Revision Notes for the Physics IGCSE Exam 2017

The syllabus we follow is CIE IGCSE Physics 0625 Extended Curriculum (core plus supplement).

You will sit three papers.

Paper 2 (45 minutes) is a multiple-choice paper with 40 questions of the four-choice type.
The questions are based on the Extended Curriculum (ie. core plus supplement) and are designed to
discriminate between grades A* to C. Note that there has been a change from 2016 onwards: the old
Paper 1 multiple choice tested just the core material and was aiming to discriminate between grades C to
G. You should therefore anticipate some questions which will be harder than in the old paper 1.
Paper 2 counts for 30% of the final total available marks.

Paper 4 (1 hour 15 minutes) is a theory paper with short-answer and structured questions worth a total of
80 marks. The paper tests both core and supplement material, as did the old Paper 3 prior to 2016.
Paper 4 counts for 50% of the final total available marks.

Paper 5 (1 hour 15 minutes) is the Practical Exam, which tests experimental and observational skills, and is
based on the core curriculum. It will typically consist of four exercises, only three of which will require use
of apparatus. You are expected to take about 20 minutes on each of the practical exercises.
Paper 5 counts for 20% of the final total available marks.

The Revision Notes that follow are intended to assist with revision and not to be the only revision.
They are based on the IGCSE syllabus, which is in Arial font, with the supplement in italics.
The indented text in Times New Roman is my comment on the syllabus.

The page and diagram (figure) references beginning D... are for the IGCSE Physics textbook (Duncan)
(second edition). (A few of you have the third edition, for which the page numbers are slightly different).
A page number followed by a/b indicates left or right hand column on the page. It is suggested that you
have the book open at the appropriate page as you read the notes.
You have also been given the IGCSE Study guide (Folland) which is good for giving an overview of the
course, for practice questions, for descriptions of experiments and for identifying common mistakes. It
rather helpfully follows the order of topics in the syllabus. Page references beginning F... refer to this. (If
you have the revised edition, some of the page numbers are slightly different).
You should make sure to revise actively and make your own notes rather than just reading through.

These revision notes are neither exhaustive nor infallible. Please let me know of any errors!
1. General physics
1.1 Length and time F1-2
• Use and describe the use of rules and measuring cylinders to find a length or a volume
A reading taken with a ruler or measuring cylinder will be accurate to a certain number of decimal
places, so all readings taken in the same way should be given to the same number of decimal places
e.g. with a ruler, to the nearest 1mm. Don’t forget to write (for example) 9.0cm rather than 9cm, or
3.10A rather than 3.1A. This is particularly important in the practical exam.
When using a measuring cylinder, always measure from the bottom of the meniscus.
• Use and describe the use of clocks and devices, both analogue and digital, for measuring an interval of
time
The time period of a pendulum is the time for one complete swing (from left to right and back again).
• Obtain an average value for a small distance and for a short interval of time by measuring multiples
(including the period of a pendulum) D93b-94, 47
For example, measuring the thickness of a sheet of paper accurately by measuring the height of a pile
of 50 sheets of paper and dividing by 50, or measuring a beaker’s circumference by winding string
round the beaker 5× and then dividing the measurement by 5. Measuring a larger distance will mean
a smaller percentage error in the measurement (E.g. measuring 1000mm to the nearest mm gives a
percentage error of 0.1% compared to 10% when measuring 10mm to the nearest mm). The final
answer will therefore be more accurate than if you had measured it directly. Give your final answer
to the same number of significant figures as the original measurement. You might be asked to use
this kind of technique in the practical exam.
For the pendulum, you can measure the time for 10 swings and divide by 10 to get the time for one
swing. This reduces the percentage error in the measurement of the time period. You might be asked
to use this technique in the practical exam. Don’t forget to start counting “nought, one, two....” to
ensure you measure ten swings rather than nine. It is most accurate to time from the centre point of
the motion as this is where the pendulum bob is moving fastest.
• Understand that a micrometer screw gauge is used to measure very small distances
The micrometer can measure to the nearest 0.01mm. There is a ratchet to ensure that you don’t
squash the object being measured when closing the jaws. You should check the micrometer for zero
error before using it. Read Duncan for more detail.

1.2 Motion D93b-94, 47

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
• Define speed and calculate average speed from D92
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
• Distinguish between speed and velocity
Speed is the distance travelled in unit time. It is a scalar quantity, which means it has magnitude
(size) but not direction. Velocity is the distance travelled in unit time in a stated direction: it is a
vector quantity (it has magnitude and direction). For motion in a straight line, a negative velocity
indicates motion in the opposite direction to a positive velocity.
• Plot and interpret a speed-time graph or a distance-time graph D96-97a
• Calculate speed from the gradient of a distance-time graph
• Recognise from the shape of a speed-time graph when a body is
– at rest
– moving with constant speed
– moving with changing speed
• Calculate the area under a speed-time graph to work out the distance travelled for motion with constant
acceleration
• Calculate acceleration from the gradient of a speed-time graph
 Always look carefully at what is plotted on the axes of a graph before trying to interpret it.
You must read values off the axes when calculating gradients or areas.
The gradient (slope) of a distance/time graph tells you the speed.
The gradient of a speed/time graph tells you the acceleration.
The area under a speed/time graph tells you the distance travelled.
• Demonstrate understanding that acceleration and deceleration are related to changing speed D93a
including qualitative analysis of the gradient of a speed-time graph
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
• Define and calculate acceleration using
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
• Recognise linear motion for which the acceleration is constant D97a
• Recognise motion for which the acceleration is not constant D97a

• Understand deceleration as a negative acceleration

change invelocity finalvelocity- initialvelocity in m/s2
Acceleration  
time time
If the acceleration is constant, the speed-time graph will be a straight line. A speed-time graph with
changing gradient indicates a changing acceleration. A negative gradient means deceleration.
• State that the acceleration of free fall for a body near to the Earth is constant D100-101a
• Describe qualitatively the motion of bodies falling in a uniform gravitational field with and without air
resistance (including reference to terminal velocity) D107b

The Earth’s gravitational field g = 10N/kg.

The downwards force on the falling object is its weight = mg, and this is constant.
In the absence of air resistance, all objects fall in the Earth’s gravitational field with an acceleration g
= 10m/s2: their speed will keep increasing as they fall.
If the object is falling downwards through air, there is an air resistance force acting upwards. Objects
will accelerate until a maximum speed is reached, called terminal velocity.
The resultant force acting on the object (downwards) = weight – air resistance
The object’s weight remains constant. The air resistance increases as the object moves faster.
From F = ma, acceleration = resultant force / mass
The object will therefore accelerate until air resistance = weight. At this point, there is no resultant
force, so the object continues falling at constant speed. It has reached terminal velocity.

1.3 Mass and weight F5

• Show familiarity with the idea of the mass of a body D47a
Mass is how much matter there is in an object.
• Demonstrate an understanding that mass is a property that ‘resists’ change in motion D104b
This is another way of stating Newton’s First Law: that an object will stay at rest or keep moving
with constant velocity unless an external force acts on it to change its motion.
• State that weight is a gravitational force D54
• Distinguish between mass and weight
• Recall and use the equation W = mg
• Describe, and use the concept of, weight as the effect of a gravitational field on a mass D106
Weight is the force of gravity on a mass that is in a gravitational field.
 The Earth’s gravitational field strength g is 10N/kg, so a mass of 1kg has a weight of 10N on Earth.
The weight will be different on a planet of different gravitational field strength, but the mass will be
the same.
Weight (in Newtons) = mg
Weight always acts ‘downward’ (towards the centre of the Earth)!
• Demonstrate understanding that weights (and hence masses) may be compared using a balance
A mass balance is actually measuring the weight of an object acting downwards. D55

1.4 Density F5-6

𝑚
• Recall and use the equation 𝜌 =
𝑉
• Describe an experiment to determine the density of a liquid and of a regularly shaped solid and make the
necessary calculation D51-52
• Describe the determination of the density of an irregularly shaped solid by the method of displacement
• Predict whether an object will float based on density data
Density is mass per unit volume. (Note ‘mass in a given volume’ is not correct!)
m
Density (in kg/m3) = mass / volume 
V
A particular material will always have the same density, whatever the shape or size of the object.
Describing an experiment will involve drawing a fully labelled diagram and stating precisely what
measurements are taken (e.g. not just “mass of liquid”. You first need to measure the mass of the
measuring cylinder, then the mass of the measuring cylinder plus liquid and then find the mass of the
liquid by subtraction)
You might have to measure density in the practical exam. It’s worth remembering that the density of
water is 1g/cm3 or 1000kg/m3. An object that would sink in water must have a density greater than
this, so check that your answer is sensible!

