Estimating Daily and 24-Hour Net Radiation

for All Sky Conditions through Remote Sensing

and Climatic Data
Z. A. Samani, M.ASCE1; Vien D. Tran2; M. Bleiwess3; and R. Skaggs4
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Abstract: Net radiation is a key variable in hydrological studies. However, measured net radiation data are rarely available and are often
subject to error because of equipment calibration or failure. Additionally, point measurements of net radiation do not represent the diversity of
the regional net radiation values, which are needed for many physical and biological processes such as climate monitoring and evapotran-
spiration mapping. The authors present a methodology to estimate daytime net radiation using a combination of remote sensing and climatic
data. This paper expands on previous original research by extending the estimation of net radiation to 24 h under all sky conditions. The
procedure estimates daytime and nighttime net radiation and combines the results to calculate the 24-h net radiation values. The methodology
combines information from satellite and local weather stations to estimate net radiation values. The procedure can estimate net radiation under
all sky conditions using measured or estimated solar radiation. Two different methods are presented to estimate net radiation. Comparisons
between measured and predicted daytime and 24-h net radiation using the two methods resulted in an average ratio ranging from 0.98–1.0 and
a standard error of estimate ranging from 0.83–1.62 MJ m−2 day−1 . Satellite data were used for the calculation of leaf area index, albedo,
and ground temperature. Although satellite data are scarce, the methodology is not limited to satellite imagery. One can easily use ground
level measurements of leaf area index, albedo, and temperature to estimate daytime and 24-h net radiation using the proposed methodology.
DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0000539. © 2013 American Society of Civil Engineers.
CE Database subject headings: Evapotranspiration; Remote sensing; Solar radiation; Climates.
Author keywords: Evapotranspiration; Remote sensing; Solar radiation; Net radiation.

Introduction the ASCE standardized reference evapotranspiration equation

Net radiation (Rn) is a key parameter in computing reference
evapotranspiration and is a driving force in many other physical
and biological processes, such as climate monitoring, weather
prediction, and agricultural meteorology (Rosenberg et al. 1983).
However, direct measurement of Rn continues to be a challenge
for scientists.
In many physical, agronomical, and biological applications, Rn
rather than solar radiation (Rs) is required. Despite the many
applications for Rn, net radiation data are rarely available because
of the technical and economical limitations associated with direct
measurements. Even when the net radiation is measured, it is usu-
ally limited to a small area and does not represent the spatial
variability of the landscape (Samani et al. 2007). For example,
1
Professor, Civil and Geological Engineering, MSC 3CE, New Mexico
State Univ., PO Box 30001, Las Cruces, NM 88003-0083 (corresponding
author). E-mail: zsamani@nmsu.edu
2
Graduate Student, MSC 3CE, New Mexico State Univ., PO Box
30001, Las Cruces, NM 88003-0083.
3
Research Scientist, Entomology, Plant Pathology, and Weed Science,
MSC 3BE, New Mexico State Univ., PO Box 30001, Las Cruces,
NM 88003-0057.
4
Professor, Agricultural Economics and Agricultural Business,
MSC 3169, New Mexico State Univ., PO Box 30001, Las Cruces,
NM 88003-3169.
Note. This manuscript was submitted on December 14, 2011; approved
on August 28, 2012; published online on August 31, 2012. Discussion per-
iod open until August 1, 2013; separate discussions must be submitted for
individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Irrigation and Drai-
nage Engineering, Vol. 139, No. 3, March 1, 2013. © ASCE, ISSN 0733-
9437/2013/3-208-213/$25.00.
(Allen et al. 2005) has recommended a method to estimate daily net
radiation from solar radiation, albedo, humidity, and air tempera-
tures. However, this methodology is limited to estimating Rn over
a well watered grass canopy and cannot be used to estimate Rn
over other vegetations and areas with sparse and/or stressed veg-
etation conditions.
Other methodologies that use remotely sensed data or ground
based measurements to estimate net radiation or its components
have been presented (Gautier et al. 1980; Diak and Gautier
1983; Ma et al. 2002; Gautam et al. 2005; Payero et al. 2006).
However, these methodologies have limited applications and/or
require data which are not readily available. For example, the
methodology presented by Gautier et al. (1980) and later modified
by Diak and Gautier (1983) is limited to estimation of incident
solar radiation. Ma et al. (2002) used National Oceanic and Atmos-
pheric Administration (NOAA) Advance Very High-Resolution
Radiometer (AVHRR) data and radiosonde data (field observation)
in a case study to compute clear sky regional net radiation fluxes
over a heterogeneous landscape of the Tibetan Plateau. Their re-
sults showed good agreement of mean absolute difference of less
than 10% between measured and derived net radiation flux
densities. However, this methodology requires radiosonde data
that are not readily available and is limited to clear sky conditions.
A methodology presented by Gautam et al. (2005) is limited to
estimating the diurnal cycle of net radiation for clear skies. Payero
et al. (2006) used remotely sensed data to calculate near-noon
clear sky net radiation fluxes over tall fescue grass and alfalfa
at the time of satellite overpass in Kimberly, Idaho. In this
paper, the authors propose a methodology that overcomes these
limitations.

