H R D CONCEPTS

In the modern industrial system, rapid industrial development had changed the face of
the industrial world. In order to get maximum work done by the people, it is necessary to
direct, motivate, develop & manage their activities. The behavioural school of management
has realised the significance of human factor & behaviour in industry, & it has introduced the
concepts of Psychology, Sociology & other behavioural sciences to extend the managers
knowledge of human behaviour in the work environment.

Objectives of HRD :
i) Maximum individual development.
ii) Scientific selection.
iii) Team Spirit.
iv) Effective Communication.
v) High Morale.
vi) Fair reward
vii) Effective utilisation of human resource.
viii) Contribution of National Prosperity.

Goal setting :
Goal setting is planning one’s future Goal setting is an action plan. A life with out a
goal is like a ship with out a rudder. It goes no where. It will Sink or run around.

Your Goal must be :

A) Specific B) Realistic C) Time bound
D) Measurable E) Achievable F) Challenging

People don’t set goal? Why?

A) Negative attitude B) Fear of failure C) Lack of Ambition
D) Procrastination E) Low Self Esteem F) Ignorance on Goal Setting.

Time Management :

How to manage your time?

A) Planning of activities B) Goal Setting C) Decide Priorities
D) Control on time E) Learn to say No D) Delegation of Authority
E) Utilisation of available Time F) Get an early start G) Develop good habits
H) Monitor your TMA

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Motivation
Motivation is an art of inducing people at work to better his performance for the interest
of the organisation.
It is the driving force that moves your life towards success.

Importance of Motivation :
i) Best Utilisation of resources possible
ii) Willingness to work hard
iii) Increase in Production & Productivity
iv) Improvement upon skill & Knowledge
v) Acceptance of organisational change
vi) Reduction in worker problem
vii) Better image of organisation.

What are the factor that Motivate you ?

A) Positive Attitude B) Goal Setting C) High Self Esteem D) Challenging work
E) Team work F) Training G) Healthy working condition.

How to Motivate ourselves everyday ?

i) Put you plans into writing
ii) Use a self monitoring system
iii) Positive attitude/ Thinking
iv) Get an early start
v) Decide Priorities
vi) Always Smile/ Cheerful
vii) Create healthy working condition.

TEAM BUILDING
A Team consists of People working towards a common goal.
Team building is the process of enabling People to reach their goal.

In its simplest terms, the stages involved in team building are :

i) To clarify the team goals
ii) To identify those issues which inhibit the team from reaching their goals.
iii) To address those issue, remove the inhibitors and enable the goals to be achieved.

Team building can also take a different form depending on the size and nature of the
team.

Characteristics of a Team Building

i) There must be an awareness of unity on the part of all its members.

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ii) There must be interpersonal relationship. Members must have a chance to contribute,
learn from and work with others.
iii) The member must have the ability to act together toward a common goal.

Communication :
Communication is the process of conveying the messages i.e. facts, ideas, attitude
and opinions from one person to another in a way to make them understand.

Objective of Communication :
i) Conveying the right message at right time
ii) Co-ordination
iii) Development of managerial skill
iv) Good industrial relation
v) Effectiveness of policies

Principle of Communication :
A) Principle of Clarity B) Principle of attention C) Principle of consistency
D) Principle of adequacy E) Principle of timeliness F) Principle of feedback
G) Principle of economy

The Four basic skill of Communication :

A) Listening B) Speaking C) Reading D) Writing

How to improve your Communication :

i) Seek to clarify your ideas before Communicating.
ii) Examine the true purpose of each Communication.
iii) Consider the total Physical & human setting whenever you Communicate.
iv) Consult with others where appropriate, in planning communication.
v) Be mindful, while you communication, of the overtones as well as the basic content of
your message.
vi) Take the opportunity when it arises to convey something of help or value to the receiver.
vii) Follow up your communication.
viii) Communicate for tomorrow as well as today.
ix) Be sure your action support communication.
x) Be a good listener.

LEADERSHIP
1) Concept :
Leadership is the Personal quality to an individual to influence others and organise the
efforts of the followers towards the achievement of a common goal.

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2) Function of Leadership :
A) Function for Task needs
1) Defining the task 2) Making the plan
3) Allocating work & resource & 4) Controlling quality & Tempo of work

B) Function of Group needs :

i) Setting standard by personal example
ii) Maintaining discipline, correcting mistake
iii) Building team spirits
iv) Encouraging, motivating, giving a sense of purpose
v) Appointing sub leaders
vi) Ensuring communication with the group
vii) Training the group

C) Function for Individual needs

i) Attending to Personal Problem
ii) Praising of Individual
iii) Knowing individual personally
iv) Recognising & using special individual abilities
v) Training Individuals.

2) Are you Quality Leader?

i) Reliability : How much can people rely on you ?
ii) Responsiveness : How available are you to their needs ?
iii) Competence : Do you posses the required ability ?
iv) Acess : Can people reach you in times of needs ?
v) Courtesy : How affectionate are you ? Do you offer respect.
vi) Communication : Can you say the right things rightly ?
vii) Credibility : Do you always keep up the commitments you have made ?

✦✦✦

4
 Modern Thermal Power Plant Cycle

In thermal power plant, energy conversion takes place by employing various processes.
All the processes are interconnected sequentially, thus forming a thermodynamic cycle.
All power plants convert some form of easily and naturally available energy in to electrical
energy. In thermal power plant, source of energy is Chemical Energy of fuel and Water is the
working fluid.
Following figure shows how a unit mass of working fluid, undergoes various external
heat and work interactions in executing a power cycle. The net energy transferred to the fluid
as heat in the cycle is equal to net energy transferred as work from fluid. In this cycle, Boiler
– Turbine – Condenser - Pump – Boiler is the path of the working fluid, and heat input to Boiler
is converted to net work output continuously.

Fig. 1

By the first law of thermodynamics,

Σ Q net = Σ W net
cycle cycle
Q1 – Q2 = WT – WP
Where Q1 – Heat transferred to working fluid, in Boiler
Q2 – Heat rejected by working fluid, in Condenser
WT – Work transferred from working fluid, in Turbine
WP – Work transferred to working fluid , in Pump.