1.5 Forces F6-11

1.5.1 Effects of forces
• Recognise that a force may produce a change in size and shape of a body D55-56
• Plot and interpret extension-load graphs and describe the associated experimental procedure
• State Hooke’s Law and recall and use the expression F = k x, where k is the spring constant
• Recognise the significance of the ‘limit of proportionality’ for an extension-load graph
Hooke’s Law states that the extension x of a spring is proportional to the stretching force F. This is
true only up to the elastic limit of the spring or ‘limit of proportionality’. Beyond this point, the
spring is permanently deformed and does not return to its original length once the stretching force is
removed. The left hand graph below is of force against extension, i.e. force is plotted on the y axis.
The force constant k is the gradient of the initial straight part of the force-extension graph. A stiffer
spring would have a larger force constant and hence a steeper gradient. With force measured in N and
extension in cm, the force constant will have units of N/cm. It could also be expressed in N/m or
N/mm. You could see this graph with the axes the other way round, as in the right hand diagram, so
always check the axes carefully. The specification refers to graphs of extension against load (right
hand diagram), so it is most likely that graphs will be this way round. For this graph, a stiffer spring
with a larger force constant has a shallower gradient.
To describe the experimental procedure will probably require a clear diagram showing what is meant
by extension (= stretched length – natural length) and comments on avoiding parallax errors.
 Force F / N Extension x / cm
Limit of proportionality

Limit of proportionality

Extension x / cm Force F / N

• Describe the ways in which a force may change the motion of a body D104-106a
• Find the resultant of two or more forces acting along the same line D68
• Recognise that if there is no resultant force on a body it either remains at rest or continues at constant
speed in a straight line
• Recall and use the relation between force, mass and acceleration (including the direction), F = ma
A resultant force will cause an object to change its motion, i.e. accelerate. If there is no resultant
force, an object will carry on at constant speed. This is Newton’s Second Law, F = ma (F in
Newtons, m in kg, a in m/s2). The acceleration is always in the same direction as the resultant force.
The force could cause the object to speed up, slow down or change its direction. For motion in a
straight line, a minus sign indicates a deceleration.
• Describe qualitatively motion in a circular path due to a perpendicular force (F = mv 2/r is not
required) D113-115
To make an object go round in a circle at constant speed, there must be a resultant force acting on the
object towards the centre of the circle. A force acting in this way is said to act centripetally. Without
this ‘centripetal force’, the object would continue in a straight line. Although the object has constant
speed, its velocity is always changing direction, so the object is always accelerating. The acceleration
is always in the direction of the force, which is towards the centre of the circle. Examples of forces
acting centripetally include gravity pulling the Earth towards the Sun and friction pushing sideways
on the tyres of a car as it goes round a bend.
• Understand friction as the force between two surfaces which impedes motion and results in heating
• Recognise air resistance as a form of friction

1.5.2 Turning effect

• Describe the moment of a force as a measure of its turning effect and give everyday examples
D60-61
• Understand that increasing force or distance from the pivot increases the moment of a force
• Calculate moment using the product force × perpendicular distance from the pivot
• Apply the principle of moments to the balancing of a beam about a pivot
• Apply the principle of moments to different situations
If an object is hinged or pivoted, then a suitably applied force can produce a turning effect or
moment. The moment of a force is defined as the force multiplied by the perpendicular distance from
the line of action of the force to the pivot. i.e. moment of force = F × d
For a balanced system, sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments
1.5.3 Conditions for equilibrium
• Recognise that, when there is no resultant force and no resultant turning effect, a system is in
equilibrium D62
• Perform and describe an experiment (involving vertical forces) to show that there is no net moment on a
body in equilibrium D60b

1.5.4 Centre of mass D64-66

• Perform and describe an experiment to determine the position of the centre of mass of a plane lamina
• Describe qualitatively the effect of the position of the centre of mass on the stability of simple objects
An object will topple if a vertical line through its centre of mass falls outside its base. Objects will be
more stable if they have a lower centre of mass or a wider base.

1.5.5 Scalars and vectors D69-70

• Understand that vectors have a magnitude and direction
• Demonstrate an understanding of the difference between scalars and vectors and give common
examples
• Determine graphically the resultant of two vectors
A vector quantity has direction as well as magnitude (size). A scalar quantity has only magnitude, so
doesn’t take account of direction. Displacement, velocity, acceleration and force are all vectors.
Mass, density, area, distance travelled and speed are all scalars.
When adding vectors you must take into account their directions. You should be able to add two
vectors using the parallelogram law. Draw two arrows to represent the two vectors. They should be
drawn to an appropriate scale and in the correct directions, starting from a common point. Then
complete a parallelogram. The diagonal from start to finish shows the magnitude and direction of the
resultant vector. D69
1.6 Momentum
• Understand the concepts of momentum and impulse
• Recall and use the equation momentum = mass × velocity, p=mv
• Recall and use the equation for impulse Ft = mv – mu
• Apply the principle of the conservation of momentum to solve simple problems in one dimension
It is useful to consider momentum because the total momentum of all colliding objects is always
conserved (provided no external force is acting). That means that in all collisions, the total
momentum after the collision is equal to the total momentum before the collision. Note that kinetic
energy will not be conserved unless the collision is perfectly elastic, because some KE will be
converted to heat.
In some collisions, the objects stick together after impact and move off together with a combined
mass equal to the sum of the masses of the two objects. If one of the objects is stationary before
impact, then the momentum before is mass × velocity of the moving object, and this will be equal to
the momentum after, which is the combined mass × velocity after collision. Hence the speed after the
collision can be determined.
Remember when adding momenta, that momentum is a vector quantity: a negative sign will show
momentum in the opposite direction.
In an explosion the momentum before is zero (nothing is moving) and so the total momentum after is
also zero. If the device explodes into two fragments then they must go in opposite directions. The
momentum taken in one direction by one fragment = the momentum taken in the opposite direction
by the other fragment.
When two objects collide, they exert equal and opposite forces on each other (Newton’s Third Law).
Momentum is conserved overall, but the action of the force causes a change in momentum of the
individual objects: momentum is transferred between the two objects. The effect that the force has
will depend on how large the force is and for how long it acts. We define the impulse of the force as
 force × time. The force causes a change in momentum which is equal to the impulse. NB Change in
momentum = final momentum – initial momentum; be careful to use a negative sign for momentum
in the opposite direction as momentum is a vector.

1.7 Energy, work and power F11-15

1.7.1 Energy
• Identify changes in kinetic, gravitational potential, chemical, elastic (strain), nuclear and internal energy
that have occurred as a result of an event or process D71-72
• Recognise that energy is transferred during events and processes, including examples of transfer by
forces (mechanical working), by electrical currents (electrical working), by heating and by waves
• Apply the principle of conservation of energy to simple examples D110
• Recall and use the expressions kinetic energy = ½mv and change in gravitational potential energy =
2

mgΔh D109
• Apply the principle of conservation of energy to examples involving multiple stages
• Explain that in any event or process the energy tends to become more spread out among the objects and
surroundings (dissipated)
Kinetic Energy (K.E.) is the energy of a moving mass. (It is NOT ‘the energy needed to keep an
object moving’)
Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE) is the energy a weight mg gains if it lifted by a height h. This is
equal to the work done in lifting the weight = mg × h.
Change in GPE = mass × gravitational field strength × height moved
The height (in metres) is always measured vertically because gravity acts vertically.
When an object falls, the gain in kinetic energy = the loss in potential energy.
Hence ½ mv2 = mgh

1.7.2 Energy resources

• Describe how electricity or other useful forms of energy may be obtained from: D76-80
– chemical energy stored in fuel
– water, including the energy stored in waves, in tides, and in water behind hydroelectric dams
– geothermal resources
– nuclear fission
– heat and light from the Sun (solar cells and panels)
– wind
• Give advantages and disadvantages of each method in terms of renewability, cost, reliability, scale and
environmental impact
• Understand that the Sun is the source of energy for all our energy resources except geothermal, nuclear
and tidal
• Show an understanding that energy is released by nuclear fusion in the Sun
You should know that some resources such as wind, tidal etc are renewable and that some such as
coal, oil and nuclear are non-renewable. Renewable means the source can be regenerated as quickly
as it is used. Wind power is renewable but noisy, and varies with the wind. Hydroelectric power is
renewable but is only suitable in hilly regions. Solar power is renewable but needs a sunny climate
and only produces energy when the Sun is shining. Solar cells (photovoltaics) convert light energy
directly to electrical energy. Solar panels use light energy to heat water. Nuclear Fission is non-
renewable but does not produce carbon dioxide. However there are problems with radioactive waste
and decommissioning.
Biomass. Some of the sunlight shining on the Earth is trapped by plants as they grow. We use this
biomass when we eat plants or when we burn wood.
 Geothermal. The inside of the Earth is hot. In some parts of the world hot water comes to the surface.
In other countries cold water is pumped down very deep holes and steam comes back to the surface.
Ultimately, all our energy comes from nuclear fusion in the Sun, where hydrogen nuclei are fused
together to release energy.
• Show a qualitative understanding of efficiency
𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
• Recall and use the equation: 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100%
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

• 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100%
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
A process is less than 100% efficient if some of the energy put in is wasted as non-useful heat.
1.7.3 Work
• Demonstrate understanding that work done = energy transferred D73a
• Relate (without calculation) work done to the magnitude of a force and the distance moved in the direction
of the force
• Recall and use W = Fd = ΔE
Work is done whenever a force moves an object in the direction of the force. e.g. Work is done when
an object is pushed along against frictional forces or when a weight is lifted. If a weight of 200 N is
lifted from the floor and placed on the bench 1.5 m above the floor then 300 J of work is done on the
weight. The weight has gained 300 J of gravitational potential energy.
Whenever a force does work, energy is transferred. For example, if you drop an object, gravity does
work to accelerate the object and gravitational potential energy is converted into kinetic energy.
1.7.4 Power F15-17
• Relate (without calculation) power to work done and time taken, using appropriate examples D73b
• Recall and use the equation P = ΔE / t in simple systems
If two girls of the same weight run up the same flight of stairs they each do the same amount of work.
They each convert the same amount of chemical energy into potential energy. However if one runs up
faster than the other, she exerts more power.
In the equation, the time must be in seconds: 1W = 1J/s
1.8 Pressure
• Recall and use the equation p = F / A D83
• Relate pressure to force and area, using appropriate examples
A drawing pin can pushed into a surface using a small force because the pressure at the point of
contact is large because the contact area at the point is small.
Tractor tyres have a large contact area so the pressure on the field is relatively small even though the
weight of the tractor is large.
Area needs to be measured in m2 to get pressure in Pascals, Pa. 1 Pa = 1 N/m2.
• Relate (without calculation) the pressure beneath a liquid surface to depth and to density, using
appropriate examples D84a
• Recall and use the equation p = hρg
Pressure due to liquid = height (in m) × density (in kg/m3) × gravitational field strength (=10N/kg)
D85
• Describe the simple mercury barometer and its use in measuring atmospheric pressure D86
Since there is a vacuum above the inverted column of mercury, the pressure at the bottom of the
column is just due to the weight of the column of mercury. This is equal to the atmospheric pressure
pushing down on the mercury reservoir. The height of the column should be measured from the
surface of the mercury in the reservoir, then use p = hρg. Note that the mercury meniscus curves
down towards the glass.
• Use and describe the use of a manometer D86
A manometer measures the difference between the pressure of a gas and atmospheric pressure. The
difference in the height of the liquid on the two sides of the manometer h is measured, then p = hρg
gives the difference in pressure.