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J. Irrig. Drain Eng. 2013.139:208-213.



Methodology 2π
δ ¼ 0.409 sin J − 1.39 ð7Þ
365
The 24-h net radiation (Rn24) is estimated by combining daytime
net radiation (Rnd) and nighttime net radiation (Rnn). The Rnd is where ϕ = latitude of the site (in radians), which is positive for the
calculated for periods when global short wave radiation (Rs) is northern hemisphere; β = downward slope, in which β ¼ 0 for a
greater than zero (Rs > 0) and Rnn is calculated for periods when horizontal surface and π=2 for a vertical surface (β is always
the global short wave radiation is equal to zero (Rs ¼ 0). positive and represents downward slope in any direction); γ =
deviation of the projection on a horizontal plane of the normal
to the surface from the local meridian; and ω = solar time angle
Daytime Net Radiation
(in radians), and is calculated from the following equation:
Incident net radiation (Rni ) can be estimated, according to π
Campbell (1977), as follows: ω¼ ðLST − 12Þ ð8Þ
12
Rni ¼ ð1 − αÞRsi þ εa σðTa þ 273.15Þ4 − εs σðTs þ 273.15Þ4 where LST = local solar time in hours, which is defined by the
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ð1Þ location of the sun in the sky. At solar noon, LST = 12 p.m.,
and the sun is at its highest point in the sky. Local solar time is
where Rni = instantaneous net radiation (in units of watts per calculated from the following equation:
square meter); Rsi = incident incoming short wave radiation (also
in units of watts per square meter); σ is the Stephan Boltzmann 1
LST ¼ t þ ðL − Lloc Þ þ Sc − DT ð9Þ
constant, 5.67 × 10−8 Wm−2 K−4 ; Ta and Ts = air and surface 15 std
temperature in degrees Celsius; respectively; and εs = surface emis- where t = local civil time (Pacific Standard Time, Eastern Standard
sivity, calculated using the leaf area index (LAI), i.e., the ratio of Time, and so on); and Lstd = longitude (degree) of the standard
total leaf area for the surface per unit of ground area. According meridian in the local time zone (degrees west of Greenwich).
to Bastiaanssen (1995), εs ¼ 0.95 þ 0.01 LAI when LAI < 3 and For example, Lstd ¼ 75, 90, 105, and 120° for the Eastern, Central,
εs ¼ 0.98 when LAI ≥ 3. εa is the atmospheric emissivity, and Rocky Mountain, and Pacific time zones in the United States. Lloc =
was calculated after Bastiaanssen (1995) from the following local longitude (degrees) west of Greenwich; DT ¼ 1 if daylight
equation: savings time is in effect, DT ¼ 0 otherwise; and Sc = correction
(hours), which accounts for the perturbation in earth’s rotation rate,
εa ¼ 0.85 × ð− ln τ sw Þ0.09 ð2Þ
and is calculated from the following equation:
Atmospheric transmissivity (τ sw ) was calculated from elevation Sc ¼ 0.1645 sinð2bÞ − 0.1255 cosðbÞ − 0.025 sinðbÞ ð10Þ
above sea level (Allen et al. 1998), as follows:
and
τ sw ¼ 0.75 þ 2 × 10−5 ðzÞ ð3Þ
2πðJ − 81Þ
b¼ ð11Þ
where z = elevation (in units of meters). Incident short wave radi- 364
ation, Rsi (in units of watts per square meter), can be measured
For flat surfaces, in which β is zero, Eq. (6) can be simplified to
locally using a standard pyranometer. If local Rsi data are not avail-
able, for clear sky conditions only, it can be estimated using the the following equation:
following equation: cosðθÞ ¼ sinðδÞ sinðϕÞ þ cosðδÞ cosðϕÞ cosðωÞ ð12Þ
Rsi ¼ Gsc × cos θ × dr × τ sw ð4Þ The solar angle for flat surfaces can also be calculated directly
using the sun elevation angle provided in the header file of Landsat
where Gsc is the solar constant (1367 Wm−2 ); θ = solar incidence images, using the following equation:
angle; and dr = inverse relative earth-sun distance, calculated from