The efficiency of the cycle = Wnet

Q1
= Q1- Q2
Q1
= 1- Q2/ Q1

The cycle described above is called Rankine Cycle. In every process of the cycle, energy
conversion is taking place. After every conversion, state of Water (i.e. of working fluid) is
changing.

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 Modern Power Plants also work on the principles explained above but there are certain
additional features provided such as Reheat Cycle, Low pressure and High pressure feed
water heaters etc. Figure No.2 explains the Boiler process and fig No. 3 explains Turbine cycle
for a Modern Power Plant.

Boiler : Boiler is the place where water is heated and converted to steam at required parameters.
In the furnace, Coal is admitted in Pulverized form. Pulverization of coal is carried out in Coal
mills. Optimum combustion efficiency is obtained when coal is fully burnt and minimum Ubburnt
coal is present in Bottom Ash as well as Fly ash. For this to happen, it is extremely important
that Coal Particles size in Coal pipes should be as per design, i.e. 70% should pass through
200 mesh and not more than 1% retained by 50 mesh. Hot primary air is admitted to coal
mills, which dry out the coal particles and also lift those for transport to Furnace through Coal
pipes. In furnace, combustion of fuel takes place in presence of air. Combustion air is supplied
by secondary air Fan called FD Fans. Primary air supplied to coal mills and secondary air
supplied from FD fans is the total combustion air . Oxygen from air reacts with burning coal
particles. This combustion of fuel releases heat energy, which is used for steam formation.
Feed water is passed thorough steel tubes forming walls of Furnace chamber. Heat energy
obtained from combustion is transferred to water circulated through water wall tubes and
thus steam is formed. The mixture of water and steam in Furnace water wall tubes is then
collected in Boiler drum. Feed water is also admitted in the Drum. Steam from drum is then
passed to Superheaters arranged in the flue gas path of the Boiler. Hot flue gases impart heat
energy contained in it to steam passing though the tubes of Superheaters thus increasing
steam temperature to required value. Flue gas formed due to the combustion is removed from
the furnace with the help of I.D. fans arranged near the chimney. From Boiler, flue gas is first
passed through Air Heaters, where secondary and primary air is heated with the transfer of
heat energy from flue gas to air. Air temperature thus rises to 325 C and flue gas temperature
drops to 136 C after air heater. From air heater flue gas then flows to electrostatic precipitators,
in which ash is removed. Ash free Flue gas is then discharged to atmosphere through chimney.
Ash from Bottom ash hoppers, ESP hoppers is mixed with water and slurry thus formed is
pumped to the ash bund for its final disposal. Figure 2 shows the Boiler system:

Turbine functioning : Steam from Boiler is admitted to turbine, where it is made to expand
through nozzles. Expansion of steam causes velocity to increase at the expense of Heat energy
contained in steam and thus Heat Energy is converted to Kinetic Energy. High velocity jet
from the nozzles is directed to the rotating blades of Turbine. Due to the impact of steam jet,
blades get displaced causing rotor to rotate and Kinetic energy is converted to work energy.
Rotational speed of steam turbines is controlled at 3000 RPM by means of a Governing
system. This causes 50 Hz frequency of the electrical power at the output of Generator.
Turbines contains a number of blades in one stage and there are number of such stages in the
Turbine.

Turbine Cycle in Modern power plants: In the modern high pressure Power plants, three
Turbines, called High Pressure Turbine, Intermediate pressure turbine and Low Pressure turbines
are arranged with their shafts coupled. Generator is also coupled to the same shaft. Steam

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from Boiler, called Main Steam is admitted to the HP Turbine at a Pressure of 140 Kg/cm² and
537 C temperature. After doing work in HP Turbine, steam pressure and temperature drops to
28 Kg/cm² and 325 C. This steam is then passed to reheaters in the boiler. At rehaeter outlet,
steam pressure is 26 Kg/cm² and temperature is 537 C. This steam is then admitted to IP

Fig. 2

Turbine. At exhaust of IP Turbine, steam parameters drop to 7 Kg/ cm² and 275 C. Exhaust of
IP Turbine is admitted to LP Turbine. LP Turbine exhaust steam is admitted in to the condenser
maintained at a pressure below atmospheric pressure with the help of Vacuum Pumps or
steam Ejectors. Condenser vacuum should be maintained at 750 mm Hg. In Condenser, steam
condenses and condensate temperature is 45 C. Cooling water flowing through Tubes arranged
in the condenser absorb heat of condensation and hence becomes hotter by around 10 to
12 C. This hot water is then cooled in the Cooling towers and again used for condenser cooling,
thus forming a recirculation system.
Condensate from condenser is pumped and passed through a series of low-pressure
Feed Heaters. Small volume of Steam from LP Turbine, extracted successively from three
places from LP Turbine, is passed to LP Heaters. Feed Water flowing through the tubes in the
heaters gets heated due to the steam passing over the tubes. After 3 such LP Heaters,

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condensate is admitted to Deaerator where steam from one of the LP extraction is passed over
the condensate. In Deaerator, dissolved Oxygen is removed from the Condensate. This Oxygen
free condensate is collected in a Tank called Feed storage Tank. Boiler feed Pumps suction is
connected to FET. BFP delivers high-pressure water to HP Heaters. Steam extracted from HP
and IP Turbine stages is admitted in to these heaters. Feed water flows through the HP Heater
tubes. Steam thus further heats the feed water. Feed water temperature at Boiler inlet is thus
250 C. This arrangement of LP and HP heaters is called regenerative feed heating system.
Fig. 3 shows the turbine cycle.

✦✦✦

8
 Principles of Thermal and Hydro Power Generation

In thermal power plant, energy conversion takes place by employing various processes.
All the processes are interconnected sequentially, thus forming a thermodynamic cycle. The
simplest of such cycles is shown in the schematic below.