2. Thermal physics
2.1 Simple kinetic molecular model of matter F18-21
2.1.1 States of matter
• State the distinguishing properties of solids, liquids and gases D123
2.1.2 Molecular model
• Describe qualitatively the molecular structure of solids, liquids and gases in terms of the arrangement,
separation and motion of the molecules D123-124
• Interpret the temperature of a gas in terms of the motion of its molecules D136b
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules. At a higher temperature,
the gas molecules will be moving at higher speeds.
• Relate the properties of solids, liquids and gases to the forces and distances between molecules and to
the motion of the molecules
• Describe qualitatively the pressure of a gas in terms of the motion of its molecules D136b
• Explain pressure in terms of the change of momentum of the particles striking the walls creating a force
A gas causes pressure because the fast-moving molecules collide with the walls of the container and
rebound. Each molecule experiences a change in momentum and this means that an equal and
opposite amount of momentum is transferred to the wall. The combined effect of lots of these
collisions spread over the area of the wall leads to a pressure.
• Show an understanding of the random motion of particles in a suspension as evidence for the kinetic
molecular model of matter
• Describe this motion (sometimes known as Brownian motion) in terms of random molecular
bombardment
• Show an appreciation that massive particles may be moved by light, fast-moving molecules D122
Under the optical microscope, particles of smoke in air are seen to move randomly and jerkily in all
directions. This is because they are being bombarded by air molecules from all sides. The smoke
particles can be seen because they are large enough to reflect light. The air molecules are far too
small to see, but they can still change the motion of a relatively massive smoke particle when they
bombard it because they are moving so fast.
2.1.3 Evaporation
• Describe evaporation in terms of the escape of more-energetic molecules from the surface of a liquid
• Demonstrate an understanding of how temperature, surface area and draught over a surface influence
evaporation
• Relate evaporation to the consequent cooling of the liquid D144b-145a
• Explain the cooling of a body in contact with an evaporating liquid
In evaporation, the fastest moving molecules escape from the surface of the liquid, so the average
kinetic energy of the molecules left in the liquid is lower, i.e. evaporation causes cooling. The rate of
evaporation can be increased by increasing the temperature, increasing the surface area of the liquid
or by a draught carrying the evaporated molecules away.
2.1.4 Pressure changes
• Describe qualitatively, in terms of molecules, the effect on the pressure of a gas of:
– a change of temperature at constant volume
Increasing the temperature increases the pressure of the gas. At higher temperature, the molecules are
moving faster, so they collide more often with the walls and also exert a greater force per collision.
– a change of volume at constant temperature
• Recall and use the equation pV = constant for a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature D136
Boyle’s Law, p1V1  p 2V2 holds for a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature. Pressure and
volume can be in non-standard units, provided the units are the same on both sides of the equation.

2.2 Thermal properties and temperature F21-29

2.2.1 Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases
• Describe qualitatively the thermal expansion of solids, liquids, and gases at constant pressure D129-131
In solids and liquids, the molecules get further apart (they don’t get bigger!!) because they vibrate
faster and force each other a little further apart. For a gas, if the pressure remains constant, an
increase in temperature will cause the volume of the gas to increase.
• Explain, in terms of the motion and arrangement of molecules, the relative order of the magnitude of the
expansion of solids, liquids and gases
If the temperature is raised by the same amount, a gas will expand by the most, a solid by the least.
This is because the molecules in the solid are held in place by strong forces of attraction; there are
negligible forces of attraction between the molecules in a gas so the gas is free to expand.
• Identify and explain some of the everyday applications and consequences of thermal expansion
Bimetallic strips, expansion joints, shrink fitting of axles into gear wheels.
2.2.2 Measurement of temperature
• Appreciate how a physical property that varies with temperature may be used for the measurement of
temperature, and state examples of such properties D126-127
e.g. length of a column of mercury in a capillary tube: the mercury expands as the temperature
increases.
• Recognise the need for and identify fixed points
Lower fixed point = temperature of melting ice = 0°C
Upper fixed point = temperature of steam above boiling water = 100°C.
e.g. for the mercury in glass thermometer, mark the position of the mercury at the two fixed points,
then divide the scale into 100 equal divisions to show the degrees Celsius.
• Describe and explain the structure and action of liquid-in-glass thermometers
• Demonstrate understanding of sensitivity, range and linearity
A more sensitive thermometer will show a larger change in the physical property being measured for
a given change in temperature.
Range describes the range of temperatures that can be measured, e.g. -10° to 110°C.
A thermometer is linear if the same increase in temperature always causes the same change in the
physical property being measured, across the whole range of temperatures. E.g for every 1°C rise, the
mercury always moves by 0.5mm.
• Describe and explain how the structure of a liquid-in-glass thermometer relates to its sensitivity, range
and linearity
To increase the sensitivity, make the bore of the capillary tube narrower. This will decrease the
thermometer’s range: for a larger range, make the thermometer longer! The capillary should have
constant diameter to ensure linearity.
• Describe the structure of a thermocouple and show understanding of its use as a thermometer for
measuring high temperatures and those that vary rapidly D127
Two wires of different metals are joined together. A cold junction is kept in melting ice at 0°C and a
hot junction is used to measure the temperature: A voltage is measured which depends on the
temperature of the hot junction. The voltage can be read off as a temperature using a look-up table, as
the thermocouple will have previously been calibrated using fixed points as above. See figure 26.4.
2.2.3 Thermal capacity (heat capacity)
• Relate a rise in the temperature of a body to an increase in its internal energy D127b
• Give a simple molecular account of an increase in internal energy
The internal energy of an object is just the total of all the energies (KE and PE) of its molecules.
Supplying heat energy to an object increases its internal energy (the molecules vibrate faster) so its
temperature increases (because temperature relates to the average KE of the molecules)
• Show an understanding of what is meant by the thermal capacity of a body D139b
• Recall and use the equation thermal capacity = mc
The thermal or heat capacity of an object is how much heat energy is needed to raise the temperature
of the object by 1°C. It thus depends on how much mass the object has, as well as what material it is
made from.
• Define specific heat capacity
• Recall and use the equation change in energy = mcΔT
• Describe an experiment to measure the specific heat capacity of a substance D139a,140,141
The specific thermal capacity of a material is how much heat energy is needed to raise the
temperature of 1kg by 1°C. (‘Specific’ means ‘per kg’)
Energy supplied = mass × specific heat capacity × temperature rise
E = mcT
In an experiment the energy might be supplied to a metal block by an immersion heater of power P
watts left on for time t seconds. Energy supplied = Pt (or VIt)
Assuming no energy is lost to the surroundings,
mcT = Pt
So c = Pt / mT
The experiment can be improved by insulating the block of material being heated.
Water has an unusually high SHC of 4200J/kg°C which means it requires a lot of energy to raise its
temperature by 1°C (and it needs to lose a lot of energy for its temperature to decrease).
2.2.4 Melting and boiling
• Describe melting and boiling in terms of energy input without a change in temperature D142
Energy is needed to break the bonds between molecules in the solid in order for it to melt. This
means that heat is absorbed by the solid during melting, but the temperature doesn’t increase.
• State the meaning of melting point and boiling point
Melting or boiling is a change of state which happens at a fixed temperature. Energy needs to be put
in to make this happen but there is no change in temperature. The melting point and boiling point are
the fixed temperatures at which these changes of state take place.
• Describe condensation and solidification in terms of molecules D142
Energy is given out during condensation or solidification so the cooling curve has a plateau at the
boiling point or melting point.
• Distinguish between boiling and evaporation D143
Evaporation happens from the surface of a liquid at all temperatures. The fastest moving molecules
can escape from the liquid surface.
Boiling happens at one fixed temperature for a particular liquid and happens throughout the liquid as
bubbles form.
• Use the terms latent heat of vaporisation and latent heat of fusion and give a molecular interpretation of
latent heat D142-143
• Define specific latent heat
• Recall and use the equation energy = ml
The specific latent heat of fusion lf is the energy required to change 1kg of solid into liquid without a
change of temperature.
To melt a mass m therefore requires energy = mlf
The specific latent heat of vaporisation lv is the energy required to change 1kg of liquid into gas
without a change of temperature.
To boil off a mass m therefore requires energy = mlv
The latent heat is the energy required to overcome the attractive forces between molecules in the solid
or liquid.
• Describe an experiment to measure specific latent heats for steam and for ice
See Folland P25
NB in an experiment involving ice which is at a lower temperature than the lab, the experiment may
gain heat from its surroundings which will affect the accuracy.