the following equation (Allen et al. 1998): π
cosðθÞ ¼ cos −φ ð13Þ

 2
2π
dr ¼ 1 þ 0.033 cos J ð5Þ
365 where φ = sun elevation angle in radians.
If measured short wave solar radiation data are available, then
where J = Julian day of the year. they should be used directly in Eq. (1) to calculate Rni . Values of
Incident surface temperature (Tsi ) can be measured either from a albedo, surface temperature, and LAI can be measured at the site
satellite or on the ground. The solar incident angle, θ in Eq. (4), can or obtained from periodic satellite images.
be calculated from the following equation (Duffie and Beckman Rnd was calculated using the following equation by Samani
1980): et al. (2007):



cosðθÞ ¼ sinðδÞ sinðϕÞ cosðβÞ − sinðδÞ cosðϕÞ sinðβÞ cosðγÞ Rs Ta þ 273.15 4
Rnd ¼ Rni ð14Þ
Rsi Tai þ 273.15
þ cosðδÞ cosðϕÞ cosðβÞcosðωÞ
þ cosðδÞ sinðϕÞ sinðβÞ cosðγÞ cosðωÞ where Rs (Mjm−2 ) = daily short wave radiation; Tai = incident air
temperature; and Ta = average of daily maximum and minimum air
þ cosðδÞ sinðβÞ sinðγÞ sinðωÞ ð6Þ temperatures in degrees Celsius. Comparisons of predicted and
measured daytime net radiation over a pecan canopy for 2002
where δ = solar declination in radians, which is calculated from the and 2003 using Eq. (14) are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The pecan
following equation (Allen et al. 1998): orchard is located approximately 13 km south of Las Cruces,

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J. Irrig. Drain Eng. 2013.139:208-213.

 25
X
k

1:1 Rnn ¼ Rnik · dt ð15Þ

20 1
-1
Rnd predicted, MJ m day

where dt = nightly time increment ranging from 1 to k; and

-2

15
Rnik ¼ εa δðTa þ 273.15Þ4 − εs ðTs þ 273.15Þ4 ð16Þ

10 Ts in Eq. (16) was calculated from the air temperature (Ta) using
the slope of saturation vapor pressure—temperature curve (Δ)
Pecan Orchard, 2002
5 Average Ratio = 1.00 and by iteratively solving for Ts in Eq. (17), as follows (Allen
-2
SEE = 1.37 MJ m day
-1 et al. 2005):
es − ea
0 Δ¼ ð17Þ
0 5 10 15 20 25 Ts − Ta
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-2 -1
Rnd measured, MJ m day
where es and ea (kiloPascals) are saturated vapor pressures at sur-
Fig. 1. Predicted and measured daytime net radiation (Rnd) over a face and air temperature and are functions of Ts and Ta (Celsius),
pecan orchard using Eq. (14) for the year 2002 (the average ratio is respectively (Allen et al. 2005). The slope of the saturation vapor
calculated as predicted/measured, and SEE is the standard error of pressure-temperature curve (Δ) is calculated from the following
the estimate) equation:
17.27Ta
2503 expðTaþ237.3 Þ
Δ¼ ð18Þ
30 ðTa þ 237.3Þ2