All power plants convert some form of easily and naturally available energy in to
electrical energy. In thermal power plant, Water is the working fluid. The source of energy is
Chemical Energy of fuel.
In thermal power plant, sequence of energy conversion is:

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 Following figure shows how a unit mass of working fluid, undergoes various external
heat and work interactions in executing a power cycle. Since the fluid is undergoing cyclic
process, there is no net change in its internal energy over the cycle. The net energy transferred
to the fluid as heat in the cycle is equal to net energy transferred as work from fluid. The
following figure shows the cyclic heat engine operating on the vapor power cycle, where the
working substance, water, follows Boiler – Turbine – Condenser - Pump path interacting
externally as shown, and converting net heat input to net work output continuously.

Σ Q net = Σ W net
cycle cycle

Q1 – Q2 = WT – WP

Where Q1 – Heat transferred to working fluid, in Boiler

Q2 – Heat rejected by working fluid, in Condensor

WT – Work transferred from working fluid, in Turbine

WP – Work transferred to working fluid , in Pump.

The efficiency of the cycle = Wnet

Q1

= Q1- Q2
Q1

= 1- Q2/ Q1

The cycle described above is called Rankine Cycle. In every process of the cycle, energy
conversion is taking place. After every conversion, state of Water ( i.e. of working fluid)
change. These changes are analyzed graphically on different coordinate systems. One such
graphical analysis is called P- V plane, where P stands for Pressure and is plotted on Y- Axis
and V stands for Volume, which is plotted on X-Axis. Most widely used graphical analysis is
called T- S plane, where T stands for temperature and is plotted on Y- Axis and S stands for

10
Entropy, which is plotted on X-Axis. Through these plots, the work output, rejected energy
etc. can be analyzed.

Hydro Power Generation :

A jet of fluid emerging from the nozzle has some velocity and hence it posses certain
amount of Kinetic Energy. If this jet strikes on the object placed in its path, it exerts a force on
the object obstructing the path of fluid flow. This impressed force is called Impact of jet and
it is designated as hydrodynamic force.

Force exerted by a Fluid Jet on a stationary plate :

Let a jet of diameter d and velocity v strikes a stationary plate as shown in the figure.
The plate is perpendicular to the centerline of jet. The jet, after striking the plate, will leave it
tangentially

Assuming that plate is frictionless and there is no energy loss, then

Fig. 4

Quantity of fluid flow = Q = (πd2/4) × V = a V where a is the area of cross section of the jet

Mass m of fluid issued by the jet per second = ρ a V where ρ is fluid’s mass density = (w /g)
where w is specific weight of fluid.
Therefore, Mass m of fluid issued by the jet per second = (w a V) / g.
After striking the jet gets deflected through 90 Degrees and component of velocity in original
direction shall be zero. The force is thus determined as

- F = (w a V / g) ( 0 - V)
Or F = (w a V 2) / g.

If the plate is inclined to the jet at an angle θ, then the above expression becomes
F = ((w a V 2) / g.) × Sin θ

If the jet strikes a plate moving at velocity u in the same direction that of jet, then
F = w a (V - u) 2 / g.

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Work done by the jet on plate, per second = Force × Displacement of the plate
= w a (V - u) 2
× u / g.

The above scenario does not practically possible as, when plate starts moving, the jet
need to follow it, which is not possible. But this difficulty can be resolved by arranging a
number of plates are mounted radially at equal spacing on periphery of a wheel, which is
capable of rotating in a vertical plane.

Fig. 5

Force exerted by jet = ( w a V / g ) × ( V - u)

Kinetic Energy supplied by jet = 1/2 × (w a V /g ) × V 2

Efficiency of the wheel η = Force exerted by the jet / Kinetic Energy supplied by the jet

or η = 2 u (V - u) / V 2

For a given velocity jet, Maximum efficiency = dη / du = 0

or u = V /2

Hence efficiency of the wheel is maximum when u = V/2.

And corresponding Maximum Efficiceny of the wheel = 2 u (2u - u)/ 4 u 2

= 50 %b

Based on above principles, Hydraulic Turbines are developed. The arrangement of a

Hydro Power station is as shown below :

Elements of Hydro Power Station :

Continuous source of water with large amount of Hydraulic Energy is the primary
requirement for Hydro Power station. Such a source of water is usually a lake either natural or
artificial at a higher elevation. The water surface of the reservoir is known as Head race.

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Water through the reservoir is carried through penstocks, which are large diameter pipes
made of Steel or Concrete or Wood, which carry water from under pressure from storage
reservoir to the turbine. Water from Turbine is discharged in to tail race from where it is
discharged in to another river or specially built channel.

Head and Efficiency of Hydraulic Turbine: Please ref Fig. 6

a. Heads : The head acting on turbine is defined in two ways:

b. Gross head : It is the difference between head race and tailrace when no water if flowing.
It is often termed as Static Head.

c. Net or effective head : It is the head available at entrance of Turbine. It is calculated by

subtracting frictional losses taking place in penstock from Static Head.

For a reaction turbine, as shown in Fig a above, net head is equal to :

(Pressure head at the entrance to the turbine + velocity head in the penstock at this
point + elevation of this point above assumed Datum) - (Elevation of tailrece + velocity head
in the draft tube at its exit)

Thus H = (p1 /w + V12/2g + Z1) - (Z2 + V2 2 / 2g)

For an impulse turbine shown in Fig b,

H = (p1/ w + V1 2 / 2g + Z 1) - Z2

Hydro Power plants are usually classified according to the head under which they work.

High heads are the plants working at 250 meter or above head,

Medium heads are the plants working at heads between 60 to 250 m

Low Head are the plants working at heads below 60 m.

Work done by Pelton Wheel = W / g [ ( V - u) (1 + k cos ϕ )] × u

Where,
W is the weight of water per second striking the bucket,
V is absolute velocity of jet before striking the bucket,
u is absolute velocity of the bucket tangential to pitch circle,
ϕ is the angle of bucket at outlet tip
k is less than unity and is calculated from the losses.

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Work done by Francis Turbine = W / g [ Vw u ] if velocity at exhaust whirl is zero.