2.3 Thermal processes F29-33

2.3.1 Conduction
• Describe experiments to demonstrate the properties of good and bad thermal conductors D148-149
• Give a simple molecular account of conduction in solids including lattice vibration and transfer by
electrons
Heat energy flows from high temperature to low temperature. The molecules at the hotter end of a
solid have more kinetic energy of vibration so they pass their energy on to their neighbours.
2.3.2 Convection
• Recognise convection as an important method of thermal transfer in fluids D150-151
• Relate convection in fluids to density changes and describe experiments to illustrate convection
NB Heat doesn’t rise: Hot fluid does! A hotter part of a fluid will rise because it is less dense.
2.3.3 Radiation
• Identify infra-red radiation as part of the electromagnetic spectrum D153-154
• Recognise that thermal energy transfer by radiation does not require a medium
• Describe the effect of surface colour (black or white) and texture (dull or shiny) on the emission,
absorption and reflection of radiation
Good emitters and absorbers = matt black surfaces
Poor emitters and absorbers = shiny silver and white surfaces
• Describe experiments to show the properties of good and bad emitters and good and bad absorbers of
infra-red radiation
• Show understanding that the amount of radiation emitted also depends on the surface temperature and
surface area of a body

2.3.4 Consequences of energy transfer

• Identify and explain some of the everyday applications and consequences of conduction, convection and
radiation D148-154
Conduction is the transfer of energy from molecule to molecule by collision. Convection is the
transfer of energy when hot water (or hot air) rises because it is less dense. Radiation is the transfer of
energy by infra-red radiation and can happen through a vacuum.
Insulation is used to prevent the flow of energy from a hotter to a colder body. Energy transfer by
conduction can be reduced by using a bad conductor such as a layer of air e.g. the layer of air trapped
between the two panes in double-glazing. Other applications of insulation include loft and cavity wall
insulation.
3. Properties of waves, including light and sound
3.1 General wave properties F34-41
• Demonstrate understanding that waves transfer energy without transferring matter
• Describe what is meant by wave motion as illustrated by vibration in ropes and springs and by
experiments using water waves
• Use the term wavefront D26-27
• Give the meaning of speed, frequency, wavelength and amplitude
• Distinguish between transverse and longitudinal waves and give suitable examples
If the end of a slinky is shaken from side to side a transverse wave travels down the spring. The
spring is displaced perpendicular to the direction of travel of the pulse. If the spring is continually
shaken from side to side then a transverse wave travels down the spring.
A water wave is an example of a transverse wave. Looking down on a ripple tank, the wavefronts are
just the crests of the waves. Electromagnetic waves are also transverse.
If the end of the slinky is shaken along the length of the spring then a longitudinal pulse travels down
the slinky. As the pulse moves along, the spring is displaced along the direction of travel. Sound
waves travel as longitudinal waves.
Longitudinal waves travel as a series of compressions and decompressions (rarefactions), but there is
no overall movement of the material they travel through. The atoms vibrate backwards and forwards,
parallel to the direction of motion. Sound waves are longitudinal.
The speed v of a wave is simply the speed at which the pulse or wave travels. e.g. how far the crest of
a water wave, or the compression of a sound wave, travels in one second.
The frequency, f, of a wave is the number of complete waves passing by per second. It is measured in
cycles/sec or hertz (Hz)
The wavelength, , of a wave is the distance between two adjacent crests of the wave.
The amplitude is the height of the wave measured from the undisturbed position (midpoint).
• Recall and use the equation v = f λ
Wave speed (m/s) = frequency (Hz) × wavelength (m)
• Describe how waves can undergo:
– reflection at a plane surface
– refraction due to a change of speed
– diffraction through a narrow gap
• Describe the use of water waves to demonstrate reflection, refraction and diffraction D27b-28
• Describe how wavelength and gap size affects diffraction through a gap
• Describe how wavelength affects diffraction at an edge
When drawing wave diagrams, make sure the wavelength doesn’t change on reflection or diffraction.
In refraction, the wavelength decreases when the wave slows down – this is what causes the wave to
change direction, e.g. for water waves passing into shallower water, or light travelling into glass.
(figures 4.5 and 7.7b). Make sure you can draw a diagram showing refraction of wavefronts crossing
the boundary.
In diffraction, the amount of spreading depends on the wavelength and the width of the gap. The
same waves will diffract more at a narrower gap. Longer wavelengths will diffract more at the same
size gap.
3.2 Light F41-52
3.2.1 Reflection of light
• Describe the formation of an optical image by a plane mirror, and give its characteristics D5-6, 8-9
• Recall and use the law
angle of incidence = angle of reflection
• Recall that the image in a plane mirror is virtual
• Perform simple constructions, measurements and calculations for reflection by plane mirrors
Remember the angles are measured between the rays and the normal line (figure 2.1).
The image in a plane mirror is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front.
It is a virtual image because the rays only appear to come from behind the mirror (figure 3.2).
The image is sometimes said to be ‘laterally inverted’ (left becomes right) (figure 3.3).
3.2.2 Refraction of light
• Describe an experimental demonstration of the refraction of light D11
• Use the terminology for the angle of incidence i and angle of refraction r and describe the passage of light
through parallel-sided transparent material
See figure 4.1
• Recall and use the definition of refractive index n in terms of speed D12b
Speed of light in vacuum
Refractive Index 
Speed of light in material
The Refractive Index of a material will therefore be greater than 1.
sin 𝑖
• Recall and use the equation =𝑛
sin 𝑟
This is Snell’s Law, for light travelling from air into a material of refractive index n and therefore
slowing down and bending towards the normal. Note that i is always the angle in air, and that i is
therefore bigger than r.
• Give the meaning of critical angle D15-16a
• Describe internal and total internal reflection
Total Internal Reflection can only take place when light is trying to leave glass or leave water. As the
light leaves the medium it speeds up and so bends away from the normal. However a critical angle of
incidence c is reached where the ray bends so that it is just running along the surface.
If the light hits the surface at bigger angles of incidence it cannot bend away sufficiently and so does
not emerge at all. In fact the light all reflects internally. This is known as Total Internal Reflection
(T.I.R.).
If light hits the surface at angles of incidence less than the critical angle, most of the light escapes into
the air (bending away from the normal), but some is internally reflected.
1
• Recall and use 𝑛 =
sin 𝑐
This is Snell’s Law, for the special case when the angle in the material is equal to the critical angle of
incidence and the angle in air is 90⁰ so that sin i = 1.
• Describe and explain the action of optical fibres particularly in medicine and communications
technology D16b
Optical fibres are very thin strands of very pure glass, coated with a protective plastic. Pulses of laser
light travel along inside the fibre by total internal reflection, carrying information. Optical fibres are
also used in endoscopy to obtain images inside the body.
3.2.3 Thin converging lens
• Describe the action of a thin converging lens on a beam of light D18-20a
• Use the terms principal focus and focal length
A convex lens will converge parallel light to a focus at a point (the principal focus) which is at a
distance equal to the focal length from the lens. The stronger or fatter the lens the more the light will
converge and the shorter the focal length.
• Draw ray diagrams for the formation of a real image by a single lens
Figure 6.5a,b,c
In all ray diagrams, start by drawing a ray from the top of the object straight through the middle of
the lens. Then draw a second ray from the same point on the object travelling parallel to the axis. It
will refract as it passes through the lens and pass through the principal focus on the other side. Where
these two rays cross over is the image of that point on the object.
• Describe the nature of an image using the terms enlarged/same size/diminished and upright/inverted
• Draw and use ray diagrams for the formation of a virtual image by a single lens D20
• Use and describe the use of a single lens as a magnifying glass D21a
• Show understanding of the terms real image and virtual image
A real image can be projected on a screen. With a virtual image (as in a plane mirror or magnifying
glass) light does not pass through the image: the image is where light appears to come from.
Figure 6.5d, Figure 6.6
When a converging lens is used as a magnifying glass, the object is closer to the lens than the focal
length, so the rays still diverge after passing through the lens. A virtual image is seen if you look
back through the lens. The rays have to be dotted back behind the lens in straight lines to show
where the virtual image is.
3.2.4 Dispersion of light
• Give a qualitative account of the dispersion of light as shown by the action on light of a glass prism
including the seven colours of the spectrum in their correct order D13
Different colours of light correspond to light waves of different frequencies. Blue light has a higher
frequency than red (and therefore shorter wavelength too). All colours travel at the same speed in a
vacuum but blue slows down more than red when entering glass because the refractive index for blue
light is greater than for red light. Because the blue slows down more than red, it bends more and this
leads to dispersion. You need to be able to draw a clear diagram showing refraction and dispersion in
a prism (figure 4.7a). NB dispersion happens as the light enters the prism. Although the visible
spectrum consists of a continuum of wavelengths, we often distinguish seven colours (ROYGBIV).
• Recall that light of a single frequency is described as monochromatic
‘Monochromatic’ means literally ‘one colour’ – ie one wavelength, as in light from a laser.
3.3 Electromagnetic spectrum
• Describe the main features of the electromagnetic spectrum in order of wavelength D32-35
• State that all e.m. waves travel with the same high speed in a vacuum
• Describe typical properties and uses of radiations in all the different regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum including:
– radio and television communications (radio waves)
– satellite television and telephones (microwaves)
– electrical appliances, remote controllers for televisions and intruder alarms (infra-red)
– medicine and security (X-rays)
• Demonstrate an awareness of safety issues regarding the use of microwaves and X-rays
The electromagnetic spectrum is the name given to a family of transverse waves which all travel in
the same way, share common properties and travel at the same speed in vacuum. Using v = f  the
longer the wavelength , the smaller the frequency.
 These electromagnetic waves are (in order of increasing wavelength i.e. decreasing frequency):
gamma, X-rays, ultra-violet, visible (violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red), infra-red,
microwaves, radio. The highest energies (gamma and X-rays) are dangerous because they cause
ionisation of cells. Some microwave wavelengths give energy to water molecules so cause heating of
tissue.
Some applications:
radio; communications
microwave; heating, radar
Infra-red; heating, ‘seeing’ in the dark using infra-red camera
visible: photography
ultra-violet; fluorescence, suntan
X-rays; shadowgraphs of bones
• State that the speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum is 3.0 × 108 m/s and is approximately the
same in air

