure
of golden hair; a pair of blue eyes. During her upbringingshe is told that her
father is dead. At the age of seventeen it is Lorry who tells her everything
about the disappearance of her father. She collects the courage to meet
absolutely a new person as her father. She asks Dr. Manette to kiss her. "O
sir, at another time you shall know my name and who my mother was and
who my father, and how I never knew their hard, hard history. But I cannot
tell you at this time, and I cannot tell you here. All that I may tell you, here
and now, is that I pray to you to touch me and bless me, kiss me, kiss me, oh
my dear."
Her love for her father
A Sincere daughter : Lucie's sincere love for her father is the most
remarkable quality of her character. In the fits of his insanity she is able to
bring his memory back with her sincere love. She becomes "the golden
thread which unites him to a past beyond his misery, and to present
beyond his misery." A strong beneficial effect upon him is always
available in the sound of her voice, the light of her face and the touch of
her hand. This affection is well known to everybody, that's why, Darnay
calls this affection unique. She is married with Darnay but she tells her
father, if her marriage does not become a barrier between them she would
consider herself the most fortunate. She says to her fahter, "But if my life
were not to be still consecrated to you, or if my marriage were so arranged
as it would part us, even by the length of a few of these streets I should be
more unhappy and self reproachful now that I can tell you."
Her humanity
Lucie proves to be humanitarian because of her sympathetic nature.
At the trial of her husband, her heart is completely filled with pity. She has
also soft corner for Sydney who tells her that he had fallen in love with her.
She promises him that in her life she will always show great affection for
him. She also suggests to Darnay, her husband to be considerate towards
Carton. She knows very well that Carton is a clear-hearted and very good
person; therefore, she says to her husband, "I would ask you, dearest to be
very generous with him always, and very lenient on his faults when he is
not by. I would ask to believe that he has a heart, he very very seldom
reveals; and that there are deep wounds in it."
A sensitive lady
Lucie's anxiety, about her husband when he is in the prison of La
Force and when his trial by the revolutionary tribunal is being delayed
without any apparent reason describes well the sensitive nature of Lucie.
She feels great relief when Darnay is released. She faints when she is in-
formed about the re-arrest of Darnay. To the domestic joys and sorrows
she becomes very sensitive. At the time of Darnay's capital punishment
she tries to be courageous. She consoles Darnay, "I can bear it, dear
Charles, I am supported from above, do not suffer for me." But after few
moments she loses her heart and it is Carton who carries her to couch
outside.
A symbol of goodness
Lucie is the most dominant heroine who stands for a striking con-
trast to Madame Defarge. Madame Defarge is the symbol of hatred and
evil while she symbolises generosity which we expect from a sincere
heroine. Since she is perfectly simple-minded and simple-hearted, she
knows no trickery, delicacy, cunningness or wickedness as a personifica-
tion of simplicity. She wins the life-long devotion and loyalty of Miss
Pross. Mr. Lorry is also deeply attached to her and Sydney Carton is also
much impressed by her simple-mindedness. However, one thing is quite
clear that she lacks that courage and boldness which we find in the general
nature of heroine. She does not show any initiative of spirit of enterprise in
her. She does not change throghout the novel because she is not a dynamic
personality. What she was at the beginning she remains upto the last.
Sometimes she seems to lack the capacity to do things. Becuase of her
passive role, Carton calls her "a golden haired doll." But at the same time
she is admired as a symbol of goodness in the novel. She deserves Darnay
because Darnay too stands for idealism and honesty.
Conclusion
Lucie's sufferings make her the most pathetic character. In the
beginning she is deprived of her parents and at the age of seventeen she
meets Dr. Manette. She sees her father, risen like a ghost from a living grave.
After few years she is married to Darnay who is sentenced to death. She
witnesses trial of her husband. She also experiences the death of her only
son. The expression for love by Sydney Carton is another cause of her
sufferings. Her sufferings are best described when she witnesses the trial of
her husband and says, "I feel that will break my heart by and by but I will do
my duty while I can." Physically, she is a beaytiful lady who can attract
anyone with her physical charms. The following lines describe her features.
"A young lady of not more than seventeen, in a riding cloak, and still holding
her straw travelling hat by its ribbon, in her hand as his eyes rested on a
short, slight, pretty figure a quantity of golden hair, a pair of blue eyes that
met his own with an inquiring look and a forehead with a singular capacity
(remembering how young and smooth it was) of lifting and knitting itself
into an expression that was not quite one perplexity, or wonder, or alarm, or
merely of bright fixed attention, though it included all the four expressions
as his eyes rested on these things, a sudden vivid likeness passed before him
of a child whom he had held in his arms on the passage across that very
channel, one cold time, when the hail drifted heavily and the sea ran high."
3. CHARLES DARNAY
Introduction
Charles Darnay is presented in the novel as an accused at old Bailey
where he is put on trial on the charge of treason by the government in
England. The novelist describes him as a young man of about five and
twenty well grown and good looking, with a sunburnt cheek and a dark eye.
"The case for the prosecution was that Charles Darnay has been coming from
England and going to France with the secret information. A large crowd is
gathered with the hope that he will be sentenced to death. His character
affects all the characters and the readers because of the ideals on which his
life is based. A critic points out regarding the idealistic aspect of his life.
"Darnay represents the light, sunny, optimistic aspect of Dickens' literary
persons, this is shown specially by the way in which on receiving Gabelle's
plea for help, he sets off to Paris without anticipating the perils he may
encounter. He is the most unconvincing character in A Tale of Two Cities, as
shallow as a mirror."
A handsome personality
Darnay is a good-looking person. His first appearance in the
prisoners' dock at the old Bailey impresses the audience. The novelist
describes very well his appearance in these words, "The object of all this
staring and blaring, was a young man of about five and twenty, well-grown
and good looking, with a sunburnt check and a dark eye. His condition
was that of any young gentleman. He was plainly dressed in black, of very
dark grey, and his hair, which was long and dark, was gathered in a ribbon
at the back of his neck; more to be out of his way than for ornament cover-
ing of the body, so the paleness which his situation engendered came
through the brown upon his cheek, showing the soul to be stronger than
the sun."
An aristocratic family background
Darnay belongs to the aristocratic family. His father has enjoyed
immunities at the hands of the kings and the rulers of France. He was
nephew of Marquis of Evremonde who was responsible for the miseries of
Dr. Manette. His manners, his appearance, and his behaviour all present
him as a man representing that class. But he becomes a man with different
outlook upon life and with different principles from those which his
family had adopted and followed. Because of the teachings of his mother,
he started to hate selfishness and callousness of the French aristocracy
and nobility of which he himself was a descendant. Because of his
idealism he had renounced his claims to that property and to the title of
Marquis and had emigrated to England. However, he continued to make
journeys to France in order to settle his affairs. And it was on account of
these journeys that he had fallen under suspicion and been put on trial on a
charge of treason. Later on, he pays a visit to his country house. "When the
French King and the French aristocracy are still in power, and has a talk
with that naughty aristocrat in the course of which we learn how different
Darnay's outlook on life is from that of his uncle, this interview with the
uncle expresses the view that the repression of the poor is the only way
of keeping them obedient. But Darnay points out that Evremonde family
has already done many wrongs to the poor and are already reaping the
fruits of those wrongs. Says Darnay in this connection :
"Even in my father's time, we did a world of wrong, injuring
every human creature who came between us and our pleasure. Why
need I speak of my father's twin brother, joint inheritor, and next
successor, from himself ?"
A sincere lover
Darnay loves Lucie because she possesses sweet temperament.
Because of his generous and magnanimous nature, Sydney Carton
seeks his permission to visit his house after marriage. When Lucie
asks him to be generous towards Carton he agrees with her. He loved her
companionate nature. He had also developed love for knowledge and
studies. He was quite shy and wanted to handle any problem in a decent
and magnanimous manner. That is why although he had loved Lucie

Ivlanette from the very beginning, he decided to break the news first to pr.
Manette and then to Lucie herself. The following lines throw light on the
attitude of Charles Darnay towards the most tender aspect of his life:
"He had loved Lucie Manette from the hour of his danger. He had never
heard a sound so sweet and dear as the sound of her compassionate voice. He
had never seen a face so tenderly beautiful, as hers when it was confronted
with his own on the grave that had been dug for him. But he had not yet
spoken of the subject; the assassination at the deserted chateau far away
beyond the heaving water and the long, long, dusty roads, the solid stone
chateau which had itself become the mere mist of a dream had been done a
year, and he had never yet by so much as a single spoken word, disclosed to
her the state of his heart."
His humanity
Darnay is a man of strong humanitarian feelings. He has the power to
revolt against the systematic exploitation of the poor tenants and farm
workers which the landed gentry in France had been doing. His renunciation
of his claim to his property is an act of sacrifice in favour of the poor, though
the poor do not recognise his act of sacrifice. At the end of the novel when
Carton meets him and discloses his plan to save him from imprisonment at
the cost of his (Carton's) life. But Darnay does not accept it and Carton has to
take the help of force in order to fulfil his plan. The sense of humanity in his
character is quite obvious in his treatment of Dr. Manette. He considers well
that Dr. Manette's life will be pleasing only in the presence of his (Manette's)
daughter, Lucie. That is why he plans to live with his father-in- law after his
marriage with Lucie.
A passive hero
Despite these praiseworthy qualities, Darnay has been regarded as a
passive hero who leaves no impress on others. Like Lucie he appears to be
passive, though some dynamic action is also obvious in his character.
Specially when he goes to help Gabelle, the keeper of his chateau, his
personality seems to be dynamic. But in rest actions he does nothing but
remains a passive character. In the beginning he leaves his property and
comes to England where he serves as a tutor. When he goes back to France,
he is imprisoned by the revolutionaries. Then he remains inactive and all the
actions though they are related to him, are done by others. Even at the end of
the novel he becomes the most inactive. George Woodcock, a renounced
critic says, "Dickens represents the light, sunny optimistic aspect of
Dickens's literary persons, this is shown specially by the way in which on
receiving Gabelle's plea for help he sets off to Paris without anticipating the
perils he may encounter. He is the most unconvincing character in A Tale of
Two Cities, as shallow as a mirror."
Conclusion
Darnay's role cannot be neglected from the novel because after Dr.
Manette, it is he around whom the whole story moves. Geoffrey Thurley, a
famous critic points out that he "seems at first sight a hannlessly
decent young man, one of Dickens's straight romantic leads, the

equivalent of Edward Chester in Barnaby Rudge. Yet this is a facile view,
the result of ignoring the third dimension. Dickens's characters have that
given by the socio-historical framework. UA Tale of Two Cities is the story
of the innocent bourgeois doctor imprisoned by an unscrupulous elite, it
is also the story of the responsible young aristocrat who disinherits him-
self out of disgust with his own class and tries to lead a life of hard work.
When we see Darnay as the representative of a class that needs to atone
for an historical culpability, he acquires new interest and depth. This rep-
resentativeness emerges most plainly in the conversation he holds with
his uncle, the Marquis, after dinner in chateau on the night of the
Marquis's murder. When the uncle deplores the decline of aristocratic
privileges, Charles replies with a straight repudiation. If the estate ever
falls to him, he says, "it shall be put into some hands better qualified to
free it slowly (if such a thing is possible) from the weight that drags it
down, so that the miserable people who cannot leave it and who have been
long wronged to the last point of endurance, may in another generation
suffer less; but it is not for me. There is a curse on it, and on all this land."
Darnay's answer when his uncle sarcastically inquires how he in-
tends to live under his "new philosophy" is characteristically
D.cken-sian work. Thus each man speaks for his philosophical
position—Marquis Evremonde unequivocally for the conservatism of
"Dancien regime", Darnay for the new liberalism.
4. SYDNEY CARTON
Introduction
Sydney Carton, a representative of the pessimism of the novelist is a
self-sacrificing lover. We meet him at almost the same time when he
meets Charles Darnay. The following lines highlight the real aim behind
the character of Sydney Carton. Carton is Darnay's and for that matter,
Dickens's darkness. He is a kind of lesser Lucifer, a fallen brightness
dedicated to debauchery, prostituting his gleaming intelligence to the
service of the unspeakable Stryver. He loves Lucie, but at first denies her
(He terms her with crushing accuracy—a golden haired doll) and then
fails to claim her .
Seen in the context of other later novels of Dickens's and of the last
sobre years of their creator's life, the death of Carton can be detached
from the platitudes with which A Tale of Two Cities ends ........ Carton,
consistently developed would not have looked sublime and prophetic at
the guillotine. He would not have thought optimistic thoughts of the fu-
ture. He would, in accepting the death he had built for himself, not only
have fulfilled one deep longing of Dickens enclosed him, the world of
revolution, and for those most striking personifications the Defarges,
there was no question of resurrection."
A disappointed fellow
Sydney Carton is a man who is least concerned with those elements
which provide the human beings with pleasure. After Darnay's release he
takes him to a nearby tavern to enable him to have some food. There he
(Carton) takes wine and in its intoxication he makes a remarkable
remark about himself and presents his own character. He says, "I am a
disappointed drudge, sir, I care for no man on earth, and no man on earth
cares for me." Besides, he admits before Lucie that hopelessness has be-
come his spirit. On the whole by his talk with Darnay, and Stryver he ap-
pears to be a gloomy, disillusioned kind of man. He seems to pass his life
without any goal or ambition. He is like a boat adrift on the sea. He makes
no use of his natural abilities and talent for gaining any worldly advance-
ment. He never cares for the happiness of his life. He thinks that he is the
victim of a blight and he has left whatever the future may have in store for
him. A sincere lover
The supreme qualities of Carton's character are confirmed when he
confesses his love before Lucie. Like Darnay, he has also fallen in love
with her but he knows very well that it is Darnay whom she is going to
choose as her husband. He realises before him that he is good for nothing
yet he proposes his love before her. He says to her, "If it had been pos-
sible, Miss Manette, that you could have returned the love of the man you
see before your self-flung away, wasted, drunken, poor creature of misuse
as you know him to be—he would have been conscious this day and hour,
in spite of his happiness though Lucie does not accept him as her hus-
band, he is very grateful to Lucie, merely because she could hear him with
patience and curiosity. He says very clearly that for her sake he will do
anything. He says, "it is useless to say it. I know, but it rises out of my soul,
for you, and for any dear to you I would do anything. If my career were of
the better kind that there was any opportunity or sacrifice in it, 1 would
embrace any sacrifice for you and for those dear to you."
In order to maintain his contact with her he asks Darnay's permis-
sion to visit his house now and then. He wants to go there as a visitor at
odd times only because he wishes to remain in touch with Lucie whom he
loves deeply. Before Darnay he calls himself a worthless fellow and says to
him, during his visit, he should be regarded as a useless piece of furniture
which is tolerated for its old service. He says to Darnay, "Well, if you
could endure to have such a worthless fellow, and a fellow of such
indifferent reputation coming and going at old times. I should ask that I
might be permitted to come and go as a privileged person here, that I
might be regarded as an useless.... a piece of furniture, tolerated for its old
service, and taken no notice of."
His praiseworthy self-sacrifice
Carton, a useless fellow who never waits for any opportunity, proves
to be a great example of self-sacrifice. Since Darnay is sentenced to death,
he escapes him (Darnay) by putting himself in the cell of Darnay and
releasing him with the help of Barsad. Before his death the poor
seamstress asks him whether he is going to die for the rake of Darnay, he
replies that he is going to sacrifice his life for Lucie, her father and her
child.
"I see the lives for which I lay down my life, peaceful, useful
prosperous, happy, in that England which I shall sec no more. I see her with
a child upon, her bosom, who bears my name. I see her father, aged and
bent, but otherwise restored and faithful to all men in his healing office and
peace." A true follower of Christ
Before his sacrifice he utters the words of Bible, "I am the resur-
rection and the life. He that believeth in me, though he were dead, yet shall
he live; and whosoever liveth and believeth in me shall never die. When he
is executed, he looks sublime and prophetic. Many people think that his
face was the most peaceful among others who were executed. Before his
death he also sees a radiant vision of the future. He foresees that those who
are passing death sentences, will be ruined. He foresees a beautiful city and
brilliant people rising from the ashes of the old which is now perishing. He
foresees Lucie and her family leading a prosperous life. He tells himself
before his death. "It is a far, far better thing that I do than I have ever done,
it is a far, far better rest that I go to than I have ever known."
Conclusion
Carton's role in the novel is very remarkable because he dominates the
most crucial situation which arises at the end of the novel. His character
seems to be more effective than that of Darnay. Making a contrast between
him and Darnay George Woodcock points out, that takes us into the realms
of the Gothic sensibility, and nothing is indeed more Gothic than the
framework in which Dickens presents Carton and Darnay. They are
doubles, alike in appearance, loving the same maiden linked by fate. It is
because he is Darnay's double that Carton can rescue him from the old
Bailey and give his life for him in Paris. The two doubles are linked also in
their relationship with their creator. Steven Marcus in his book, 'Dickens
from Pickwick to Dombey' has pointed out the revealing alphabet game
which Dickens plays with the names of his characters endowing them with
his own initials, from 'David Copperfield', through Clenman and Dorrit, in
'Little Dorrit' and Carter and Dombey in 'Dombey and Son', to Carton and
Darnay in A Tale of Two Cities. Darnay not only possesses both of his
creator's initials, but shares his Christian name as well; yet he is not
complete without the linking of surnames to which Carton is essential."
5. MONSIEUR ERNEST DEFARGE
Introduction
Monsieur Ernest Defarge, one of hte leading figures of the novel, is a
representative French revolutionary of moderate type. In him Dickens has
presented the ideals which prompted the French masses towards their
rising. He is the owner of the wine shop in the Parisian suburb of Saint
Antoine, where Doctor Manette had been given shelter after his release
from a prolonged imprisonment in the Bastille. The novelist tries to
describe his physical appearance and his nature in the following lines :
"This wine shopkeeper was a bull-necked, martial-looking man of thirty,
and should have been of a hot temperament, for although it was a bitter
day, he wore no coat, but carried one slung over his shoulder. His
shirtsleeves were rolled up too and his brown arms were bare to the el-
bows. Neither did he wear anything more on his head than his own crispy
curling short hair. He was a dark man altogether, with good eyes and a
good bold breadth between them."
A leader of the exploited
Defarge is described as a leader of the exploited beings. He is a
"bull-necked, martial looking man of thirty". When he happens to meet
Lucie, the daughter of Dr. Manette who has been his employer, he bends
on one knee and kisses her hand. But he performs this gesture of grace
and courtesy. The dangerous side of Defarge shows itself so on
afterwards when the little son of Gaspard is run over under the wheels of
the carriage of Marquis Evremonde. When the Marquis throws a gold coin
towards Defarge as an act of benevolence, he picks up the coin and flings it
into the carriage, in an insulting manner. After this he disappears because
he knows, he is not in a position of fight against the upper class. However,
he organises the poor and the downtrodden inhabitants of Saint Antoine
and prepares them to revolt against the aristocrats.
Ruin of Evremonde
Defarge plays very important role in the assassination of Marques
Evremonde, the man whose carriage had run over and killed the little son
of Gaspard. Though Gaspard himself murders Evremonde, it is Defarge
who permits him and gives him an easy plan. After one year when Gaspard
is caught and hanged, Defarge brings with him the mender of the roads
who had been a witness to the hanging and who gives the whole account of
the incident to Madame Defarge and to other revolutionaries. After the
end of this account he recommends that the whole of Evremonde race
should be registered for destruction. He also orders that the Chateau of
Evremonde should also be ruined. According to this plan his chateau is
destroyed and later on, Charles Evremonde or Darnay is also put to death.
In fact, he believes, Evremonde family to be the symbol of exploitation of
the poor; therefore he has no sympathy for any member of that family.
As a leader of the assault
The mob which storms and captures the Bastille, is led by Defarge.
At least twenty five thousand Jacques follow him in this act. He becomes
the most dynamic leader at the time of revolt. The Bastille falls to attack-
ers without much resistance. In the midst of the prevailing tumult and
deafening noise he remembers how he is to take another step regarding
the revolt. He reaches cell no. 105, North tower, and digs out a written
paper about which he had a vague idea that it had been written by Dr.
Manette and also buried by him during the time of his imprisonment.
Things do not end with this event but he comes with the news that old
Foulon has been captured and he asks the mob to reach the place where
he has been kept. Old Foulon is then dragged to the nearest lamp post and
hanged. After his death his son-in-law is also hanged. He feels satisfaction
with the idea that some important enemies of the poor have been properly
punished.
As an important person
Defarge plays very important role in the novel. He represents the
causes which brought about the French revolution. His marriage with a lady,
whose family had been subjected to humiliation and savage behaviour of the
aristocracy, makes him very bold person. The novelist does not introduce
him as some historical personality. But some critics argue that he has been
modelled on a historical person, a wine vendor by the name of Chalot whom
Carlyle mentions in his book as one of the leaders of the exploited beings. In
short he is hot a puppet at the hands of the novelist but he is a living
character. He possesses an irrepressible spirit and a revolutionary nature. He
is the best example of self-control.
6. MADAME DEFARGE
Introduction
Like man characters of Dickens, Madame Defarge is directly presented
by the novelist. She plays a symbolic role and becomes the voice of the
oppressed womanhood of France. Ruin Elliott says in this case,
"whether Madame Defarge is true to nature" .................... or not, becomes
less important when we realise the symbolic function which she and her
vengeance have in the novel. Hers is a many sided role to play, as the voice of
the oppressed women of France, the focal point of their thirst for revenge,
the possessor of those restless, fateful hands which embed the destinies of
men and women and children in their knitting, as well as a character in the
novel, a person in its plot."
A cruel-hearted woman
If Monsieur Defarge is a born leader of men, his wife is a born leader of
women. It is the female population of Saint Antoine whom Madame Defarge
leads. A revolutionary to the core of her heart, she too knows no half
measures, no compromises. She is even more cruel than her husband in
whose nature there is certainly a spark of humanity. It is Madame Defarge
who, with her knife, cuts off the head of the captured governor of the
Bastille. The faint-hearted among us may feel horrified by such a brutal
action being performed by a woman, but such persons should know that
there are women in this world who are much more ferocious and blood
thirsty than the men of even the wildest tribes. As the author tells us towards
the end of the novel, Madame Defarge was cruel-hearted, also Madame
Defarge is the main figure. Not an inborn criminal
Madame Defarge is undoubtedly a symbol of hatred and cruelty. But
she is not a monster by birth. Under different circumstances and under
different conditions she grows up to be an abnormal woman with abnormal
likes and dislikes. Madame Defarge has been the victim of two male
members of an aristocratic family. Her sister had been raped by those two
men and had died in a state of madness; her brother, a lad of just fifteen, had
been wounded seriously by those men and he too had died. The whole family
had, in fact, been ruined by the two Evremonde brothers. Madame Defarge
had, therefore, grown up with a violent hatred for the high-born people and
for the privileged classes in France. Helped
and strengthened by her husband's revolutionary sympathies and ac-

tivities, she had been waiting for the time when the downtrodden poor
would revolt against their oppressors. In judging the character of
Madame Defarge, we should not forget these strong circumstances. If we
keep these circumstances in mind, we would not regard her as a beast, or
as the devil. The background of her pitilessness
Madame Defarge herself describes her mentality and her attitude to
life in the course of a conversation with The Vengeance and Jacques there
in the presence of her husband. When her husband says that she should be
satisfied if Charles Darnay alone is executed, she says wrathfully that the
whole Evremonde race had been doomed to destruction knitted in her
register and then she describes the fate which had overtaken the peasant
family from which she has sprung: "I was brought up among the fisher-
men of the seashore : and that peasant family so injured by the two Ev-
remonde brothers, as that Bastille paper describes, is my family. That
sister of them really wounded boy upon the ground was my sister, that
husband was my sister's husband, that unborn child was their child, that
brother was my brother ..... "Her family having been the victims of such a
shocking incident it is not very surprising that Madame Defarge has
grown up to be so heartless and pitiless. No wonder that, when Charles
Darnay is sentenced to death, she feels pleasure and says to her com-
panion, The Vengeance, in a mocking tone that Dr. Manette with all
his influence has failed to save that man. This is what she says on this
occasion :
"Much influence around him has that doctor save him now, my dear
doctor save him !" His next step is to have Lucie and Lucie's daughter put
on trial and condemned to death. In order to get hold of some evidence
against Lucie she then specially goes to Lucie's lodgings. On this occasion
the author points out that among the many cruel women who were active
at that time there was no one so dreadful as this horrible and ruthless
woman. This is how the author describes her character.
"Of a strong and fearless character, of shrewd sense and readiness, of
great determination, the troubled time would have heaved her up, under
any circumstances. But, imbued from her childhood with a brooding sense
of wrong, and an inveterate hatred of a class, opportunity had developed
her into a tigress. It was nothing to her that an innocent man was to die for
the sins of his forefathers. She saw, not him but them. It was nothing to
her, that his wife was to be made a widow and his daughter an orphan, that
was insufficient punishment, because they were her natural enemies and
her prey, and as such had no right to live. Their appeal to her was made
hopeless by her having no sense of pity even for herself..... Overtaken by
Nemesis
Madame Defarge's confrontation with Miss Pross is one of the
most dramatic situations in the novel. Miss Pross's loyalty and devotion to
Lucie prove to be triumphant over Madame Defarge's hatred and
vin-dictiveness. Madame Defarge is killed by a bullet from her own
pistol
which goes off in the course of the tussle between the two women.
Madame Defarge has been overtaken by Nemesis. Her end has the
ob-vious moral that hatred is self-destructive.
Conclusion
She is indeed an important character in the novel. Charles E. Be*
ckwith points out, "She too is a lonely stalking animal, a deadly counter-
part of Lucie Manette, the two of them representing opposite versions of
the forever untouchable woman in Dickens's longing and imagination.
Ai first she is unmotivated, a creature of pure malignancy like Iago: a cold
monomaniac whose identity lies in hate and meditation of revenge. To be
sure, the general oppression of the regime forms a general motivation,
but she towers above the general world by virtue of her inflexible obses-
sion, inhabiting world of her own as much as the Marquis, a self-defining
world. Surprisingly, towards the end, Dickens yields to realism and gives
her specific and credible motivation." William H. Marshall opines
regarding her character—
"Evil engenders evil, terror creates terror. In Defarge and his wife we
find what has happened to France, what could happen to any nation, to
any man : if we hate we become hate. But eventually hatred, though
intense, is self-destructive, and of this assertion the image of the rack is an
emblem: the last drop of blood having been extracted from the flints, and
the last screw of the rack having been turned with nothing to bite."
Madame Defarge, to be destroyed by her pistol, so surprises Miss Pross
that the English lady drops the basin in which she has been washing her
eyes, and it "fell to the ground broken, and the water flowed to the feet of
Madame Defarge. By strange stern ways, and through much staining
blood, these feet had come to meet that water." Like one of the fates,
Madame Defarge involves in her incessant knitting the symbols for
individual men, but of their fate rather than their lives. She does not
think, nor does she feel outside of her one destructive motivation, and
here she might be said only two react; she becomes a further agent in the
series of evil causes and effects which she herself attributes to destiny. At
first it might appear that her antithesis is Lucie who loves what
Madame Defarge hates. Whose. "Weaving" with the golden thread of
love is in opposition to Madame's knitting, and whose Miss Pross, in
fact, brings about the physical destruction of Madame Defarge. But her
physical death is of no greater importance than that of Sydney Carton
considered in itself. It is Carton himself who is her real antithesis." ^
MINOR CHARACTERS
1. Jarvis Lorry
Introduction
Mr. Jarvis Lorry, an agent of Tellson's Bank influences the rest of
the characters and the readers by his noble ideas. He loves his work so
much that he always thinks, he belongs to his work. Wherever he is
provided with any work, he proves to be the most loyal. For example, to
Tellson's bank he proves to be faithful and a dutiful servant, to his friend
Dr. Manetie he becomes the symbol of good friendship. Like Cokeson of