Where,
W is the weight of water per second striking the bucket,
Vw is the velocity of water at entrance of turbine
u is absolute velocity of the bucket tangential to pitch circle

Fig. 6

✦✦✦

14
 Introduction to Thermodynamics

While studying thermal power plant, knowledge of Thermodynamics and Heat transfer
is extremely necessary. In this chapter, frequently used terms related to thermodynamics and
heat transfer are explained.
The objective is to introduce these terms to the trainees not conversant with mechanical
engineering.
Thermodynamics is the science of energy transfer and its effect on the physical properties
of substances involved in the phenomenon of energy transfer. Thermodynamic laws explain
the energy transfer and all its effects on physical properties.

Physical properties of a substance are

1) Pressure
2) Temperature
3) Composition
4) Density
5) Enthalpy
6) Entropy
7) Volume etc.

Thermodynamic System and Control Volume :

A thermodynamic system is quantity of matter or region in space being analyzed.
Everything external to it is called environment or surroundings. The system is separated from
surroundings by system boundary, an imaginary partition that separates the system under
study from environment. A system together with its surroundings is called the universe. The
following figure shows this concept :

SYSTEM Boundary

The figure shows a thermodynamic system consisting of

water being heated in a container.

The system is separated from its surrounding by drawing

a line around it. This line represents system boundary.

Surroundings
Heat Source

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 There are three classes of the system, An open system, a closed system and an isolated
system.

Vapors An Open System is one in which matter as well as

energy crosses the system boundary. Adjoining drawing
shows such system. In this, water vapors are leaving
the system boundary and passing in to surroundings.
Also heat energy is crossing the boundary in he form of
radiation.
Heat Energy Source
Tight
A closed system is one in which matter does not cross
system boundary. Energy may cross the boundary. In
adjoining figure, water being heated in closed container
is the example of closed system. In this case, vapors
can not leave the container and hence can not cross
the control boundary. Energy may cross the boundary
Heat Energy Source
in the form of radiation.

An isolated system is one in which neither matter nor

energy cross the system boundary. Adjoining figure
shows one such system. In this system, water is heated
causing formation of vapors. But, vapors can not leave
the container and hence matter can not cross the system
boundary. Also the container and source are surrounded
by Ideal insulation hence heat energy can not cross the
Heat source
boundary.

Process : It is defined as a path by which system changes its state. Any operation on system,
which causes change of state of working fluid, is called a process.

Isothermal Process : An isothermal process is a process in which Temperature of the system

remains constant. For example, Boiling of water is a process in which temperature of water
does not change.

Adiabatic process : An adiabatic process is the process in which Heat does not enter the
system from surrounding nor it can leave the system to surrounding. An well-insulated Turbine
cylinder is the example of adiabatic system.

The Cycle : For converting heat energy to work on continuos basis, one needs to operate on
a cycle. The process begins at one state of fluid and ends at other state. Whereas cycle is a

16
series of processes that begin and end at the same state of fluid and thus can be repeated
indefinitely or till needed.

Homogeneous System : If the quantity of matter is homogeneous throughout in physical

structure and chemical composition, then the matter is called to exist in one phase. Every
substance can exist in any of the three phases, solid, liquid or gaseous. System consisting of
single phase is called a homogeneous system while if it exists in more than one phase, it is
called heterogeneous system.

Thermodynamic equilibrium : The system is said to exists in thermodynamic equilibrium

when the systems properties do not change even if the system is isolated from its surroundings.
Also there can not be a spontaneous change in the properties of the system which is in
equilibrium.

If system is in thermodynamic equilibrium if it is in

a) Mechanical equilibrium – i.e. absence of unbalanced force within the system itself or
between surrounding and the system
b) Chemical equilibrium - i.e. absence of any chemical reaction or transfer of matter from
one part of the system to another
c) Thermal equilibrium - i.e. No transfer of heat from system to surrounding or vice a versa.

First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy which states that
energy can neither be created not can it be destroyed. The energy of a system undergoing
change can be increased or decreased by exchange with surroundings and converted from
one form to another within that system.
This law, therefore states how accounting of all forms of energy in a system or process
is carried out. The following example explains this accounting procedure.
The steady state steady flow open system in which mass or energy crossing the boundary do
not change with time and the mass within the system is constant. Also there is only one inlet
to the system and only one outlet from the system.
∆Q

PE1 PE2

KE1 KE2

IE1 IE2

FE1 FE2

∆ Wsf

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The first law equation for this system is:

PE1 + KE1 + IE1 + FE1 + ∆Q = PE2 + KE2 + IE2 + FE2 + ∆Wsf

Where,
PE is potential energy = m * z * g where
m = mass of the fluid entering and leaving the system
z = Elevation measured from arbitrary datum at fluid inlet and outlet,
g = Acceleration due to gravity,

KE = Kinetic energy = m * Vs²/ 2g

Where, Vs is the velocity of fluid

IE = Internal energy = U, Function of temperature of the liquid entering and leaving the
system
FE = Flow energy = PV

Flow energy is the work done on the fluid for pushing it in to and out of system where
P= Pressure of fluid and V = Volume of the fluid

∆Q is the Energy input to the system, = QA - |QR| where QA is Net Heat added to the system
and QR is the net heat rejected by the system.

∆Wsf is the net mechanical steady work = (Work done by the system - Work done on the
system)

For mass m, the equation can now be written as:

mz1g+ mVs1²/ 2g + U1 + P1V1+ ∆Q = mz2g + mVs2²/ 2g + U2 + P2V2 + ∆Wsf

For unit mass

z1g+ V²s1/ 2g + u1 + P1v1+ ∆q = z2g + V²s2/ 2g + u2 + P2v2 + ∆wsf

The Enthalpy :
Sums U + PV or u + pv is given the name Enthalpy, and symbol H and specific enthalpy h.

H= U + PV
H= H/m

Enthalpies and Internal Energies are properties of fluid and have single value for every
state of fluid. For water and steam, these values are tabulated in Steam Table and can also be
known from Mollier Charts for water and steam. The value of Enthalpy indicates the heat
energy contained by the fluid at given state and have the unit Joules / Kg. K. Enclosed steam
table shows Specific enthalpy of water and steam.