25 1:1
Saturated vapor pressure as a function of surface or air temper-
ature, eðTÞ, is calculated from the following equation (Allen
-1

et al. 2005):
Rnd predicted, MJ m day

20


-2

17.27T
eðTÞ ¼ 0.6108 exp ð19Þ
15 T þ 237.3

10 Combining Eqs. (14) and (15), the 24-h net radiation value
Pecan Orchard, 2003 (Rn24) can be calculated from the following equation:
Average Ratio = 1.04
5 -2
SEE = 1.85 MJ m day
-1

Rn24 ¼ Rnd þ Rnn ð20Þ

0
0 5 10 15 20
-2
Rnd measured, MJ m day
Fig. 2. Predicted and measured daytime net radiation (Rnd) over a
pecan orchard using Eq. (14) for the year 2003 (the average ratio is
calculated as predicted/measured, and SEE is the standard error of
the estimate)
New Mexico (lat. 32.18 N, long. −106.74 W, elevation 1,144 m).
The Rnd values in Figs. 1 and 2 were predicted using measured
values of short wave radiation (Rs, and Rsi), incident net radiation
(Rni ), and average and incident air temperature (Ta and Tai ). Short
wave solar radiation was measured using a LI-COR silicon pyra-
nometer (model LI200X-L, Campbell Scientific Inc, Logan, Utah)
and the net radiation was measured using a net radiometer model
Q7.1 (Radiation and Energy Balance Systems, Inc., Seattle,
Washington) installed approximately 2.5 m above the vegetation
canopy. The incident net and shortwave radiation were measured
at 11 a.m. Mountain Standard Time over a pecan canopy. The ratios
of predicted Rnd over measured Rnd were 1.0 and 1.04 for the
years 2002 and 2003, respectively.
Nighttime Net Radiation
Once the day-time net radiation (Rnd) is estimated, then the night-
time net radiation (Rnn) can be estimated using Eqs. (15) and (16)
from the following equations:
25 30
-1
Satellite Data
Satellite data were available for 10 days from Landsat-7 during
2002 and for 8 days from NASA-ASTER (NOAA—Advanced
Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer) for
the year 2003. These satellite data were used to calculate albedo,
normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), and surface tem-
perature. The NDVI was calculated using ASTER sensor bands 3
and 2 from the following equation:
ρ3 − ρ2
NDVI ¼ ð21Þ
ρ3 þ ρ2
where ρ2 and ρ3 represent spectral bands 2 and 3, respectively.
For Landsat, the NDVI was calculated using bands 4 and 3 from
the following equation:
ρ4 − ρ3
NDVI ¼ ð22Þ
ρ4 þ ρ3
Different band ratios can be used to estimate the LAI (Fassnacht
et al. 1997). In this study, NDVI values were used to calculate the
LAI in Eq. (1) to determine surface emissivity. The LAI was cal-
culated from the soil adjusted vegetation index (SAVI) using a pro-
cedure described by Bastiaanssen (1998). The SAVI was calculated
using NDVI based on Bastiaanssen (1998). Albedo (α) for ASTER
was calculated using the following methodology described by
Liang (2001):

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J. Irrig. Drain Eng. 2013.139:208-213.

 25 40
Rnd-2003
Rnd-2002 35
1:1
20
30

-1
-1

Rs predicted, MJ m day
Rnd predicted, MJ m day

-2
-2

25
15
20

10 15

Pecan Orchard, 2002 and 2003 10 Pecan Orchard, 2003

Method ‘a’ Average Ratio = 1.04
5 -2 -1
Average Ratio = 0.99 5 SEE = 2.88 MJ m day
-2 -1
SEE = 0.83 MJ m day
0
0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
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0 5 10 15 20 25 -2 -1
-2 -1 Rs measured, MJ m day
Rnd measured, MJ m day

Fig. 3. Predicted and measured daytime net radiation (Rnd) over a Fig. 6. Predicted and measured solar radiation (Rs) for the year 2003
pecan orchard based on method A (the average ratio is calculated as (the average ratio is calculated as predicted/measured, and SEE is the
predicted/measured, and SEE is the standard error of the estimate) standard error of the estimate)