Galsworthy's play 'Justice', he seeks pleasure in helping others. About his
physical appearance the novelist points out, "very orderly and methodical he
looked, with a hand on each knee, and a loud watch ticking, ticking a
sonorous sermon under his flapped waistcoat, as though it pitied its gravity
and longevity against the levity and evanescence of the brisk fire. He had a
good leg, and was a little vain of it, for his brown stockings fitted sleek and
close, and were of a fine texture, his shoes buckles, too, though plain, were
trim. He wore an odd little sleek crisp flaxen wig, setting very close to his
head, which wig, it is to be presumed, was made of hair, but which looked far
more as though it were spun from filaments of silk or glass. His linen, though
not of a fineness in accordance with his stockings, was as while as the tops of
the waves that broke upon the neighbouring beach, or the specks of sail that
glinted in the sunlight far out at sea. A face habitually suppressed and
quieted, was still lighted up under the quaint wig by a pair of moist bright
eyes, that it must have cost their owner, in years gone by, some pains to drill
to the composed and reserved expression of Tellson's Bank. He had a healthy
colour in his cheeks, and his face, though lined, bore few traces of anxiety.
But perhaps the confidential bachelor clerks at Tellson's bank were
principally occupied with the cares of other people, and perhaps second-hand
cares, like second hand clothes, come easily off and on." His devotion to his
duty
On several occasions he describes himself as 'a man of business'. When
he is in the wine-shop, he repeatedly says that he is handling a mat ter of
business. While dealing with the clients of his bank, he does not take the help
of sentiments, nor of any other emotion but he becomes as dutiful as
machine. He says to Lucie in respect, "In a similar way I am, or I have been,
trustee of one kind or the other for scores of our customers. These are mere
business relations, Miss, there is no friendship in them, no particular interest,
nothing like sentiment. I have passed from one to another, in the course of
my bsiness life, just as I pass from one of our customers to another in the
course of my business day; in short, I have no feelings, I am a mere machine.
As a true friend
However, in the case of Dr. Manette, he is the most sympathetic. He
proves to be a sincere and devoted friend of Dr. Manette and continues to
help him and his daughter upto the end of the novel. When Stryver utters
disrespectful words about Lucie, he clearly says to him : "I mean to tell you,
Mr. Stryver, that I will hear no disrespectful words from any lips." Whenever
Dr. Manette loses the balance of mind, he does his best in bringing back his
normal position. He never does any work which may hurt the doctor and he
may lose his sense. When Darnay is married to Lucie, Lucie has to leave her
farther for some days. During these days Dr. Manette again falls in fit and he
needs special care which is provided by Mr. Lorry. Though Dr. Manette is in
serious position, Mi. Lorry does not disturb Lucie and tries his best in giving
proper care to the Doctor.
Fortunately, before the arrival of Lucie, Dr. Manette recovers from his
illness. At the time of Darnay's trial, he does his best in the escape of Darnay.
First of all he puts himself as a witness in favour of Darnay. Then he makes
Carton's plan possible by arranging a carriage for Darnay's escape from
prison. Whatever he does in this case, it is for the pleasure of Lucie who is
the daughter of his friend Dr. Manette. Conclusion
Thus, Mr. Lorry is one of the most important minor characters, though
he is not so important as Dr. Manette. Lucie, Darnay or Carton, his role is
very remarkable. When the novel starts, we find him travelling to Dover by
the mail coach. Very soon we come to know that fifteen years before he had
to visit Paris with the same purpose. He becomes an important figure in the
lives of Dr. Manette, Lucie Manette, Darnay and Carton.
2. Mr. Stryver
Introduction
Mr. Stryver is introduced in the novel as the defence counsel of Dar-
nay. Because of his forceful arguments Darnay is released by the court. But
he is not an ideal man. After the release when Darnay is surrounded by his
well wishers, he comes along and pushes himself into the midst of them in
order to tell him that his work was not easy. He says to Darnay, I am glad to
have brought you off with honour, Mr. Darnay. It was an infamous
prosecution, grossly infamous, but not the less likely to succeed on the
account. A pushing man
Throwing light on the personality of Mr. Stryver, the novelist remarks
that he is a stout, loud, bluff, and free from any drawback of delicacy. "He
has a way of shouldering himself into companies and conversations that
argues well for his shouldering his way up in life." He is a punishing man
who wins distinction as a lawyer. Regarding his legal profession the novelist
points out, "The learned profession of the law was certainly not behind any
other learned profession in its Bacchanalian propensities; neither was Mr.
Stryver, already fast shouldering his way to a large and lucrative practice
behind his compeers in this opportunity, any more than in the drier parts of
the legal race."
As a lion
Mr. Stryver is reputed for his boldness. He offers a striking contrast to
Sydney Carton, who has been his close friend. Both of them had been
classmates at school. Their friendship was so much keen that Carton started
to help Stryver in his cases. He served as a kind of assistant to him. In this
regard the author says that Stryver was lion while Carton was a jackal.
His surprising decision
Mr. Stryver is a thoroughly worldly minded person to whom money
is the most important thing of life. He has an ambition to be rich at any
cost. But he is so much charmed by the personality of Lucie that he
decides to marry her. For this he is ready to give up the aspect of money. In
this regard he says to Carton,' 'She is a charming creature, and I have made
up my mind to please myself; on the whole, I think I can afford to please
myself. She will have in me a man already pretty well off, and a rapidly
rising man, and a man of some distinction, it is a piece of good fortune for
her, but she is worthy of good fortune." Mr. Stryvcr has to face a defeat at the
refusal of the marriage proposal by accusing Lucie of being an
empty-headed girl. Mr. K.J. Fielding points out about him, "Stryver is a fine
bold sketch, and his hesitant decision to honour Lucie with a proposal is
magnificently comic with a rightful place in the story."
3. Jerry Cruncher
Introduction
Jerry Cruncher, described by the author as an odd jobman is one of the
humorous characters of Dickens. Throwing light on his physical appearance
and laying emphasis on his spiked hair the novelist remarks, "Except on the
crown, which was raggedly bald, he had stiff, black hair, standing ruggedly
all over it, and growing downhill to his broad, blunt nose. It was so like
smith's work, so much more like the top of a strongly spiked wall than head
of hair, that the best o( players at leap-frog might have declined him, as the
most dangerous man in the world to go over."
A source of comedy in the novel
Jerry Cruncher, an occasional porter and messenger who sits on a bench
outside Tellson's bank is a source of comedy in the novel. During his
working hours, he is always present and if he is bound to go somewhere, it is
his son who represents him. Sometimes through his actions and another time
through his speech, he creates an atmosphere of humour. For exampe, he
always speaks of the year as Anna Davinoes apparently under the impression
that the Christian era dated from the invention of a popular game, by a lady,
had bestowed her name upon it. The phrase Anna Domini stands for the year
of the Lord Jesus Christ. But Jerry always mispronounces the words. He
always calls his wife an agree Wayter which stands for aggravator. He
always asks her, "What did you mean by flopping yourself down and praying
against me." When she says that she was not praying against him, but for
him, he does not believe her statement and says that she is always jealous of
his prosperity. He always trains his son to be against her. He says to him,
"You've got a dutiful mother, you have my son, you have got a religious
mother, you have my boy: going and flopping herself down, and praying that
the bread and butter may be snatched out of the mouth of her child."
His horrible business
Jerry Cruncher tries to increase his income by digging out dead bodies
from the graves and selling them to a surgeon for scientific purpose. Since it
is an evil task, he tries to keep it in secret; he leaves his house in the night
and tells his wife that he is going for fishing. Once his son follows him and
finds how his father is busy in the horrible business. But through his
business he is able to know that Roger Cly is not dead but it is a .umour
about him. He discloses this fact before Carton and Barsad
on the occasion when Barsad is not ready to help Carton. Later on, the
threatening of Jerry functions in a proper manner and Barsad is bound to
follow the plans of Carton. His repentance
When things are disclosed to all about Jerry Cruncher, Mr. Lorry asks
him about this work. First of all, Jerry tries to justify his work of dig. ging
out of the dead bodies because he had been in need of money during those
days. But Mr. Lorry condemns him and assures him that this task was an
evil in the society. At the end of the novel, we find that he begins to repent
over his business. Therefore he gives two promises to Miss Pross that
neither he would dig out the dead body from the grave nor he would scold
his wife. Indeed, these two demerits of his character made him a devil,
otherwise he is thoroughly a gentleman. Conclusion
Jerry Cruncher does not possess important role in the plot of the novel.
All that he does, is to carry message, his first message being from Tellson's
Bank to Mr. Lorry who is travelling to Dover by the mail coach. He acts as a
source of some information which Carton is able to make use of. Finally, we
find him acting as an escort for Miss Pross who had been instructed by Mr.
Lorry to follow him in a lighter carriage. Sometime after his own and
Lucies's departure from there Cruncher is therefore unimportant person so
far as the plot of the novel is concerned. But he is a source of comedy. Some
critics have found fault with this novel on the ground that there is a dearth of
comedy in it. But the scenes in which Jerry Cruncher appears are all comic.
In fact he makes a slightly greater contribution to the comedy in this novel
than Miss Pross. His mannerism in calling himself, "an honest tradesman",
his spiky hair, his side-business as a body snatcher, his scolding his wife for
no reason at all. The methods employed by him to cover up his busiiness of
digging out graves, his habit of often talking to himself, these are the sources
of comedy in the novel.
4. Miss Pross
Introduction
The readers come to know about Miss Pross, when Lucie faints and
Mr. Lorry calls her to help Lucie. She is presented as a lady of red
complexion and to have red hair, and to be dressed in some extraordinary
light fitting fashion, and to have on her head a most wonderful bonnet like
grave dier wooden measure, and a good measure too/ or a great Stilton
cheese. She comes to take the charge of unconscious Lucie. She puts a brave
hand upon Lorry who flies back against the wall. Because of her strong blow
Mr. Lorry thinks that she must be a man. She calls Lucie with effective
words like 'my precious, my bird, my darling pretty etc' Her Service to Lucie
Miss Pross is appointed as a helper to Lucie. She proves to be the most
sincere worker in her work. For example, one day when Mr. Lorry comes to
see Lucie and Dr. Manette, tells him how she is upset because hundreds of
people usually come to see her. The author then points out, 'it was
characteristic of this lady (as of some other people before her time
and since) that whenever her original preposition was questioned, she
exaggerated. The author agrees that it is the habit of Miss Pross to exag-
gerate but at the same time he also opines that she is too much devoted jo her
Mistress Lucie. When Darnay comes to visit Lucie merely because he is in
love with her. Miss Pross feels jealousy against him. In this regard the author
describes Lorry's observation, "Mr. Lorry knew Miss Pross to be very
jealous, but he also knew her by this time to be, beneath the surface of her
eccentricity, one of those unselfish creatures who will, for pure love and
admiration, bind themselves as willing slaves to youth when they have lost
it, to beauty that they never had. He stationed Miss Pross much nearer to the
lower angles than many ladies immeasurably better got up both by Nature
and Art, who had balances as Tellson's." \ bold lady
Miss Pross is an extremely bold lady, having practical wisdom. It is her
practical wisdom which warns her against the danger of another carriage
following Dr. Manette, Lucie and her daughter. She asks Jerry to wait for her
at the cathedral with the ready carriage. Although she never expected to "go
across salt water", she accompanies Lucie to Paris and proves her worth by
being more than a match to Madame Defarge. Alone and unarmed, she
thwarts Madame Defarge : "You (Madame Defarge) might, from your
appearance be the wife of Lucifer. Novertheless, you shall not get the better
of me. I am an Englishwoman. Both are suspicious of each other; if one is
the devoted friend, the other is the family's malevolent enemy. The two
women come to grips and the vigorous tenacity of the love of Miss Pross
makes her hold Madame Defarge with more than the hold of a drowning
woman. Then from a shot from her pistol Madame Defarge gets killed, the
concussion of which deafens Miss Pross for life.
An Important Character
Miss Pross appears to be a comic character in the novel. Whenever she
comes before the readers, she presents healthy comic atmosphere. At the end
of the novel her role is very vital in the development of the plot. She does not
kill Madame Defarge who is the symbol of hatred but it is ony because of her
that Madame Defarge could be killed. Since she stands for love while
Madame Defarge for hatred, the novelist seems to highlight how the hatred
is spoiled in the presence of love. The novelist thows light of her character
and points out that she is one of those unselfish creatures found only among
women who will for pure love and admiration, bind themselves as willing
slaves, to youth when they have lost it, to beauty that they never had, to
accomplishments that they were never fortunate enough to gain, to bright
hopes that never shone upon their sombre lives. It is this unselfish devotion
of Miss Pross which leads Mr. Lorry to regard her as much nearer to the
lower Angels than many ladies immeasurably better get up both by Nature
and Art, who had balances at Tellson's.
5. John Barsad
Or
Solomon
Introduction
John Barsad, a spy of the British government is introduced by the
novelist on the occasion of the trial of Charles Darnay who is arrested under
the charge of treason. Barsad collects many facts about the movements and
activities of Charles Darnay. But the defence counsel proves that Barsad is a
liar whose proof should not be accepted as a fact. After this incident Barsad
is presented as the chief mourner in the funeral procession which is taking a
coffin. This coffin is supposed to contain the dead body of another spy
whose name is Roger Cly. Later on, we meet Barsad in Paris where he has
come as a spy of the British government to collect the information about the
political position of France. But in France he becomes the spy of the French
authorities to keep watch on the activities of the revolutionaries in the
suburb of Saint Antoine. He goes to the shop of Defarge in order to collect
information about the activities of revolutionaries, but he fails in his
mission. After this incident he joins the revolutionaries, posing as a
Frenchman and quickly obtains an influencial position. He serves as a
turnkey at the prison, where Charles Darnay is a prisoner who is waiting for
his execution.
His real identification
John Barsad is the lost brother of Miss Pross. His real name is
Solomon. Miss Pross sees him in a street of Paris and recognises him. He
does not feel pleasure when Miss Pross calls him her brother. She is deeply
shocked when he forces her not to call him by his real name. Thus at this
movement he seems to be a selfish man who knows no emotion.
His use by Carton
Sydney Carton who sacrifices his life for the sake of the pleasure of
Lucie, uses Barsad in his plan. With the help of Jerry Cruncher, he
threatens him to bring him (Carton) to the cell of Darnay, otherwise
he would disclose his real identification. Carton describes him in the fol
lowing lines .................... "sheep of the prisons, emissary of Republican
committees, now turnkey, now prisoner, always spy and secret informer, so
much the more valuable here for being English that an Englishman is less
open to suspicion of subornation in those characters than a Frenchman,
represents himself to his employers under a false name. Mr. Barsad, now in
the employ of the Republican French government who was formerly in the
employ of the aristocratic English government, the enemy of France and
freedom."
Conclusion
In short, Barsad is presented with many colours. What strikes about his
character is that he is presented as an important character in the miseries of
Darnay and in the end he proves to be an asset in the plan of Carton who
helps Darnay escape at the cost of his life.
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Q. 1. Disuss A Tale of Two Cities as a historical novel.

Or Comment on the historical
scene in A Tale of Two Cities.
Or Does Dickens show himself to be a
revolutionary in A Tale of Two Cities ?
Or Does he show that revolution is
a matter to be avoided ?
Or Discuss treatment of the French Revolution in A
Tale of Two Cities. Does Dickens have any theory of revolution ? Ans. A
Tale of Two Cities has been regarded as one of the greatest historical novels
because it deals with the historical events and processes. But this novel
cannot be taken as a book of history because unlike a historian, the novelist
gives more importance to the humanistic side of events. Dickens tries his best
in explaining the influence of certain historical events.
Though Dickens has not been regarded as a novelist of historical
fiction, on two occasions, he had tried to produce historical fiction. The first
historical novel of Dickens was Barnaby Rudge in which he narrated the
story of the Gordon Riots. Led by Lord George Gordon, these riots happened
in London and the parliament was compelled to repeal the Act of 1778 for
the relief of the Roman Catholics. Though Dickens never sympathised with
Roman Church in any other work, his portrayal of the Gordon Riots and the
treatment of Lord Gordon are extremely impartial, excellent and fair. The
novelist uses this subject as the main theme of the novel, 'Barnaby Rudge'
very successfully and points out, "No account of the Gordon Riots having
been to my knowledge introduced into any work of fiction, and the subject
presenting very extraordinary and remarkable features, I was led to project
this tale."
A Tale of Two Cities is a second attempt at historical fiction by Dickens
and this time the French Revolution was his subject. For historical fiction it
is essential to ascertain and verify the facts that are related to history,
Dickens is very careful, regarding the verification of historical' facts. In the
preface to the first edition of 'Barnaby Rudge' he points out that in order to
bring historical truths to his fiction he would like to consult the best
authorities. In the same manner while writing^ Tale of Two Cities he
consulted the best authorities. He admits it in his preface to the
1
first edition of A Tale of Two Cities. Whenever any reference (however

slight) is made to the condition of the French people before or during the
Revolution, it is truly made, on the faith of trustworthy witnesses. It has
been one of my hopes to add something to the popular and picturesque
means of understanding that terrible time, though no one can hope to add
anything to the philosophy of Mr. Carlyle's wonderful book.
Dickens claimed that Carlyle's famous book, 'French Revolution*
was studied by him again and again. Being highly impressed he met
Car-lyle in 1840. Both liked each other and this acquaintance changed
into friendship. That Dickens had great admiration for Carlyle, has also
been confirmed by Forster who states in his book, "The Life of Charles
Dickens', "Admiration for Carlyle increased in him with these years, and
there was no one whom in later life he admired so much, or had a more
profound regard for." Before going through A Tale of Two Cities, it is
necessary to understand the social and the practical conditions of French
Revolution. Before and during the 18th century the spirit of democracy
was generally condemned and regarded as a negation of ordered govern-
ment. The monarchs who used to govern by divine right, enjoyed the
power of a great part of Europe. ITiese monarchs were supported by
some groups who belong to the different classes of society.
At that time England was touched by the spirit of democracy. A
political revolution in which political power was wrested from the hands
of the king and court by the parliament, started the Reformation. Despite
that, the real spirit of democracy was absent from England. In the 17th
century there started a bitter battle between the powers of King and those
of parliament, which changed into the Civil War and the powers of king
were gained by the general mass as their rights. But as it has been clarified
earlier that this parliament was not representative of common people,
merely because the right to vote was given only to aristocratic class, middle
and lower middle class people were deprived of their democratic rights.
Despite all these facts, the political and social conditions of England
were far better than those of France or any other country of Europe. It
was because of the broad opinion of the upper class people who showed
great interest in the progress of the social conditions of the middle and
lower class people. Dickens highlights the social and political scene of
England in Victorian age and he declares openly that the main conflict
was between the 'haves' and the 'havenots'.
The social and political scene of France was worse than that of
England. Though the democratic spirit had started to touch the political
walls of France, the French Parliament was regarded as the assembly of
lay and clerical landowners who were the representatives of the third es-
tate, whom the French king called from time to time to give advice and
vote money. But the state general had not been called since 1614 and was
never called again till 1789. This provided the monarchy with free hand
and monarchy became absolute. The clergymen and the noblemen were
contented with this state of affairs, because their privileges including the
privilege of exemption from direct taxation, were not diluted and
tampered with. Indeed, this exemption was a relic of the feudal times
Questions and Answers 211
when the priests who prayed for all "and the noblemen who fought for
all", had important placesjn society.
However, the continuance of such privilege in the 17th century and
the 18th century was offensive to the middle and the lower classes who
disfavoured these privileges strongly. The economic conditions of the
peasants started becoming worse. Since the clergymen and nobles were
exempted from taxes, charges of taxes upon the common men, were
doubled and redoubled and it created the sense of dissatisfaction among
them. The exploitation of the lower and the middle class people at the
hands of upper class society was not only obvious in the taxation policy,
but also in the policy of employment for the high government posts. Ac-
cording to this new policy, the lower and middle class people were
strongly denied the high posts in the churches and government offices,
despite their high qualification.
Political revolt is always inspired by the economic difficulties.
Therefore a major portion of the French society demanded economic and
social equality. They demanded employment in Churches, army and other
offices. They were not prepared to be regarded as the second-rate citizens
as compared to aristocracy. In these days in other countries of Europe, the
spirit of democracy resulted in freedom in their countries. Specially, the
freedom of America, and new change in the economic structure of the
society of England developed the sense of revolt in France against
absolutism. In other words, there were two streams that directed French
Revolution, one came from England, while another belonged to America.
Besides English thinkers like John Ruskin, French intellectuals also
developed the democratic outlook of the French people and inspired
them to revolt against the exploiting nature of aristocracy. Montesquieu
in his work 'Spirit-De Louis' (spirit of laws) criticizes the French govern-
ment and advocates the constitutional pattern of England. He strongly
exploded the myth of the Divine Rights of the King. Voltaire started a
devastating attack on the absolutism of the French government and the
unwanted privileges of the aristocracy which disturbed the normal life of
the French people. Locke, Lord Shaftsbury, Rousseau also disfavoured
the exploitation of the common people at the hands of the aristocracy and
they directed the people to report against any type of exploitation.
The American War of Independence also influenced the French
people. The slogans of liberty which Americans used for the struggle of
their freedom, encouraged the French to fight against the aristocracy.
Madam Champan points out in this regard, "Our Youth flew to the wars
waged in the new world of liberty and against the rights of thrones. Liberty
prevailed, they returned triumphant to France and brought with them the
seed of Independence."
Indeed, Dickens penned A Tale of Two Cities with historical back-
ground of French Revolution. While writing the novel, the novelist kept
direct touch with French and English history of that time. There is a fine
delineation of political events, though the novel also deals with other
aspects like love. The novelist devotes many pages to the exploitation of
the poor at the hands of the aristocracy. Later on, he discusses the fury of
the revolutionaries who also committed some evil deeds. The novelist ad
mils the influence of Car lylc and the historical background of the novel in
the preface to the novel: "Whenever any reference is made to the conditions
of the French people before or during the Revolution, it is truly made, on the
faith of trustworthy witness. It has been one of my hopes and something to
the popular and picturesque means of understanding that terrible time,
though no one can hope to add anything to the philosophy of Mr. Carlyle's
wonderful book."
Q. 2. Write a note on Dickens' use of symbolism in A Tale of Two
Cities.
Or Discuss symbolism as a structural
element in A Tale of Two Cities.
Or Give examples of symbolic imagery
used by Dickens in A Tale of Two Cities.
Ans. There is an abundant use of symbols and symbolic imagery in>l
Tale of Two Cities. Symbolism stands for the use of an object or an idea or a
-person in a greater or deeper sense than literally conveyed by that object,
idea or person. The author uses symbolism in order to give a deeper sense to
his writing. The symbolic meaning is generally veiled and it lends additional
meanings to those which are clear on the surface.^ Tale of Two Cities is full
of symbolic objects. Symbolism has become an essential element of the
structure of this novel.
In the very beginning two symbols are obvious; the woodman sym-
bolizes the fate while the farmer stands for death. According to the author,
the woodman and the farmer work continuously and silently and no one may
hear them as they go about the muffled steps. Here the woodman and the
farmer arc not merely workers in the wood and killer in the field respectively
but the farmer represents the fate while the latter symbolizes death. The
complete idea of the presentation of them is that fate and death arc doing
their work in France in order to ruin general happiness to bring destruction.
Another symbolic significance can be found in the journey of the
mail-coach which the author describes in the second chapter. The author
regards it as an uphill journey, passing through the hill, the harvest, the mud.
The horses become mutinous and they desire to take the coach backward.
With drooping heads and shaking tails, the horses laboriously make their
way tnrough the thick mud, floundering and stumbling as if they were going
to fall to pieces. This depressing state of affairs becomes very gloomy
because of the atomsphere of suspicion all over and around the mail-coach.
The guards suspect the passengers while passengers are also doubtful about
the guards. The coachman is also doubtful about the journey and he thinks
that the horses are not fit for the journey. The whole affair in this regard is
symbolically described with the meaning that the revolutionary effects
dominate the whole France.
The wine shop is the chapter in which the author describes how a
cask of wine gets broken in the street by accident and the wine is spilled on
the ground. Since the colour of the wine is red, it stains the ground in the
suburb of Saint Antoinc in Paris where it is spilled. A large mob rushes
towards the spilling wine and tries to drink wine from the little pools. The
result is that many people look red because of the colouring wine. In fact
the spilling of wine is symbolically presented as the shedding of blood. It
gives hint to the fact that when the French Revolution would break out,
plenty of blood would be seen in the streets. The author describes the
scene in the following lines:
"The time was to come, when that wine would be spilled on the
street stones and when the stain of it would he red upon many there.
Another example of writer's device of symbolism is the description
of a mill which grinds wheat into Hour. The author remarks about the mill
that the people of Saint Antoine had undergone a terrible grinding and
rcgrinding in the mill. The mill grinded young people into the old.
Though people worked in the Hour-mill the children in the suburbs had
ancient faces and grave voices upon their faces, and also upon the faces of
the grown up people, the sign of hunger was clear. The symbol of the mill
grinding and rcgrinding, not wheat but human beings, anticipates the
symbol of the grindstone that comes after a long period in the story. The
enraged members of the revolutionary crowd arc described as sharpening
their body, not chest knives, bayonets and swords at a grindstone which
has a double handle and which is being worked furiously by two men. Both
the mill and the grindstone become the symbols of the destruction which
the people face in France. The novelist presents Carmagnole, the name of a
song and dance among the French Revolutionaries in 1793. To Lucie the
dancing of the carmagnole becomes a dreadful sight. The novelist points
out that no battle could have been half so terrible as this dance was. All
these pictures, the spilled wine, the mill; the grindstone, and the Car-
magnole create a deep emotional effect. The scenes symbolise the
violence.
'Hundreds of People' is another chapter in which the echoing
footsteps are introduced by the novelist as the symbols of those incidents
that are to happen. Sydney Lucie often hears the echoes of footsteps when
she sits alone in a corner in her house. Sydney Carton remarks in this case
that "if it is true, there would be a great crowd coming one day in the lives
of all of them." The novelist points out in this connection, "These were
among the echoes to which Lucie, sometimes pensive, sometimes amused
and laughing, listened in the echoing corner, until her little daughter was
six years old. However, to her heart the echoes of her child's tread came,
and those of her own dear father's always active and self-possessed, and
those of her dear husband's need not be told." In fact these echoing steps
are the symbol of the coming of the great tempest, namely the French
Revolution.
In the chapter 'The Gorgon's head' there is the description of the
Chateau which belongs to Evremonde. The novelist informs that the
Chateau is a heavy stone building with a large stone courtyard before it.
and a stone stair-case. It was a "stony business altogether, with heavy