18
 Following equations for specific system, such as Boiler, Turbine etc show and define
the process from first law of thermodynamics.
1) For steam generator:
∆ Wsf, i.e. work done =0
PE2- PE1= negligible
KE2- KE1= negligible
∆Q = H2- H1
∆q= h2-h1
Hence, in steam generator, increase in enthalpy of fluid = heat energy added.

2) Steam Turbine :
∆Q is negligible
PE2- PE1= negligible
KE2- KE1= negligible
∆Wsf = H1- H2
∆wsf= h1-h2
Hence in steam turbine, enthalpy of steam at inlet is partially converted to work done.
In doing so, state of inlet steam changes from enthalpy H1 to H2. H2 represents that part of
inlet enthalpy remaining unutilized.

3) Water Pump:
∆Q is negligible
PE2- PE1= 0
KE2- KE1= negligible
U2 = U1V2= V1 = V, Water being non compressible, its volume change
is negligible due to increase in pressure
∆Wsf = FE1- FE2 = V(P2- P1)
∆wsf= v( P2- P1)
Hence in water pumps, work added from the prime mover is utilized for increasing in
pressure of water.

4) Nozzle:
∆Q = 0
∆Wsf = 0
PE2- PE1= 0
KE2- KE1= negligible

Thus Vs2 = 2g J (h1-h2)

Vs2 = 2 g J Cp (T1- T2) For ideal gas, where Cp is specific

heat at constant pressure

Vs2 = 2 g u ( P1- P2) For incompressible fluid.

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5) Throttling :
∆Q =0
∆Wsf = 0
PE2- PE1= 0
KE2- KE1= negligible
H1= H2
H1=h2

Quality of steam :
This term is used to indicate the dryness of steam. It is denoted by x
x = ( Mass of vapor) / ( Mass of vapor + Mass of liquid) in a two phase mixture.

The specific enthalpy of a two-phase mixture is

h= hf + xhfg where hf = specific enthalpy of saturated liquid and
hfg = (specific enthalpy of vapor - specific enthalpy of saturated
liquid ) all obtained at the pressure of the system.
Similarly
Specific volume v= vf + xvfg
Specific entropy s= sf + xsfg

Subcooled Liquid : A subcooled liquid is one, which is at a temperature below its saturation
temperature at the given pressure. For example, when water is at the temperature of 28° C at
atmospheric pressure of 1 Kg/cm², then it is a subcooled liquid, because saturation temperature
of water at this pressure is 100°C. Subcooled liquid is also called as compressed liquid.

The second law of thermodynamics

The second law of thermodynamics : The first law is about conservation of Energy, declaring
that all forms of energy are convertible to one another, it does not state whether the conversion
can take place or not. There are many forms of energy that can not be converted.
Consider the case of work and heat energy. Although work can be completely and
continuously converted to heat energy, reverse is not true. Heat energy can not be completely
and continuously converted to work.
The second law introduces the concept of unavailable energy. The heat energy is not
entirely available for conversion to work in a continuos manner i.e. in a cycle (though it may
be in a process).
The portion of heat, which can not be converted, is called unavailable energy, and it
has to be rejected as low-grade heat after the work has been done. Thus while energy is
conserved, availability is not. In other words, thermal efficiency of continuously converting
heat to work, in a heat engine, must be less than 100%.

Reversibility: Reversibility applies to the process. If all the processes in a cycle are reversible,
then the cycle is also reversible. Even if one of the processes in a cycle is irreversible, then the

20
cycle is irreversible. A reversible process is an ideal process. If a process reverses itself by the
same path it undertook in the first place and thus restores to the system or surrounding the
same heat and work previously exchanged, then it is called a reversible process.
Hence there is no process in real world that is completely reversible. How ever, the
degree of irreversibility can vary from process to process.

Sources of irreversibility: Frictions, Heat Transfer, throttling and mixing are the sources of
irreversibility in the real world.

Friction : In mechanical friction, mechanical energy is dissipated as heat. Consider a shaft

rotating in a bearing. Due to friction, heat is dissipated in the bearing raising the temperature
of bearing and lubricant. Some work is thus lost to friction and hence is unavailable to drive
the load. Fluid friction takes place in a Turbine, due to which fluid it self gets heated. The heat
energy thus generated is not available for useful work. More the irreversibility in the process,
more is the heat generated and less is the useful work.
Consider a shaft rotating in a bearing. Friction causes heat dissipation. But it is not
possible to add the amount of heat energy lost due to friction and expect shaft to rotate.

Heat transfer : Heat transfer takes place from a body at higher temperature to that at lower
temperature. But reverse process is not possible. The loss of availability takes place because
no work is done in the process of heat transfer. Larger the temperature difference between the
bodies involved in heat transfer, larger is the non-availability.

Throttling : It is a process of uncontrolled expansion of fluid from high pressure region to low
pressure region. Velocity of fluid increases, increasing the fluid friction. The resultant heat
generated from fluid friction increases the temperature of fluid, increasing its Enthalpy. No
work is done in this process. The process is irreversible because flow can not be established
from low pressure region to high pressure region.
Mixing: Mixing of one fluid in to other is irreversible, as separation can not take place without
employing external means.

Entropy : Entropy is a property of fluid as temperature, pressure, enthalpy and internal

energy. Its symbol is S or Φ. It has the unit of Joule per Kelvin. Specific entropy has the unit
of Joule/Kg. K.
P1 > P2 P1 P2
T

1
2Τ
2’
2
2s

21
 Entropy is the property that remains constant in ideal (reversible) adiabatic
expansion process.
Consider expansion of gas in Turbine. The process is shown below on a T- S Diagram.
The lines P1 and P2 are constant pressure lines drawn on T-S Plane. Assume that gas
starts at Pressure P1, Temperature T1 and entropy s1 and expands to Pressure P2. If the
process is ideal adiabatic and reversible, entropy remains constant and it will take path 1- 2s.
Due to irreversibility ( in the form of fluid friction) in Turbine, temperature of gas at exhaust
is T2 instead of T2s.
T2> T2s and hence less heat energy is converted to work.
It is therefore also said, “ If there is a irreversibility in the process, Entropy of the
working fluid increases. Extent of increase in entropy is the measure of degree of irreversibility
present in the process.” Greater the irreversibility, lesser is the work.
The enclosed steam table shows entropy of steam and water for various states.