3.4 Sound F52-53

• Describe the production of sound by vibrating sources D36
• Describe the longitudinal nature of sound waves
• Describe compression and rarefaction
A series of compressions and decompressions (rarefactions) travel away from the vibrating source,
but there is no overall movement of the material that they travel through. The atoms vibrate
backwards and forwards about their average positions, parallel to the direction of motion.
• State that the approximate range of audible frequencies for a healthy human ear is 20 Hz to
20 000 Hz D37b, 38
• Show an understanding of the term ultrasound
Sound waves with a frequency above 20kHz are known as ultrasound.
• Show an understanding that a medium is needed to transmit sound waves
i.e. sound can’t travel through a vacuum
• Describe an experiment to determine the speed of sound in air D37
You need something that produces light and sound simultaneously e.g. a starting pistol. If it is a long
way away (a hundred metres or more), there will be a measurable time delay between the arrival of
the light and the sound.
• State typical values of the speed of sound in gases, liquids and solids
Speed of sound in air = 330m/s
Speed of sound in liquids is roughly 1500m/s
Speed of sound in solids is roughly 5000m/s
• Relate the loudness and pitch of sound waves to amplitude and frequency
The amplitude of a wave relates to its energy, so increasing the amplitude increases the loudness
Increasing the frequency increases the pitch
• Describe how the reflection of sound may produce an echo D37
If a gun is fired in front of cliff then a short while later an echo will be heard. The compression
produced travels to the cliff at the speed of sound and reflects and travels back. In calculations using
distance travelled by sound = speed of sound × time, don’t forget the distance travelled is to the cliff
and back again.
4. Electricity and magnetism
4.1 Simple phenomena of magnetism F54-60
• Describe the forces between magnets, and between magnets and magnetic materials D210-212
• Distinguish between magnetic and non-magnetic materials
• Give an account of induced magnetism
A permanent magnet is an object that generates a magnetic field. It will have a north pole and a south
pole and create a field whereby field lines run from the north pole round to the south pole. A
compass will align itself with the field and point towards the south pole.
Two magnets will attract each other if opposite poles are facing. If like poles are facing each other
then the magnets will repel. Repulsion only occurs between two magnets.
A magnetic material is one that becomes magnetised when placed in the presence of a magnetic field.
This is called induced magnetism. Induced magnetism always causes attraction to the magnet that
created the field. [Contrast to two actual magnets that can also repel if the right way round]. The
north and south poles will be aligned in the field so that north in the induced magnet points to south
in the original magnet and the magnetised object will strengthen the field.
Objects containing iron or steel are magnetic and can be called ferrous. (Nickel and cobalt are also
magnetic but to a lesser extent). Most other materials are non-magnetic, i.e. are not affected by a
magnetic field and are neither attracted nor repelled by magnets.
• Describe methods of magnetisation, to include stroking with a magnet, use of d.c. in a coil and
hammering in a magnetic field
• Describe methods of demagnetisation, to include hammering, heating and use of a.c. in a coil
A permanent magnet can be created by stroking a magnetic material with a bar magnet or by placing
it inside a solenoid carrying direct current. Hitting the magnet when it is in a magnetic field will also
help.
A magnet can be demagnetised by being placed inside a solenoid carrying alternating current.
Heating it or hitting it in the absence of a field will also cause demagnetisation.
• Draw the pattern of magnetic field lines around a bar magnet
• Explain that magnetic forces are due to interactions between magnetic fields
The direction of magnetic field lines shows the direction of the force on a North Pole; their spacing
shows the strength of the field.
• Describe an experiment to identify the pattern of magnetic field lines, including the direction
This can be done by placing the magnet under a piece of card and sprinkling iron filings on the card.
Tap the card gently to get the filings to line up along field lines. The direction of the field lines can
be determined by placing a plotting compass at different positions and seeing which way the needle
points (it will point along the field lines - from the north pole to the south)
It should look like this:
• Distinguish between the magnetic properties of soft iron and steel
Iron is easily magnetised and demagnetised. It will show strong induced magnetism when in a field
and lose the magnetism when taken away. It is said to be magnetically soft.
Steel is harder to magnetise and demagnetise. At first it will not show such strong induced magnetism
but when it has been magnetised it will remain magnetised even when the field is taken away. It has
thus become a new permanent magnet. It is said to be magnetically hard.
• Distinguish between the design and use of permanent magnets and electromagnets D214-217
Electromagnets have the advantage that they can be switched on and off and their strength can be
controlled (by varying the current or number of turns of wire). Electromagnets are used in electric
bells, relay switches and circuit breakers. They invariably have a soft iron core to increase the
magnetic field strength.

4.2 Electrical quantities F60-69

4.2.1 Electric charge
• State that there are positive and negative charges D160
• State that unlike charges attract and that like charges repel
• Describe simple experiments to show the production and detection of electrostatic charges
• State that charging a body involves the addition or removal of electrons
Some materials become charged through friction or contact. E.g. rubbing a polythene rod with a
duster causes the polythene to become negatively charged (the duster will become positively
charged).
This is because uncharged objects start with equal quantities of positive and negative charge. When
you rub the objects together, electrons, which are always negative, get transferred from one object to
the other. The object receiving electrons becomes negatively charged and the one that has lost the
electrons becomes positive. The positive charges never move.
If you bring two objects that have been similarly charged near each other they will repel. If you bring
two objects with opposite charges near to each other they will attract. [These statements are always
given credit in mark schemes]
• Give an account of charging by induction D162
Charging by induction does not involve contact between objects, so electrons are not transferred.
If a positively charged object is brought close to an uncharged metal, the electrons in the uncharged
metal are attracted to the positive object and move towards the surface of the uncharged metal facing
the charged object. This leads to an induced negative charge on the surface, although the metal is still
neutral overall. If the metal is then touched with an Earth wire, electrons will flow up the wire as they
are attracted to the positive charge, so the metal will become negative overall.
• State that charge is measured in coulombs D167a
• Describe an electric field as a region in which an electric charge experiences a force D164b
• State that the direction of an electric field at a point is the direction of the force on a positive charge at that
point
• Describe simple field patterns, including the field around a point charge, the field around a charged
conducting sphere and the field between two parallel plates (not including end effects)
The field lines tell you which direction the force on a positive charge would be. The field lines
always go from positive charge to negative charge. The field is strongest where the lines are closest
together.
You need to know the following field patterns:
 A positive charge on its own: A negative charge on its own:

The field between two charges near each other:

A uniform field set up by two parallel charged plates:

+ + +

- - -
• Distinguish between electrical conductors and insulators and give typical examples D161
• Recall and use a simple electron model to distinguish between conductors and insulators
An electrical conductor must have charged particles that are free to move, either free electrons as in a
metal or free ions as in salt solution. When a potential difference (voltage) is applied across the
conductor, these charges all start drifting the same way: this is a current. Insulators like glass have no
mobile electrons or ions.

4.2.2 Current
• State that current is related to the flow of charge D166-167
𝑄
• Show understanding that a current is a rate of flow of charge and recall and use the equation 𝐼 =
𝑡
• State that current in metals is due to a flow of electrons
• Distinguish between the direction of flow of electrons and conventional current
 Electrons are negatively charged, so in an electric circuit they move is a direction away from the
negative terminal and towards the positive terminal. This is equivalent to positive charges flowing
from + to -, which is how we regard conventional current.
• Use and describe the use of an ammeter, both analogue and digital
Ammeters are connected in series and should have zero resistance so that they don’t affect the
current. Shunts with different ranges are used to enable the ammeter to measure different sizes of
current.
4.2.3 Electromotive force
• State that the e.m.f. of an electrical source of energy is measured in volts D170-171
• Show understanding that e.m.f. is defined in terms of energy supplied by a source in driving charge round
a complete circuit
A battery is a source of electrical potential energy (from chemical).
When an electrical source such as a battery is connected in a circuit the voltage of the source
(‘e.m.f.’) pushes charge round the circuit and there is a current.
The e.m.f. measures the amount of energy given to each charge. 1V = 1J/C
Energy is transferred from the source to the various components in the circuit.
Electrical energy is dissipated in the components, e.g. to heat and light in a lamp.

4.2.4 Potential difference

• State that the potential difference (p.d.) across a circuit component is measured in volts D170-171
• Use and describe the use of a voltmeter, both analogue and digital
• Recall that 1 V is equivalent to 1 J/C
The potential difference across a component measures the amount of energy lost by a coulomb of
charge as it flows through the component. 1 Volt = 1 Joule per coulomb
The voltmeter is connected in parallel with the component. It should have (near) infinite resistance
so the current through it is negligible.