stone balustrades, and stone urns, and stone flowers, and stone faces of
men, and stone heads of lions, in all directions, as if the Gorgon's head
had surveyed it, when it was finished two centuries ago." In fact this aspect
of the Chateau is symbolic and the author emphasises the story aspect of
the Chateau which has also a larger number of stone faces depicted on
the outside of its walls. These stone faces are the symbols of the
hard-heartedness and callousness of the Evremonde race which has owned
this Chateau and resides in it. This race also perpetrates several cruelties
on the part of the poor in it. Since Marquis is a completely cruel creature,
he shows no emotion at any place. When the author says that in
Chateau there is no place where stone is not seen, he wants to convey the
fact that Marquis has no soft corner for the poor and he was a perfect
incarnation of cruel heartedness. Charles Darnay who also belongs to
Evremonde family, gives up his ownership of the Chateau. This incident
is symbolic and its true meaning is that Charles Darnay refuses to adopt
the cruel ways of life, which were of his father. Later on, Charles proves to
be a true sympathiser of the poor and he is to suffer for the wrongs of his
father.
Again and again we hear about the Bastille, a place where hundreds
of prisoners are kept. Many have to suffer in the Bastille. All the
revolutionaries decide to storm the Bastille. Here the writer intends to
convey the fact that the revolutionaries decided to kill all those who
had least pity for the poor. A group of revolutionaries rushes towards the
Bastille under the leadership ofDefarge and Madame Defarge. Many of-
ficials and aristocrats are crushed and put to death. This place, the Bas-
tille and all the incidents, related to it are significant symbolically.
Like the Bastille, La Guillotine is a symbol of hard-hearted and cruel
activities. But at La Guillotine, these activities are done by the revolution-
ary mob. If the Bastille symbolizes the tyranny of the government, and
King Louis XVI, La Guillotine stands for the tyrannized behaviour of the
revolutionaries. It becomes "the National Razor which shaves close." It is
regarded as the sign of the regeneration of the human race. La Guillotine
is a symbol of the brutalities and the barbarities which are committed by
the poor and the downtrodden when they come into power. It is as ugly
and hateful as the Bastille.
Some of the characters in the novel are also expressed through sin-
cere symbols. For example, Madame Defarge stands for the unlimited
hatred and evil because she always shows bloodthirsty attitude. Her
revenge is indeed more than the tyranny through which she has to pass.
Hatred, revenge and violence become the parts of her spirit and she often
registers the names of the aristocrats. Because of her wrong attitude many
innocent people have to die in vain. The novelist presents her in order to
show the cruel aspect of the revoLutionaries. Miss Pross, on the other
hand, stands for love. Her love for Lucie is deep and sincere. In her con-
test with Madame Defarge, Madame Defarge is killed with her own pistol
and Pross escapes, defeating her. This incident is absolutely symbolic and
the author conveys the fact that hatred and evil are self-destructive and in
the contest between love and hatred, the victory of love is sure. Sydney
Carton also stands for the true spirit of sacrifice. This sacrificial death
symbolises the ways for which Jesus Christ fought and sacrificed his life.
William H. Marshall, a renowned critic points out that/1 Tale of Two
Cities is a story about rebirth through death and that therefore Dickens
reveals many symbols of life and death. The symbols of death seem to win
over the symbols of life in order to emphasise the final rebirth through
death which is symbolised by Carton's sacrificial death. Blood, stone and
wine are the principal symbols, used by Dickens.
Q. 3. Do you think that revolutionary scenes have fully been in-
tegrated with the main story of the novel, A Tale of Two
Cities ?
Or
Would you say that the scenes connected with the French
Revolution in A Tale of Two Cities have closely been related to
the course of the life of a group of private individuals or
whether those scenes appear to be extraneous in the latter
theme?
Or
How far can you say that A Tale of Two Cities is a blend of fact
and fancy, history and imagination ?
Ans. A Tale of Two Cities is not only the tale of two towns, but it is a
tale merely of the French Revolution and is a story of a group of private
individuals. However, this story has been narrated with the background of
the French Revolution which moved France in the year 1789-90. A
number of episodes and characters in the novel are concerned with the
historical side of the French Revolution. But the skill of the novelist lies
in mixing fact and fiction, history and imagination, public events and
private individuals. The main characters in the novel are Dr. Alexandre
Manette, Lucie Evremonde or Charles Darnay, Sydney Carton and Mr.
Jarvis Lorry. In the story these characters are related to one another in
some way or the other to prove the relevance of their existence.
Through these private individuals, the novel has been taken as a step
towards a drama or novel of personal relationship. Lucie is Dr. Manette s
daughter, married to Charles Evremonde (known as Charles Darnay),
and is loved by Sydney Carton who maintains his relationship with the
Manettes even after Lucie's marriage with Darnay. Lorry becomes a great
friend of Dr. Manette after Dr. Manette has been brought from Paris to
London, and thereafter Mr. Lorry's devotion to Dr. Manette, and to Lucie
as well, goes on increasing. At last Carton offers himself for arrest in place
of Darnay to save the life of Lucie, the woman he loves more than his life.
In this way the private individuals who have nothing to do with politics or
public life, form a compact group and are capable of giving the story a real
spirit of a novel. On the fringes of this group are Miss Pross and Jerry
Cruncher. Pross was Lucie's governess and Jerry an odd jobman and
messenger in Tellson's Bank.
Some of these personages are concerned with the French
Revolution this way or that way. Dr. Manette and Charles Darnay are
216/1 Tale of Two Cities
French by birth, parentage and nationality. Dr. Manet te begot Lucie from
an English wife, so Lucie too is half French and half English. Darnay
comes from the French Evrcmonde family. Though a French aristocrat
yet he revolted against the way of life of the French nobility and aris-
tocracy. Monsieur Dcfargc is presented as a servant of Dr. Manettewho
worked as a physician and surgeon in Paris. The most important figure in
the novel is Charles Darnay. He is directly related to the French Revolu-
tion in the sense that he is the representative of the French nobility which
is the target of the revolutionaries. His father, Marquis Evrcmonde, is
murdered because he was haughty and callous and has killed a child in the
accident. He is killed by the father of the child. Charles decides not to
inherit either the property or the title of his father and decides to live
permanently in England. The cruelty of Marquis Evrcmonde represents
thecrueltyand arrogance of the whole French artistocracy.
Monsieur and Madame Defarge are related to the revolution in the
'sense that they have been arming the people for rebellion and thus play a
leading role. They lead the mob to attack the Bastille, release the
prisoners, murder the governor of the prison and several other officials,
and take possession of the notorious prison. In the course of their
revolutionary operation, Monsieur Defarge finds out a piece of paper
from Dr. Manette's cell. Further, the Defarges are involved in the burning
of the Chateau of the Evremonde family. Since the young children of the
Defarges were killed by Evremonde, they have a fierce desire for revenge
against the Evremonde family and this they fulfil by getting Charles Dar-
nay arrested.
The arrest, and acquittal of Darnay is related to the revoltuion. Mon-
sieur Defarge is now in a position of power and authority because of the
Revolution. He identifies Darnay as Charles Evremonde, who belongs to
an aristocratic French family. The trial of Charles Darnay is done by the
Revolutionaries, and because of the efforts of Dr. Manette he is released
and yet again while leaving Paris he is arrested and sentenced to death.
But he is saved because he is substituted by Carton who lives in the
jail under disguise and releases Darnay for the love of Lucie. It is the
revolution that makes it necessary for Darnay to visit Paris, and it is be-
cause of the new revolutionary procedures that he is condemned to death.
It is because of the new revolutionary attitudes that Dr. Manette finds it
possible to exert himself for the release of Darnay even though his efforts
are useless on account of the paper written by himself several years ago. It
is because of revolutionary excesses that Darnay has to remain for fifteen
months in prison and that hundreds of noblemen have already been ex-
ecuted in France. Madame Defarge even tries to have Lucie and Lucie's
child sentenced to death, but she fails in this effort, because of the past
enmity with the Evremonde family, a member of which Lucie has mar-
ried. Thus all the major personages are related this way or that with the
French Revolution. The novelist has successfully integrated personal
lives of his characters with the wider pattern of history. The characters
have to suffer a lot because of the Revolution.
Q, 4. Resurrection in A Tale of Two Cities takes a variety of forms.

What are the forms in which resurrection appears in the novel ?
Or How far would it be correct to say
that Mr. Lorry's words "Recalled to life" in the beginning of
the novel strike the keynote of A Tale of Two Cities ?
Or How does Dickens deal with the
theme of death and rebirth (or rebirth through death) in A Tale of
Two Cities ?
Ans. The main theme of A Tale of Two Cities is not the depiction of
common life in the two cities of London and Paris alone, nor is it only a
novel about the French Revolution. Its central theme is a Christian theme of
resurrection which means the image of Jesus Christ rising from his grave on
the third day of his Crucifixion. In this novel, resurrection has also been
related to renunciation. It is said that Dickens derived both these themes
from Wilkie Collins's play, 'The Frozen Deep.'
The resurrection theme progresses through the lives of Dr. Manctte,
Old Bailey, Darnay, Carton, Roger Ely, Old Foulon, Solomon (or Barsad)
and Jerry Cruncher. These characters in the novel are resurrected in one way
or the other.
The theme of resurrection is presented at the very beginning when Mr.
Lorry, who is travelling by the mail-coach to Dover, sends a message to
Tellson's Bank through the messenger, Jerry Cruncher. The words of Lorry's
message are "Recalled to life". These words are very significant as Mr. Lorry
accompanied by Miss Lucie Manette is going to Paris to bring Dr. Manette to
England. Dr. Manette's imprisonment is like death, his release is an act of
resurrection. His long imprisonment of 18 years seems to Mr. Lorry a kind of
burial in a grave from which Dr. Manette rises. This image occurs to Lorry's
mind frequently. The dozing Mr. Lorry in his imagination holds a
conversation with the dead man whom he is to dig out from his grave. After
this imaginary conversation Mr. Lorry in his fancy begins to dig with a
spade. The return of Manette from insanity to sanity is a second resurrection.
This resurrection is brought by Lucie's nursing, service, loving care and
affection.
There is Charles Darnay (or Charles Evremonde) who is rescued from
death thrice. Each time this escape scene takes place, it is a kind of
resurrection or rebirth for Darnay. The first occasion is his trial at Old Bailey
where he has been charged with treason against England. But he is acquitted
of the charge and released after trial. Darnay's second resurrection takes
place when he is in France. He lives in the prison of La Force, he is put on
trial and faces the penalty of death. But he is rescued through the good
influence and efforts of Dr. Manette. The third resurrection of Darnay is
even, more important. This is when he is re-arrested on charges by Monsieur
Defarge and others. He is tried and is sentenced to death. It is Sydney
Carton who impersonates as Darnay and is replaced by him. The
prison-guards do not identify the difference between
the two. Thus, Carton remains in prison and Darnay comes out under the
guise of Carton. Carton manages to enter Darnay's cell, forces him to ex.
change his clothes with those of Carton, renders him unconscious with a
strong drug, and has him carried by the spy Barsad to a carriage waiting
outside the prison. Darnay is then driven away by his friends and relations
and his life is saved.
Carton himself is an example of a resurrection, a real resurrection in
the Christian sense. He achieves resurrection in two ways. First, his death
makes a spiritual resurrection for him. By his sacrificial death, Carton
who had been leading a life of profligacy, is morally regenerated. This
moral regeneration or redemption is a kind of resurrection for him.
Secondly, when Carton formulates his bold plan to save Darnay's life, the
words of the Christian Burial Service echo in his ears: "lam the
Resurrec-tion and the life, saith live; and whosoever liveth and believeth in
me shall never die." These words Carton had heard at the time of his
father's funeral, and these words now come to him as a promise that the
man who believeth in Lord Jesus Christ is immortal. These words echo
again in Carton's ears when he is actually going to be executed. Thus,
Carton dies, feeling sure that he will find himself alive in another world.
Carton dies with the certainty of resurrection and gives its message.
There are some grotesque and comic resurrections in the novel.
Roger Ely, a spy, believed to have died and buried in the graveyard of
Saint Paneras's Church, is found alive in Paris and spying. Old Foulon had
caused himself to be represented as dead and had arranged a grand
funeral for himself. Subsequently, he is found to be alive and is seized by
the revolutionary mob. Another comic example is the reappearance of
Solomon, the brother of Miss Pross whom she had almost given up as
dead and who is found actively working in the name and disguise of John
Barsad. Another character, Jerry Cruncher, supplements his income by
selling the dead bodies to a surgeon. He digs out newly buried coffins from
their graves. Young Jerry sees his father doing this kind of work and he
too desires to become "a Resurrection Man", a man who digs out dead
bodies to be sold as a money making work.
Finally, resurrection in the life of the people of France as a whole is
suggested by the political and social regeneration through the French
Revolution.
The other theme, less prominent but less valuable, is renunciation. It
is through a renunciation of this claim to the family estate and the family
title that Charles Evremonde (or Charles Darnay) attains a heroic stature in
our eyes. On growing up he decides to give up his claim to the family
inheritance. To him the family inheritance signifies "a crumbling tower of
waste mismanagement, extortion, debt, mortage, oppression, hunger,
nakedness, and suffering". Thus he shows a spirit of self-sacrifice and
reconciliation. If all noblemen in France had followed his example, there
would have been no bloodshed. The other act of reconciliation is per-
formed by Sydney Carton who renounces the world and gives up his earthly
life for the sake of Lucie whom he loves deeply.
Q. 5. Bring out the comic elements in A Tale of Two Cities.

Or Dickens is regarded as a great
humorist. Discuss in the light
of A Tale of Two Cities.
Or "Above all, the book is
notoriously deficient in humour." Do you agree with this view
about A Tale of Two Cities ?
Or
Write a comprehensive note on the element of humour in
A Tale of Two Cities 1
Ans. A Tale of Two Cities is essentially a serious and tragic novel of
Dickens. But the most outstanding quality of Dickens, the note of
humour is not absent in it, though it does not contain too much humour
as we find in other novels like 'Great Expectations' and 'David Coppei
field'. Since the novel deals with the most serious aspect of society, excess
of humour would have marred the tragic effect of the novel. Despite
that, the novelist introuces humour through situations, characterization
and incidents. Characters like Stryver, Jerry Cruncher and Miss Pross
provide us with ample humour.
Miss Pross is obviously a comic character who has also a serious side
to her personality. She is deeply attached to her mistress, Lucie but her
character is so much amusing that whenever she appears before us, she
entertains us by her humorous behaviour. She is described by the novelist
in the following manner, "A wild looking woman, all of a red colour,
having red hair, dressed in an extraordinary tight-fitting fashion, wearing
on her head a most wonderful bonnet like a Grenadier Wooden measure.
She lays a brawny hand upon Mr. Lorry's chest, and pushes him back
against the wall. Mr. Lorry is bound to think that the attacker must be a
man. After this she entertains us by her fussy manner. She orders to go
and bring smelling salt, cold water, vinegar, etc. Turning to the un-
conscious Lucie,she calls her 'my precious, my bird' etc. She spreads
Lucie's golden hair with great pride and care. When Mr. Lorry meets her
she tells Mr. Lorry that dozens of people have started visiting Lucie. In-
deed, she exaggerates the situation and the author also remarks on this
common nature of women. "Whenever her original preposition was ques-
tioned, she exaggerated it." Another comment that she passes upon her
character is that "her character dissociated from stature, was shortness."
By this remark the author intends to say that she possesses a huge body, in
speech she tended to be brief and short. She feels jealous of both Charles
Darnay and Sydney Carton because Lucie spends too much time on them.
Her jealousy is also the source of humour for the readers. Last of all, her
confrontation with Madame Defarge has its comic side. When Madame
Defarge comes to. attack her, she says to her.
"I am a Briton, and I am desperate, do not care an English two
pence for myself. I know that the longer I keep you here, the greater
hope there is for my lady bird. I will not leave a handful of that dark
220 A Tale ofTwo Cities
hair upon your head, if you lay a finger on me." The whole scene gives
an ample interest of humour.
Jerry Cruncher is another character who amuses us by his humorous
activities. When he rides back to London with Mr. Lorry's message
'Recalled to life," he is puzzled and confused by the wording of
themes-sage. He thinks that when Mr. Lorry wrote this message he must
have been drunk. He says to himself that he would be in a blazing bad way if
recalling to life were to come into fashion. Jerry's business is very horrible
because he digs out dead bodies from their graves. He considers the message
of Mr. Lorry in the light of his business. The most amusing aspect of Jerry's
character is related to his conjugal life. Whenever he finds his wife praying,
he says, "What do you mean by flopping yourself down and praying again
(against) me." He often scolds her and sometimes beats her. He happens to
have spiky hair, which at once stands on end whenever Jerry gets excited
about something. He often calls himself 'an honest tradesman.' The fishing
expedition that he pretends to make is very amusing. Last of all when Mr.
Lorry scolds him, he makes two promises before Mr. Lorry that neither he
would dig the dead body from its grave nor he would beat his wife. This
statement of Jerry creates a comic effect in the novel.
Mr. Stryvcr is the most powerful comic character who amuses not only
the readers but also other characters of the novel. About him the author says
that his was a way of "shouldering himself morally and physically into
companies and conversations." Mr. Stryver is really 'a go-getter, and a
gate-crasher.' He shows a lot of pride over his rapid progress in the legal
profession of which he is a member. He tells, later on, that he is ready to love
and to marry Lucie, even though she would bring no dowry to him. He thinks
that when Lucie would come to know about this proposal, her happiness
would know no bounds. Later on, he proposes and very humorously fails in
his plan. Regarding the failure of his plan, he is not disappointed but he
thinks that Lucie's happiness has been ruined by her own stubborn nature.
Thus Stryver's actions in the novel are the chief sources of the comic effect.
Mr. Lorry, a sincere friend of Dr. Manette also exhibits comic impression
through his peculiarities. This devotion to his work is very sincere but to the
readers it is the source of humour. Before Miss Pross, he often loses his
power of thinking.
Besides these characters, there are a number of humorous remarks
which the author makes in order to create humour. For example, about
Madame Defarge, he says that she "sat against the doorpost, knitting, and
that she saw nothing." About Tellson's bank he points out that the partners
who ran this bank "were proud of its smallness, proud of its darkness, proud
of its ugliness, proud of its incommodiousness." The novelist further says
that one of these partners would have disinherited one of his sons on the
question of rebuilding the bank.
Dickens is indeed a great master of humour. Though A Tale of Two
Cities highlights the most serious aspect of society, he introduces the
humour with the same effect. A.J. Wyatt, a famous critic of Dickens ap-
preciates the novelist of a great humorist. The critic points out:
"The humour of Dickens is his greatest quality. It makes every-
thing he wrote unmistakably characteristic of him. It appears in the turn
of his phrases, in a certain indirectness of statement which throws into
relief a comic element in anything he wishes to describe."
Q. 6. Do you think that A Tale of Two Cities contains the essentials of
tragedy ? Give a well-reasoned answer.
Or Would you agree that in A Tale of
Two Cities, Dickens produced something like a true tragedy ?
Discuss.
Or Write a note on the tragic elements
in A Tale of Two Cities.
Or Do you think A Tale of Two Cities
contains only an abundance of melodrama and sensationalism,
and not the true stuff of tragedy ?
Ans. Despite melodramatic elements, A Tale of Two Cities is a genuine
tragedy. The scenes and situations which increase melodramatic effects, are
produced merely to emphasise sensationalism. But the novelist's purpose is
not only to present violence and bloodshed. These melodramatic and
sensational incidents and episodes are keenly related to the plot and the main
story of the novel. Dickens's object of writing this novel is to outline the
demerit side of the French Revolution. Through many incidents he proves
that such type of revolution mars the happiness of innocent people. Almost
all the melodramatic and sensational incidents are deeply connected with the
historical fact of French Revolution. The novelist could have avoided the
sensational aspect, but the absence of this aspect would have lessened the
realistic aspect of the revolution. In short, A Tale of Two Cities is defintely a
genuine tragedy which consists of all those true characteristics which are
necessary for a tragedy.
For a genuine tragedy an emotional effect is very necessary. A Tale of
Two Cities depicts the sufferings and misfortunes under which the human
beings have to pass. Pathos is the chief emotional effect which is found in a
true tragedy. In order to deepen the pathos, the writer of a tragedy has to
alloy fear with the pathos. In this regard, first of all the life of Dr. Manette is
to be observed. Dr. Manette has to suffer merely because he is unable to
tolerate the horrible suffering of a girl and a boy who are ruined by
Ev-remonde brothers. When Doctor informs the government officials
regarding this exploitation, Evremonde brothers capture him and put him in
prison for eighteen years. During these eighteen years his wife passes away
and his only daughter Lucie is supported by others. This extreme misfortune
mars the balance of Doctor's mental position and he becomes a mad person.
After a long imprisonment when he comes back, he is like a ghost that seems
to be unfit in the world of human beings. Anyhow with
sincere love and care of his daughter, Lucie, he resumes his normal po$j.
tion. Later on, Lucie falls in love with Charles Darnay who belongs to the
Evremonde family. Doctor again loses his normal state, thinking that his
son-in-law belongs to the Evremonde family. Later on, he again enjoys
normal conditions. But the revolutionaries decide to put Darnay to death.
It is the greatest shock under which he falls. Thus the life of Doctor
Manette is a long tale of horrible sufferings and we observe proper emo-
tional effect in it.
Not only Doctor Manette but other characters like Lucie, Darnay
and Carton come in the category of sufferers. For example, Lucie's life is a
tragedy because in her childhood she loses parental love. She is
looked after by Tellson's bank. Later on, she comes in contact with
Charles Darnay whom she loves sincerely. Both of them are married but
the revolutionary mob captures Darnay merely because he belongs to the
Evremonde family. Despite this shocking incident she shows extraordi-
nary courage. Darnay is put to trial and he is sentenced to death. This
moment becomes very heavy for her and she faints. Thus her life's tragedy
is not less than that of the life of Dr. Manetie. Darnay too proves to be a
sincere husband, honest civilian and kind hearted person. For the sake of
his honesty he gives up his luxurious life and decides to help the exploited
beings. He leaves France for London and leads his life as a tutor. But he
has to face many sufferings because he is pure-hearted. Last of all he is
sentenced to death. Thus he is a tragic hero whose life is nothing but a tale
of many sufferings.
Sydney Carton is the most appealing character of the novel because
of his tragedy. In the beginning we come to know that he is a man without
any ambition of life. He admits before Lucie, "I am like one who died
young. All my life might have been." Since he is a man of frustrated
temperament, he has no hope of improvement. He loves Lucie so much
that for the sake of her happiness, he does not hestitate in sacrificing his
life. After Darnay is sentenced to death, he takes Darnay's place. He
cheerfully mounts the scaffold to give his life for the sake of the husband
of a woman whom he has always loved. Among all dying, his face was the
most peaceful, sublime and prophetic. Before his execution he hears the
words of Jesus Christ, "I am the Resurrection and the Life...." This scene
is the grandeur of a tragedy. ,
Besides these characters, there are some narrating scenes which cre-
ate a true spirit of tragedy. For example, in the beginning we are given a
picture of hunger which is rampant in the suburb of Saint Antoine in
Paris. The cruelty of Marquis Evremonde also constitutes a harrowing
situation. The carriage of Marquis crushes a child but he remains un-
moved. Later on, he is murdered in his sleep by the father of that child.
This Chateau is put to blaze and the readers feel no sympathy for him. The
account of the march of an armed mob towards the Bastille becomes
very outstanding because of its horrible aspect. Madame Defarge, too,
becomes an incarnation of the tragic horror. She often registers the
names of her victims; many of them are innocent but their heads are cut
off bYtne revolutionaries.
The sharpening of weapons on a grindstone is one of the grimmest
scenes of the novel. In a state of frenzy many people are busy in sharpen-
ing hatchets, knives, bayonets and swords. The Carmagnole, a peculiar
dance is equally a harrowing scene. A large crowd of infuriated men and
women are here described as dancing and "keeping a ferocious time that
js like a gnashing of teeth in unison." Eleven hundred defenceless
prisoners of both sexes and all ages are killed by the enraged populace
during a period of just four days and nights. After this we come to know
that the king has also been murdered. Thus the novelist reveals the fact
how during the French revolution the general life of people was badly
affected and a major group of people had to lead the most tragic life.
Finally, the novel deals with the conflict through which the novelist
himself was passing during that period. During that period he was suf-
fering from mental agony because of the separation of his wife and of the
development of love affairs with an actress. The French Revolution was
also another cause of the mental agony of the novelist. In short, the
author was also facing a type of tragedy at the time when he penned this
novel. That is why, this novel contains all the aspects of a true tragedy.
Q. 7. Write a note on the autobiographical element in A Tale of
Two Cities.
Or "It was a novel, written at a point,
of crisis in his life, that was closely linked with matters of
deep personal importance to him in the present and in the
past." Discuss this view of A Tale of Two Cities and its
author.
Or "This novel becomes the
embodiment of Dickens's own passions, and forebodings :
the revolution which engulfs the characters, symbolizes his
own psychological revoltion, both as man and artist."
Explain this view of A Tale of Two Cities and give evidence
to support it
Or "Charles Darnay, Sydney Carton,
and Lucie Manette became projections of Dickens himself."
In the light of this opinion bring out the personal and
autobiographical significance of A
Tale of Two Cities.
Or "He had long wanted to combine
his bent towards social criticism and warning with technique
and point of view of the historical novel and further he wanted
to escape from the torments of his struggle that would be at
the same time a way of expressing it" Substantiate this view
about Dickens and A Tale of Two Cities.
Or "Hence in one way, this is

Dickens's most personal novel where he purged himself of one
part, at least ofhis distress "' Discuss this view of A Tale of Two
Cities.
Ans. Dickens has been regarded as one of the greatest
autobiographical novelists. 'David Copperfield,"Great Expectations'arc
indeed, the first presentations ofhis character. But it does no; mean thai his
concern with subjectivity mars the art of objectivity in him as a novelist.
Like a true novelist he also knows how to maintain a distance between the
plot and the writer. Thus he lays emphasis on the wonderful blending of
objectivity. A Tale of Two Cities is a novel in which there is a clear
"embodiment of Dickens's own passions, and forebodings, the revolution
which engulfs the characters, symbolizes his own psychological revolution,
both as man and artist."
When Dickens started the writing of this novel, he was passing through
a great mental crisis in his life because he was in deep love with Ellen
Ternan, an actress with whom he was acting in the drama, 'The Frozen
Deep'.,Because of this love affair his wife, Catherine was highly infuriated
and she decided to divorce him. Thus the internal crisis was not less than the
external crisis of French Revolution. Thus through the depth of the French
Revolution, the novelist has tried to reveal his own conflict.
Darnay and Carton are two important characters of the novel. They
represent the bright and the dark side of the novelist. Darnay stands for the
light, sunny and optimistic aspects of the personality of the novelist. This
fact is obvious when Darnay sets off to Paris to help Gabelle. Besides it,
though Darnay belongs to the aristocrats, he likes to live in the company of
the deprived. He gives up all those who declare him as an aristocrat. Carton
is another important character whose state of mind is always pessimistic. He
symbolises the darker side of the novelist. He loves his beloved so much that
he always wishes to sacrifice his life for the happiness ofhis beloved. As a
lover, Darnay can never touch the height of Carton. Through his character
the novelist tries to express his feelings for love and for his beloved, Ellen
Ternan. Ultimately Carton fails to attain Lucie as Dickens could not attain
Ellen Ternan.
The causes and the sufferings to imprisonment are described by the
novelist in detail. It was because of the imprisonment of the father of
Dickens when he was a child. The novelist could not forget that im-
prisonment and through the long imprisonment of Doctor Manette he has
tried to revive the imprisonment of his father. The author lays emphasis on
the sufferings, wrought by the imprisonment. He tells us how Doctor
Manette had to spend eighteen years in the prison and Darnay spends fifteen
months in jail. He describes several prisons like, Newgate Prison, the Tower
in London, Bastille, La Force, and the prison of La Abbaye in Paris.
K. J. Fielding, a renowned critic opines that Dr. Manette is closer to
Dickens than any other character of the novel. When Dr. Manette is
in dejection, he is like the novelist who loses the balance of his mind. Like
Dickens he too is a man of great firmness of purpose, strength of resolution,
and vigour of action.
When Dickens wrote the novel, his vision was sombre and tragic be-
cause of the personal circumstances to which reference has already been
given. The temper of the mind of Dickens has been tuned through the tragic
and mclodramtic atmosphere of the novel. The personal revolution through
which Dickens was going through at that time, has been highlighted through
Lucie's vague fears, her fear to see the ghost of her father, assassination, the
dreadful episodes of French Revolution, the storming of the Bastille, the
hanging of Old Foulon and his son-in-law, the sharpening of knives and
swords, the dancing of the Carmagnole, the butchery, bloodshed, etc.
The writing of this novel provides the novelist an opportunity to escape
the torments of his personal struggle. For this novel, therefore he produced
the characters who belonged to public and private interest. He also
established harmony between historical and a personal interest. Therefore
his characters are both personal and impersonal. He was also influenced by
his friend, Carlyle through his book, 'The French Revolution'. But he was
also influenced by Willkie Collins's play, 'The Frozen Deep' which is not
only a tale of two heroes and two cities, but also a fine presentation of the
sufferings of the dramatist. Thus, indeed, through A Tale of Two Cities the
novelist has introduced to mirror the crisis and the revolution of his personal
life.
Q. 8. Write a note on the note of reality and fantasy in Dickens's A Tale
of Two Cities.
Ans. The presentation of the wonderful mixture of reality and fantasy is
an important aspect of the novels of Dickens. In A Tale of Two Cities the plot
seems to bring us merely a straightforward story of adventure, danger, and
suspense, with certain amount of commentary, characterization, and
atmosphere added. But without disturbing the spirit of reality, Dickens has
coloured the plot of the novel with fantasy. The basic detail and the basic fact
of the whole enterprise is the revolution of the French Revolution. He tries to
reveal the fact that terror and bloodshed were the main characteristics of the
Revolution. While describing the events of the Revolution he is well aware
of the historical facts. Not ^nly in this novel but in 'Barnaby Rudge' also he
points out how the anti-Catholic riots, inspired by the half-mad Lord Gorden
in the late eighteenth century, affected the general mass. In A Tale of Two
Cities he discusses how bloodiness, violence, and insanity attracted the
French people during French Revolution.
Insanity is a remarkable theme of ,4 Tale of Two Cities. In the start, we
are told that Dr. Manette is so much mad that he looks like ghost and
behaves like a complete insane person. This madness is recognised by his
daughter, Lucie. We are told about the Doctor and dutiful citizen. He found
that two aristocrats, Evremonde brothers were exploiting the poor. A girl
with his brother was pitilessly murdered by these Evremonde
t brothers. Doctor could not tolerate it and he informed the
government officials in this regard. Poor doctor forgot that these officials
and the aristocrats were one in exploiting the poor. The result was the
Evremonde brothers captured him and imprisoned him for eighteen
years. During these eighteen years Doctor's wife passed away and his
daughter Lucie had to lead the life of an orphan. This imprisonment
wrought insanity in the behaviour of the doctor. He began to work as a
shoe-maker in the prison. After his release from the fits of madness when
he came to know that his daughter Lucie was going to marry the son of
Evremonde. Thus the state of fantasy becomes very common factor of the
doctor's character. In this regard Charles E. Beckwith points out, "Madness
is thematic also in A Tale of Two Cities." Dr. Manette is mad, or so
disoriented as to be mad in effect, when his daughter is first led to him. He
is mad from his senseless imprisonment of eighteen years or worse than
senseless imprisonment to which he is condemned as the result of an
accidental discovery made while performing a virtuous act. After he is
rescued, he is brought back to health through love and care. But then the
pressure of outside events, the fear of having to enact the whole nightmare
over again, cither in his own person or in that of others he loves, forces his
madness to return. And this time it is true madness, a doubling of the
original condition, a sense that one is never to be free. Doubling in this
sense and in many senses, plays a role in the significant structure of the
book. It is not of course the same thing as madness, but it is related in the
sense that when anything is doubled, neither half can be said to make up
the whole reality so that each alone is incomplete, a deficiency or
distortion: though both together, in a specific situation, may only mean a
reinforcement of nightmare. Thus Charles Darnay's double arrest, the
sudden casting of Mr. Manette in the role of accuser, an especially apt
irony since he had earlier been cast in the role of injured innocence.
These have been criticised as forced or rigged : but equally they can stand
symbolically, as instances of the contradictory nature of subjective
experience, even of the self, in relation to events. Certainly Dr. Manette
had as much reason, or more to curse the house of Evremonde, as to
honour and protect his son-in-law : and one basic lesson of the
Revolution was that as it gathered strength it turned on itself. This at least
seems to have been Dickens's feeling.
Q. 9, Mention the chief faults of A Tale of Two Cities.
Or Write a critique of the
weakness of A Tale of Two Cities.
Ans. A Tale of Two Cities was expected to be the best story by Dick-
ens, but many critics regarded it as the worst contribution of the novelist
to the English fiction. Many renowned critics like George Saintsbury,
George Grissing, and Arnold Bannet have found it unimpressive, an
anomaly among the works of Dickens though Grissing argued that Dick-
ens had produced something like a true tragedy through A Tale of Two
Cities. Grissing points out in this regard, "I cannot clear respecting that
canon of fiction which forbids the interpretation of accident in such a
case as Madame Defarge's death, Where the accident is inseparable from
the passion and emotion of the character, where it is strictly consistent with
the whole design, and arises out of some culminating proceeding on the part
of the character which the whole story has led up to, it seems to become an
act of divine justice. And when I use Miss Pross to bring about that
catastrophe, I have no positive intention of making that half-comic
intervention a part of the desperate woman's failure, and of opposing that
means death, instead of a desperate one in the streets, which she wouldn't
have minded, to the dignity of Carton's wrong or light, this was all design."
Charles E. Beckwith is not agreed with Grissing and argues that "A final
point of attack has always been the high romanticism of Carton's sacrificial
death, which is seen as an outcropping of Dickens's insensitivity to the
psychological nuance. Placed besides George Eliot and Flaubert, he can
indeed be made to look a caricaturist. But these arc other perspectives on his
work which show us, through all his apparent flatness and simplicity, a vision
unique in fiction, one in which the caricatures, the plot-tricks, and the large,
blunt emotions lock in, as behind a scries of floodgates, a vast expanse of
mystic contemplation involving mysterious figures (Sydney Carton, Madame
Defarge, fateful journeys) the Marquis to his death, Darnay to his survival,
Carton to his salvation and a world in a flames or darkness, yearning for the
light."
A. W. Ward does not find/* Tale of Two Cities as a perfectly con-
structed novel but he opines that this novel "is a skilfully though not perfectly
constructed novel, which needed but little substantial alternation in order to
be converted into a not less effective stage-play. And with such a design,
Dickens actually sent proof-sheets of the book to his friend Reg-nier, in the
fearful hope that he might approve of the project of its dramatisation for a
French theatre. Cleverly or clumsily adapted, the tale of the Revolution and
its sanguinary vengeance was unlikely to commend itself to the Imperial
censorship : but an English version was, I believe, afterwards very fairly
successful on the boards of Adclphi, where Madame Celeste was certainly in
her right place as Madame Defarge, an excellent character for a melodrama,
though rather wearisome as she lies in wait through half novel.
The construction of the story is as I have said, skilful but not perfect.
Dickens himself successfully defended his use of accident in bringing about
the death of Madame Defarge, the real objection to the conduct of this
episode, however, lies in the inadequacy of the contrivance for leaving Miss
Pross behind in Paris. Too much is also, I think, made to turn up the three
words "and their descendants" non-essential in the original connexion by
which Dr. Manette's written denunciation becomes fatal to those he loves.
Still, the general edifice of the plot is solid; its interest is notwithstanding the
crowded background, concentrated with much skill upon a small group of
personages; and Carton's self-sacrifice, admirably prepared from the very
first, produces a legitimate tragic effect. At the same time, the novelist's art
vindicates its own claims. Not only does the story contain several narrative
episodes of remarkable power such as the flight from Paris at the close and
the touching little incident of the seamstress, told in Dickens's sweetest
pathetic manner but it is likewise
enriched by some descriptive pictures of unusual excellence: for instance the