The reversible Carnot Cycle :

Sadi Carnot, a French scientist introduced the concepts of irreversibility and cycle in
thermodynamics. He also introduced the principle that temperature of heat source and heat
sink determined the thermal efficiency of the reversible cycle. He also postulated that because
all such cycles must reject heat to the heat sink, the efficiency is never 100%. To show this,
and to show that the effect of the working fluid on the thermal efficiency of a reversible cycle
is nonexistent he invented a hypothetical (There can not be a reversible cycle) Carnot Cycle.
The Carnot cycle, shown on P-V and T-S diagram is composed of four processes.

TH 2 3

TL
1 4

1 - 2 Reversible adiabatic compression

2 - 3 Reversible constant temperature heat addition
3 - 4 Reversible adiabatic expansion
4 - 1 Reversible adiabatic heat rejection

Change in entropy is equal in magnitude during heat addition and rejection. The
efficiency of Carnot cycle is obtained as
Heat addition QA = TH ( S3- S2)
Heat rejection QR = TL (S4 - S1)

22
 Where TH & TL are heat source and heat sink absolute temperatures.

The Carnot cycle is reversible internally and externally and hence heat transfer between
heat source and working fluid takes place ideally i.e. across a zero temperature difference and
hence TH = T2 and TL = T1.

For all power cycles, net work done ∆W net = QA- |QR|

Efficiency ηth = ∆W net / QA

Therefore for Carnot Cycle, Efficiency ηC = TH –TL/ TL

This expression explains that efficiency of Carnot Cycle is independent of working

fluids and is a function of Heat source and sink temperatures only. It can be observed that:
1) Since Carnot is ideal cycle, its efficiency is maximum
2) The real cycles can have efficiencies lower than that of Carnot cycle,
3) In real cycles also, higher the efficiency if higher the temperature at which cycle receives
heat and lower is the temperature at which it rejects heat.

✦✦✦

23
 Concepts of Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer is the science of flow of heat energy from one body to another. It deals
with calculations for finding the rate of heat flow. By studying this science, better understanding
can be developed for Boiler, Regenerative Feed Heating, Condenser and Cooling towers and
cooling methods for generator.
Consider that Steam is to be delivered to HFO Tank, which is at a distance of 500
meters from Boiler. Steam, at a temperature of 250° C, flows with the velocity of 10 m/sec
thorough pipe. In this case, can we know what will be the temperature of steam at HFO tank?
If we want that steam temperature should not drop, which insulating material to be used?
What should be its thickness? In boiler furnaces, flame temperature is more than 1400° C,
then how it is that boiler tubes, made of steel, do not melt? How does the heat energy from
Sun reaches earth? All these questions are answered by studying the science of Heat Transfer.
In all these cases, heat energy is flowing from one body to another. But the “way” is
different in every case. There are three ways called Modes of heat transfer. The mode of
heat transfer depends on whether the bodies involved are solids or fluids & what kind of medium
is separating these bodies. Accordingly the modes of heat transfer are given names, such as,
1. Conduction Mode of heat transfer – flow of heat through a solid body or from solid to solid.
2. Convection – when heat flows from solid to fluid or vice a versa,
3. Radiation – when there is no physical contacts between two bodies and even if there is
absence of medium.

Conduction heat transfer through the solid bar :

Consider a Metal bar being heated at one end, as shown in following figure.

Heat source End A, temp t1. End B, temp

Due to increase in temperature at ‘A’, the molecules of the matter reach a higher
energy level. Due to very tight bonding in solids, molecules can not displace but start agitating
causing friction with surrounding molecules, in turn raising their temperature. So, the heat
energy received by one molecule is transferred to another one. The process continues till the
complete mass of bar reaches the temperature of the heat source. This type of flow of heat
energy is called conduction heat transfer, which is predominant in solids only.
Consider a body, receiving heat at end A, as shown in fig.1. Temperature at end A
starts increasing causing heat energy at A starts flowing towards end B
End A, Ta° C End B, Tb° C The rate at which this transfer takes place is given by
q = ( A × ∆T × K ) / L (1)
Where, q = Rate of heat flow in K Cal/ s
A = Heating surface area in m²
K = Thermal Conductivity, Kcal/ m²/s/°C
Solid Body
Heat L = length or thickness of plate in m
∆T = Difference in temperature = (Ta - Tb), °C
K, thermal conductivity, is the property of matter.
Prepared by R. S. Kulkarni, EE (G), KTC Approved by Chief General Manager (TRG)

24
Values of thermal conductivity for some of the materials are:

Thermal
Material Type Conductivity State
W/m-K
Pure copper Metal 384 20° C
Brass Metal 110 20° C
Steel (0.5% C) Metal 54 20° C
Stainless Steel (18%Cr,8% Ni) Metal 16 20° C
Asbestos Non-metal 0.23 20° C
Plastics Non-Metal 0.58 20° C
Coal Non-metal 0.186 20° C
Wood Non-metal 0.17 20° C
Mineral Wool Non-metal 0.047 20° C
Water Liquid 0.60 20° C
Dry Air Gas 0.026 1 bar - 20° C
Steam Vapours 0.026 1 bar - 100° C

Heat transfer through a pipe : When hot fluid flows through a pipe, its inner surface
receives heat from fluid, causing its temperature to increase. The outer surface of the pipe will
also receive heat from inner surface. If the pipe, have inside radius of ri, outside radius of r0,
Ti is the temp. of inner tube surface, To is the temp. of outer surface and L the length of pipe,
then rate of heat flowing from inner surface to outer surface is given by :
q = 2Π L k (Ti - To) / ln(r0/ri) (2)

Concept of thermal resistance:

Thermal Resistance is the concept, which is analogous to electrical resistance.