25
20
Rnd-2003
18 Rn24-2003 1:1
Rnd-2002
Rn24-2002 20
16
-1

-1
Rn 24 predicted, MJ m day

14 Rnd predicted, MJ m day

-2

-2

12 15

10

8 10

6 Pecan Orchard, 2002 and 2003

Pecan Orchard, 2002 and 2003
Method ‘b’
4 Method ‘a’ 5
Average Ratio = 1.0
Average Ratio = 0.99 -2 -1
2 -2 -1 SEE = 1.4 MJ m day
SEE = 1.28 MJ m day
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0 5 10 15 20 25
-2 -1 -2 -1
Rn 24 measured, MJ m day Rnd measured, MJ m day

Fig. 4. Predicted and measured 24-h net radiation (Rn24) over a pecan Fig. 7. Predicted and measured daytime net radiation (Rnd) over a
orchard based on method A (the average ratio is calculated as predicted/ pecan orchard based on method B (the average ratio is calculated as
measured, and SEE is the standard error of the estimate) predicted/measured, and SEE is the standard error of the estimate)

35 20

1:1 18 Rn24-2003
30 Rn24-2002
16
-1
Rn 24 predicted, MJ m day
-1
Rs predicted, MJ m day

25 14
-2
-2

12
20
10
15 8

6
10 Pecan Orchard, 2002 Pecan Orchard, 2002 and 2003
Average Ratio = 0.99 4 Method ‘b’
-2
SEE = 2.49 MJ m day
-1 Average Ratio = 0.98
5 -2 -1
2 SEE = 1.62 MJ m day

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-2 -1 -2 -1
Rs measured, MJ m day Rn 24 measured, MJ m day

Fig. 5. Predicted and measured solar radiation (Rs) for the year 2002 Fig. 8. Predicted and measured 24-h net radiation (Rn24) over a pecan
(the average ratio is calculated as predicted/measured, and SEE is the orchard based on method B (the average ratio is calculated as predicted/
standard error of the estimate) measured, and SEE is the standard error of the estimate)

JOURNAL OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2013 / 211

J. Irrig. Drain Eng. 2013.139:208-213.

 Table 1. Comparison of Measured and Estimated Net Radiation for a Method B
Pecan Orchard
Method B is similar to method A with the exception that incident
No. of Ratio short wave radiation (Rsi) is calculated from Eq. (4) and daily solar
observations predicted/ SEE radiation (Rs) is estimated from maximum and minimum daily
Parameter Method (n) measured (MJ m2 day1 )
temperature (Hargreaves and Samani 1982) from the following
Daytime net A 18 0.99 0.83 equation:
radiation B 18 1.00 1.40
(Rnd) Rs ¼ K r ðT max − T min Þ0.5 Ra ð26Þ
24-h net A 18 0.99 1.28 where T max and T min = daily maximum and minimum air temper-
radiation B 18 0.98 1.62
ature (degrees Celsius), respectively; and Ra = extraterrestrial
(Rn24)
radiation (Mj m−2 day−1 ) on a daily basis and is calculated by
Note: Two methods, A and B (see the corresponding text), were used for the following procedure developed by Duffie and Beckman
selected days during the years 2002 and 2003. SEE = standard error of the (1980, 1991):
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estimate.
α ¼ 0.484ρ1 þ 0.335ρ3 − 0.324ρ5 þ 0.551ρ6 þ 0.305ρ8
− 0.367ρ9 − 0.0015
where ρi = reflectance in band i. For Landsat data, α was calculated
using the following equation, also described by Liang (2001):
α ¼ 0.356ρ1 þ 0.13ρ3 þ 0.373ρ4 þ 0.085ρ7 − 0.0018
Because of the variation related to pixel amplitude in satellite
sensors, the spatial resolutions of the calculated parameters are
limited to 90 and 60 m in ASTER and Landsat-5, respectively.
Results and Discussion
This paper describes two different methods to estimate daytime and
24-h net radiation.
• Method A calculates Rnd from satellite measurements of albe-
do, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), surface
temperature (Ts), ground measurements of short wave radiation
(Rsi and Rs), and air temperature (Tai and Ta) using Eqs. (1) and
(14). Rnn is calculated using Eq. (15).
• Method B calculates Rnd and Rn24 in the absence of ground
measurements of short wave radiation (Rsi and Rs). In this
method, Rnd is calculated from satellite measurements of albe-
do, NDVI, and surface temperature using Eqs. (1), (4), and (14),
and estimated values of daily solar radiation (Rs) based on
daily maximum and minimum air temperature (Hargreaves and
Samani 1982). This method is only applicable for short-term
clear sky conditions in which Rsi can be estimated using Eq. (4).
Method A
Figs. 3 and 4 compare the predicted and measured values of Rnd
and Rn24 for 10 days during 2002 and 8 days during 2003 over a
pecan canopy based on method A. The ratio of predicted over mea-
sured values in Figs. 3 and 4 were both 0.99 and the standard errors
of estimate (SEE) were 0.83 and 1.28 MJ m−2 day−1 , respectively.
The SEE, which is the dispersion of the observed values about the
regression line or a measure of accuracy of prediction, was calcu-
lated as follows:
rPffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ðY − Y 0 Þ2
SEE ¼ ð25Þ
n−1
where SEE = standard error of estimate; Y = measured value
(e.g., Rn measured); Y 0 = predicted value (e.g., Rn predicted);
and n = number of observations.
1;440
Ra ¼ G × dr½ωs sinðϕÞ sinðδÞ þ cosðϕÞ cosðδÞ sinðωs Þ