sketch of Dover in the good old smuggling times, and the mezzotint of the
stormy evening in Soho. Doubtless, the increased mannerism of the style is
disturbing, and this not only in the high-strung French scenes. As to the
historical element in this novel, Dickens modestly avowed his wish that he
might by this story been able "to add something to the popular and
picturesque means of understanding that terrible time, though no one can
hope to add anything to Mr. Carlyle's wonderful book." But if Dickens
desired to depict the noble of the ancient regime, either according to Carlyle
or according to intrinsic probability, he should not have offered, in his
Marquis, a type historically questionable, and unnatural besides. The
description of the Saint Antoine, before and during the bursting of the storm,
has in it more of truthfulness, or the semblance of truthfulness; and Dickens's
perception of the physiognomy of the French workman is, I think,
remarkably accurate. Altogether, the book is an extraordinary tour de force,
which Dickens never repeated." K. J. Fielding also seeks-other faults of the
novel:
"Its (A Tale of Two Cities) fault is not that it attempts to be dramatic but
that it seems derivative and conventional. Dickens explained in the Preface
that 'the main idea' of the story came to him when acting in The Frozen
Deep; his notebook shows that it was partly conceived as, "like a French
drama, from the first; and immediately after completing it he is known to
have packed off the proofs to France to see if the performance ofa stage
version in Paris would be allowed by the Imperial censor. But, if excellent
theatre, the dialogue too often has many of the pretentious faults of Victorian
drama; just when it ought to convey emotional depth and conflict it begins
strumming on stock phrases until released by action. Unlike many of the
earlier works, such as The Chimes, it has not the excuse of being unabashed
melodrama. .4 Tale of Two Cities is an attempt at romantic tragedy,
wonderfully told, but failing at complete success."
Q. 10. Write a note on the narrative technique of Dickens \nA Tale of
Two Cities.
Ans. In A Tale of Two Cities the first interview between Lucie and her
father, Doctor Manette, and the farewell scene between Charles Dar-nayand
Lucie in Paris are, indeed, sentimental situations. In his novels, the
characters prove their love more convincingly by their actions than by their
words. But his clear purpose was to make his readers see, feel, and hear and
he wanted to make his style perfect. The novelist worked to achieve
precision of diction.
These words denote only exact literal meaning, but they are also
capable of extending meanings and interpretations. For example, the
following sentence, "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times"
contains the fact that each pair of alternates relates precisely to the year 1775
and it can be extended to relate to every period in history. The following
passage contains the precision of diction:
"He was a man of about sixty, handsomely dressed, haughty in man-

ner, and with a face like a fine mask. A face of a transparent paleness,
every feature in it is clearly defined, one set expression on it. The nose,
beautifully formed otherwise, was very slightly pinched at the top of each
nostril. In these two compressions or dents, the only little change that the
face ever showed, resided. They persisted in changing colour sometimes
and they would be occasionally delated and contracted by something like
a faint pulsation then, they gave a look of treachery and cruelty, to the
whole countenance."
The use of Dickens's imagery is very striking. Geoffery Thurley,
writing about the depth of the imagery of A Tale of Two Cities observes :
"Some indication of the depth of Dickens's imagery in this novel is
revealed by comparison with say, Zola's Germinal, where so many of
Dickens's revolutionary metaphors and camera angels appear, shorn of
their acute poetic relevance if pushed to more violent extremes. The un-
derlying sexuality of the predominance of the women in the proletarian
rising erupts furiously in Zola's hands, where Carton is offered as a
sacrifice to the devouring sexual goddess Maigrat, the odious class traitor
who runs the settlement shop and sells goods to the miners' wives in
return for the use of their bodies, is literally castrated by the haggard
proletarian witches, crazed with hunger and seeking revenge on the whole
world of men.
The fact is that Dickens has superimposed his own style. Caricature,
which became the trademark of Dickens's early works and which his
readers came to expect, is used sparingly in ,4 Tale of Two Cities. The
de-emphasis on this aspect of Dickens's style disturbed his readers, but
the serious tone of Dickens's later works precludes comic caricature.
The wildness and eccentricities of Miss Pross are a foil for Lucie
Manette's gentleness and lady-like comportment. Jerry Cruncher's
hoarse voice, close-set eyes, spiked hair and ridiculous clothes serve as a
comic contrast to the ultra-conservative Mr. Lorry and his literal
employment of the term "Resurrection" is a light but significant
rendering of the resurrection theme. Jerry illustrates another stylistic
device that Dickens borrowed the tag. Jerry repeatedly refers to himself
with the tag "an honest tradesman". He identifies his wife by the tags
"Aggerawayter" and "floppin". Mr. Lorry carries the tag of "a man of
business". Tags are very useful to the reader. They permit him to make
immediate identification with a character when that character reappears.
When Dickens refers to the lion, the jackal, the man of delicacy, or the
vengeance, the reader calls forth a distinct mental image, whether
Dickens is using the term literally or satirically.
A renowned critic points out regarding all the aspects of Dickens's
style.
A Tale of Two Cities belongs to Dickens' later period, and shows con-
siderably more restraint of style than his earlier works. Carton's end is
wholly dignified and not sentimentalized, and the whole book is charac-
terized by a tautness and economy of expression. In A Tale of Two Cities
Dickens has set out to write a novel of action and hence allows his charac-
ters to develop in relation to the incidents, not pausing to examine them
minutely or digress into by play. In the brief glimpse of Jerry Cruncher's
domestic distress may be seen the delight in comic Cockney characters
and in Miss Pross the tendency to caricature, but Dickens is gripped by his
plot and its intricate working out.
Against the background of London and Paris, the novelist has the
opportunity to fill in a background of city life always brilliantly suggested
by Dickens, study particularly the descriptions of seething St. Antoine,
and in contrast the quiet atmosphere ofSoho and the busy prosperity of
Tellson's Bank. In the descriptions of the mob Dickens conveys the wit-
ness and particularly of the mob which has run amuck by an artist's use of
colour, refer to courtyard, to the scene of the revolutionaries sharpening
their weapons, when all the horror of blood and disorder is vividly
brought to life.
It will be observed that Dickens often uses the poetical device of
personification with great effect : this when he wants to speak of the
citizens of St. Antoine, they become "the Saint", wary and ragged, and the
guillotine, according to Defarge, is "the sharp female, newly born". This
has a sinister suggestion in accordance with the mood of revolutionary
Paris and sparingly employed by Dickens, is highly effective, compare also
the dead Marquis, surveyed by the Gorgon of Death.
"The style of Dickens has generally been praised as very effective and
suited for the purpose. F.R. Leavis goes to the extent of saying that in ease
and range of his style there is no greater master of English than
Shakespeare. Cazamian says, "Dickens is a great writer by virtue of the
spontaneity of his verve, and this with a minimum of art. His vocabulary
has superabundant of wealth, it wells up naturally and easily, all the in-
herent genius of the English race for concrete perception goes to
nourish it. It carries with it, and turns to use, the contents of other veins of
speech-learned words, technical terms, but the main inexhaustible stream
is drawn from the fund of a racy, rational in no way articularised ex-
perience. The refining process of culture is less perceptible here than in
the works of many other writers. Dickens, like Carlyle, has his touches of
vulgarity—hardly perceptible at once forgotten under the spell of his
delicately generous heart. The highest quality of his style is its movement
which is at times strained and difficult to follow, but in its uninterrupted
onward flow, carries on the narration or dialogue without any fear of stag-
nating inertia. In cartain respects the conversations in Dickens's novel are
unequalled, the most familiar tones, those of artless comedy or of expres-
sive self-revelation, have in the mouths of his characters a frankness, an
appropriateness reaching perfection. On the other hand, when the situa-
tion tends to be artificial, and the verve less spontaneous, an unreal note is
immediately perceptible in the dialogue. For the latter has no value in
itself, Dickens does not seek to be objective by system and rule, those
among his personages who are replete with life have a voice of their own,
just as they have an individual physiognomy; the others speak in a some-
what artificial tone, which sounds like a thinly veiled echo of the writer's
own voice."
CHRONOLOGY
1812 February 7, Born at 387, Mile End Terrace, Landport, Port Sea.
1817 The Dickens's family moves to Chatham, where Dickens
spends his first school-days.
1822-24 Worsening financial situation results in John Dickens's arrest for
debt. Charles is sent to work in Warren's Blacking Warehouse,
where he spends about six months.
1824-26 Dickens goes back to school at the Wellington House Academy.
1827-28 Dickens works as a clerk in an attorney's office. In the evening,
he studies shorthand. 1829 He meets
Maria Beadnell, falls in love with her.
1829-31 Shorthand writer in Doctors' Commons. Reading at the British
museum.
1832 Reporter for the True Sun and the Mirror of Parliament.
1833 December : Dickens's first published work appears in the Monthly
Magazine.
1834 Reporter for the Morning Chronicle.
1836 February: Publication of Sketches by Boz. April .Pickwick Papers
published in a serial form—a great success. Marries Catherine
Hogarh.
1837 February : Oliver Twist. May : Death of Mary Hogarth, Dickens's
sister-in-law.
1838 April: Nicholas Nickleby.
1840-41 The Old Curiosity Shop and Bamaby Rudge appear in weekly parts
in Master Humphrey's Clock.
1842 Jan., June: Tour of the United States. October : American
Notes. 1843-44 Jan.: Martin Chuzzlewit, A Christmas Carol,
Goes abroad with
family and settles in Geneva.
1844 Returns to London to reach The Crimes to his friends, and then
goes back to the continent.
1845 Tour of Italy and France.
1846 Pictures from Italy. October: Dombey and Son.
1849 May: David Copperfield.
1850 March: Starts periodical, Household Words.
1851 May: Performs with amateur company of actors before Queen
Victoria.
1852 March: Bleak House.
1854 August: Hard Times.
1855 Meets Maria Beadnell—now Mrs. Winter—again. December;
Little Dorrit.
1857 January : Performance of Wilkie Collins's The Frozen Deep.
June 30 : Gives his first public reading at St. Martin's Hall,
London.
1858 Falls in love with Ellen Ternan and is separated from his wife.
Quarrels with Thackeray.
1859 April : A Tale of Two Cities in a new periodical, All the Year
Round.
1860 December: Great Expectations.
1864 May: Our Mutual Friend.
1867 November 9: Leaves for a tour of public readings in the
United
States. 1869-70 Public readings in England. 1870
March : Received in audience by the Queen Victoria. April:
First instalment of The Mystery of Edwin Drood, and the last
public appearance of Dickens at a Royal Academy Dinner.
1870 June 8: Dickens collapses from a stroke at Gads' Hill Place
and
dies the following day. 1870 June 14 : Dickens's
remains are buried in the Poets' Corner at
Westminster Abbey.
OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. Charles Dickens was born on :

(A) February 7, 1812 (B) February 10, 1813
(C) February 7, 1813 (D) February 10, 1812
2. Charles Dickens belongs to :
(A) Elizabethan Age (B) Victorian Age
(C) Neo-Classical Age (D) None of these
3. Name the Age, which is known as the Age of Dickens : (A)
Elizabethan Age (B) Neo-Classical Age (C)
Victorian Age (D) Modern Age
4. Charles Dickens is the :
(A) Chaucer of English fiction
(B) Fielding of English fiction
(C) Wordsworth of English fiction
(D) Shakespeare of English fiction
5. Who was the father of Dickens ?
(A) John Dickens (B) Robert Dickens
(C) Creakle Dickens (D) None of these
6. Dickens's father worked :
(A) As a steno in Air Force Office
(B) As a clerk in Navy Pay Office
(C) As an incharge in Army Pay Office
(D) None of these
7. Dickens got his early Education in : (A)
London (B) Britain
(C) Chatham <D)
England
8. At the age of eighteen, in 1830, Dickens started his career as :
(A) A Novelist (B) An Orator
(C) A Journalist (D) Parliamentary reporter
9. Dickens entered into authorship in :
(A) 1833 (B) 1834
(C) 1835 (D) 1832
ii | A Tale of Two Cities
10. Charles Dickens was warmly received when he was on his Foreign
Tour :
(A) In Europe in 1840 (B) In America in 1841
(C) In France in 1842 (D) None of these
11. The Slavery System in America had strongly been opposed by
Dickens in his :
(A) Sketches of Young Gentlemen
(B) Sketches of Young Couples
(C) American Notes and Martin Chuzzlewit
(D) None of these
12. He died in :
(A) 1869 (B) 1868
(C) 1871 (D) 1870
13. A well wisher, who wrote Dickens's wife about his death, "No
death, since 1866 has fallen on me with such a stroke," he was :
(A) Carlyle (B) David Cecil
(C) Mr. Creakle (D) None of these
14. The literary career of Dickens has divided into : (A)
Six periods (B) Four periods (C)
Three periods (D) Five periods
15. Dickens began his career as a novelist with :
(A) Barnaby Bridge
(B) Posthumous Papers of Pickwick Club
(C) Sketches by Boz
(D) None of these
16. The duration of Experimental Period of Dickens's literary career
is :
(A) 1837-39 (B) 1838-39
(C) 1837-38 (D) 1836-37
17. A very famous novel of Dickens, which was written by him for the
magazine 'Bentley's Miscellany. It is :
(A) Oliver Twist (B) Barnaby Bridge
(C) Old Curiosity Shop (D) None of these
18. *Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby', was written by :
(A) Hardy, in 1838-39
(B) Dickens, in 1838-39
(C) Fielding, in 1838-39
(D) None of these
19. The outstanding work of Dickens's Third Period' is :
(A) Great Expectations (B) Hard Tunes
(C) Martin Chuzzlewit (D) Dombey and Son
Objective Type Questions and Answers | iii
20. Which one of these has not been written by Dickens ?
(A) Great Expectations (B) Hard times
(C) A Tale of Two Cities (D) None of these
21. Little Dorrit and A Tale of Two Cities' were published respectively
in :
(A) 1857 and 1859 (B) 1856 and 1859
(C) 1857 and 1858 (D) 1858 and 1859
22. The novel, which does not belong to Dickens :
(A) Edwin Drood (B) Tom Jones
(C) Little Dorrit (D) Our Mutual Friend.
23. Who is the writer of Great Expectations ? (A)
Hardy (B) Jane Austen (C)
Charles Dickens (D) None of these
24. A Tale of Two Cities' was written by :
(A) Fielding (B) Mrs. Woolf
(C) Jane Austen (D) Charles Dickens
25. The most artistic novel 'Great Expectations', of Dickens, appeared
duration of:
(A) (1860-1861) (B) (1860-1862)
(C) (1859-1860) (D) None of these
26. A character, who was going to bring a person who had been
released from the prison after eighteen years. He was :
(A) Mrs. Manette (B) Mr. Lorry
(C) Jerry (D) None of these
27. Who was Mr. Jarvis ?
(A) An army officer
(B) An employee of School
(C) An employee of Tellson's Bank
(D) None of these
28. A woman character, who met Mr. Lorry in Dover, she was :
(A) Lucil (B) Mrs. Defarge
(C) Mrs. Evremonde (D) Mrs. Manette
29. Who was imprisoned in the prison of Bastille ?
(A) Dr. Manette
(B) Mr. Lorry
(C) Jerry Cruncher
(D) None of these
30. How long, was Dr. Manette imprisoned in the prison of Bastille ?
(A) Twenty years (B) Eighteen years
(C) Nineteen years (D) Seventeen years
iv | A Tale of Two Cities
31. Tbllson's Bank in London was recognised-old-fashioned place in
the year :
(A) 1781 (B) 1782
(C) 1780 (D) 1779
32. Who was Jerry Cruncher ?
(A) A Coach (B) Doctor
(C) Tutor (D) Messenger
33. Jerry Cruncher could never maintain good relations with his wife
because ^
(A) She would pray to God regularly
(B) She was a corrupted woman
(C) She was an ill-tempered lady
(D) None of these.
34. Who was providing French informations to the British Government
and imprisoned for this ?
(A) John Barsad (B) Charles Darnay
(C) Jerry (D) Carton
35. Who was the defence counsel ?
(A) Sydney Carton (B) Mr. Manette
(C) Mr. Stryver (D) None of these.
36. A witness, who helped Darnay to escape from death, because the
jury fully believed on him, he was :
(A) Mr. Manette (B) Sydney Carton
(C) Mr. Lorry (D) John Barsad
37. Whom did Lucie love and want to marry to him ?
(A) Charles Barnay (B) Mr. Jarvis Lorry
(C) Mr. Stryver (D) None of these
38. Two important character, who had been got education in same
school at Shrewsbury. They are :
(A) Jarvis Lorry and Dr. Manette
(B) Stryver and Sydney Carton
(C) John Barsad and Charles Darnay
(D) None of these
39. Who was Lucie ?
(A) A daughter of Mr. Lorry (B) A daughter of Mr. Stryver
(C) A daughter of Dr. Manette
(D) A daughter of Sydney Carton
40. A very important character who had to work as a Cobbler on
account of bad conditions, he was :
(A) Mr. Lorry (B) Mr. Stryver
(C) Mr. Carton (D) Mr. Manette
Objective Type Questions and Answers I v
41. By whose carriage had a child been run over and killed ?
(A) Marquis's (B) Monsieur's
(C) Mr. Lorry's (D) None of these
42. Name of the locality where this incident (Child's death) happened :
(A) Soho in London (B) Saint Antoine
(C) Dover (D) None of these
43. What was the relation between Marquis and Darnay ?
(A) Father and son (B) Fast friend
(C) Uncle and Nephew (D) None of these
44. Who was responsible for the death of Marquis ?
(A) Darnay (B) Jerry
(C) Sydney Carton (D) Jacques
45. A piece of paper with following words was attached to the Knif,
"Drive him fast to his tomb" from :
(A) Jacques (B) Darnay
(C) Stryver (D) None of these
46. Darnay settled himself in England as a :
(A) Clerk in Navy Office (B) Teacher of French Language
(C) Messenger of Bank (D) None of these
47. One Jerry Cruncher was waiting outside of the bank, a funeral
procession passed through the street, it was of :
(A) Marquis (B) The dead child
(C) Roger Cly (D) None of these
48. Who was responsible for the ruin of Dr. Manette's family ?
(A) Mr. Jarvis Lorry's family (B) Marriage of Lucie and Darnay
(C) Dr. Manette himself (D) Evremonde family
49. What does bring a great shock to Dr. Manette ?
(A) When Darnay discloses his real identity
(B) When he was imprisoned
(C) His daughter, Lucie was seriously ill
(D) None of these
50. Who was the president of revolutionaries ?
(A) Vengeance (B) Madame Defarge
(C) Monsieur Defarge (D) None of these
ANSWER
1. (A), 2. (B), 3. (C), 4. (D), 5. (A), 6. (B), 7. (C), 8. (D), 9 (A),
10. (B), 11. (C), 12. (D), 13. (A), 14. (B), 15. (C), 16. (D), 17. (A) 18.
(B), 19. (C), 20. (D), 21. (A), 22. (B), 23. (C), 24. (D), 25. (A), 26. (B),
27. (C), 28. (D), 29. (A), 30. (B), 31. (C), 32. (D), 33. (A), 34. (B), 35.
(C), 36. (D), 37. (A), 38. (B), 39. (C), 40. (D), 41. (A), 42. (B), 43. (C),
44. (D), 45. (A), 46. (B), 47. (C), 48. (D), 49. (A), 50. (B).
SHORT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Q. 1. Write a note on Dickens's method of characterization.

Ans. In general, Dickens delights in delineating the external
peculiarities of his characters. He gives us a very vivid and precise picture of
the externals — the face, the gesture, and the dress. His fantastic
imagination fastens on any oddity or peculiarity of his characters. We are
told about the tone of voice, the trick of utterance and the gestures which
accompany it, till every word spoken by his characters is real to us. His
characters further reveal themselves in conversation, chapter after
chapter. He visualises his character first by depicting his external
peculiarities and then by attaching a tag or label, or by describing his
surroundings and atmosphere. Since Dickens uses exaggeration in his
characterization, he has been called or rather condemned as a
/-Caricaturist. According to Walter Allen, "Dickens's characters are often
said to be caricatures or to be exaggerated. I do not think this is true; they
are all so sharply differentiated from one another as to be plainly the
product of intense accuracy of observation." In the words of Santayana,
"When people say, Dickens exaggerates, it seems to me they can have eyes
and no ears. They probably have only notions of what things and people
are; they accept them conventionally at then-diplomatic value. Their
minds run on in the region of discourse, where there are marks only, and
no faces; ideas and no facts : they have little sense for those living
grimaces that play from moment on the countenance of the world." The
reason of their being caricatures is perhaps that while portraying his
characters. Dickens lays greater emphasis on their individuality.
Q. 2. Write a short note on the flat characters in Dickens's novel
'A Tale of Two Cities'.
Ans. Dickens, with few exceptions, fails to develop his characters
through circumstance. In other words, his characters are flat, they do
not change and grow psychologically under the stress of circumstance.
They remain the same from beginning to the end. Flat characters are
sometimes called types, and sometimes caricatures. "In their purest
form," says L.M. Forester, "they are constructed round a single idea or
quality: when there is more than one factor in them, we get the beginning
of the curve towards the round." Dickens's characters, according to Mr.
Forster, are flat characters. They are types and symbols. Mr. Pickwick is
a belated specimen of the eighteenth century man of feeling. Picksniff
Short Questions and Answers | vii
and Mrs. Gamp are drawn as embodiments of hypocrisy and heartless
egoism. Mr. Jellyby is the type of all professional philanthropists, Mr.
Sergeant Buzful is the type of all legal advocates. Mr. Micawber stands
for optimists. "Like the writers of the old moralities, Dickens peoples
his stage with virtues and vices, and like them he does it gaily, presenting
them as no frigid abstractions, but as Clowns and Zanies, thwacking their
bladders, exuberants in motley and bell."
(David Cecil). In a word, Dickens's characters are both types and
individuals.
Q. 3. Discuss Dickens's humour is the soul or his work.
Or
Write a note on Dickens's humour.
Ans. To write of Charles Dickens at all is to pre-suppose his
humour, it was the supreme quality of his genius. It was a humorist that
Dickens made his name. Humour is the soul of his work. Even as a writer
of true farce, we suppose, Dickens for never been surpassed. Pickwick
Papers abounds in farce, now quite distinct from and now all but
blending with the higher characteristics of Humour. At his worst, he is
capable of facetiousness as in Nicholas Nickleby. "Madame Mantalini
wrung her hands for grief and rung the bell for her husband : which
done, she fell into a chair and a fainting fit simultaneously." The scene
between the little David and the waiter, in Chapter V of David
Copperfield, seems to Gissing "farce, though very good; country
innkeepers were never in the habit of setting a dish-load of cutlets before a
little boy who wanted dinner, and not even the Shrewdest of waiters,
having devoured them all, could make people believe that it was the little
boy's achievement; but the comic vigour of the thing is irresistible." But
between Dickens's farce and his scenes of humour the difference is
obvious. In Mantalini for example, we have nothing illuminating. He
amuses, and there the matter ends. But true humour always suggests a
thought, always throws a light on human nature. Both the Wellers (father
and son) are strictly humorous. Neither the old coachman nor his son is
ever shown in grotesque, or improbable situations : no one takes
Mantalini to his heart; but Tony and Sam Weller become in very truth
our friends, and for knowing them, we know ourselves the better. They
are surprising incarnations of the spirit of man, doomed to inhabit so
variously. Sam at ease in the world, makes life his jest, and we ask nothing
better than to laugh with one who sees so shrewdly and feels so honestly.
We look on, and feel in our hearts the warmth of kindly merriment. In
the celeberated Mrs. Gamp, the same perfect method of idealisation, as
in Shakespeare's Falstaff, is used in converting into a source of pleasure
things that in life repel or nauseate. And in both cases, the sublimation
of character and circumstance is affected by humour that seems
unsurpassable. Consider Spenlow and Jorkins in David Copperfield, and
■■MUM
viii | A Tale of Two Cities