Current I
T1° C T2° C
Resistance R
q

Potential V
b

Thermal Resistance Rth = (Ti- T2)/ q Electrical resistance Re V/ I

The thermal resistance is given by:

Infinite slab = b/KA :b= slab thickness, K is thermal conductivity and A, the area (3)

Infinite cylinder = ln(r0/ri)/ 2Π L K (4)

25
#Application to actual Problem : A heat exchanger was designed for cooling of oil by water
as shown in diagram. Cold Water

Hot Oil Cold oil

Hot Water

It was found that oil is not getting cooled to the expected temperature. Is it possible to
increase the performance by replacing GI by copper? The answer can be found by mathematical
calculations. Data given is -
1. The tubes are made of G.I. which have the Thermal conductivity of 30 W/m- K.
2. Water side heat transfer coefficient is 140 W/m²-K
3. Oil side heat transfer coefficient is 160 W/m²- K.
4. Inner pipe O.D. : 2 cm
5. Outer pipe OD : 4 cm.
6. Wall thickness for both the pipes : 2 mm

Thermal resistance for one-meter length of the pipe is calculated as below:

Inner GI pipe : ln(r0/ri)/ 2" K = 0.00118 K/W
Water side : 1/ (140 * “ * 0 .02) = 0.114 K/ W
Oil side : 1/ (150 * “ * 0 .016) = 0.133 K/ W

As thermal resistance because of GI pipe is less than 0.5% of total resistance,

replacement of GI by copper is not going to solve the problem.

#: Problem from “ Text Book of Heat Transfer” by Shri S.P. Sukhatme

Critical Insulation Thickness for a pipe: When insulation is provided on pipes for reduction
in heat loss to surrounding, its outside diameter also increases. Following figure shows loss of
heat from such composite pipe Vs its outside diameter:

Heat Loss

rc
Radius of composite pipe.

26
 It can be seen from above diagram that, heat loss increases even after providing
insulation, if the radius of the composite pipe is below critical radius. The critical radus can be
calculated as below:
rc = k/Ho, (5)
Where, k is the thermal conductivity of insulation and Ho is convective heat transfer
coefficient for outer surface and ambient air.

Convection Mode of Heat transfer :

Heat transfer from solid to fluid takes place by mode of convection. How heat transfer
takes place in fluids is explained in the following discussions. Please ref to the figure on next
page.
Particles of water, which are in contact with the container’s bottom surface, receive
heat by conduction mode resulting in increase in their Temperature, causing drop in their
density. The lighter particles then start moving upwards and their place is occupied by colder
particles. While the hot water particles are moving upwards, those come in contact with
colder water and loose heat energy to the cold water. Thus, heat received at the bottom
propagates to the bulk water and this heat transfer continues till bulk water temperature is
uniform through out.
Container filled with water.

Hot particles moving upwards

Heat source

In this mode, moving particles of water become the carrier of heat energy. Convective
heat transfer take place due to the motion of the fluid involved in the process. In the example
discussed, it is the difference in density that sets in the motion. If the fluid would have
remained standstill, heat transfer should have taken place by conduction only. Fluid motion
can take place by two ways:
1. Caused by density difference produced by temperature gradient. Heat exchange in this
case is called free or natural convection.
2. Caused by external agency, such as a pump or blower. In this case, motion of fluid is
much faster than that in free convection and results in increased rate of heat transfer.
This type of heat transfer is known as Forced Convection.

Fluid dynamics thus plays an important role in this mode. In addition, the rate of heat
transfer also depends on difference in temperature, shape of the container involved and its
geometry. The law explaining the phenomenon is :

q=h × A × ∆t (6)

27
Where h = Convective heat transfer coefficient,
A = Area of the surface of the solid exchanging energy in the process,
∆t = Difference of temperature between surface and fluid film
q = rate of heat transfer
The value of h depends on many other parameters, such as fluid velocity, boundary
layer thickness etc. By computation of ‘h’, true picture of the exchange process can be known.
The expression for computation of h is;

Nu = h × L / k, (7)
Where Nu is called Nusselt Number, which can be computed for the given system. L is the
characteristic length of conduit through which fluid in flowing, and k the thermal conductivity
of fluid.
Nu is a function of Reynold’s number Re and Prandtl Number Pr and is related with
these as follows:

Nu = Φ (Re) ψ (Pr) (8)

Reynolds number Re is given by:

Re = V × D × ρ / µ (9)
Where V = velocity of flow,
D = characteristic dimension of the conduit,
ρ = Fluid density
µ = Viscosity of the fluid.
When Re is more than 6000, flow is said to be turbulent. Higher the value of Re, higher
the turbulence.

Prandtl Number : Pr = Cp × µ / k, where Cp is specific heat (10)

Prandtl number is the property of Fluid. For knowing the rate of heat transfer,
computation of Reynolds Number and Prandtl Number is necessary.

Laminar Flow : In this case, layers of fluid slide over each other and also on the surface.
Every particle flows in the direction of flow. There is no radial movement. If the Reynolds
Number is less than 10000, flow is called Laminar Flow.

Turbulent Flow : In this flow pattern, fluid particles are subjected to both axial and radial
movement. Hence flow is turbulent. In this case, the boundary layer thickness depends on the
extent of turbulence. If the Reynolds Number is more than 10000, flow is called Laminar Flow.

Boundary Layer thickness :

When fluid flows over a surface, the velocity distribution is not linear. Velocity is
maximum at the center of the cross section of fluid flow and zero at the conduit’s walls.
Hence, fluid is stagnant at the walls and forms a small layer (usually of thickness of a few
microns) over it. This layer is called boundary layer, thickness of which depends on property
of fluid, called viscosity, and also the nature of flow (whether turbulent or laminar). The

28
relationship between boundary layer thickness and heat transfer coefficient is given by -
h = k/ δ, (11)
Where h is heat transfer coefficient,
k is the conductivity of fluid,
and δ is the thickness of boundary layer.
The thickness to which the boundary layer is formed is an important parameter. Since the
thermal conductivity of fluids is small, higher the thickness of boundary layer, smaller is the
heat transfer coefficient.