4.2.5 Resistance
• State that resistance = p.d. / current and understand qualitatively how changes in p.d. or resistance affect
current
• Recall and use the equation R = V / I D174
You need to remember V=IR and to be able to re-arrange it e.g. R = V/I and I =V/R
Resistance is measured in ohms, V is in volts and I in amps.
If a larger voltage is applied across a given component, the current through the component will
increase.
For a given applied potential difference, the current will be smaller if the resistance of the component
is larger.
• Describe an experiment to determine resistance using a voltmeter and an ammeter
See Folland page 66 and Duncan page 175b
• Relate (without calculation) the resistance of a wire to its length and to its diameter
• Sketch and explain the current-voltage characteristic of an ohmic resistor and a filament lamp
• Recall and use quantitatively the proportionality between resistance and length, and the inverse
proportionality between resistance and cross-sectional area of a wire
A wire of twice the length will have twice the resistance
A wire of twice the cross sectional area will have half the resistance. A wire of twice the diameter
will have one quarter of the resistance as the area is four times bigger.
4.2.6 Electrical working
• Understand that electric circuits transfer energy from the battery or power source to the circuit
components then into the surroundings
• Recall and use the equations P = IV and E = IVt

4.3 Electric circuits F70-79

4.3.1 Circuit diagrams
• Draw and interpret circuit diagrams containing sources, switches, resistors (fixed and variable), heaters,
thermistors, light-dependent resistors, lamps, ammeters, voltmeters, galvanometers, magnetising coils,
transformers, bells, fuses and relays
• Draw and interpret circuit diagrams containing diodes
You should know all the symbols in the appendix at the end of these notes.
4.3.2 Series and parallel circuits
• Understand that the current at every point in a series circuit is the same D168a
• Recall and use the fact that the sum of the p.d.s across the components in a series circuit is equal to the
total p.d. across the supply D172b
• Give the combined resistance of two or more resistors in series D176b
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 +...
• State that, for a parallel circuit, the current from the source is larger than the current in each branch
• Recall and use the fact that the current from the source is the sum of the currents in the separate
branches of a parallel circuit
More generally, at any circuit junction, the sum of currents into the junction is equal to the sum of
currents out of the junction.
• State that the combined resistance of two resistors in parallel is less than that of either resistor by itself
• Calculate the effective resistance of two resistors in parallel D177a

1 1 1 R1 R2
  or Rtotal 
Rtotal R1 R2 R1  R2
• State the advantages of connecting lamps in parallel in a lighting circuit
If one lamp breaks, the other lamps stay on.
• Calculate the combined e.m.f. of several sources in series
The e.m.f.s simply add up, provided the cells are facing the same way!

4.3.3 Action and use of circuit components

• Describe the action of a variable potential divider (potentiometer) D178
A potential divider is made up of two resistors and is used to make an output voltage that depends on
the relative sizes of the two resistors. The supply voltage divides in ratio of the resistances:
V1 R1
 and V1  V2  Vsupply
V2 R2
 The ‘output’ voltage in these diagrams is the p.d. across the bottom resistor, which is a fraction of the
12V across both resistors. The fraction is R2/(R1+R2) i.e. the fraction that the bottom resistor is of the
total resistance. E.g. if R1 = 4 k and R2 = 2 k then the fraction is 2/6 which is 1/3, and so the
‘output’ voltage is 12/3 = 4V. It should be noted that this ‘output voltage’ is often connected as the
input voltage to a gate.
A rheostat (variable resistor) with a central sliding contact can also be used as a potential divider
(figure 36.4b):

• Describe the action of thermistors and light-dependent resistors and show understanding of their use as
input transducers D191-192
The input to a logic gate is a voltage which should vary between 0 and typically 5 or 6V. If a
thermistor or LDR is put in a potential divider, the potential divider will produce an output voltage
(to be inputted to a logic gate) which varies with temperature or light level.

The voltage which is input to the gate (called Vout on these diagrams) will be R2/(R1+R2) multiplied
by the power supply voltage.
 You should know that an increase in temperature causes the resistance of a thermistor to decrease,
and that an increase in light intensity causes the resistance of an LDR to decrease.
In these circuits, an increase in temperature (for the thermistor) or light intensity (for the LDR) causes
R2 to decrease. This makes the p.d. across R2 decrease. (The p.d. across R1 increases even though R1
hasn’t changed, because the two p.d.s must still add up to the total 5V). Hence the voltage at the
input to the gate (Vout) will decrease and perhaps become lower than the threshold potential. If the p.d
across the bottom resistor is lower than a certain value (the threshold potential difference, say 2.5V),
then the input to the gate counts as low. When Vout is greater than this threshold value, then the
input to the gate is high.
The top resistor labelled R1 might be replaced with a variable resistor to adjust the light level or
temperature at which this change occurs.
You should also be able to argue how the potential divider works with the thermistor or LDR as the
top resistor.
• Describe the action of a relay and show understanding of its use in switching circuits D217a, D193a
A reed relay consists of a reed switch surrounded by a coil. A current passing through the coil will
create a magnetic field and so the reed switch closes. A small current in the coil closes the switch
which itself is in a separate circuit where there is a large current (possibly a.c. mains).
A relay must be used because the output from
a logic gate is too small to drive a motor or
heater or lamp.
In this way an electronic device can close a
switch which starts a motor or lights a lamp
(both of which require much larger currents
than that flowing from the electronic device).
Relays are also used for safety, because a small current can be used to switch on a large current.
• Describe the action of a diode and show understanding of its use as a rectifier D193b-194a
A diode only lets a current pass one way because it has (near) infinite resistance when connected in
reverse bias. This means it can change alternating current to direct current (figure 39.10). N.B. the
rectified current is not constant value d.c..
• Recognise and show understanding of circuits operating as light-sensitive switches and temperature-
operated alarms (to include the use of a relay) F74-75
See Folland figures 4.26 and 4.29.

4.4 Digital electronics D198-202

• Explain and use the terms analogue and digital in terms of continuous variation and high/low states
An analogue signal varies smoothly with time, taking a value anywhere between a maximum and a
minimum voltage.
A digital signal takes either a high or a low value (‘1’ or ‘0’). Information can be sent in binary code
as a string of 1’s and 0’s.
In logic circuits, logic 0 (low) is 0V and logic 1 (high) is about 5V.

• Describe the action of NOT, AND, OR, NAND and NOR gates
• Recall and use the symbols for logic gates
AND

Input A Input B Output

0 0 0 AND
0 1 0
1 0 0
“A AND B are high to give a high output”
1 1 1

OR
OR
Input A Input B Output
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1 “A OR B are high to give a high output”

NOT

Input Output
0 1 NOT
1 0

Taking the NOT gate as an example, the input can be either high (i.e. connected to 5V) or low (i.e.
connected to 0V), but there is a an input voltage somewhere in between, called the threshold
potential, above which the gate switches its output from high to low. E.g. if the threshold potential is
2.5V, an input less than 2.5V would count as low, so the output of the gate would be high. If the
input were greater than 2.5V the input voltage would be high and so the output of the gate is low.
Note that though the input could vary smoothly between 0V and 5V, the output is digital, either 0V or
5V.

NAND gate is equivalent to AND followed by NOT:

Input A Input B C Output

(AND) (NAND)
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0

NOR gate is equivalent to OR followed by NOT:

 Input A Input B C Output
(OR) (NOR)
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 “Neither one NOR the other input is high
1 1 1 0
to give high”

• Design and understand simple digital circuits combining several logic gates
• Use truth tables to describe the action of individual gates and simple combinations of gates

When combining several logic gates, treat each gate separately to work out the output, i.e. work
column by column through the logic table.

A B C D E
A D
AND 0 0 0 0 1
B 0 1 0 0 1
NOR E 1 0 0 0 1
C 1 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
Note that D is high when A AND B are high.
1 0 1 0 0
E is high when neither D NOR C are high. 1 1 1 1 0

The output from the gate (about 5V) can be used to light an LED
If the output of the gate is high (5V) then there is 5V p.d. across the LED and
resistor.
Hence a current will pass through the LED and it will be lit. The resistor
limits the current through the diode.
If the output of the gate is low (0V) then there is 0V p.d. across the LED and
the resistor.
Hence no current will pass through the LED and it will be unlit

The output can also be used to drive a relay in order to switch on a large current in a another circuit
(see section 4.3).
4.5 Dangers of electricity F79-80
• State the hazards of: D186-189a
– damaged insulation
– overheating of cables
– damp conditions
• State that a fuse protects a circuit
• Explain the use of fuses and circuit breakers and choose appropriate fuse ratings and circuit-breaker
settings
• Explain the benefits of earthing metal cases

4.6 Electromagnetic effects F80-84

4.6.1 Electromagnetic induction
• Show understanding that a conductor moving across a magnetic field or a changing magnetic field linking
with a conductor can induce an e.m.f. in the conductor D227
• Describe an experiment to demonstrate electromagnetic induction
• State the factors affecting the magnitude of an induced e.m.f.
• Show understanding that the direction of an induced e.m.f. opposes the change causing it D228a
• State and use the relative directions of force, field and induced current
A voltage can be induced in a coil of wire by simply jabbing a magnet into the coil. Pulling the
magnet out of the coil will induce a voltage in the opposite direction. Note that a voltage is induced
only if the magnet is moving, and not if the magnet is stationary. The size of the induced voltage will
depend on the strength of the magnet, the speed with which it is moving and the number of turns of
wire in the coil. See Duncan, figure 45.2
A voltage can also be induced if a wire is moved through a stationary magnetic field. This voltage
will cause a current if the wire forms part of a complete circuit. The size of the induced voltage
depends on the strength of the magnetic field and the speed with which the wire is moved. The
greatest voltage is achieved by moving the wire perpendicular to the field. No voltage is induced if
the wire is stationary or if the wire is moved parallel to the field. Fleming’s Right Hand Rule gives
the direction of the induced current. See Duncan, figure 45.1
The induced current generates its own magnetic field which (via the motor effect) opposes the motion
or change that induced the current.

4.6.2 a.c. generator

• Distinguish between direct current (d.c.) and alternating current (a.c.)
• Describe and explain a rotating-coil generator and the use of slip rings D228b
• Sketch a graph of voltage output against time for a simple a.c. generator
• Relate the position of the generator coil to the peaks and zeros of the voltage output
See Duncan, figure 45.5. A voltage is generated when the wire in the side of the coil is cutting the
magnetic field lines. When the side of the coil is travelling parallel to the field (coil is vertical), no
voltage is generated.
Turning the coil at twice the frequency would give twice as many voltage cycles per second, and the
peak voltage would be twice as large.