Trodger's Martin Chuzzlewit. Dickens had remarkable acquaintance with
H
the Inn Waiter : read the Waiter's autobiography in Somebody's Luggage.
Q. 4. Describe the style of Charles Dickens.
Ans. Dickens is one of the masters of prose in his own way, though
his style cannot be commended for flow of pure idiom or command of
subtle melodies. He is often too much mannered. Facetiousness is now
and then to blame for an affected sentence, but he never wrote Slovenly
English. Barnaby Rudge is written in a style, simple, direct and forcible. In
narrative, he is always excellent when describing rapid journeys. His easy,
graphic power first presupposes vision, and vision of extraordinary
clearness, too. In the story of David Copperfield's journey on the Dover
Road, we have as good a piece of narrative prose as can be found in
English. Equally good, in another way, are those passages of rapid
retrospect, in which David tells in of his later boyhood, a concentration
of memory perfumed with the sweetest humour. The chapter entitled
Our Domestic Life is perfect writing, with perfect proportion of detail,
with unflagging interest. Another kind of descriptive writing appears in
the funeral of Old Anthony, conducted by Mr. Mould, in Chapter XIX of
Martin Chuzzlewit. A fine piece of the grimly picturesque is Quilp's
death. Better still is the narrative in Barnaby Rudge of the day and night
before the great delivery. He is very strong in pure description and in
elaborate picturing. He is great in locality, and there is no English writer,
or perhaps no writer in any literature, who so often gives proof of
wonderfully minute observation. It is an important source of his strength; it
helps him to put people and things more clearly before us than, as a rule,
we should ourselves see them. One example is Peggotty's purse given to
little David Copperfield on his departure from Yarmouth, which was
found to contain three bright Shillings, "Which Peggotty had evidently
polished up with whiting for my greater delight.' No other novelist
affords such instances of observation, memory and imaginative force, all
evinced in a touch of detail so indescribably trivial-its very triviality being
the proof of power. When Dickens writes in his pleasant mood of things,
either pleasant in themselves, or especially suggestive of humorous
reflection, his style is faultless, perfecdy suited, e.g., in The
Uncommercial Traveller, he is almost invariably happy in phrase and in
easy flow of language, and fully equal of the eighteenth-century essayists
in light and deft handling of idiomatic English.
Q. 5. Discuss Humour and Pathos of Charles Dickens.
Ans. It is very likely that the reputation of Dickens will be
maintained chiefly as a humorist. His humour is broad, humane, and
creative. It gives us such real immortals as Mr. Pickwick, Mrs. Gamp,
Mr. Micawber, and Sam Weller—typical irhabitantJ of the Dickensian
sphere, and worthy of a place in any literary brotherhood. Dickens's
humour is not very subtle, but it goes deep, and in expression it is free
Short Questions and Answers I ix
and vivacious. His satire is apt to develop into mere burlesque as it does when
he deals with Mr. Stiggins and Bumble. As for his pathos, in its jay, it had an
appeal that appears amazing to a later generation, whom it strikes as cheap
and maudlin. His devices are often third rate, as when they depend upon such
themes as the deaths of little children, which he describes in detail. His
genius had little tragic force. He could describe the horrible, as in the death
of Bill Skyes; he could be painfully melodramatic, as in characters like Rosa
Dartle and Madame Defarge; but he seems to have been unable to command
the simplicity of real tragic greatness.
Q. 6. Discuss the themes of the novel 'A Tale of Two Cities'.
Ans. The story of this novel deals with a group of private individuals
who are somehow drawn into the whirlpool of a great public and political
event which is known as French Revolution. There are two themes,
resurrection and renunciation which dominate the novel. Resurrection means
death and re-birth, which appears in the novel in various forms. Dr. Manette
is recalled to life from his prolonged imprisonment in the Bastille, and after
this he recovers from his madness. Thus, in the case of Dr. Manette, a double
resurrection can be marked. First of all, he had been buried alive in the
imprisonment from physical point of view and secondly from the mental
point of view he had lost his memory. The character of Darnay also contains
a resurrection because he saved from impending death as many as three
times in the course of the novel. Carton though he does not escape from
death, also shows resurrection because about him it is imagined that he
would lead new life in another world. This sacrificial death is in itself a
resurrection because it stands for his moral regeneration. The theme of
renunciation is obvious in Darnay's relinquishment of his ancestral property,
and title, and Carton's sacrifice of his life for the sake of woman he loved.
Thus, these two themes, Resurrection and Renunciation are developed by the
novelist against the background of French Revolution. Though the novelist
tries to highlight the true nature of French revolution, his main attention
remains on these two themes.
Q. 7. Write a note on characterization of Charles Dickens in the
novel 'A Tale of Two Cities'.
Ans. Charles Dickens, one of the greatest creators of characte s in
English fiction, is expert in the presentation of a large diversity of characters
in his novels. Indeed, he aims at the portrayal of the infinite range and variety
of mankind. He does not bother himself in analysing the individual. His
genius was for the extensive, not the intensive vision. Despite this fact, this
novel is remarkable because of individualized characters. A Tale of Two
Cities deals with individualized characters. Every character becomes a
distinct person in his or her right. All the
x I A Tale of Two Cities
characters differ from one another. For example, Dr. Manette who is the
victim of fits of insanity, is an outstanding character. Mr. Lorry, the old
bachelor who has grown grey in the service of Tellson's bank is another
remarkable character who differs from other characters. Sydney Carton and
Charles Darnay who are similar to each other physically, are also distinctive
characters. Lucie stands for an entirely different type of womanhood from
that which is represented by Madame Defarge. A great and sharp contrast
between these two woman is very outstanding. Miss Pross also belongs to
different category. Mr. Stryver and Jerry Cruncher are other individualized
characters though they belong to the minor category. Thus, the novelist
makes all the characters individualized in this novel. A Tale of Two Cities
affords ample evidence of Dickens's greatness as a remarkable master of
character portrayal. Definitely, he tries to reveal very wide range in this
novel. Many characters are memorable because of their outstanding traits.
What is very remarkable in his characterization is that he presents his
characters either through incidents or through dialogues. John Forster, a
bosom friend of the novelist points out in this connection. "To rely less upon
characters than upon incident, and to resolve that his actors should ê
expressed in the story mere than they should express themselves by
dialogue, was for him hazardous and can hardly be called an entirely
successful experiment.
Q. 8. Write a short note on the Theme of Exploitation and Injustice
in 'A Tale of Two Cities'.
Ans. Through an interesting story the novelist throws light on the
problems of exploitation and injustice in society. First, he tells us how the
aristocrats used the common class as the vehicle of their entertainment and
exploited them for the sake of their individual pleasure. We come to know in
the beginning about a girl and a boy who are the victims of Evermonde
brothers and they had to give up their lives. Later on, when Dr. Manette helps
them and tries to inform the government official about this exploitation he is
also captured and imprisoned for eighteen years. Not only this but
Evremonde Crushes the child of a poor man and shows no sympathy over his
death. The injustice and exploitation is shown also on the part of the mob of
revolutionaries. The novelist says that the mob of revolutionaries is like
demons who have no contact with humanity. The visage of the men at the
grindstone are not at all human Dickens was clearly influenced by the
violence of the mob. Here is the scene in which the mob rushes towards the
Bastille to take revenge against the aristocrats. The novelist's shows the
scene of the hanging of Foulon in a vivid manner.
Q. 9. Discuss, 'Theme of Love' in Dickens's very famous novel 'A
Tale of TWo Cities'.
Ans. The theme of love is the most appealing theme because of its
depih. Sydney Carton's love is presented as one of the main motivating
Short Questions and Answers | xi
forces. Many characters show love for one another. Miss Pross who is a
caretaker of Lucie, loves her very much. Dickens remarks, "It was in
vain for Madame Defarge to struggle and to strike. Miss Pross with the
vigorous tenacity of love, always so much stronger that hate clasped her
tight, and even lifted her from the floor in struggle that they had. The
two hands of Madame Defarge buffeted and tore her face, but Miss
Pross with her head down, helped her round the waist, and clung to her
with more than the hold of drowning woman." Charles Darnay, Dr.
Manette and Lucie Manette are the characters who love one another
very much. Besides all these characters, Sydney Carton is the si nbol of
love because he sacrifices his life for the sake of one whom he loves very
much K.G. Fielding points out regarding the love theme. "Love standing
for all the forces of life, lasting power and goodness is shown to be as
strange and wonderful as the steps which lead Madame Defarge to her
fate, as the ways by which the hidden account comes to light, of the
prisoner of one hundred five, North Tower, as the first meeting of Carton
and Darnay, or the reunion of Miss Pross and her brother Solomon and
as the essentially profound secret and mystery of every human creature
....... to every other."
Q. 10. Write a note on the theme of double in the novel 'A Tale of
Two Cities'.
Ans. A Tale of Two Cities has been regarded as a tale of two heroes.
The theme of double had obvious attraction for Dickens and he uses
this theme in many of his novels. In Martin Chuzzlewit we have the
double presentation of Mantague Tigg, and Jonass Chuzzlewit. The later
comes back from his murderous journey half expecting to find himself
asleep in his own bed. It seems that Dickens was highly influenced by
Edgar Allen Poe, whose short story : 'William Wilson' is a classic story
in the theme of double. In 'Willam-Wilson' Poe assigns his own date of
birth January 19 to Wilson. In the same manner Dickens assigns his own
initials to the two heroes, Carton and Darnay, in A Tale of Two Cities. In
David Copperfield we also find the initials of the author. In Little Dorrit
two principal characters, Clehham and Dorrit share the initials of
Charles Dickens. John Gross points out that Charles Darnay shares the
initials of Dickens and he is the normal hero of the novel. According to
John Gross, "his sharing of the initials with his creator is" pretty well the
only interesting thing about him. John Gross continues, "Otherwise he is
a pasteboard character, completely undeveloped. His position as an
exile, his struggles as a language teacher, his admiration for George
Washington are so many openings thrown away." Gross further points
out—"Carton is a for more striking figure. He belongs to the line of
cultivated wastrels who play an increasingly large part in Dickens's novels
during the second half of his career, culminating in Eugene Wrayburn,
his closest predecessor as his name indicates, is the lackless Richard
xii | A Tale of Two Cities
Carstone of Bleak House. He has squandered his gifts and drunk away his
early promise, his will is broken, but his intellect is unimpaired." Carton
represents the harassed modern consciousness : the persistent human desire
to live beyond good and evil. He regards the moral sense not an innate part of
the consciousness, but as a meddlesome alien with a penchat for vitiating
pleasure and restricting freedom. Although gifted, he has dissipated away his
early promise. He has the power to extract essence from a jumble of details,
yet he does not succeed in his profession, he revealed the plan to Stryver. It is
this fact which leads John Gross to exclaim : "In a sense, his opposite is not
Darnay at all, but the aggressive Stryver, who makes a fortune by picking his
brains." Not only Carton is not interested in improving his fortune, he is
indifferent under the sun. He completely resigned to failure. He is always
harping on the fact that "I am like, one who died young. All my life might
have been."
Q. 11. In the novel 'A Tale of Two Cities' theme of resurrection has
been presented by Charles Dickens effectively. Discuss.
Ans. The main theme of A Tale of Two Cities is not the depiction of
common life in the two cities of London and Paris alone, nor is it only a
novel about the French Revolution. Its central theme is a Christian theme of
resurrection which means the image of Jesus Christ rising from his grave on
the third day of his crucifixion. In this novel, resurrection has also been
related to renunciation. It is said that Dickens derived both these themes
from Wilkie Collins's play, 'The Frozen Deep.' The Resurrection theme
progresses through the lives of Dr. Manette, Darnay, Carton, Roger Cly, Old
Foulon, Solomon (or Barsad) and Jerry Cruncher. These characters in the
novel are resurrected in one way or the other. The theme of resurrection is
presented at the very beginning when Mr. Lorry, who is travelling by the
mail-coach to Dover, sends message to Tellson's Bank through the
messanger Jerry Cruncher. The words of Lorry's message are recalled to
life." These words are very significant as Mr. Lorry accompanied by Miss
Lucie Manette is going to Paris to bring. Dr. Manette to England. Dr.
Manette's imprisonment is like death, his release is an act of resurrection. His
long imprisonment of 18 years seems to Mr. Lorry a kind of burial in a grave
from which Dr. Manette comes out. This image occurse to Lorry's mind
frequently. The dozing Mr. Lorry in his imagination holds a conversation
with the dead man whom he is to dig out from his grave. After this imaginary
conversation Mr. Lorry in his fancy begins to dig, dig, with a spade. The
return of Manette fiom insanity to sanity is a second resurrection. This
resurrection is brought about by Lucie's nursing, service, loving care and
affection.
Q, 12. Write a note on Dr. Manette as mouth piece of Charles
Dickens.
Ans. Dr. Manetee is, indeed, one of most remarkable characters of A
Tale of Two Cities. Though he is not the hero of the novel, he is the central
figure and the events of his life indicate the different phases
Short Questions and Answers
of the French revolution. We meet him in the lodgings of Defarge and we are
informed that he has been freed after the imprisonment of eighteen years.
About his physical appearance it is told that "he had a white heard raggedly
cut, but not very long, a hollow face, and exceedingly bright eyes. The
hollowness and thinness of his face would have caused them to look large,
under his yet dark eyebrows and his confused white hair, yet they had been
really otherwise, but they were naturally large, and looked unnaturally so. His
yellow rags of shirt lay open at the throat, and showed his body to be withered
and worn. He, and his old canvas frock, and his loase stockings, and all his
poor tatters of clothes, had in a long seclusion from direct light and air, faded
down to such a dull uniformity of parchment-yellow, that it would have been
hard to say which was which." But this presentation does not reveal his
sufferings under which he has to pass during the eighteen years. The novelist
points out that the faintness of his voice was pitiable and dreadful. "It was not
the faintness of physical weakness, though confinement and hard fare no
doubt had their part in its deplorable peculiarity, that it was the faintness of
solitude, was disuse. It was like the last feeble echo of a sound made long ago.
So entirely had it lost the life and resonance of the human voice, that it
effected the sense like a once beautiful colour faded away into a poor weak
stain. So sunken and suppressed it was, that it was like a voice underground.
K.J. Fielding, a renowned critic points out that through the character of Dr.
Manette, Dickens identifies himself. The critic says, "when Manette is in
despair, he is like Dickens in feeling a compulsive need for action, for it was
equally the character of his mind to be always in singular need of occupation,
we know him as a man of firmness of purpose, strength of resolution and
vigour and action, as a man who is aware of suppression, always shut up
within him. Undoubtedly, Dickens identifies himself with Carton, with
Charles Darnay, and perhaps with all the characters in the story, but possibly
with none more than with the father for at this time he still meant to keep to
the declaration in the violated letter in which he had said of Ellen that she was
as innoecent and pure and as good as my own dear daughter."
Q. 13. Write a note on Lucie as a symbol of goodness.
Ans. Lucie is the most dominant heroine who stands for a striking
contrast to Madame Defarge. Madame Defarge is the symbol of hatred and
evil while she symbolises generosity which we expect from a sincere heroine.
Since she is perfectly simple-minded and simple-hearted, she knows no
trickery, delicacy, cunningness or wickedness as a personification of
simplicity. She wins the life-long devotion and loyalty of Miss Pross. Mr.
Lorry is also deeply attached to her and Sydney Carton is also much
impressed by her simple-mindedness. However, one thing is quite clear that
she lacks that courage and boldness which we find in the general nature of
heroine. She does not show any initiative of spirit of enterprise in her. She
does not change throughout the novel because she is not a dynamic
personality. What she was at the beginning
xiv | A Tale of Two Cities
she remains upto the last. Sometimes she seems to lack the capacity to do
things. Because of her passive role, Carton calls her "a golden haired doll."
But at the sametime she is admired as a symbol of goodness in the novel. She
deserves Darnay because Darnay too stands for idealism and honesty.
Q. 14. Discuss Charles Darnay as a sincere lover.
Ans. Charles Darnay is presented in the novel as an accused at old
Bailey where he is put on trail on the charge of treason by the government in
England. The novelist describes him as a youngman of about five and twenty
well grown and good looking, with a sunburnt check and a dark eye. "The
case for the prosecution was that Charles Darnay has been coming from
England and going to France with the secret information. A large crowd is
gathered with the hope that he will be sentenced to death. His character
affects all the characters and the readers because of the ideals on which his
life is based. A critic points out regarding the idealistic aspect of his life.
"Darnay represents the light, sunny, optimistic aspect of Dikens's literary
persons, this is shown specially by the way in which on receiving Gabelle's
plea for help, he sets off to Paris without anticipating the perils he may
encounter. He is the most unconvincing character in A Tale of Two Cities, as
shallow as a mirror." Darnay loves Lucie because she possesses sweet
temperament. Because of his generous and magnanimous nature, Sydney
Carton seeks his permission to visit his house after marriage, when Lucie
asks him to be generous towards Carton he agrees with her. He loved her
compassionate nature. He had also developed love for knowledge and
studies. He was quite shy and wanted to handle any problem in a decent and
magnanimous manner. That is why although he had loved Lucie Manette
from the beginning, he decided to break the news first to Dr. Manette and
then to Lucie herself. The following lines throw light on the attitude of
Charles Darnay towards the most tender aspect of his life. "He had loved
Lucie Manette from the hour of his danger. He had never heard a sound so
sweet and dear as the sound of her compassionate voice. He had never seen a
face so tenderly beautiful, as hers when it was confronted with his own on the
grave that had been dug for him. But he had not yet spoken of the subject; the
assassination at the deserted Chateau far away beyond the heaving water and
the long-long-duty roads, the solid stone Chateau which had itself become
the mere mist of a dream had been done a year, and he had never yet by so
much as a single spoken word, disclosed to her the state of his heart."
Q. 15. Write a note on Carton as a sincere lover.
Ans. The supreme qualities of Carton's character are confirmed when
he confesses his love before Lucie. Like Darnay, he has also fallen in love
with her but he knows very well that it is Darnay whom she is going to
choose as her husband. He realises before him that he is good
Short Questions and Answers | xv
for nothing yet he proposes his love before her. He says to her, if it had been
possible, Miss Manette, that you could have returned the love of the man you
see before your self-flung away, wasted, drunken, poor creature of misuse as
you know him to be —he would have been conscious this day and hour, in
spite of his happiness though Lucie does not accept him as her husband, he is
very grateful to Lucie, merely because she could hear him with patience and
curiousity. He says very clearly that for her sake he will do anything. He says,
"it is useless to say it. I know, but rises out of my soul, for you, and for any
dear to you I would do anything. If my career were of the better kind that
there was any opportunity or sacrifice in it. I would embrace any sacrifice for
you and for those dear to you." In order to maintain his contact with her he
asks Darnay's permission to visit his house now and then. He wants to go
there as a visitor at odd times only because he wishes to remain in touch with
Lucie whom he loves deeply. Before Darnay he calls himself a worthless
fellow and says to him, during his visit, he should be regarded as a useless
piece of furniture which is tolerated for its old service. He says to Darnay,
"well, if you could endure to have such a worthless fellow, and a fellow of
such indifferent reputation coming and going at old times. I should ask that I
might be permitted to come and go as a privileged
person here, that I might be regarded as a useless ......... a piece of furniture,
tolerated for its old service, and taken no notice of."
Q. 16. What is the background of pitilessness of Madame Defarge ?
Ans. Madame Defarge herself describes her mentality and her attitude
to life in the course of a conversation with The Vengeance and Jacques there
in the presence of her husband. When her husband says that she should be
satisfied if Charles Darnay alone is executed, she says wrathfully that the
whole Evremonde race had been doomed to destruction and knitted in her
register and then she describes the fate which had overtaken the peasant
family from which she has sprung : "I was brought up among the fishermen
of the seashore and that peasant family so injured by the two Evremonde
brothers, as that Bastille paper describes, is my family. That sister of them
really wounded boy upon the ground was my sister, that husband was my
sister's husband, that unborn
child was their child, that brother was brother ....... "Her family having been
the victims of such a shocking incident it is not very surprising that Madame
Defarge has grown up to be so heartless and pitiless. No wonder that, when
Charles Darnay is sentenced to death, she feels pleasure and says to her
companion. The vengeance, in a mocking tone that Dr. Manette with all his
influence has failed to save that man. This is what she says on this occasion.
"Much influence around him has that doctor save him now, my dear doctor
save him." His next step is to have Lucie and Lucie's daughter put on trial and
condemned to death. In
xvi I A Tale of Two Cities
order to get hold of some evidence against Lucie she then specially goes
to Lucie's lodgings. On this occasion the author points out that among
the many cruel women who were active at that time there was no one
so dreadful as this horrible and ruthless woman. This is how the author
describes her character. "Of a strong and fearless character, of shrewd
sense and readiness, of great determination, the troubled time would
have heaved her up, under any circumstances. But imbued from her
childhood with a brooding sense of wrong, and an inveterate hatred of
a class, opportunity had developed her into a tigress. It was nothing to
her that an innocent man was to die for the sins of his forefathers. She
saw, not him but them. It was nothing to her, that his wife was\ to be
made a widow and his daughter an Orphan, that was insufficient
punishment, because they were her natural enemies and her prey, and
as such had no right to live. Their appeal to her was made hopeless by
her having no sense of pity even for herself ...... "
Q. 17. Write a note on Miss Pross as an important character and
bold Lady.
Ans. Miss Pross is an extremely bold lady, having practical wisdom. It
is her practical wisdom which warns her against the danger of another
carriage following Dr. Manette, Lucie and her daughter. She asks Jerry
to wait for her at the Cathedral with the ready carriage. Although she
never expected to "go across salt water." She accompanies Lucie to Paris
and proves her worth by being more than a match to Madame Defarge.
Alone and unarmed, she thwarts Madame Defarge. "You (Madame
Defarge) might, from your appearance be the wife of Lucifer.
Nevertheless, you shall not get the better of me. I am an English woman.
Both are suspicious of each other, if one is the devoted friend, the other is
the family's malevolent enemy. The two women come to grips and the
vigorous tenacity of the love of Miss Pross makes her hold Madame
Defarge with more than the hold of a drowning woman. Then from a
shot from her pistol Madame Defarge gets killed, the concussion of
which deafens Miss Pross for life. Miss Pross appears to be a comic
character in the novel. Whenever she comes before the readers, she
presents healthy comic atmosphere. At the end of the novel her role is
very vital in the development of the plot. She does not kill Madame
Defarge who is the symbol of hatred but it is only because of her that
Madame Defarge could be killed. Since she stands for love while
Madame Defarge for hatred, the novelist seems to highlight how the
hatred is spoiled in the presence of love. The novelist throws light of her
character and points out that she is one of those unselfish creatures
found only among women who will for pure love and admiration, bind
themselves as willing slaves, to youth when they have lost it, to beauty
that they never had to accomplishments that they were never fortunate
enough to gain, to bright hopes that never shone upon their sombre lives.
Short Questions and Answers | xvii
It is this unselfish devotion of Miss Pross which leads Mr. Lorry to regard
her as much nearer to the lower Angels than many ladies immeasurably
better get up both by Nature and Art, who had balances at Tbllson's.
Q. 18. Who is Solomon ?
Ans. John Barsad, a spy of the British government is introduced
by the novelist on the occasion of the trial of Charles Darnay who is
arrested under the charge of treason. Barsad collects many facts about
the movements and activities of Charles Darnay. But the defence counsel
proves that Barsad is a liar whose proof should not be accepted as a
fact. After this incident Barsad is presented as the chief mourner in the
funeral procession which is taking a Coffin. This Coffin is supposed to
contain the dead body of another spy whose name is Roger Cly. Later
on, we meet Barsad in Paris where he has come as a spy of the British
government to collect the information about the political position of
France. But in Fiance- he becomes the spy of the French authorities to
keep watch on the activities of the revolutionaries in the suburb of Saint
Antoine. He goes to the shop of Defarge in order to collect information
about the activities of revolutionaries but he fails in his mission. After
this incident he joins the revolutionaries posing as a Frenchaman and
quickly obtains an influential position. He serves as a turnkey at the
prison, where Charles Darnay is a prisoner who is waiting for his
execution.
Q. 19. Write a short note on the style of (A Tale of Two Cities*.
Ans. Among Dickens's contribution to the English fiction his style
is one of the greatest achievements. He treats characters plots, and
descriptions, his special forms of expression, his techniques of creating
audio-visual and emotional situations in a wonderful manner. In fact, he
writes long and detailed sentences and uses circumlocution instead of
simple, forth right statement. Sentimentalism is his unique quality which
dominates many of his novels. In A Tale of Iwo Cities' the first interview
between Lucie and her father. Doctor Manette, and the fare well scene
between Charles Darnay and Lucie in Paris are, indeed, sentimental
situations. In his novels, the characters prove their love more
convincingly by their actions than by their words. But his clear purpose
was to make his readers see feel, and hear and he wanted to make his
style perfect.
Q. 20. Imitation can be noted in the art of characterization in 'A
Tale of Two Cities'.
Ans. In characterization Dickens has imitated the methods of the
eighteenth and early nineteenth century novelists, notably Smollett and
Sir Walter Scott. But the fact is that he has superimposed his own style.
Caricature, which became the trade mark of Dickens's early works and
which his readers came to expect, is used sparingly in A Tale of Two
xviii | A Tale of Two Cities
Cities'. The de-emphasis on this aspect of Dicken's style disturbed his