From above discussions, it can be known that value of heat transfer coefficient is
1. Directly proportional to Velocity of flow, Density and conduit diameter
2. Inversely proportional to viscosity and boundary layer thickness.
The empirical relationships between Nu and Re and Pr are given by various mathematical
expressions, some of which are listed below.

For forced convection and turbulent inside tubes:

Nu= 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)0.4 ——— Mc Adams correlation (12)

Nu= 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)n ———Dittus Boelter Relationship (13)
Where n = 0.4 for heating, (Fluid temperature > Tube wall temperature)
n= 0.3 for cooling, (Fluid temperature < Tube wall temperature)

Textbooks on heat transfer can be referred to know the correlation for various cases of fluid
flow.

Radiation Heat Transfer : Solid and liquid surfaces at all temperatures emit Thermal Radiation.
Rate of emission increases with temperature. Thermal radiation is electromagnetic wave and
does not require any material medium for propagation. The wavelength of radiation emitted
from surfaces of bodies’ ranges from 0 to “. However it is found that for temperatures exceeding
1000 K, most of it lies in wavelength range of 0.3 to 10 micron. In addition to emitting
radiation, a body also has the capacity for absorbing all or part of radiation emitted by the
surroundings. Consider a hot body placed in an evacuated container. Since there is vaccume,
there will not be convection heat transfer between the body and container walls. However, hot
body emits thermal radiation by virtue of its temperature, which will cause heat transfer to
walls. The container walls will also emit thermal radiation by virtue of its temperature that will
be intercepted and absorbed by hot body. Since the rate at which the hot body emits radiation
is much more than the rate at which it absorbs radiation, hot body looses its heat energy to
container, till the temperatures of the body and the container are equal. In this case, thermal
equilibrium is reached and rate of emission and absorption becomes equal.
A surface emits radiation in all the directions encompassed by a hemisphere. The
amount emitted depends on the nature of surface.

Black Body radiation : A black or ideal surface is one, which absorbs all the radiation falling
on it, irrespective of wavelength and directions. Also for given temperature and wavelength,

29
it emits maximum radiation. A black surface is thus a standard against which all practical
surfaces are evaluated for emissive and absorptive powers.

Emissive power : It is the summation of radiation emitted in all the directions and at all the
wavelengths. It is denoted by symbol e and unit is W / m2. For the black surface, it is denoted
by eb.

Emissivity : Emisivity of a surface is the ratio of its total emissive power to the total emissive
power of black surface, at the same temperature. It is denoted by symbol
= e / eb. The emmisivity for a black surface is unity. (14)

Monochromatic emissive power : Monochromatic emissive power of a surface at wavelength

λ is the radiant flux emitted from the surface per unit wavelength about the wavelength λ. It
is denoted by eλ. For black surface it is denoted by ebλ.

Monochromatic emisivity : It is the ratio of monochromatic emisivity of a surface to

monochromatic emisivity of black surface.

λ= eλ / ebλ (15)

The following diagram shows the monochromatic emissive power of a surface at different
temperatures.

Stephen Boltzman Law : It states that emissive power of the black surface is given by
eb = s T 4 where T is the absolute temperature of the surface and (16)
ó Stephen Boltzman Constant whose value is 5.670 × 10 –8
W/m² - K 4.

For the non-black surface

e = σ T 4, (17)

Values of emissivity : For different surfaces, values of emmisivity are experimentally found
out and for some of the surfaces, these are listed below.
Surface Temperature, °C Emmisivity
Metals: Polished copper, steel, stainless 20 - 500 < 0.15, increases with
steel and nickel temperature
Oxidised copper, steel, stainless steel Up to 1000 0.6 to 1.0
and nickel
Non metals: Brick, wood, marble, water 20 to 100 0.8 to 1.0

It can be seen that polishing the metals decreases the emmisivity. For most non metals,
emmisivity is high irrespective of the surface’s finish.

Radiation Incident on a surface :

Black body absorbs all the radiation, where as real body does not. Only part of radiation

30
is absorbed, other being reflected and retransmitted (if the body is semitransparent such as
glass etc). This is shown in following figure:

Ray of an Incident radiation Reflected Radiation

Diffuse Radiation

Absorbed Radiation

Transmitted Radiation

In case of polished surface, radiation is reflected in one direction, with angle if reflection
equal to angle of incidence. In case of rough surfaces, reflection takes place in all directions.
Total Hemispherical irradiation: The total heat flux radiating on the surface is called total
hemispherical irradiation.

Absorptivity of the surface :

Absorptivity of the surface is the fraction of the radiation absorbed by it, out of total
irradiation. It is denoted by the symbol α.

Heat Exchange by two surfaces :

Consider two surfaces at temperature T1 and T2. The heat transfer between these two
surfaces is given by:

q1-2 = F1-2 × σ × A1 × ( T1 4 - T24) where F1-2 is called shape factor. (18)

Conversion of water to steam :

In Boiler, water is converted to steam. When water, at ambient temperature and pressure,
is heated, it is said that heat energy is being added to water. The process progresses as follows.
1) Water temperature increases due to heat energy supplied. The increase in temperature
continues till water boils. This temperature is known as Boiling point temperature, also
called saturation temperature. The energy required to raise the temperature of water
to saturation temperature is called “ Sensible Heat”. Saturation temperature is the
temperature at which phase change takes place and its value depends on Pressure at
which process is being carried out.
2) If addition of heat energy is continued further, water changes state to vapor form.
This phenomenon is called change of phase. During change of phase, temperature of
water and that of vapor remains constant. The energy required for phase change is
called “ Latent Heat of Vaporization”.

31
3) Further additions of heat energy results in increase of vapor temperature. The vapor is
now called superheated steam.

Temperature Increases due to Sensible Heat addition.

Temperature
Heat Increases
Addition due to
Sensible Heat
addition.
Temperature remains Vapor
Vapor
constant. Water temperature
temperature
converts to vapor.
Addition of latent heat
increases.
increases.
of vaporization. Steam
Steam is
called
called
Saturation temperature superheated

Temperature

✦✦✦

32