4.6.3 Transformer
• Describe the construction of a basic transformer with a soft-iron core, as used for voltage
transformations D232-233
• Describe the principle of operation of a transformer
• Recall and use the equation (Vp / Vs) = (Np / Ns)
• Understand the terms step-up and step-down
 It is possible to induce a voltage in a coil by changing the field inside the coil (e.g. by jabbing a
magnet into the coil). However you do not necessarily have to move anything, you can achieve the
same effect by simply changing the strength of the field inside the coil. This changing magnetic field
can be produced by a changing current in another coil.
In a transformer, an alternating current in the primary coil creates an alternating magnetic field in
the iron core. The core is made of iron to enhance this field.
The secondary coil is wrapped around the same core and so there is a changing magnetic field inside
this coil. This alternating field inside the secondary coil induces an alternating voltage across the
secondary coil.
The purpose of the transformer is to either increase (step up) or decrease (step down) the voltage. A
step up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil.
The transformer will not work with d.c. because a steady current in the primary will create a steady
magnetic field in the core and will not induce a voltage in the secondary.

• Recall and use the equation Ip Vp = Is Vs (for 100% efficiency) D233b

If the transformer is 100% efficient the power out = the power put in Vs Is = Vp Ip
This means that if the voltage is stepped up, the current is stepped down by the same ratio.

• Describe the use of the transformer in high-voltage transmission of electricity D234-235a

• Give the advantages of high-voltage transmission
• Explain why power losses in cables are lower when the voltage is high
When electrical energy is transmitted around the country from the power station to the towns and
cities, overhead cables are used. The electrical power is transmitted at very high voltages.
To transmit a certain power at a high voltage requires only a small current whereas to transmit the
same power at low voltage requires a large current. (Power = VI).
e.g. to deliver 100 000 W at 400 000 V requires a current of 100 000/400 000 = 0.25 A. To deliver
the same power (100 000W) at 400 V requires 100 000/400 = 250 A.
When this current passes through the resistance of the transmission wires, electrical energy is
converted into heat energy, which is lost into the atmosphere. If the current doubles, the energy lost
quadruples because the energy loss depends on the square of the current. It is therefore most efficient
to transmit the power with a low current, to reduce the energy loss. Alternating current is used so that
a transformer can be used at the power station to step up the voltage to some 400 000 V.

4.6.4 The magnetic effect of a current F57-60

• Describe the pattern of the magnetic field (including direction) due to currents in straight wires and in
solenoids D214-215a
• State the qualitative variation of the strength of the magnetic field over salient parts of the pattern
• State that the direction of a magnetic field line at a point is the direction of the force on the N pole of a
magnet at that point
• Describe the effect on the magnetic field of changing the magnitude and direction of the current
• Describe applications of the magnetic effect of current, including the action of a relay

4.6.5 Force on a current-carrying conductor F80

• Describe an experiment to show that a force acts on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field,
including the effect of reversing: D220
– the current
– the direction of the field
• State and use the relative directions of force, field and current D221
 The direction of the force is perpendicular to both the direction of the current and the direction of the
magnetic field. Fleming’s Left hand Rule shows the direction of the force. Reversing either the
current or the magnetic field will reverse the direction of the force.
• Describe an experiment to show the corresponding force on beams of charged particles D240a
A beam of charged particles is a flow of charge, i.e. a current, so experiences the motor effect force.
Note that a beam of electrons from left to right is equivalent to a conventional current from right to
left. (See also 5.2.2 deflection of alpha and beta radiation by magnetic fields)

4.6.6 d.c. motor D220-222

• State that a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field experiences a turning effect and that the effect is
increased by:
– increasing the number of turns on the coil
– increasing the current
– increasing the strength of the magnetic field
• Relate this turning effect to the action of an electric motor including the action of a split-ring commutator
The motor effect is used in the d.c. electric motor. A rectangular coil of wire carrying a current is
placed in a magnetic field. As the current in one side of the coil is in one direction and the current in
the other side is in the opposite direction, the two sides will experience forces in opposite directions
and so the coil will rotate. The direction of the current is reversed every half revolution in order to
maintain the motion. This is achieved by using commutators and brushes. Increasing the current or
the magnetic field will make the motor turn faster. See Duncan figure 43.4. Note that the forces on
the two sides are vertical: up on side ab and down on side cd. You should be able to draw a motor
with commutator and brushes.

5. Atomic physics
5.1 The nuclear atom F87-91
5.1.1 Atomic model
• Describe the structure of an atom in terms of a positive nucleus and negative electrons
The nucleus of an atom is composed of protons (which are positively charged) and neutrons (which
have no charge). The nucleus contains nearly all the mass of the atom but it is tiny compared with
the whole atom. The positively charged nucleus is surrounded by electrons, which are negatively
charged. As an atom has no overall charge, it must have the same number of protons (+) and
electrons (-).
• Describe how the scattering of α-particles by thin metal foils provides evidence for the nuclear atom
The α-particles are high speed helium nuclei, with a charge of 2+. The metal foil is typically gold.
Most α-particles pass straight through the gold foil. This shows that they don’t get anywhere near a
gold nucleus: the gold nuclei are so small that most of the gold atom is empty space.
Some α-particles are deflected a bit as they pass close to a gold nucleus and, being positively charged,
they are repelled by the positive nucleus.
A very small proportion of the α-particles (maybe one in 8000) get ‘back scattered’: they approach a
gold nucleus nearly head-on and get repelled backwards. This can only happen because the nucleus
is very heavy and yet very tiny so that all the positive charge is contained in a tiny volume.
(Note that the diagrams in both Folland and Duncan are a bit misleading as they draw the nucleus far
too big!)
5.1.2 Nucleus
• Describe the composition of the nucleus in terms of protons and neutrons
• State the charges of protons and neutrons
• Use the term proton number Z
• Use the term nucleon number A
• Use the term nuclide and use the nuclide notation 𝐴𝑍𝑋
Protons and neutrons are collectively called nucleons. The total number of protons and neutrons is
called the mass (or nucleon) number, A.
The number of protons is called the atomic (or proton) number, Z. Z is also called the charge number
because it is the charge on the nucleus.
The number of protons determines the chemical behaviour of the substance and so determines which
element it is.
• Use and explain the term isotope
Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are said to be isotopes of
the same element.
235 238
e.g 92 U and 92 U are isotopes of uranium. Both have 92 protons but 235U has 143 neutrons and
238
U has 145 neutrons.
• State the meaning of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion
• Balance equations involving nuclide notation
In a nuclear equation, the top line (nucleon or mass number A) and the bottom line (charge number Z)
must both balance. See 5.2.3 (radioactive decay) below.

5.2 Radioactivity F91-95

5.2.1 Detection of radioactivity
• Demonstrate understanding of background radiation D246a, 251
Radioactivity is the natural spontaneous emission of certain particles by the nuclei of some atoms.
The main sources of background radiation are
1) Cosmic radiation entering the atmosphere from the Sun
2) Emissions from some radioactive rocks
3) Naturally occurring radioactive gases, particularly radon. This makes the count higher in some
places than others
In a real radioactivity experiment you would need to measure an average background count rate first,
and then subtract the background count rate from all the readings.

• Describe the detection of α-particles, β-particles and γ-rays (β+ are not included: β-particles will be taken
to refer to β–) D246
α-particles, β-particles and γ–rays all cause ionisation of any material they pass through. This is
because they have enough energy to knock electrons out of any molecule they collide with. Radiation
detectors such as spark counters or Geiger-Muller tubes actually detect the ions produced by the α, β,
γ by accelerating them with an electric field.

5.2.2 Characteristics of the three kinds of emission

• Discuss the random nature of radioactive emission
You cannot predict when any one nucleus will decay, but you can measure a probability of a nucleus
decaying in a given time.
• Identify α, β and γ-emissions by recalling
– their nature
– their relative ionising effects
– their relative penetrating abilities
(β+ are not included, β-particles will be taken to refer to β–)
• Interpret their relative ionising effects
Alpha particles are helium nuclei (2 protons plus 2 neutrons) and are therefore relatively heavy and
have a charge of +2. This means they are very ionising but not very penetrating. They can be
stopped by a few cm of air or a few sheets of paper.
Beta particles are high speed electrons emitted from the nucleus of a radioisotope. They are
therefore lighter than alpha particles and have a charge of -1. They are less ionising than alpha, and
therefore more penetrating. They will travel several metres in air, and can be stopped by a few mm
of aluminium.
Gamma rays are very short wavelength electromagnetic waves. They are weakly ionising and very
penetrating. Their intensity can be reduced by a few cm of lead.
• Describe their deflection in electric fields and in magnetic fields
A uniform electric field is set up by two parallel plates, one negatively charged, one positively
charged. A charged particle will be attracted to the oppositely charged plate.

- - -
+
5
+ + +

A charged particle will only be deflected by a magnetic field if the particle is moving. This is the
motor effect, as a stream of moving charged particles is an electrical current. The direction of
deflection is at right angles to the magnetic field and the direction of movement of the particles, as
found by Fleming’s left hand rule. In the diagram below, the magnetic field is into the plane of the
paper as shown by the crosses, and the force is acting towards the centre of the circular arc. If the
charged particle were negatively charged, this would be equivalent to a current from right to left, so
the deflection would be in the opposite direction.