readers, but the serious tone of Dickens's later works precludes comic
caricature. The wildness and eccentricities of Miss Pross are a foil for Lucie
Manette's gentleness and lady like compartment. Jerry Cruncher's hoarse
voice, close set eyes, spiked hair and ridiculous clothes serve as a comic
contrast to the ultra conservative Mrs. Lorry and his literal employment of
the term "Resurrection man" is a light but significant rendering of the
resurrection theme. Jerry illustrates another stylistic device that Dickens
borrowed, the tag. Jerry repeatedly refers to himself with tag "an honest
tradesman." He identifies his wife by the tags. "Aggerawayter" and
"floppin". Mr. Lorry carries the tag, "a man of business." Tags are very
useful to the reader. They permit him to make immediate identification with
a character when the character reappears. When Dickens refers to the lion,
the jackal, the man of delicacy, or The Vengeance the reader calls forth a
distinct mental image, whether Dickens is using the term literally or
satirically.
Q, 21. Discuss Dr. Manette as the hero of 'A Tale of Two Cities'.
Ans. First of all, it is necessary to throw light on all these three
characters and to determine their characters as the main characters of the
story. Dr. Manette has, indeed, some qualities of a hero, though he is a
broken man when he is released from the Bastille after eighteen years. In the
beginning of the novel we come to know that Dr. Manette is a man of
humanitarian outlook. He does not tolerate the exploitation of the
Evremonde brothers. He writes a letter to the minister in this regard, but
Evremonde brothers kidnap him and he is imprisoned by them for eighteen
years. During these eighteen years his wife dies and his daughter Lucie is
brought up by some other person. After this release, he is cared for by his
friend. Mr, Lorry and his daughter Lucie. There are many qualities in his
character, which determine him to be a true hero. First he is a courageous
man who not only dares to complain about the Evremonde brothers, but he
angrily rejects the money, offered by the Evremonde brothers for his
services. When he goes to France with Lucie in an attempt to rescue Charles,
he shows himself fearless of the mob and gets himself appointed as visiting
physician to the prison. He does his best to rescue his son-in-law but his own
letter which he wrote during his imprisonment, becomes the cause of the
death punishment of Darnay. Thus he proves to be a tragic hero who is
helpless, pathetic and miserable at the time of the death punishment of
Darnay.
Q. 22. Discuss Darnay as the hero of 'A Tale of Two City'.
Ans. Darnay, son of one of the Evremonde brothers, husband of Lucie
Manette, an aristocrat in France and a tutor in England is also recognised as
the hero. He is introduced to his mother who comes to Dr. Manette to know
the ill character of her husband. Darnay, his real
Short Questions and Answers I xix
name is Charles Evremonde but he hates the ways of life of his family so
much that he decides to give up his family and reaches London in order to
lead a peaceful life. Though he is so rich that he can enjoy his life, he reaches
London and earns very little money by labouring as a tutor. He does his work
in London very honestly. He wants to forget his past and his family because
his father had always exploited the poor. Because of his virtues Lucie decides
to marry him. Later on, the keeper of his Chateau is captured by the
revolutionaries. Since the keeper is a poor man and he has served Evremonde
family honestly, he thinks it his duty to help the keeper. He reaches Paris
where he is arrested and sentenced to death. Sydney Carton comes to rescue
him but he does not allow Carton to do any activity cautiously. Thus Darnay
is also a man of character and he deserves to be called as the hero.
Q. 23. Discuss Sydney as the hero of 'A Tale of Two Cities'.
Ans. Sydney Carton, though he is being discussed after Dr. Manette
and Darnay, enjoys higher place than other so-called heroes of the novel. He
is presented in the beginning of the novel as the assistant so Stryver who is a
renowned advocate. Carton is introduced as the most pessimistic person who
has no object in his life. He takes wine inlarge quantity and expresses himself
through his sentiments. He is an insincere person, regarding his career. He
confesses before Stryver that he believes only in his present, that is why he
never cares for the earning of money. When he comes in touch which Dr.
Manette, he has great sympathy with the doctor and his family. He proves to
be a sincere lover of Lucie. He recognises before her that he loves her very
sincerely and for the sake of her happiness he would not hesitate in
sacrificing his life. What he says is put to action by him in the concluding
chapters. Darnay* the husband of Lucie, is captured by the revolutionaries
and put to the capital punishment. Just before his death Carton places himself
in the place of Darnay in the prison and faces and death punishment
fearlessly. Before his death the viewers feel that, his was a peaceful and
prophetic face. Thus with his sacrifice the tragedy of Darnay is averted and
Manette's family is rescued from ruin. Besides this we are told that in his
childhood Carton had been a brilliant school boy, full of promise. The
novelist allows him to play important part in the main action of the novel.
Carton is the only person in the book to undergo a drastic development. At
his first introduction Dickens takes care to present him in a characteristic
pose, and nearly opposite another wigged gentleman with his hands in his
pockets, whose whole attention, when Mrs. Cruncher looked at him then or
afterwards, seemed to be concentrated on the ceiling of the court. This is
elaborated a few pages later. Allowing for my learned friends appearance
being careless and slovenly if not debauched.... and kept up consistently to
that our early impressions are all wholly unfavourable.
I A Tale of Two Cities
Q. 24. Write a note on the title of 'A Tale of Two Cities'.
Ans. In the preface to A Tale of Two Cities Dickens discusses the
main idea of the novel that when be was acting with his children and
friends, in 'Wilkie Collins' drama of The Frozen Deep in 1857 the main
idea of A Tale of Two Cities began to strike him. But because of his
family circumstances he could not develop that idea into a novel. In
January 1858, the idea haunted his mind, and he wrote, "growing
inclinations of a fitful and undefined sort are upon me sometimes to fall
to work on a new book." For this new book many titles began to strike
his mind. One of These Days, Recalled to life, The Thread of Gold, and
The Doctor of Beaurais were some of these titles. Out of them The
Thread of Gold was used by him for book second, though it was modified
as 'The Golden Thread.' Eventually the present title A Tale of Two Cities
seemed to him more appropriate than any other, therefore he gave the
final touch to the present title, A Tale of Two Cities.
Q. 25. Write a note on the historical background of (A Tale of Two
Cities'.
Ans. Though the novel deals with the story of Manette Lucie.
Darnay and Carton, basically it highlights the background of the French
Revolution which was a great political upheaval....The evils of the
taxation, a land owning system and the exploitation of the poor led to
the revolution. The broken state of national finances under King Louis
XVI aggravated the situation in the nation. In July 1789 the Bastille was
stormed by a Paris mob and the disturbances continued after this
incident. In 1792, the monarchy was overthrown and France was declared a
Republic with Liberty. Equality and Fraternity as its purposes. The year
1793 saw the 'reign of terror' and the King and the Queen being
guillotined. In 1795 some sort of stability was established when Napoleon
Bonaparte emerged as the undisputed ruler. The action of A Tale of
Two Cities also lies between 1775 and 1793 that includes the time of
Revolution. It must be kept in mind that the French Revolution was not
the main theme of the novel, otherwise the novelist would have
highlighted the Revolution completely. Really speaking, the novel
manifests very few incidents that belong to the Revolution, though the
novelist clearly declares that the actions of the novel belong to the period
between 1775 and 1793. The novelist deals with some of the events of
the French Revolution, such as the storming of the Bastille, the senseless
fury of the mob, the Reign of Terror, and the indiscriminate executions
carried out by the revolutionary tribunals after perfunctory trials of the
suspects. The novelist's main purpose in doing so is to highlight the fact
that when the mob goes out of control, it becomes as irrational and
brutal as its oppressors had been. The novelist also reveals the fact how
these incidents influenced the individuals who were not related to the
revolutions was married as we observe in the case of Doctor Manette,
whose family life was completely shattered due to it.
A TALE OF TWO CITIES
(CHAPTERWISE SUMMARY IN HINDI)
arwinr l : inm
*»rr ^Te?f fsf??* m ^m sf?q- STTOTETRT tft SPOT 3ffr §?fcr <n- %
ni| 1775 & STRWT $ir 11 fwsr s<TTcr | fa> s»#»s cr«rr n»hr Ml
»T|r^ ^ vftftfffft &r iff JTsrfq- «tp <WNr % f^ $r*«r??r «TT affc tfte
TfcT & 73* 3FT aft* anRR $ T^J «TT I Ml W $ TTWf^^JTT *5T STOrS?
«TT, spnrcft Pr#B ^ afa ?*ITT 3rro?cr ^rsft «n i s'lsjap S unit erer
JTTT-fr^r Mf vt *jNf ^T SRTH *TT T^T «ir afa: %# tjfoff & vft T^rfY
«ff i w»rf%9r =#3^ % Mf aftr fora ^ *taf ^r ssr *%R ^sr^r-yr^ q*
<rtfc-
*<fa ^ 3TT3TR *t aft 3?tf gft WT% «t I
warw 2 : tt*r-**ta
1775 % l^WR % *t*T 5TT?T *T*ft StfHfair ST^m^ 5^^TT 5FY 7TCT
*?t ^f f$«r <r* mr^t <R| Sr *raft *wft arc ?<t «ft i sa <re STWR Ml *rrft
^R«FT qfta % m«r-sr* *sr ?| %, arefo ^t% ^TT artr *mw< ^? ^ TT#
<rc qfta *Jt 'rft^r T| $ i nifsRff $ Sr q«F £?rtfff »to vr ^nl%w art (t «TT
art arnrro^ *nf & tffcr an T$r «rr i wllft? TianrwT TT «p ift ^mt? 5rnr:
fhft T^ft «ft, arar: ^>* if q^r ?r?rpf »n¥ «ft «TT I urft-arrw Jf *TcT^r
*$f \T T| ^ afh: sew ir'wtftr ^| q^-î^ % srftr ir^f *T I 3Tî?n) ^r\t^rm
^ wvt ^TÔT* f%*T ftr 3% ipft TT ^0 j«? «ft% % mf ^ armsr $rrc>*
^ 11 irtt 'faftt iftknltmm-*XX%%IF; arnrT^r arnft f¥ WT ^^ st^T an^
*r*ft ^-»tw | ? vW-*ra ^ aMt ^^» % |ft| TT ^f»T5ft T^FT ararMt «FT
ft w| ?|t VT
■U
3TT%5r forr, crar "??rft ww f* sft Jhrft* f«p % fft° ^rf"€V *?t n*> s^sr **n
t i "HV snwft % TT^T »WT eft 3 aft sft aprn^r ^T ipr 5^? fe^r i SPILTH 3frr
mi, ZTT<T cT-qr tT?^Tj^ «rWI vx w^ sp^ft |IT ^TTÊJH T| I
mO ft 3TTC ft ff'*9T 7?r "^5JT % falT 5>gT Jf 5Tcft«TT $T l" <?IRT ft S?5l>|
^Tâp *ft fJTfT^r JTm #ft IT, 3TTT W %3*T ScRf H^ST fipTT "j^: ^ftf^cf" |
??r s^sr % ^Tr^wr^r ?r«rr *nfa*ff gpt 3?T3H ft sr?r fc^r srcffa s*rft ^tf
?7«5^ ^«tt ^ fftsft I W *rTO ?WT «tft 3T>T ^vT fe*JT 3ffa ^"te 3rq% JT??TStr
-ft <jft-< sf3 TTJfY I
5TWT.U 3 : îfT *?t <T78T?*lf
Tfcrc ^"to % rfW! ^ft HF>* % 3T?5T f S^T fft^TTf ft «t *rft 1
s?*sreT<?*P <Kt vrfft % arfcf HT^CT q<j T^rro sr^ ft S^TSH ft <T?T
|3TT «TT I 1% *TT»f ft ?S»-W gJT *reNTT*TT3ff ft iffcTT'TR ^RcTT <§r I #*
% 3F?T •3T?a,^TT ft vrl<V am*?'* ar!^ f%q fcr s*r STT^'TY % sn* ft st% *TT
T?T «rr faft 3TSR^ crtf % ^rei^ra % qrera 3*: *fta?r 5TTCCT $T*T TT, Tiftt 3^
^sr ft ?5*?: *T^T STRTI I ssft anw sf|cr ifHf % ST* *S arrstft q* *rrc far
^cT^mc^ ^raft-farcft *rft<TT eft sft $m Tfrgsr ftm; faT fsro-
5T5fl ft *3 Stfft *<sff cT3> fatffT T^T 3*ft ^ WT ^|*TT I Sfftf % ltffcl*P ft ft fft^R
^TT-^rT 3TT T| ft aft* 3* 3flft t*T f% $#W ift WVT | I «T^
ftfT* sir ?|r -4T ^r^f sft IT« t^#^ ^ftcT ft fft^r «fi #1 arsiT^ ^f ftvr ^"t^ 5^T^ ft H^x
qj<t 1 ^f (t ^fa*r gi M |tci^ ft I?IT sr^t

f«7 %ET ft ^^5FT ??FIcT f>r*TT I ^ft ^*T2?T* ^T tfSfft ^f?5T SFTTT 5^^ft ^t
fcjTr ir?rr 1 ^jft ^cTTTr wr ftr 3TT% f?T tp? JU^T ^^r 5rr^»ft 1 ?m?cTT ^Tft
?T»TJT ^JHft ftcTT ft Jf^T f^> tr^ fSRft ^?Tft fafTft SCTft ^ft |, ^T5T ?% 3TT ■5TTT rft
9cTr ? I TT?ft % ^T? tfttt ^^cl^ TT 3^ft ^^TT ITT I ^*5TT ^TT 5T» 1% *ft3R %
<T?^r?T JTrV^TTT?T IX T^TT «TT cTf f 2? ft ^ft H^TT ^t fo f»T?{ 4ft ?T ^R^
5?et>^»Tft fft^TCT ^T^rfV | I T^t ?% Wf^TT «t> f^T^
irf-flf *1 sTcftwr tfr i
f«r^ iffter ft nf^t ^> ?cTmr f^J ssr% f^? ft «P^T | f^ *% f'^r %
srfftfjffff % aw ftf^ ^rr^T 3r?ft fq-crr fft ^^ftT % fgrw ft ^RjpnT WTC?T vf
• wf «?V ft ir|r % T^t ??t srfcTfftfsr | &x ?% sg% *rq ftt>^r
^?Tft ^"t fax | I cl^ 5TT<t ft 3ft TcTT^T f^7 3^^T facTT fffi Tf-'TcT ^PT^
jf <t, TIWT ft araRf w«f cT* ^ftfiT ft ^^ T^T prr aftr 8W 1^ it »mr
Chapterwise Summary in Hindi 3
| I 3% tf*»T *f BR^T f*TT ^TT^T T^T ^ T^r | aft* ^«ft ft fasft ^?|
qfrar ITTTI | i ?s. *|aptf I fas tfJta 3TRîf f^f'STcT sj«r % arftrfo % ^TTT
*jfaw (ft lift i ^T^ft *rfa*r arr^T *r$ =jt«r *r ?rT*ft i
fas *$*ft *t^rf *PT fq-fTT SfaS Jfittftet ^fafJT «TT 3ftT *UcTT 3ftfGT
aft i se% «T?»T % <r^r ift S*T% fom ^t BRTW asfa<r g«*r ^T IT 3?T %
qit a? 3?tT tj^^T ^"tf TcTT ^ ^*TT «TT I wrfacT TTiTT ^ SPTtft J^t ^t
«2T«TT ^r arer% % faq g% SRTTTT «TT f% sara% facrc spt *Rg ?> ipft aft i 3T«r
fir^r ^^cr «?t arf aft *ft era ff? % faâr <R ^TTO ^ 5»^<JS % anarr «n aft*
ar^m *f 3*T=PT wr-<ftar faparr «TT I
3T5JHIT 5 : fH? Vt |«PH
qftff apt Tftar srscft ^cT nmt|5i S qâre ^t *rf *; <TT 9RR TT qsp
<ft«n PTTTT £? »TOT an aft? 3*T*f Sr ^TTÎ XFTTT^- v|ft *r*ft aft i 5ft?r
an?SPT aftr ajsiff % ar?r #3^T ^nff *f amar aw* <fta> *rJt i i^rf'zr,
sft-??rr affa ajajiKt It 7tfe<T ST **t»ff % f?rq *r?wr TK *ftft ^§ arere £ *t
rot* fas |f i
ST^ apt 3*T |^T?T *FT anfarar l]Nft arafR ^ST SfcftcT fjft ^T^TT cft^T
f#r aftfarq fe<ET»F «TT i s^t T??ft JKTT fawsrf fat-gas ^5 arrtft stf
Tfaj*TT aft 5ft §*PR TOft *f qfcT «fft ^RcTT «PTcft aft aftt ^T?"2T % ?tS #^t f^ fJTTf
^Rcft T^cft «ft I p?W %'tTcp ^ Sf ?rf^t ?T«fT f# ^5 «t I
JRTT fenf ^r^»?T qr a*hr arrefanff ^ ^T^ «R T^t aft I fe^rf % ^ efWf ^t g-ff
w* % ^ fem | fad- # ^sr^r ^rr0 ar i
T^T ftmH sro #^ «TT I wr^ % Wt^. $ cftTf 3TRift arraft % ^? ^ STf^T
SfffT ?| a> | f^qjr^F ^ ?TacftfrTq folT fe ^^ ^S aftrf! apt ^Tsft % $X Jf *t
STfsfJ^ apt 3Tfarf^T ^ 5cTT an—f *fcr ^ f«rfxf^ ?fnSJT % a> gft
qsp-^r^ apt '5rfap?r' fn-q- ^ tjnffllrcr SPT^ a| i ^ ?ftaff «j?t f^r SPT^P f?i5i n
^ 5T^T% 5PT 5TT5TT asft^TT aftT # t^P Bff^ Eprr^ *fr srfâ? f^ I ^f ^ <fP
?f5T%9ft W5«T fc^mft ftan1 aft f^r TT #sr farr f^ ar^T^ % wz w i 3T8intf
6 : ifKt
^ ??n^ *f sq"a=cf ^s a^?r%irft 3T5 ^fta'spt 3* % ®<fspT 3rrar
^ro #%cT «rr I faEpF ^ ^fl"5pT arfw^?^^ fa^JTT fsp^ ^^ affW tftift arraTTST »t ^?fapT
^tTT fefT I Z\o ifS^r awftar, fTITRT |3TT, Tft*m fff an | ?r^
?rsr aft ??ft 5?TM Jf arr fap ^ %?r if I arh %x*i frT "^-aA-âf, W&
1^" I I *ar ««% aTO ?Pt *Tcft eft ^t ^rTT £t apt ?PTOt ^T ?Tap #*!> If
sret *fc;TTf jfeft aft?: ere <JT?CT ^ r^^Jjf^r if sft srrar 1 arsTT^ ^<T $
5TW 5T?ft ffTT ^*ft f^TJTTf % ^T«T 3FFt {ft ST° #lf ^ p| <Tj^THT fff, afo
T 3T% ST»*ff *KT ^JTJT ^t fe*TT I *fl $*ft % fe?T Wt TTft ^TfTT q-^TT I TTA
cT?H g^ft ^T sv^n? STTcTfaTT ff STo tf^r 3?t tfft-sfft ftesft *ra TT? 3TT% H*flf
I $*ft % ??T *ffc $ J-T'FT 3iT7^T?nT ft^T fo 3T7 $g
grfsT? £ aft* ^ ?*r <rr*T ar? 37*ft f«ref3" ^ %*ft 1 $%$ *rn*-fa*fft
gftr 3?^ ^m I ff* $tft ^ ^ f% *f 3% ?P^T % 5TT*t»ft I feWT ^ ^*Tff 3TT?ft
^fffa SPTS ^ 1 cR" *J*ft 3>t 5n«TTT 7T ?nft tTcf feqiTiT facTT-yft ^t 3T%%
Stf^T ^TI ?pt #SRt ^ =*~T IT^ I
3TiT f*7T* ^t jfa S?| § 3fpt ^> 3TTzf) ff* l?fo ScTCT S?Tff aft*
^3FT-^f^T «TT f% 33 Hh'V <T«TT Igtft ^ S^RT ^3>T *?tW if faST^r I T5R
fc<*>T»f ST*T% ^t ^^"7 % sr^R ^st |f |?nf $ area- «ft; 3*r^ «pt$ ^r »rff
ft«mft i *tf 3;^?-^?? q"c^T*t ^> ^3-^> qr ^^ra-?reft §f *TJR ^V 3ift--=ft*?t
?FV cRqs rot i ^f feqnf ^ arfsrspTft ft gq^r f3 ^ aftr
3*% qffa artf «5T^ft 3TT% it I
*?P»3 ?t : gT^TT §*
IOTTO 1 : if^r ?nn *ra
5T?5?r ?r sf»T5r ?TT * fora fFTcr ^^'?r fp 1780 ^ 57^ tg^nr
?P^T (fsrH^r 5?* iter Tnf 77 qfrf^^r $ f% ?) ?TT % m%* tscTT «TT I
7€% f^T^ f^fÊT ^TT^f «t I SSTfTT 3r^T?^r 3?T ^?H% ^Tpf it S^TqcTT ^^rr
ffr^ ^?T% 5^ ^t ??r 5TT5T % an?^f ^t?TT «rr f^ ^H% fan ^ ^f^nrf 7T
S^9TT 3HT f?ff 5TJTT T^?Tr «TT I
fatn 5^r 3T? ffr % zip: H $, r«r»ii ft tj* TTTT^ ^ «TT^«PT
^ % ar^T ^ft ^ ^T »mr f^ fô «rtfl % faq tî> ê (T'ff) %^T arte*
Ht- (?r^T ^ W1^ qftsrcrct 3RT^CT) 5ri% I ^f ST?H 5fte ^TVK it ai^T 3TT^
%»IT 1 5r^ ^^ fas aHt ft ^r^ft an^w^T 5>, ?nr
IT» f<f f% I WT5W ^ 3ft Vt TI^T |3TT f^ ^^f TRJft^ % H« 5«P^T
Chapterwise Summary in Hindi
«rfa> s*r ^C^^CTT sf^r ^ g% i ss q^ arret* «rr fo ^ vtafaft | ato gf^r 3^ %

<rre q^f ^srr fa" q?T q>t^r % TT^TT gf ¥t SIJFKTT ^t «ft i w^ srf annt snq
^ *g*tergan ^q^Tq sfTT^T i ar^Hq; ssrqft JT^T «ftf Bf IT* g^ afre ^
«R3*at <re qft affr ss^ %$^: *FT *rre sr^^r nvr I ^ %
STo H^T aft* 3*R?t J^ft «J*fV I #ft qft WT^T |3TT fa ^ «tfcff srflf^fB %
ftres *re*re q?t TO? ^ »RT^ ^ î3r 11
arsm** 3 : Oreim
TT^rffti % 3rfa*ft*r ^r ftnre°r ^% g q; g% <Tr«i5<J3 fctr su^ ¥t faqtfR9r

spt i ss^r q^r q^rff % ^q ^r 3rfa sr^rfe sqr ssr^ fa^r TYSR q»nzr *t
qifT f«P*TT I ^TT f|f q»T ^ N?|S «TT I 5tff ^ q>$f f% ¥T# % qiff fS W 5C^ fffl1?
*ft ^ ^fa* ^ "^ ^ ^ T§c^«T tflf I ^ qitatfaqf % W< ST§' ini |^ *ft I^T TTT «TT I
5=fT<V ^ *RT|t 3% §q *|T fa 1% ft*4Q$fa ^T^f ^^ ^f^TcTT fa <Tfa ^T^" q^%
5^HC %?T-7TW % Jfl% ?TI«r ^T^T *$?% ^r^ft Jf ¥T^ ^ft TT, f^f| ^FT^ f
® f^^T STR ^ôg- ^r^ ^qq-
«r-Tr «%r IWT© ?t i ^^ ff ^T^T ^t jf^ # f^r irf^^rR SH W a^ni
srfcr WTIITT *T si^n tor «TT I sr^nr % ^RTI^^T T^% ^5?)-mNHM ^ mi *x^
?%\ ^r ^m% ^T«ff if f ^ *m<n\3 § 1 ^{T% ^T^
^"tf ^?TT JTT «l«^r 1% ITT? JT^f | I

*Tf TT ^ srnfh «TT ftr 1775 jft ^q JJW TT ^ ?t«f^: *t tw-
fTO q^^ aft 1 q^ »r^r^ ^ afft ^^p?: ^?|r f^ ^^^ srfiritfi ^T^T ^> ^ Tra 3*r ^
9i|T % q?F Hpfqft-^r ^r ^HT «TT sfh *% father ^q ^ ftr^ ^ sreftsrr ^JT T^T
?iT 1 ere Rwft ÎST % ys fns vf*^ * ?^lw HtTO* ^> ^t, eft ^^% 'RTI ^r ^T
f% 35 vi2> ^ft wm ^r W 1 *>\Z* *t «rfa-
aft* ^FT sr^r? fir*ft *r*ijft szr«f ft *nft i

swsr % q-sf?V?r f^r^TT ^ «rfff SFT% ^>^r fc 3rfwt»r % nwf$ ?Ff
*?R?r ^ *i% eft fas 4^cf 3T%ar ft »r*ft i s>re> ^ 3ft ?rf ? gf*rwr i 5rkt ^
if ft ^> f s mw srtf *F> for I ^r?> % snf % qr?r ST^T set ^cmR frm
fr to jf % *w ft ?ft 11
3>® ffJTT qwrrj <5pt ^ zft£ % 3jr^T SR qft 3,T*r f^rof^T $;rw
sft* ^sr ^ tftum ^t fr arfirgrfi snf fWftr qim *r?r safsn? ^ g?fi faar
arTcfr |, ffrg tftf *ft v| f?Tofjr ^rfrr <ret fatrcrr |f wffa ^| arrsir «rt
far arf^gru ^>> fcfnrtf % 3rF*rcft»r 3f HTT ?°S fc«rr srr^rr i WWW 4 :
irmf §*<&
sr° #%, sstft yft g«t, frr° nfft ark fa-o ^rf?T ^ «r# tft ** f?rzrr
aftr sfr srerrf ?> i snr % fsrnfa & gvft srcr«T ^ I ?T<> ^to ^'t SOT 2r
fjsrrc eft §OT OT, f%?§ are %fV qrtftanft # fflnfMtf? * ^ ■*? *rret ^
fairer 9% %^?r ?ret ft wn srwft «ft i sr° 3êT % 3r«r snf *ft ssifPiffa
^QT eft f»| gs wwjft 3TT«rr ark ssflft 3rf^f 3f 3TsrV7~rcTr, srflwNf cT«rr
f%faa u? %/t ?Hiiftf? f^r i $?ft 5?:?CT TT^Y »fqr^? fqerr ^"t «TT lr ipft i
sffft «ft ^?rr »[^T i ^*f »?# ^P> IT^T HTra 8f ^r TUT I ^ff ^«^
«Haf«r tor aft? mix ^% HPI% ^sr *iÊti«mi ^"<cir T%T I ^tf*r %
q?^fcT 5f^ 3TT^ f%999f ?TT«ft ?> TtcIT ®tf ^T ^^T TflTF I mi* cT^ cT^
•ftcTF Tff, Wf cTfT ^f ^5T q-T ft ^5^7 ^TT H> T PWl I 3T8JTff 5 : RwiT
^r?7 ^"t H^^: ??r ?% %?T ^ 5r»rr f^^r i 9m«r ^t «pwft | c %x%
tft ?% f® ^T rf5TCTT Tfrj feT arq-^ to awr prnH r^ro I^T^R % w
^fr^crr r*?5Tcft «ft i #rf ?f?r *f ?rr^r-?rr«r T| ^ sfk fqisr^^f «ft ^, ??r
^[Tir ?>?rt ^f 3r=B0t frr^crr «ft i ii% ifi n 5ft«r ^ ^ fo q-?rfqr ?f r??T
5tT ^fl «rr, ffr?g «j^r f?rf?rflf %^rT (f?TT> % f*r<r arTfrr^^r^^ «pnf *x%
?r?rT) «rr i ^refr tft ^nf ?mf^r «ft' sfk ?|rw ^ H^^rar fs fz ^ «H If
^r<ir «ft i
frr% OTr^t ^r ST^T ^TT ft, srf? W if fEfji *vm ®& $ft 7T #rt
7
«ft 9$f 9S9T 1 cgitrc $ ^%9 9ftspr % SRT *m 9-1 3^9 fa9T 1 9f$
fT^T 9 9T 99t STSFTT 9ifS9 qft>99 f*>9T ^tcTT 9*t 99% 9*t 3Tq^r
^f*9T
99^9 mm ftp 99T 991 1 9T 9§9*>T 95 f9?9T <rc q? nut sftT

9999 anrfe 99 gi ^ratft TT #1 swr 1 999' 599T warn 9§r 9T f^
?99 99 99R 9^T 9% I
astnu 6 : 5«ff »ft9
3To 999 afa 9999 $*ft nffi 9^9 *t 9,9* *Tlff999 9*9t 9t|T 9
T| I ^ro
% fa* 5JT<t.srw 99% 97 999 fira% an9 ir 1 sr© a 3|t qtft IPIB9
5^ ** 9t «ft 1 Ttarstf % 5*$% % 9n 9#% 9T9 sre 9?r tft «rtfcr
9,9* Tfa9R sF> 9fft ¥To % q-r 99T eft flmt-j«ft Jf>fff 9T^T 99 §9% I
nc^-99f?sr99 f99 9T9 9 99 are* % w* fasmr 1 gfit «Pt 9? tytx
3TT599 |9T % «To 999 3T9t 99^ 3j$[ 991% % SfT9K 3fTT 99 99 T*i gCT
| I 99 9T999 f 9T f^7 9f 99% J^t 99 *9 9T99T7t 99 99T" 9>T9 §9, | I
99-99f?9^T 9 WT 99 99T9r f? ^ 3^5 qT J? 9g9 359 *flfr %
vfifa 3T^r <$9t % f999 99;?! 9t9 an% 79% | i 999 99 *ft- 99T9T fa
3T° 999 99 9T 9W9 9flf 9T I , 9f H9% 99TT9T9 *PT *B*ft 9?9*9 9$ 9>T9T 9T
3TYT 99 f999 9 999*9 *t9 9?9T 9T I 9T9T* 9' 39?t 9lfe 99£, SHit 9T !#* 9^
9*9^ 9 £9<T9T T|9T 9T I 9,9 &T99TK 9^ ^«> ^'t 39 9t?99T ST9T9 ^T TTcft *ft
I «WI % 9|^9 fafffe ?T9a5 ^9 *ft^f«i ^t^JT 3ft9 |q 9t 9To 9^9 3T9fT «tTTfT9 ^
f39"t ?t 3K ^vf 9^t 9*t 9T I
ffo'4%9 SfN 1# ^ts 3TT9 I 3?T* ^l^f % rftH Tîa 9ig ^t 3?| ^99 3TT9T I
9? 9^9 ^?;9 % 9T3 9I99t9 ^X9 99 I 3(9 9 5S?99 % «PT'.r9TT *€tw€ €\ 9^>
^9T ^Wt at ST© 999 ^T $9 q??9 9«f 99T, IrftR 9^ VftST ^t 99^1 99T I 9*f |t%
5T»lY 9t ?^fviq g^ i^^T9 % 8Tf9T 9% H9 I 9T97TT % 9K t999> ^T?9 «ft
3?T TW\ I 9^ 9t ^T tf99ti: Vt 9I9T 9^9T 9T I f^9 ^fO 9 "9^ff 9T9,; 9T9
9^t 1^, ^^T f=F
!{f4nfvvr 9 qp|f 9r i ^rffY 9 9>9r f«u 99*T 9^9 '19 ^9 9.I2H 9 • T^r $rr,
*IW% % ijsft 9' qmfv* ^k ^99 M^T 199 39 |«9f iT5T ^ 1
3IS9T9 7 : 9lf7T9 ^ 9'
9sr^ qsm 9 ^9TT ^r ^ ^ST ^f¥ 9liftriT &}c9"9 jnt^Rini^t 3«JT
ccT9t 9T I 9^ 9f"9 9 9^9 959 999 9 9| 9tlt ^> ^T99 f?9T ^VH 9T I 9«F
W ^99 % )<t% 9^ 5T99 1c»vT |t% TT ^99 9faf9 mftT9 91^99 UlNfat
9TT9Trr # 99% 9% 99T^t99T ^ 999^9 f^x 99T 991 I 9^T*t 9Tf«f^9 *T
TTft Iffel # 9f*T' ^T 9?Vjr-^'9 ?t?9 99T I ^99T ?9t-Hft
$ A Tale of Two Cities
S3?r *x «ra% «rnf ft f?cft *^, f^?g satf tff f^r?crr TrfoKr ^r> ^ «ft i
aprnrar *n?> % sft% ^ s^r $^<?r T^rr i «r=5% ?rr fq-crr fc<rs sfte ?r
* vHranT *»> 0t jpr q*> fawr 3% ^<jrr^% 3r al* q-r. t% *F> ^ forr 1
mfwr *> *§ ftpff srfgrer sft fo gi% ^ ^> art ssfte ^ arr*ft I
3*ft qm ?$ fro«F arr qf*rr afk sffarfsr fore ^t srrwrr ^r 5r»rr 1
IT^^W ^ ?ft% q>r qwr jftt firw feqjr*f ^V cnq? SOTST feqrr, %f%?r 3ff^
fti?frr ^r«r?r qr?t *r q?q? TfTT 1 ?*r arnrnr & f s- ^Tf%^?r ^ s*r arq--TraV ^
»>^r ^T^ q>> SETT-SKIT %«rr, fo*§ erg- <T*T ^ irr?? $> f **>r sir 1 for* %
<mr tr^r enrfV Nt fTTf VTcft gf ift «ft i mfercr qft *rr?t *& Mr Tqarc
ft arr^ #y »nft i arwnw 8 : tfftrq ^m Sf
mf^RT **} JTT?T qfr*r vt §&r«rcer *r?*»Tf q* sftffft gf £fra *r M
ft ftar jsrft *$ frsrn <**r*r 3*rtf ^t tfhfjf fegw *PT T| ^, to «ft JT*
fsrerT T^y |> qrd> «ft i fqsr »rrat q^ frft % ih t& ^ % «rn $¥? 53^ aftT
^far % *re <p> Bt£-ft »rfa ft qf *r ^T S^T T*ft I inc| % *fcr % s% |q
»rftf iinr?Rft »rr?V % ^rr^f ?R9) ?^S ^T g% ^f$r ^ ^^ ?r^ 1 ^?r «fWlf
^r Trfi^ff *>> cpF H?SF JTST^T fkm*ft T? «i?rr art g& TO$ ^ firOTfl"
fiwi ^r 1 5f% p^ f?^r ffr $1 ^?r% m «iwi 5m| 3?1T er^ ?rat 5^f ftr 3T«r
»ri?V ^^r% ^Tfr ^ ^j x$ qt ei^ ?^ $% 5cr*rr ^T ^TT wf Ig- Tfr «rr i T5r|T
^ ^TTT f??TT fe ar| ^ 5TJ%, f ?r if f^T^ arwfy ^> 5* T^r «TT sr> »rr?t %
?f>% q^ sfsfhc ^ 5rs* ?|r «rr i Trff^rff
terror »mr f^r ^^r^r *?fNrr ^r??f srq1', faw^t ^^ sRftwr «ft, ?»#^ ^
JT|7 arprr «rr i
arsour 9 : »rWfr «FT HT
f s l> ?r»Tff q?^r^ sffapr wcft-srr ^T??f ^r^f arr w aft^ feffT ^f urrf^^r $
T*rr i ^?r^ srr^hr fr Terr ^?rr % ^r^r-ât^r % sfhr f%g JT^T «rr i
Chapterwlse Summary in Hindi 9
3 xgt **W • ^f3 ^% ^r^T *nfarcr % q>^r fa *R*t«ff qr *?** .emr