π
ð27Þ
where G is the solar constant (0.082 MJ m−2 min−1 ); dr = inverse
ð23Þ relative distance from the Earth to the sun; ϕ = latitude; ωs = sunset
hour angle (radians); dr and δ are calculated from Eqs. (5) and (7),
respectively; and ωs is calculated from the following equation:
ωs ¼ arccos½−tanðϕÞ tanðδÞ
ð28Þ
ð24Þ
Allen (1995) suggested calculating K r from the following
equation:

0.5
P
K r ¼ K ra ð29Þ
P0
where P = mean atmospheric pressure at the site, in units of
kiloPascals; P0 = mean atmospheric pressure at sea level
(101.3 kPa); and K ra is an empirical coefficient that is equal to
0.17 and 0.2 for interior and coastal regions, respectively. Eq. (26)
was used to estimate the daily solar radiation (Rs) values for the
years 2002 and 2003. Figs. 5 and 6 show the comparison between
measured and predicted Rs values. The average ratio of predicted
over measured values in Figs. 5 and 6 were 0.99 and 1.04, respec-
tively, and the SEE were 2.49 and 2.88 MJ m−2 day−1 , respectively.
Using method B, the daytime Rnd and Rn24 values were
estimated for a pecan orchard for the years 2002 and 2003. The
comparisons are shown in Figs. 7 and 8. The average ratio of
predicted over measured net radiation shown in Figs. 7 and 8 were
1.0 and 0.98, respectively, and the SEE values were 1.4 and
1.62 MJ m−2 day−1 , respectively. The results are summarized in
Table 1. Figs. 5 and 6 show that method B over-predicts at the
lower end of the solar radiation values, which occur early in the
year. The over-prediction can potentially result in overestimation
of Rnd values. The over-prediction could be attributable to the tem-
poral variation of the calibration coefficient in Eq. (26), which can
be corrected by adjusting the calibration coefficient for the early
period of the year.
The nighttime net radiation in this study was calculated using
estimates of ground temperature (Ts), which were obtained through
iterative solution of Eq. (17), assuming a constant slope for the sa-
turated vapor pressure curve. The results can be further improved
by directly measuring the ground temperature values.
Conclusions
The results of the comparison show that the methodologies pre-
sented in this paper can estimate daytime and 24-h net radiation
with reasonable accuracy, considering the paucity of net radiation

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J. Irrig. Drain Eng. 2013.139:208-213.

 data and the need for net radiation values over diverse vegetation.
The comparison of measured and predicted daytime and 24-h net
radiation, using data from the years 2002 and 2003, resulted in an
average ratio ranging from 0.98–1.0 and standard error of estimate
ranging from approximately 0.83–1.62 MJ m2 day1. In this
study, satellite data were used for calculation of leaf area index,
albedo, and ground temperature. Although satellite data are scarce,
the methodology is not limited to satellite imagery. One can easily
use ground level measurements of leaf area index, albedo, and
temperature to estimate daytime and 24-h net radiation using the
proposed methodology.
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