• Give and explain examples of practical applications of α, β and γ-emissions D250-251

5.2.3 Radioactive decay
• State the meaning of radioactive decay
• State that during α- or β-decay the nucleus changes to that of a different element
• Use equations involving nuclide notation to represent changes in the composition of the nucleus when
particles are emitted
In radioactive decay, an unstable nucleus decays into a new element, emitting radiation. Decay
equations describe what is happening to the nucleus. In decay equations, the numbers in the top line
(nucleon number) must balance, as must the charge numbers on the bottom line.
1) Alpha emission: an alpha particle consisting of two protons and two neutrons (a helium nucleus),
is ejected at high speed from the nucleus of a radioactive atom.

e.g.
220
86 Rn  216
84 Po 2 He
4

The number at the top left of the element symbol is the mass number, A, (the total number of
neutrons and protons). The bottom number is the charge number or atomic number, Z, the number of
protons. The emission of an alpha particle reduces A by 4 and Z by 2.
2) Beta emission: a beta particle is an electron emitted at high speed from the nucleus. It is the result
of a neutron in the nucleus changing into a proton. The ejection of a beta particle has no effect on the
nucleon number, A, but the proton number, Z, goes up by 1

e.g.
228
88 Ra  228
89 Ac -1 e
0

3) Gamma radiation is a short burst of electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelength (high
frequency), which sometimes accompanies the emission of a beta or alpha particle. Its emission has
no effect on the numbers A and Z and is simply the result of the nucleus adjusting its energy after the
emission of an alpha or beta particle.
5.2.4 Half-life
• Use the term half-life in simple calculations, which might involve information in tables or decay curves
• Calculate half-life from data or decay curves from which background radiation has not been subtracted
When the nucleus of an atom has ejected an alpha or a beta particle it has decayed into another
element because the number of protons in the nucleus has changed. In a radioactive source a very
large number of nuclei are decaying over a period of time. Theoretically it will take an infinitely long
time to completely decay and so we talk about the half-life, which is the time it takes half the nuclei
to decay. The half-life is also the time it takes the rate of decay (the activity) to halve. The activity is
of course equal to the number of particles emitted per second (the count rate)
After 1 half-life t½ there will be ½ of the original number of nuclei left, after 2 half-lives there will
be ¼ of the original number remaining (¾ will have decayed) and after 3 half-lives 18 and so on.
The activity (number of particles emitted per second) also decreases in this way because if there are
fewer nuclei remaining then fewer particles will be given out.
Note that in any real experiment, the measured count will include a contribution from background
radiation. This means an average background count should be measured before any radioisotopes are
present; this should then be subtracted from all readings.
5.2.5 Safety precautions
• Recall the effects of ionising radiations on living things
• Describe how radioactive materials are handled, used and stored in a safe way
The fact that radioactive emissions can ionise molecules means that they are dangerous. If the
particles enter the body then the ionisation of the molecules of the cells affects the DNA and can
cause cancer. Hence radioactive sources should be kept in lead containers stored in a locked cupboard
as far away as possible from people. They should be handled with tongs, never pointed directly at
anyone, and used for as short a period of time as possible.
Equations to learn

Make sure you understand what the equations mean and know what the standard units are.

(Average) Speed = total distance Energy to change state: E = mlf or E = mlv

total time
1
Δv Frequency f 
Acceleration a  T
t
Wave equation v = f λ
Weight W= mg
m
Density   Speed of light in vacuum
V Refractive Index n 
Speed of light in material
Hooke’s Law F = kx
sin i
Newton’s Second Law F = ma Snell’s Law: n =
sin r
Moment of a force = Fd
1
KE = ½ mv2 Critical angle for TIR: sin C 
n
GPE = mgh
V=IR
Momentum p = mv
Q=It
Impulse = Ft = mv - mu
E
Work done ΔW = Fd V= (1 Volt is 1 Joule per Coulomb)
Q
E
Power P = P=VI
t
Useful energy output E=VIt
Efficiency = x 100% or
Useful energy input Resistances in series Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 +...
Useful power output 1 1 1
Efficiency =
Useful power input
x 100% Resistances in parallel  
Rtotal R1 R2
F
Pressure p = R1 R2
A or Rtotal 
R1  R2
Pressure due to liquid p = hρg
VP N P
Boyle’s Law, p1V1  p 2V2 Transformers 
VS N S
Energy to raise temperature: E = mcT where
thermal capacity = mc and Vs I s = Vp I p
Electrical symbols
Candidates are expected to be able to recall and use the standard electrical symbols below.
Exam Technique pointers

1) Read the entire question before starting to write on the lines. Think through what you
will write first.

2) Use the number of marks not the number of lines they have given you to decide if
your answer is complete enough.

3) For any calculation, however simple, always follow these steps:

a. Write the Formula

b. Substitute the numbers in for symbols
c. Calculate the Answer
d. Write the Unit
e. Think about the number of sig fig (use the same number of sig fig as they did
with the numbers in the question)

E.g. Speed = distance / time or Total Resistance = R1 + R2

Speed = 20/3.0 Total Resistance = 1.2 + 2.8
Speed = 6.7 m/s Total Resistance = 4.0Ω

4) Look carefully at the units of the numbers given in a question. If you spot any non-
standard units e.g. millimetres instead of metres or minutes instead of seconds then
be prepared to convert it into the proper unit and write it there.

5) Check that any numerical answer is sensible.

E.g. If you are calculating the speed of a car then 20m/s is a possible answer,
2000m/s is not.

6) If you are asked to state a difference then a comparative answer is required.

E.g. Boiling only happens at a single temperature (the boiling point) whereas
evaporation occurs at all temperatures.

7) There are always marks for stating what may seem to be obvious

E.g. the electrons move towards the positive plate because electrons are
negatively charged and because opposite charges attract

8) Diagrams should always be labelled.

9) There is often a mark for correctly quoting a formula in an answer, even in written
questions

10) If you are taking data off a graph leave really obvious vertical and horizontal lines on
the graph to show where your numbers are from
11) Use a sharp pencil on graphs and plot points to nearest half square. Best fit lines
show overall trend. Frequently this will mean it actually goes through only a few (if
any) of the points.

12) ‘How’ means describe what is happening or what you would do to make it happen

E.g. How is the motor made to turn? [2]

The motor is connected to a direct current power supply and the switch is closed

13) ‘Why’ means explain the reason or cause of something using physics principles

E.g. Why does the motor turn? [2]

The motor turns because the current in the wire of the coil is at right angles to the
magnetic field direction. This causes the wire to experience a force due to the motor
effect.

14) If it says something like “a diagram in your answer may help” then you should
definitely include one in your answer.

15) If you have put your answers to two questions in the wrong place then it is better to
cross them out and re-write them rather than to use complicated arrows.

16) Never leave an answer blank. At the very worst, have a guess and try to mention
anything you can think of that relates to the question.

17) Keep track of the time as you progress. If you do get stuck on a question, don’t
waste 10 minutes going nowhere. Write a star next to it, leave it out and come back
to it at the end.

18) Remember that the questions are in the order of the syllabus, not in difficulty order
like they are in some other subjects. If you get stuck on question 1, don’t panic –
there will be easier questions later. The final question is always on radioactivity and
many people find this the easiest.

19) Don’t put a question mark or write ‘perhaps’ in an answer, even if you are unsure!

20) Never try to make a joke in your answers – it will only annoy the examiner who more
than likely is tired and grumpy.

21) Check that you have turned over every page.

 CCSI’s Ten Top Tips for Practical Exams

1. Carefully read the instructions right through before you start.

You write A (for
Amps) here
2. All tables need UNITS in their titles.

Typically the heading row will give this away with a slash e.g. I/ V/
as shown in this electricity example

V (for Volts)
goes here
3. All calculation answers need a unit.

This unit can be calculated by doing the same mathematical thing to the units of the original
data as you do to the numbers

E.g. speed = distance/time

Unit = metres/seconds = m/s

However, sometimes the unit will cancel to nothing: E.g. dividing metres by metres

4. Think about the decimal places on all measurements.

If you could read the instrument to the nearest 0.1 then it will need 1 decimal place even if it is
a whole number. [Note that a thermometer can be read to 0.5°C]

E.g. using a metre rule to read 10cm you would write 10.0cm

Measurements of the same thing need consistent decimal places.

E.g. current could be: 1.34A, 0.80A & 0.03A. [NOT 1.34A, 0.8A & 0.030A]

5. Calculations need consistent significant figures based upon your measurements.

The number of sig fig on the answer is the same as what was on the original data. (usually 2
or 3). If they are different, go with the lowest.

E.g. the resistance calculated from V = 5.05V and I = 0.64A is R = 7.9Ω (2sf)

If the next set of readings were V = 6.12V and I = 0.54A then R = 11 Ω (2sf)

Note how the s.f. are still 2 even though we have one fewer d.p.

6. Graphs need labelled axes with units and must fill more than half the area of
squared paper.

Look at all the data points before deciding on a scale. The best scales are multiples of 1, 2 or
5.
 7. Best fit lines should be smooth and need not go through every point.

If it looks approximately straight then use a ruler. If it is a slight curve draw a smooth curve
through the general trend. Completely ignore anomalies.

8. Optics questions need a sharp pencil. Pins must always be >5cm apart.

9. Questions about accuracy/error are looking for techniques.

“I would use more accurate equipment” / “I may have misread the meter” = 0 marks

Good answers include how to avoid parallax error, using a plumbline or set square, repeating &
averaging, avoiding heat loss / gain, how to ensure a fair test etc.

10. Check that your answers are sensible.

If not then check units (confusing mm, cm & m is a common error), or re-measure.

And read ahead if you finish a question early!

Note that the new practical exam format has three practicals and one ‘alternative to
practical’-type question.