tfcW^rT ^ STTT |t 9IT?Tff fa*TT ^r H^FcfT «TT, aft* 3% *Rct 5*T
cf^P ^
sie^r qJt arret T^TT 1 sa% ^*^q» q,w fa qri ^ cpr qjfattft «T«BT aft?
3*raft yft spt ^TT^TcTr J ftregft s'#°s if srrqre *rc«r fft 11
s?fa wis qifaro % sr^f qft 5^?TTW? ZP^X fwsr qre fsrcr aft? *faff
3Tq^-3Tq^ *WT 3T5T*f 3f 3TT«PT fft *I^ I ff%?r ^~ft «R HTfaRT 3PT^
ff^T
q? *rer |3rr qror *PTT 1 33% f5* *f ^ &v iffar §arr «fT fanA *s qt «$■ ^
«FT«T3T q? fa<?T «rr, "ss tftsrar ?r qtt *' qf^r *t 1 ^51 %fa*r tf afre &
1" 3jRnn 10 : *t vrt
qqr srrsr % srrc ^res tr»T,s«ft« *f q?*r «TT«TT ^ ftisr* % ^q 3f pnfar it
*r«rr 1 faff STTO sr?f ^ f*m gtft 3?lcr wft sra* % wrwrsw *f 5STT *JT, 3*ft
ST*T % q§ SSH **r ^ ?rqr «rr, fafg ^ qrtft ift ssrct arqjrr £JT sprc JT|t fa*n
«IT, Jr^rq" 1% srw: sio 4^cf % *re STRTT êrr «rr 1
3nfeW* ^ fe* ^3 %$l 3TTC 3ffq?t ^ 5TT<T «R 5T$ *ff, *Wr ^ 5T© iftcr ff 3TT^
*T?T ^t 5TTff q?| 5t I Sflit H% ift WWT fa 3ff?t arq% S*T % SIR fl *pft % ^S
3f^f qj^r I I 3fa£T ?t 3TST fa*T fa Tft 5Tfft ^ff
«9nhft fa ^f ^rfff ^ qrrrft t a> 95 3% sm %m fa ?m «fV ^r^ ^r
fi€ ^ #8hi «Ft arq^r 3Tff5fV fnr aftf ^fiv srr^ mj mm %zw *n?Ti
faf3 ^T^ ^^ ^w ^ffff ^rr^r ^w fa ?|gV % fa^rri ^ % ^1^ ^V ?% ajqfTT x%w
srcn^rr i ^riff qft sr^ f^t.^r ift^ at ?% fqcn ft f^ ^JfTff |q te^x 3TcJT?ff
f^^faer |f 1 sqczer: 4%^ qft ffr?rf?rf? farter mm** *%i «?t 1 gtft % arra |t
^^^ q>i»r qrT^r ^?sr qn: fîrr aftt ^ff% ffTT 5?t ^r aq? qrq^ ?f sêrr T^r,
cr«r fa^TT q^ grrqrT fft T*rr 1
3*ft TTCT ?jT5^T afrc fff^^t q?is?r srsr 3rq;rr qw ffffT^ q>T ^%
eft *$\mx ^ iqjpfqr wrt»ri ^t fa S^T f^mr imft ^^^ ^ 11 qnfffr ^ sft fq^r »5
T^f ff ^r^ qtar ?^r «rr srk arq* %x TX ?rq% eftf^^lf qit ftnfterr Tfr «rr, ??r
«fta«rj q^ arfsrqr ari?îf sqtfi fr^ fa^rr 1 ?5T?^T % qjtqst isTT-^ffT q>t
«rS *T% % m zzm fa ^qft w*z q?t sr«r^?ftf»W ^êr «ft 1 f ff qT qriffff
ami qT aftr 5r^t-5r$5t qt^ STTT I ?$I^T % ^ff ff5TTf ?ft fa «r| «ft qq> ^t^t
cT^m q>T ^r vfffa ^^ arrsft ^««rrw % f^qqqr trftw q>t,an^2TqKfT| 1
qr^JT ?sr w$ q^ fa^n q>^q^>
TT^ft jt iqt I
srwn* 12 : flam af^ aifo;
*?r**T £?r?f?r fa nar afk afft ^"t srnfr. fou^ irtarir w?n«fy i ss <^
5lT<t *cT5ET Tf ITUT I 3tf% *sfa>R fanjT f% ?£r?*R ifr*T |, ff*T5 | afc
3*r*>r *rf%ttr ^^gr?f $, fafgr s*r% s?r g^ $t f% arr^fV iforcr «R SPRT *
wt i *ZT%?X ^r «R srsrevT farr i ?ra a! ft ^ gur^r fam fa ?r§ *cjq-tfifa %
*R *w?* <rar *r*rr^TT afk s% $f*Rr ^TT I W tft -ST* îf<V
*5Tf*T % «R 3$ ^ ipTT f% faff ifacT ^ *f\*Tt T$f *R H^rf>, eft
SSJT ^r f% ^TTTr ffprsrT ip ^TT wTPir 3^ fa^R sr<??r fori | i
arsmtr 13 : i^rar tf|w «jfacr

ftrvft f?Tssr sro qêr % «TT srws 3>T^T *R?IT *«TT, 3fo?r 41
^T9rT ^5Tff 3TTT ^ T|clT *TT Wf?f^ «T^f 3ff^"t 7ff*? *%t fa*Tr 3TTcTT *U I
fax 3% 3 ?tcr cr«rr gtft ff sftT 3*% *R s tft 5|cr ?RT* $t nsrr *rr i anrcr %
*r$ir *f cps fc* ?>T£* ^|f qrfî eft $tft 3r%<ft *ft i zm «rra*fta ^Tct |cr
3*r^ wnrr fa ^ff^T *ft^ «r«f ifr "<|r | sftr sffii $>f <TR^<fa srw *^r' «rr i
rati ^ tfr ^r fa ss% f **r ft get % srfir ar^fcr wrc ^r «rsT apt W ^TT «i> sfK
^r?r?r ^'s VTTT 3$r% OOWST ^ ^T^^ ^TT*T *T<!:?TT «fV i ^<T?J ipr«r|#* ^|r
f?F ^rfe vuft ^?r^t «r«r«rr 9^% f^Ht fsrirsiT ^ for st& ^JT ST^TT ^ sneer $m
eft ^f sr| & sr?T gf5RTH
5FT^ ^"t" &TR T|»rT I ^^T^ ^t % <f| «7T? T^T% ^t 5TT«f5=TT ^ f^f
?€
ff 8TR W$ ^ HW T^% ^T ^T5T f^FTT I cT? ^RT f^?T ^3R
^?TT
ni 14 : f*rw*R wnmuft
IserT «TT 3TTT ?^ ^>"t ?T5r ^rnwTt ifmi4^ *n*rar «rr i ITEF f??r s*r%
mT^ ^t«FT tr^T 9r^-5TT^T 5TT T|t ift I iNf % HT«T ^?f^ ^T% fS <=ftJT TT^ 5TTT T| 2T
fr ?T^ 9TTf# % f^^S *F3R «CT#«JT#f ^ ^Tf^ I ;^ T^
^<V ft TI^T §3TT fqF ^^ ?rar Ttor ^^r? TIT^ o;^ srr^r T>T «TT sft aite #%
^ti % TifrfiwF % f^s *R*R"I T^ '<ir 1 ^T> *ft w^-m-rr ^r
t??T TTcT ^RT^RT q*F 5% ^fr ^ 3rTfTT *F«T3 «rt^T aftT STT^ V«W-
Chapterwise Summary in Hindi \\
ft® MT i Ti«r *r $H ift *t «T«ft fa*r sfk tffrsff ufa^n trf^r sift
^T a^ra" ITOfT «TT I (% 9T* *f«K<lf 5T7T W^fa U# ^) I

3T»T% fe^T S3?. «Tf fT3r-3T #V 5TT *| «i, <T9T TT?^ *f J^T % facTI
^ JTICTT: ur arewft f[tar | aft trsrrfr? unNrnnsf in aresrc UT3T

| (srsrfe f*TUT 3T«f 'l>W ^>?^T 1T1" fal>T?R ^T^TT aifia"' ftcTT |) I 7T %
i»fr fa ^5 *ft »*i? fen nfft *n«Tr i «rft liW STOT flu fu^ft fen snm
spum 1 5 : |riTf
•ffiFw? fe mfisn in |C*TT % ^ nn wrrq r*i> fen itfwrq f^qprTf in
*r^9TT^r n" srfafen in awsrr sin & in $ nsrern srrc**r $ nm *rr I
fe«BT»F n^f SlfiRn *^ *N I SWlft «T?5ft 3T%5lt ft |UR *T «T^WT UT T|t «7T I
3>T5T si) iftftrq feTO»F ^17 SfHT' 1>T iTTWRr UT.n STT^T % STT 51W n'
3TW I 3Tn? ST*r $ fwfe q | fem<T ^ Sff ^frfi ^JT qfCOT VfA 7Wt ^ 37fsRT
*F$1>T UTT^rr I 5T^ ^flfff iftSTT 1?T Tfr «TT <T«TT ^ftT 3TR»ft
5^%-^«T% q^-iri7 ^T% fr$R ^r tr^T ^ n^-1 ^fiw iftarsr ITT ÎTT ?nr feunf
^^ STT 5?ft wtoft % % narr ar^f 5to H^CT irf grqr «r^ im «n i If aW
o?K*ft ^|t Is sr?ftefT UT T| ^ i fti»nr % ^JTITT %fir^ SRIT %fir?r feahr a^
^fsp^r qcfrr ^girr qfcw UTTTT afh ^'t ^ %f^^r ^g«f ^triTr i n^ arriTfgj^ irt
%fu?r T'^JT ir^r »PTT 3ftT ^«% ajqift IT«IT g?n^
^€^ ^^T m% sq-fe % ^T^ Jf mint sft mlwr ^ TTft % ^%

?TS1T T^T «TT I *Tlfl?*T ^t ^c^T 1>T 5t izf> «?V I ^ff aqftfi U>
TTlll^ff
ift ^WT % 3rn>q ^ "TTT^ H^^ ifY ^tsr % ^r? TIT?ITT %?T ^r ?T?T f^^rr
TPTT aft7 f^T nff Jf wr$ % TT^T ^f^f> 7^: ^sifr f?^r »wr i T^ *naf gûT
%fir?r qf^wr ift u^^ ^r fifrrH'ar feir 'TTT 3rfa mrl «rfrT5 ^ff TT
qftin ^t fl"?TT f?T>i»f % f?nf #R^ ^ ?5f' I>T f^?TT ^ aifi7 ^jf?r STT^T
Tfêrr^ u> frotf ?prfcr %fiw T'^T U> infe ^ T^ i ^^f

arrf* i s?r% ftf TOrff"? «wgre sr ftiJnf srcr??r garr, wrfv THJ*T% <pT
farercr aftwrc sr*?fa ft»rr ^ ft *rawnft wf *> §?f«r<r swtfit i sewn* 16 :
|^rf anrt
erfrfe *t 5fte^r *r»w Tffan? fosw" ^ wr^? % ^'*ft ?rr% TT ^ ftm$
I f s srrar tf i z% &%i % ycT ^nrs* *f «rr i ^^ *awr fr srf * *gfe frms> ffifrr
3*% T*PW «TT arr^ft ^ *rt fag-Rr f^^rr T*TT «rr 1 fc<sw 1 ^r^^r |fa*rr
wrsft Toft «t wmrr 1 s*r ?t ^f r fr 8m% fcq-
3*PFr 5TTJT tft 8TT?t |TTf ^fa^T $ §* %*ft I Sff TT5T fewf pHT fcg?f
ferr 1 Tpft % f 8?t <r* ^*w SRTWT OP ^Tfar tft sfWV *rfcr % ^r^r ?$ «w
«ft 7^r 11 *rem ^ ^^ sr?*r sfsrr^ f<T ^|r fa ^ aierw <T*T T%\ | «ro| ?f fa*
5T55 w^ ^r^rr 11
WT*T fe* stqrfr *ft ip» ajre*ft ^mft <u* tf pjw *r «rwr 1 wiw fe<pnr
?r p% T^^TH f?T»rr fa 3% ?|t srr^ff 11 S*FT «S<TJ ww arrvft % ^ ^ q^»
*n«r jsrw vta fsrar 1 ^ ?T%CT w? p?w *r #5 irrgtff ^ *ra *w srfs ^T fori
aft* sfft-sftt *i|* f^«^ *i^ 1 sr^fe ?t WTTS" *ft ark Hfftrcj CT«TT »T3T*r ?r
STT#' q>vt awr %r*T 3*§ f © jg^wi
^ 3H?rr «r«Rf ^ f^ fe«r *?^ qft fiTrlra *rr*T ^5% «rf?r ^"i RJRT % ^? ft
^^nr 1 T3[i*f % ^|r f^r ^1^ ?t sruft ifer ^"tcft |, 3^^r sjftf fs ^ jfr^c ^r^rr 1
cr«r ««A ^1 ^r ^r jsrisr Or-ffT^r fîi aftx ?fT^> |wi ^r 5fts
WWW 1 7 : q3P \m
wff| ^ T^ ?i?Eirr q£t fA aiT^ fqcir % «w «ri'i% i Wi ^r^f irt q| «ft 1
f»% pftfR f^«rr f% ^f arwfcr ?g?^ «ft, W KOP ^^rî fsm| $*r srr5»ft | ?>
T^T |, fa$% it ff?r cqr^ | aft^ fsr^ 99% ^cr^rr |T arftr^r ezrrT | i>r° A%$
% fkmw s^ôr Opzrr ffc ^ft spr ^Te?f % sr% ^»r ^?r% 5rfcr ^T 3 99ft
<rw^ ^ ft^T 1 gi# t?cft?r ^r ^"iJr |(T prl qf>r fin* ^?T% mtft %^t ^r^
aR§*rrf a^ % «^ 1 tw? % ww^ TT %^?r 5rf ft # l|»?w |1i»t sftz fw sim
â; ¥r ?r^t r fa?r^ * in ^t 5TTT ¥rf ?rtff if 5T° »f%cT % aw |> -?:|it 1 m
"^TCT ^ro l^w, g^ft ar«rr fiw sf?r ^ 3T%% «ft3r^ f^jzn 1 4êr *fft afi^ 't?r
# fft? ^fwr 1
www 18 ; 4| fw
ftft| ^r <rffr ^r«f »i^ ^ *fo vte ^r vm^ftir I ^^r^ ten f^^r
Chapterwise Summary in Hindi \3
fa If ^«TT<& <TRIR 37T |, (f5T^T% *?R1 ff^ff ^T <TfTIR TO gaff) |

$% ffiff ft ff^ff % fe?r irt i?r ^r?*TT Tg IT 1 sff^ mifff**. OTfor TO gt lit
3JTT if ffitTsnu fa"?™ siftr; STTI T?T I
fllTf % IT? ^fft aft* =IT?ff f ltff5 % ffftr TITIT $ II I faff Sff^T
afR srKt ST° ff^ri Jfft *OTT*T % f?ftr ^ ^ 1 3?fft i^r ft? if o &fo
% S?ITff«J> I?T IRIffI 3TT T^TT IT I If fafft *7*t I^TH fl* ?T^Y TfT IT I
;?ffi arff ntf ^r amr *PTI far* 5^ «FT fiiT 1 «rfd ^t.ifft fi?cTT g( 1 *f
ah? ff tfs^t £ftR fn-TTi ¥r<> i^ff 3?t ^r*TT*r ^TI ?nr 1 STO ffjfa
H»TTcTrT IT fll <T*T 3T<TffT 3*1 IITI ITT VTff afRIT TfT I
srsw 19 : q* TW
^TRTTwr ^T lit TTff I^TI ff ft Hfflf #| <R $fft IIT I ff%*
3T? if srmr eft sffi ST° 4^*cr «5> i«f ^T ff sifi «rnn 1 sffi STI IIT*
^- cv c»
!pt II 3TTT aft^R ST5PT 71 flit I I Sff fa®% it fllf qft 3j?tf IT! «W*
«#f «ft 1 *ffi srifd =pt fwre ffemr fa nNI TTI I' sff ffnfffsp I?-13ft
far ***> fff|f ftift 1 aftl % 33T fa nr «n ar^sr i^r |NT % ^cT
5f?TT% sjft II 3TR Bft3TRf sp"t TO *>T ft*TT 3TTI cTrfaF ffff itfft ITff ITI 1
ani ? 3T. ffii arisft nptr % 11T % o^ Tr^ trMf % Wt| wl tnft i^f
^'1 g^T f^TT 5TT^ I ^R f??T ^r? #%?f apTfft 35ft aftt 5HTR % 7KT ^?TT
nwr 5fl ^?ft^5T <R «T I Hf ^ 3JTT faff 5TTff ^ ?^ ^> 3>f ^T 3T5TT folT
afTT aftaTTf ^t ^*ft% ff ^RJIT fe*TT I 3?CmiT 20 : W-tfirfa (^WT5T?r)
mfl ift% im 3rsr wh A^ % ffr«r «R *f\z arr^- eft ^^ ^qf?r vt
^«Tif ^ ^T?rr srr*r wrfffi fff^ft ^T€T «TT I ^tf ^ fa^ft % sfa amnt s^ff
f^n f?F stft % ^TTT ^ fmTr^nr 2r 3TTTtT-gw?r g> ?r^r «TT «fR
srmT«5 ff ^^ ff^rr «rr 1 fff^ft ^ fa^rcft ^t ftr ^?r sr^ ^r| ^?T% «n:
3TT% Tf^ ^ aT^tff^t 5TTC I ?r5?f % ^ 3T5»T% ^ it I f%fft % *$ ^ * IT? ^«t
^ ^Rff ff 5Tr«fIT ^t fa fal?ft % ffTT flTSTcTT *T silgj^ ^ pftf ^ff% Wf «R
WTR T^f ^ I $?ft ^ WTgJ fa JT?rf<T falJft % iPOT ^ 5OTT ift ^tTT^TT
T^f I, fa^ If 5TTI?ft I fa If ifa fl5T »T5«I | I ^TTStf Ic^t ?pt WHT ff
5T«nflff f3TT afTT -gr^ ?TIT falT fa $W If ^Tf5ft I If 1ST gt V^TT I
5T5ITI 21 j if «|ft VII
IT° <Hftr, ^ff>, ^TTeff ajtt t>*r srfff % faq 11 mfa % «w ^tffff
yr ift farr aft ^r s-* % $ *x mr i ^retf *raf iRfeftaft uroi ^"V ftrerr 1 T^T «rr
i f ?r fT^rTfrT qfbrn: ^sft «rr i draft ^T ^«ft-**ft STT^
3*** fa*T 3TPTT RRcTT «TT I ^^ft $# 3*T *gcT «TR *5T?ft «f> 3TR ^ sft it
arfcf cqR fTTcTT «TT I *?r|?TT ^ *«PT5TcT aratft" ^ Tp *ft I SflJt IJfr
*>ta *T f8 »rs«rft ^ sre? an- T^V «flf 1 %m srcfta ^fcrr *n fo ^t z\o
xflfa % ** grmr 1 3*ft *<TPIT fr qfro $ *TR> arirrfar % ww k^-

*KT sfo % tfittfaft WT$V STTrfV ffôf SPRTftr.^03 §*[ T| ^ I Rita tf
forfa wfavrfa* fa»r?cft wr T# *ft 1
*far tft STJmrt ^T^T ^f% Sf jtfftnj aft* *wnr ftq»wf ^ sre
?fa*nT j%% 3TT T| ^ 1 * arft s?ft?*?f % srfcT^ft^ % f^r^ rffcnft ^ T| ^ 1

^r^sff spV ÎTT* iflffircr f^Tjnf % ^T«T *f «ft, srffo f?^T?t, f^^rft^r
8fa BT ^ ^ff T5TT fofiff forif *?T Jfcfc* fK% tft SRftWT *T «ft I
9 t
% vm, 3r^f ^TO 4%?r %* T^T ;TT 1 ^t frfipr wit mriprttft^t
^ ^ ^^!T ?TT R7TJ feWT I 5fWt ^ ^t 5TJft?T <TT pRT f^TT I ^3T^ fc
www 22 : HIT* ww "ft ^FWI «n
% faf * SWf^J ^ 4| ^t q& 5T5T Sflt ^ «t fa*| 3T5T ^flf ?rftfi <t
% <ft# wWv «ft, %fvT aw 3<r% qw ^rq?t ^r ^pn? *ft «fV sr> i^rf
iffiwr ft<FJ«f % |^TT if 3?T*R f«in *t fa SRcTT *T *^ qST^ff,
r%fc m mm *WT «T, <T*? fa^ wr m, ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
R$f f«T5Rfr eft ITHT VHft I cR?cT ?T?3 êft^ FT jRirtf girf I^fcm jjfatrR %SFT
$SIT fc fa% spt 3I5T <T?T 3T|t fST qSTflfY *P5 *TT I *ft? SRt qsp? arc
STTJJT sffa ^TT^fV aft* Ttarfr % q* *wt % TOSTSPT 1% qftft I # *Hft I
far 3*T3PT *R spTJSfTT ^ $<•(> <R St«T fczTT TUT I 3T5T *ft? spT 3nT*TT
ftrapR <ET3*ff «PT 5TW* TT I *5J «ft ^T^TcTT spi 91^ 4T I 3*t *ft 3S=P *HR
apt *r?fa STTTSOS ftur T*TT i ?sap «ns grcerr SPT g*«fr?1 *R*t arr% stft
arwro 23 : arm tTfaft

l$Rr *f mfere apt *tft % faapJ q*P fe* SSsp sfft im^RT W& Wfr
% qrar q[sp arr5«ft anqT aft?: sfr srfas m% =PT $mi I âft *ft 3% arfasr
apajr i ffcff $ jcerTRTTT ft 1 tf?^ ^t *R«ra WTT% ^T^TT TrcPffi qfa %
STTTT 1 SH^ vnraTfiwf & 5q%-yr% sna- eft 1 f ® ^t s*rq *re Tft qi ^f
»nii€ T^SP ^ aft* n?fr |-sr ^R% ^^T sst I »r|t If tyt Sfwre
ifa ^ W^H A^cTT aft japR a|RfT ^JTr, fa?§ ^sp tft aqftfi f^T-^T ?Tap *ff I T^t
3RSJR ^T9 ^t »tft I
STR qjr^r S ?prt?arsFTR«ff sm *** JSTW aft qf?at-§%f>rat ^T^TT-
5fT*T N ^TcT TIT I B^ 1792 spy 3T»T^r T^t^r «TT I «BRfT?fT *tt>?r
^TTt «ft I 5T> gT*r??nTT VT> TfT9Tt\SJfIT^ft ^, % 'RTITff fj ^% % I 5T%«P TR
Vrff »T* ^ I 3ft 3TT?T 31T TTJJ H 3R-<jR cfsp f^^T »T^ <f I ^>l *f
^5r«^ £SF Jf qsfr^ f^TT % ifita apt 'RfTaff afft STHT^RV sneer spr f?rm
sp *u«r gfij> TT3 5PT*T % fasrfsSr ^r W^r ^rr T^T «TT I ^rf % ^T fa ST*
?TT«r ^^ ift 3TT^, enfa «w% m«ft ^?mrfif spy dvjncrr ^R^ ^T STTW «PT m
1 yrf sp> vtonfto % ^m^r «rWi % =jm tr i^r «r^ f^srnft T?T aft mtwr *rer
q#»rf^ % ?n»T ^r 1 ^^^PT «tf <mT ^^t ?nr ^^r «TT I twF ^ 5^cr ^nrsr
fatrr fa ^ T^ ^?r% TTT «TT I mff«r «P> SCTT % ^r? ^?|t
^Tft HfTt% 5PT qspTTT ^TTTTrerspTTt «TT, fa?| ^^T^ 3TT*ft ^ qi«iPi*ai
fa^ft spVift srrmt T^f «ft 1 xr^r% *rf ^t ^ ipfr fa ^jnffrf <ft«WB ^
#p% ^t ^r ^ i S*T TTCT ?rf ft qr> fasr ^ s*pr *i# % 3ff *ft?r % fcn^
s?&r fori fa iTTf^r % ^*rrcT | fr tftsr ft s*r*pt *%imi tfl
STT^ft I 3PT*ft TTcT Iff ^ ¥r© iffo 3f>T $*ft *>> TO fa<t aft* ^fw %
«*>ta R* fta* *fw ersp q|^ 3 SR ^"t *>rcft *TTE *TT *TCT I TT^T
STVT ^TOTTO €11 arrftrr^TT ^ it fprar? gror ire STTT %R «r| fa?|
WTTq5t Tf»R ^sprtV T^V I 3^% «T«T *rf Rftff % ZTT 3^ Tf^ Wr I ^t
itr, fa?§ 33 sstft jftf ^T^T^CTT ^ ^T *T*TT I ?*TR SH vt ?rr ^f vt %<r

if ^r srrc* sr?<ft «RT farr 1 are^ faq froffra q^T^t qsteft %' erra «ro*r
mf % q* «n% ^Tf *f IT ?rrc vr *r^t fa^ ^ **•&&: *r**ra f sftai «* 1
sTcmn 2 : mf IJT *wr
^T<> ^^r artr gfft 33% 7m artf 1 ST^T *TT TT TT^T % tft $$m an »nr ^
1 ^r° ^^r ^ irf*?Mift 9|?r ?T"TFT ift sfe ^t ^^ *t 1 311% <r% "Terr
T?T «rr?r«ft ^?| ^r ^?T <SCT *p*t afk «ft? % si%5r # aiTorR pit
q^Y 15rfft ^ 3^ g?ft ^Ft an^vq^ Jf z*z ^x f^RT aftr ^R?r % STT
^*T & «% cr?5-a<f % ff*niTT «fR ^T T^t $ 1 % ?rt»r RI WTO <T aftr
?rf^ % flifei qft RwmT ft> % ?ftR vfe»f! fir |mr VT T| ^ aftr
9t5T If «TTR, arfa »rf ¥t srrnr T5n sft *% 1 if^r ?ft?^T «rTfr »mT 1 *ft?
R 3*rvr ^^TTRgf^ ^T^ ^T ^ ^ *w % n^ 1 ?rifft R artf «in?^ ij flfte vr
fcrr f^ gfft ^t 5^V ?TRT ^f^r Pw jrf^ *ft ?$ art wft «ft 1
Chapterwise Summary in Hindi \7
3js*ntr 3 : <RBlf
STTTt I T^T ftTIT fa $*ft 3TR ^•^■Sfft *«ft cT^T faff srif^T *t t'*7 if
S^RT ^facT T^f «TT I Wfaxr sgft q?T ifTTfcT ?<TTT ft S?T% T^ft stft sq-q-^T
SFT ?t afVT $t> 3?> T.®^T^FY ^Tft «F> Bt¥ f?RT I »TT7 faff ST° #% sfr *ftf
ST3R Sflgf ItSfif I 9TTTT fft ?rf?t % ^*R ft ft«8WP 5?f JT ^T *& $*X
srr^r 1 <re ft fa^ri «rr far ^r??f §*fir?r «rr afa 5rr«fsrr «ft fa fTO9$v ^t
Iflft ft fft*TT 5 I 5TT ft fiwMF ^"t ffTT ^T*R g»ft % f«RR R *R | JTCTT
feqiR aft? pnft STf«R srfcT^ftsr' tft s*% *TR ft *R7 1 fcrciNF ft ^r fa zx^
<TRt gtft aft* %SPI?Y sr^ft ^> ^Tr *rr^ft | rnfa *P? ft ^ 75-«*R *fa 1
f^m ft gtft wft SR «PT <re f^qr, frmft %*er ??RT fasT «TT fa
*5 pfeKT «TT sfVT 3Tff% f<RT 3SHTV 75Tr *P?ft % f^R. 3Rft ST*TR *T SR>»T
3R ?|; ft 1 gtft ft fe<*JT»F ^r HTWR THT, fa?3 »RR % *?£ «R^R ft
3ft S^TfTcT SR R7T I 3% *TCR % *R ^tft SRT J 9*% ^9% *T«f *T aft fa ^T5ff
«F> «K>f ^Tf?T ffjlf (It 5 I T5TT % ^3RcTT5^^ STR f?RT fa 7ft f
ffvff % ^<R ft f?fta srfrfiff % faq afto srfy ^TT =T^Y «ft 1 ft <T> f sftff
g^ft ft *rft> ft fÎ ftr T5T*l fePBWF ^ i% 3T?JT??T f^TT^T *R f^JTT «TT aft?: 3R
^T??f % tjft^^ % ^TT if *tf 3TT?rr f^f T^t I foSTlf ^PTf^T ?RT ®tft
«5?ft SIR ^?r^t ^^ft «P> ^TT ft % «rm 4kf4tfF*-4far% w^-

«iMf % ^TT«T ^R f??T f^cTR, 3? ^?r% Ti?r *fl^< srr »Rr ^r ^TT
ftft ^f «ITT|Hft Prflf ?^ft 3ftT 7^T ar^t TTT ^T% »R I %$ WF1? 3TRT-^q ^TZT
ft ^R*T % ^RTRTT 7T ^T^RT «T »Rt I 4^ % ST^Tf? f ^^ TTrT STT5?f % ^T«T
f^rTR^ I *$ ^T^ ^TT ft? ^rR5f!Tt> faff ST^TT STTTT ^T^f ^TT ?| $r, f^?T
ST^TT srffWf TT f«Pf^ W?T Tr?^ ^T% ^| TTT 5T5TT
snin «rr 1 aritaftftfl ?r î ft ^T ff> ti# TT 'ft %& CTT^ ^^»TT
^PTTTr 3TR*TT I f«fcg ^^rT ft 3Tr?)T 5^ c^r^ft I
qftîT ^ft 3TRr cTg- =^r?ff ft 0T5TCTT SR ^^T^t 7c?ft ar «T^t *?t f T?T5raT ^T
JTTr^TT ^cTT 3ftt sffef^ f# ^t ^T?ff 3?t fW^TrfT f«l%t ^^T^T 1%T
is™ # «rtr gT vr STTT^W 5> ■pr «rr i ?nrr <gf wt^rârt aft* 33J
Tpft 5r€t q*cfti^ % HT qrr? *r% T^ it i arwfa qrr TTST ??crr srr T^r «rr |
WWW 5 : ^fTCgTTT
m?$ mi. qft ^RRra if s qr Hr^r after I^T «TT I ?S sr*fa $ g*ft
«rTetf % aftqq % faqq *f îfa: RTW ?> «T,qJT «ft I TTff^f tffcTfcq srfaqf
qft srrosos W *T qT % sricfY «fi i ;?**' $**fi srtfaiit, «nrtgT »rf?$rni
spftjiN frp* aftx *r#r>i **% tft 5ft «r i ^# % f<nrr it sfr *crrcr «TT f«F 3r?r
^ air ^ st£t-tft fasqft | ifrf =*T?$? q>«ft-w>«ft amrf a>sr «*% S<T gr^r qf
* *rq>err 11 stffa^ lift aMt T^ft *> %*»* %*r % «rr^ as■ q* ^qr ^5
srfafcq <?> 3% lr ^rc *3T <rqr sreftw q^Tcft, TT| fa srq jft qr qqf, <nfq>
^rretf ssrqft 5T<qq> qr 3$ i faff WT q* *rfr srrftar q>T?ft q^t qqr mmfH
*nfr qr?r qft gfji «ft i
qfr f?TT 5T«r fffi ^«^t qft *rq^ ssr S«TR qT srferfqff q?t cre^ mm
#, TTWflf qft clt§ qT^ff |Q[ vtff ^t «ftf q^t ff |JT<I • l|*fl 3*% WRV
jfe ff irwi wtfta |l I tf% T% 3TR % srrq 4^cT ^ arrer* gtft q?t WWT f* arq^r f^r
^retf qft ffspsr % ffflrtr far gtar «rr i cTf *Wf q srr^T crtf* «FT ^ H«TI^TT
§qrqr i
%^fffi I qfa sf JT ifh sRq;rft *q?l*r % sf^rr^r f ft % TO* *ft ^ i ww

f%? ?!«T % q^ q??^ sqf^qf ^"t «Tc| ôf fppn 5TT f^r «rr i
'- qrt qfrfi ^ $£ |fl[ ^^rr ^<ff«^ g^f^ fsraft «T>T 7T|t ^r i ^r° $%$ WT
?T7^Tft f^fta ^ ^Tl ^t f^ ^TFeff ^r^" ^9T OTTT^T *T?^«r 5TT

jrfi «TT, nrfw^ ^^^r sfk* ^T 3?fa^rT JBtdVtft q«r^?T g:n:r ^^ qn: :%ti qqr
*n i »rf ^ q>^r fo 9fr% ^?T q?r cqrq qjl fqrTr «TT, ?f?^ f®
??qq % f5Tq |<#*i # T|T «TF 3T|f ^^^ ^fST qfTSR =FTq: ^ftf^^r-^qi^fT
f^qr «rr i gwl rr^ qjtrffî 5T?^t ?r fwi^ Ruin «rr fsr^^ fq^rr sro ^ «ft yfftjfl
q? mwirif % ftr«FTT |Q[ 2r i JR% ^ ?R % q«r If qqrjt ft -i ft* if% fr «ft
TOT^V ^r |q «f|T fq^ wf ^^q?t STTIITSTT % f^rir qjt^r ?ft? 3iRr «ri 3t>^:
%%% zam cr«rr 3¥^ j^t q?t *$$ 5|npn q?t «ft i (TO* $ fp? q]^^ ifffsr
sr*q?re *?r IPJ «n aft? f€tftri .w «R Tft
f ^ ^ ^r?ff ?rq q?t wih »rrqr aftT ?% ^?srT-2^cr q^T f^qr n^r i
\
Chapter wise Summary in Hindi 19
*ftf a 33TT y$ flit $W a*aR f^^TT aft* ^ff <TT faST^T aar ^?ff apt *>?*! 7T
3STa>T aa% TfraTT % f5T^T?T aa? §T aa I ar?a* *> aaT% if
araat afaaaaT *r<> tfaa ait aa <R s.a farr i
^tsara 7 : *T*T3T a* *«W
aT?a *ft SJpRT % *!*$* *ft *jar "ttfft fTOT % STfcT W«?W
tft i aat ma aa aKt a^T faa srf^r aian aa §a, ^ aftr $tft ifa % aia
3na % area #£t at, âvr aârar *rewaT *WT I aa sfasr a
STaRT SRT at HT5T Stfaa? agjt aTT *TCTFT afk aâ sqfrfi 3T^T
ana i 3?a.ia ara a v$r fa? gtr 3^: wft fwwt amr | afk pti gamier if
aaar $RT aft?: ara^r faa f^gasr % m*& iiwil atft s>at i tr« aaa %
sa*a *&rc«r ^»r at &*$!% aaw fa? aia «TT iHf irWf a irfafila sprrar
|—faaaa* aar a*m f«aa*f art"? a,a? ar«r aafas a faaa?T *TT*T araSr faa
aa?s tor aranr 1 ara* *ft garrr fa?aarft a ar % aa a>a ^rsg-
T^ »ia I
raw 8.: vnr 4t ^p «rivT
faa 3TT^T aftT 3?t ?ff aS^T % §*sRT a I aiaT7 a" Sfaa? aqata
aa a^q <aftaa aaa appro fT^r srf^r aa az sa% mi ataftaa a |> <Nt,
a> a?f aa «T|% aiaaT 0 *r^rr lar I Daft a aa aâR a?T a?^r fa a^
'$$** % *rir am **a *>* sn^ffo foar a?"RT ar afh: ?R ^fT^r ^
ftfirwft *R^R % f?rq srr^t WTT *^r «TT I ^r* % SIR *T T| q, R;?sft
»BN ^? arr wi 3T\T ^^ # w*i*f # |frff «FV f^r T>^t»R ^1 fa aaR I 1
wnâ ftevft ^WT ^"t ft WJ$ STRT TT SIIT ?!f<t
faa STR ^t qT CHT «tf^T, ^rza a^f^ ai>T tfl ^> ^f<t%faaia qi
% aar 1 «#(t ip> «ft SR aT ?r??a if ^â % aaa a «ifa a«fi €t fafa «ft
1 î<?a a «M «Pt aarar f5? âa 9TTTa al> fîa if aa?a ait a,ar ar?a
3rrg;a ^rc mw a aR â a^rr ar 1 âai> trof a aiâ fan fa? aia aa
ftoftavrt a>T faar aar ar 1 a^ ga^T af<t % âa a>> arit anaia af
aT 1
aafe a faTtsr fâr fa? a^ a^ra a ara a© a>^ T^T ar, wnr a>
âr a^r a^ i^rr ar ark ^qjaiar ^r fw ar 1 %faR dKt a a^ ipa aa?
faâT fa? a«fi aa faa itox mm a^r a|¥ aT 1 âa? aTfa if qtaT artT
fa?2t a<t g{ at 1 a^ pa?T aa aft aa «tT arifaa a 31a aa, ^fa>a ?aa
a^ aara a i»fTT a?T fâr fa af T^FT â ata aiâ fan 1 aasa a
A Tale of Txo Cities
*afe *t K^ wX *f romfcr *-& ft? ^r fo ?% g*r% srpr *m arr sr^ «rr 1BWT
srafs sstft ?=EW ^TTT ^TT«T ^t ^TT eft ^ 8*r% fasSr §G&*ff *r to fsrfe*r
STT^TT «pt sffrr **rr afa sfc *r?g z*z fa^Tr i srsfs Trsft §> TOT i tre *t*ff *
f$ gcfr iftsrcraff <TT fa^r?- tor i
8fWT*T 9 : %H «RT
are $*r* ^ *f jni* aftr fail ^r *rcnfler ^*r T# «ft, TO srftt ?r srft «p>
^?r% TTtorrsfrr arasr TO' *rfrTcT *nrcmr % faq T^^TTT I srfl
*t 3TW"fT mmr* |3TT I eTTft I 9% iHt «FX% SOTT* tor % STfasS $f ^ JTf ^TT
«T ^ I S#T *TTO .spT^T 3TTT iff* 3ST *fi*T* S 3TT^ sftr 1TCT
^ sm?? **>> fasr" tor I W#l ^ !W «## £ 3^r fa 3£ stf tft fatft *ft WTT
HfWWI T^T" VT TPIT I ST£5TTf>*r $ 3TT$ft*Tcff (ftf % 5ftXt STfcT HT
?ft TOT i jfrr^T ^ si? srsgr SOTT i
*i£* 5rffr % nr«r $?fr Sr «rr % STSTST <r*r TOT i fqrc sr%5rr
*tz*%T 7^r i *r$??T* *t $tr mg* fan t% ^r fe?r ftrot^tr TT fa^rs sfWlf %
?re *T? sr^r TO ^ i ^T€T ?r TO qs? spftrrc ^ 50 tflfc-M "?%£ «rft?*>T
srwfryfa arq-jft iftoisft fcr S TST to 1 TTer WT ^tf**t T?^ ^
*T* 3f «T^Tff ?T ^T $>*T Iftff totf ^TJ TOT 3TTT 19 5TT ?ft tor I T%^
WW *% ?rfft % f?T3r?r <TT >T|^T 3T>T fuf% qfY w% ztft $1 $m®
=RT%5P1TI
^r «ftf «T mx % qsp ^>^ ?f ^r??r «F> ^s^ ^r 5r*r^ fa*T n«f> I sr^f
^^^ trtft, ^ro ^%cf afk flft ^r> ^^r i ?r^ vt arer irmF »nir i f?*^m $i ^rr^rr
TOT fir gr^r <rc |^t# 0$ STTT arr-rtq- *rr 3ft arw fs^Tif, ^f*r INrf 3r>T
arWrwrr #^r ^ ^rirTr «rr i ^r° 3fa Mlir w:T?r ^"t gi Pug sn> %nnnft ?t
<Bd fr r?*^^^ SFT f«Rtsr ^T irf i ^ f^^r^r nfl
*"n# ff • ^^^ T5TWT t> ^fcft'T |»f 7T 3rr^T"r % *OT gfT^ ^T ^tsVt
tft Wimft ?ft «ft to^f ?To jffa ^^ «rr i *r§f g% to?ft % i?^ #9 ^ 4fa ^PT
f?r*fr far? q^r «PT^«T fiT5?r «rr i
arwrn 10 : «n:wTf" «PT IrÔRf
fe5J[fT5r % 3T#rer ?r ^te % q^ arêT vt sr| ^r»T5r «r^ *pt ^^r i ^r9
^r«> *??fcr ^ f^r^r m ftfr «wf aftr ^^ i^Nt^ wr^ff ^ ^H^r &rq^7ir fR%
f?at?r tft ^^ ^tefl ^f ^r **ft ^Tr^T «TT i si^? ^r sesm «hJWf f^cTT^ ^ i
qS*^ *tf ^^ ^^ WW q^ sft^^t ^ n;^ toT^ ?rf$t aftr ^?r% «rrf ^r ^^rr^r ^TT^
% TO ^ I ?r?% I1 ?t%r ¥t JTTÎT |3TT t% mtf^ ^T nrf ^^r^ ^T % tfta*f TT
5»JT ft TOT «TT I ^JT^ <r^ ss%
21
facTT ^ Sf *^f fff>T 3TTT STCPjffr ^TcJ ^ »pft «ft I ?T?*FT S^T *PT
f?rTT
|3TT ssr sfrnfV 3 wm ?fT aftx 33% ^r srmmftff *r tf*4 torn *rr, fsrcr^r
|3TT *TT 1ST I sfajT ^ 5Tf ^t ^r ^^T5T f^TT *r%ff ?TTcf for STI* 3% *ft
*TC*T*ft I
3PT*T fa* 3faST *> 5T^T% «TT ffft ft *TCT ff^*> f*mT I SSP> HIT WT^"
3*tf are^t ^WT % f «sp*f % *R ir 5?TT *rr frmif sg% qfa ^ 3fr*mr *ft
*$* ^V sr^^r *?? s% i ?f*£T ^t ?s% srrc ir qra tfY TT«r*r *$ «rr i ^re f 5
g% f><?r SFT% sr^ arm eft S*P> s*r% 3^ ^r*tf vt nrit 3 tsr §arr £«T «rr i
sr<> 4^r ^ fff 35 <TT ?^zr irwft *i tar «JT i 3*ft TRT <$*>% mfff ^r TOVT
arr^r TO% S% 3^TT ^?TT^ fsrar #^fV5r ^
^T#?T^r?r % JTf faofa |3TT f^ TT??f STsf *> ^?f ^"^ f^^r ^1^ I «% ^TTO
BT^T t>>TT 3TRT «rr i
JniRO^ sfTT fH«fiT §1RT TO % ^T? M ^ HI? 9^51

Î^T
arr «wt wff% STT^T ?c«^ ifrwr ^TT T^r «rr i ge'V ^ ^re?f % ?TT*r% STRT
ftr««fr ^T2^r ^r srqsft vi^f Jf g;sr^T STT^T % nir afh TO% SWX % *t
5TT^T q^r 0$ «TT f$i2r f^T i g^fV <ft ^#V % Î^T % n% n aril ¥I?T5F^
«F$T f^J 3** f4WRT %TT f^7 5Tf 3tf% fTcfr ^T WI% % facj f ^ T f 5 ^T^
rT^f I f^5 #ft ft I^T f^> 3ft $tf 3TT5TT q$f «ft I «FTST ft *ft ^ "FftWJ
faqr i
anaqro 12 ♦ mm*
ffl^qt *T#q ^Trrf ¥tq" qft qqTft ^V ift^RT fTf^âr ^T f^FT TT I
q$ IRT ^T^ft 5TTf?T feqqq* SRV 3T^ TV ^SFT^T ft TTT I *^t Stfft
f^îf
3*qfq *T viatoro gqT i flrapf qft ?rq «ff ft: gqt sft* ^^t sr^t % srfq
srfasite tft mwiw q?¥ «al srTft, wife ft qr° q*q *ft q'srsr «fff q,#qVq qV.
ft *$ i fq?§ TT?TT qft TW fq?q «fV i 3* ft *%\ fr ^Nrt^
Vnpff ft IVA S^T ^"V qsifq fq*JT qT ^f^Tir «r^ ^q% qftqiT ft qsqfoq
*mt mfaii ft qqqr $m\ i *>rcq ¥t ST*? ^t qqr % gqt sftr sqqq
q«qt ScT** if I, %foq *ftq ^^?> gtH? *X qq^t it I
Sfo q% % 37? -Tt »R1% % SWtfT STTcT f%^B5T $> qft ft
I q^ ST75TT qTqfqff q?pq fqtt ^> ^3T «TI I sfTTSq % Hf<V V*t «TcfWT - fa
gtft
qqr ^q^ft f*NI *;> qqiq fe^nF ft <qq*r 11 sqq trWI ^> f ® ftqq feft
i sqft ^>$r ft? q^ sr © 4%?r, ^qt qqr ^gtfr f*flf qit §x?q ftftq %
STT^T ft STlft q>t *W*T ^ I ST© ^cT ft 3?% faq ftfTff ft qT^T^lft $T
arfefq qqinrqq qjcq ^x faqr qr \ qq% q*qrq ^r si^fEr ^T% SI© $3ftf
ifV «TT I ^T* ?To q^cl 3ftT ^ft tfk ^^ T^ I ^^ 3jqep wfrfiqlf ^ HI?
arpft, f^ fe^fft ^T5?i ^T afT^r *ft RTTT q^f sn^rr i TfcT % q* 5%
VT?fq q JT^W ^fl% 3TT^5T *T RTîq ^T^ ^> ^ I ?qq ?iq I ^Tft Mt
ft» qf (^Tzq) ^«t % ^f 3«? ^q f^q an% qfr %XT ^X I^T «rr i SK ?T^
q^T f^^ I^JT 3q ^T^q ^ "3?t q^f S3T «ft fiT^ "Tf I^T |t q^T I qgf? VtB<V
ft 8TRT I TOft ^^TTcTT ^ J^TTT ^ aftT ft^*t5T 3tq (?T5q % q?T ft)
*> ?T|T "Ir 5TT^T qTft ft fasi feqr i îq % %ST ft wq ^tsft ft ST%^T T? qqr
i q^r qîqT ^ri %^J | ftr ^TJV •* ?rq q?V ff^qr Pr?Rft-
?> q^r qft i qfqqn? Tift §q #fc*ft ^"t qsrw?r ^ ^rq # fqrft it
qqt i ^q qffq^l ft qv q^%q tft q> sr> ^rq % qtq 'erf «?>q' IN ft qt i
frrsrsfar ft" 3ft *i^ $ *m\ ft? ^ stf ?T^ «rr aft< 99% t>q *fa*pr ^> T%T «n
1 3?rft ^TcffT ft srr«far ^ fa sff^r sr^r *?rft % f?r^ ^G^T sr«r «nft *| 1
sr° q^cT, ^tft, iipA *wfy srfft aft* *nstf fwF, aft 3f*ft cm ?arr %
swr^r ft *rr; ftfrsr I srr^ <: srr *$ *' 3* ^ 7T *Ht ^^ ^% vrt-^rrcT ^ »rft 1 tpf
*ft 3f^3r ftr*!ft srrsV a*r«rr ir*n 1 tfta $ ft %%$3z w) aftT snrft pr, fa?§
q"tBr f^^- 3TH ^r *r«r is| * xx*% w g^T TT I mm* 14 .- gmt £ i<ft
' ^g?«r?r TT 5TT*?T sret awft *?g *Jfc srcftar ^T T| ft 1 zz* *w>f-irtf: ¥t
$TCTT ft T?T*T f^TJi'f, srflrvfter aft* 3rfa?r frfta irww q>t T| ft 1 JTSnr %
qr^T fa s?fa qfa q$ <r*rr s<?qft 9«ft % srfft wnwrv |, fsrfarq s«t ^^cr ^*ft
^r *m *f OT q^*ft 1 3*ft ^r^r fa ^Tfcrq>T?t sftr fift IT farttor qrc aft* sft tft
îpw ft*r srTft 1 er<*f$rt ft ^T fa *? *ro«r$«fa *% 5FT%^rr fa gst
srfcrfe?r $r* % STT^T wft it*T »f# *tft
JTlSft tf t%?lft qft ?Rq> I^T INlft 4t I %fatf gfa f ft ^r ?T2^T «TT I
sft <J*T wftfrr «rr fa ff ?n*ft f#-$ffift qft *rqft qsr ft ^T ftm" 1 »r*nr founr ft
srfcTwtEr Ir ^^T ffr anffW % ?TTJT^ ^3f?T f*rf ^TTcft T| aftT ^f srr* if ^^t
q-f^r srr^jft 1 mm z* g^ft % wm % f«w? T^rrr ^t »rzft 1 ^r^ "Ff*^ ^ ITOT
ft q|«rt ^T? ^^t %^5r ftr^r srfff ^t «ft 1 ^r% #ft ^t tif? îr f??r «rr cnfr »rr^t
^t «Tf?«rr ^T% fiTSTrax % qig-9t^t sr?fhffT ^\ mt I jftfff *ft f'#«? qft
srf«rr?r ^>T 11 T^m % fT?r
STTT ft g*ft % ?T^ ^ 1&T eft ^?T% Vtf ?q«sx ^T q-^f f^r | ^T ^ft %
^w ft ^5 <r* Pft % jrr TT srft ft Tift STVT ^TT fwfarr TTT> îft ^?T% 3T??T
^t 1 T^rir ft ^ft s**r î?f 3T?^T srrft ^t ^"tfanr «Ft 1 «iW! ^t jcTTgcTT ft
TTTT % sTr^^r ft fefft |f fq^crt^r ^?r Ttft aft ^T% ?ftft ^"t
<TR JPT »T?ft SR>?T ^7T^t cTc*T5T JTrJ ^"t T^t I frpft^ % fff T^ ft fffT Slff
^^ft (ft ITT> 1 ffttr 717 ft T^^r^r q-? ?rr?rr ^Tr^r sft?: fTT^rwr ^rft TTT
TTfft ft nr^t ft ^rsft q^fr ^t 1
3T«r*nT 1 5 ( ^?»T TOT % faq WJT
T^TT qT TT^T ^<t «T?5 qft snfarr ft ft 1 mift flWt qT srft^
ffTqf 1st Tf I VlMf fTTf *T?t> ft TSTT f^Wlf ^t ST«ftW *T T?t
«ft 1 ip§ "3%$ arift ^T ^tf ?f%rT ?nff «rr 1 wffrf q^qt^ % T^ qrr ?rqT f^^?
3TT T^r TT 1 #f! ^r ^^rr^r *rr ft? ^^T^t Tcf % w ft T^TT fûr«f srcTfcT
^facT ftift, f^| ^ T^t ^t jt T^t 1 ^TST ?ftnr 'Fr fr«r «rrft |«?
24 A Tale of Tow Cities
3% 5T?<r gfaT T^r «rr t $8 ffafl % *re % OTT^ sfspr tft srrct arrafr i
TOit «FTZT *TT yJTC f^TZTT 3^T *£$ *PT anftHPT VT% 3?> aTT^ *? Tift I
*n*r ^ srrtt 3TT% *r q^r ^r ifrjj ^nsftj % T ws^r w»r $t *#> "* ^
jT^ffaT aftr gfopr |, aft gstff 3TR«TT T9?rr | TS T?T ^T <r? tft
^ftf^cT T|«rr; aft* 3ft tft tftffcr T| *T gffT" flfWTO TOcTT | T§ qtft T^TT
T#f l" TET % STT ^T5?T % %^ TT ?cpft STTfo «ft fc tfWI I 3T%
m$r tft swfm tft, r^| 3?| wt TTgT TT fo TTT WT^TT qWte Tft «rr, Tfar
srcraft Tc?ft % fa^jmr 5rfa<?TT *PT ^T *rai 3*PPT £T9re?r fas^t mt* «rr i
»IT% STT 3*rr star fa tfTT firenfWt tftTT T" T|t ?TT% T*
*TT 3flT f%*T TT I •

A Tale of Two Cities A Critical Study

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Tale of Two Cities A Critical Study

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Tale

LAKSHMI NARAIN AGARWAL

A TALE OF TWO CITIES

LAKSHMI NARAIN AGARWAL, AGRA

[ Tliis book or any part thereof may not be reproduced in any

Price:? 105-00 Onlv

Punted at: Navrang

1. THE AGE OF DICKENS A

is •A'EMKS'jg retry SES**«•• *

8. Among other well-knwon novelists may be mentioned the names o

5. DICKENS'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE

7. DICKENS'S ART OF CHARACTERIZATION

tenderness and imaginative insight, but the tragedy of fitful passions, of

\ Novelist of Domestic Life

memories of his childhood. And childhood always charms him, enchants

18. AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL ELEMENT IN

21. A GENERAL ESTIMATE OF DICKENS AS A NOVELIST

22. LIMITATIONS OF DICKENS AS A NOVELIST

23. THE MODERN REACTION AGAINST DICKENS

hand, he carries his hahit»« i u/'g'nals from rea life rm tul t an

frequently condemned in him Xf'i? exaggeration whtch ?s Sn

sensational romance as RL?K , to such conventional rhJ", m

A Talc of Two Cities in order to make his incident more convincing. He

The Picture of Paris

narnay also contains a resurrection because he is saved from impending

Humour and Pathos

developed to the description of the nature of Marquis Evremonde. These

CHARACTERIZATION IN THE NOVEL

Darnay—Darnay, son of one of the Evremonde brothers, husband of

BOOK THE FIRST : RECALLED TO LIFE

Jerry Back to London

Mr. lAtrry in the State of Thoughts

Destruction of Chatean and of the Heirs of Marquis

under the chimney. This paper proves to be remarkable document and

ubles in the prison of La Force. Lucie asked Madame Defarge to be t'-nd

revolutionary tribunal was acting most powerfully in Paris. Despite such

argued in favour of Darnay's release. The result of the statements of these

MAJOR CHARACTERS 1. DR. MANETTE

and magnanimous manner. That is why although he had loved Lucie

decent young man, one of Dickens's straight romantic leads, the

and strengthened by her husband's revolutionary sympathies and ac-

Dr. Manetie he becomes the symbol of good friendship. Like Cokeson of

Q. 1. Disuss A Tale of Two Cities as a historical novel.

210 A Tale of Two Cities

first edition of A Tale of Two Cities. Whenever any reference (however

and a stone stair-case. It was a "stony business altogether, with heavy

Q, 4. Resurrection in A Tale of Two Cities takes a variety of forms.

Q. 5. Bring out the comic elements in A Tale of Two Cities.

Or "Hence in one way, this is

enriched by some descriptive pictures of unusual excellence: for instance the

"He was a man of about sixty, handsomely dressed, haughty in man-

1. Charles Dickens was born on :

Q. 1. Write a note on Dickens's method of characterization.

viii | A Tale of Two Cities

Cities'. The de-emphasis on this aspect of Dicken's style disturbed his

qj<t 1 ^f (t ^fa*r gi M |tci^ ft I?IT sr^t

«rfa> s*r ^C^^CTT sf^r ^ g% i ss q^ arret* «rr fo ^ vtafaft | ato gf^r 3^ %

TT^rffti % 3rfa*ft*r ^r ftnre°r ^% g q; g% <Tr«i5<J3 fctr su^ ¥t faqtfR9r

«r-Tr «%r IWT© ?t i ^^ ff ^T^T ^t jf^ # f^r irf^^rR SH W a^ni

^"tf ^?TT JTT «l«^r 1% ITT? JT^f | I

aft* ^FT sr^r? fir*ft *r*ijft szr«f ft *nft i

99^9 mm ftp 99T 991 1 9T 9§9*>T 95 f9?9T <rc q? nut sftT

3 xgt **W • ^f3 ^% ^r^T *nfarcr % q>^r fa *R*t«ff qr *?** .emr

«rfa> sr ^C^^CTT sf^r ^ g% i ss q^ arret «rr fo ^ vtafaft | ato gf^r 3^ %

TT^rffti % 3rfaftr ^r ftnre°r ^% g q; g% <Tr«i5<J3 fctr su^ ¥t faqtfR9r

aft* ^FT sr^r? firft rijft szr«f ft nft i

3 xgt **W • ^f3 ^% ^r^T nfarcr % q>^r fa Rt«ff qr ?** .emr

>ta T f8 »rs«rft ^ sre? an- T^V «flf 1 %m srcfta ^fcrr *n fo ^t z\o

xflfa % ** grmr 1 3ft <TPIT fr qfro $ *TR> arirrfar % ww k^-

?fanT j%% 3TT T| ^ 1 arft s?ft?*?f % srfcT^ft^ % f^r^ rffcnft ^ T| ^ 1

itr, fa?§ 33 sstft jftf ^T^T^CTT ^ ^T TTT I ?*TR SH vt ?rr ^f vt %<r

%^fffi I qfa sf JT ifh sRq;rft q?lr % sf^rr^r f ft % TO* *ft ^ i ww

arpft, f^ fe^fft ^T5?i ^T afT^r ft RTTT q^f sn^rr i TfcT % q 5%