Course Manual - Chapter 1-5

TRIVUBAN UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
PULCHOWK ENGINEERING COLLEGE
COURSE MANUAL
ON
CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS
CIVIL SECOND YEAR – FIRST PART
COURSE CODE: CE 506
PREPARED BY
Er. Anil Pokhrel
(B.E., M.Sc.)
Civil Engineering Materials (Civil II-I)
CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS
1.1 SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT

In simple terms, this subject is about the science dealing with the composition and the structure of the materials as
well as how these factors are related to their properties or behavior.
The basic concern of a civil engineer is the design, construction, supervision and maintenance of different types of
structures such as buildings, bridges, canals, tube wells, water tanks, roads etc. A key element in field practice is to
deal with different types of materials. This entails drawing up detailed specifications, selecting the materials, storage,
sampling and testing, maintaining material inventories etc. Therefore, a study of these aspects of materials and their
application in construction is very important.
Engineering materials have, of course, undergone continuing evolution and have improved considerably since the
early events. In fact, the development of materials used for engineering purposes has experienced unprecedented
growth over the last few decades, and engineering materials have truly become an essential part of modern science
and technology. For example, the transportation industry (land, sea and air) is rapidly becoming more reliant on
materials that exhibit high strength and light weight. These needs are satisfied by certain combination of engineering
materials called composites, such as fiberglass and other reinforced materials. In the construction industry,
skyscrapers and vast network of highways are visible testimony to the proper utilization of modern engineering
materials.
There are certain general factors which affect the choice of materials for a particular scheme. Perhaps the most
important of these is the climatic background. Obviously, different materials and forms of construction have
developed in different parts of the world as a result of climatic differences. Another factor is the economic aspect of
the choice of materials. The rapid advance of constructional methods, the increasing introduction of mechanical tools
and plants, and changes in the organization of the building industry may appreciably influence the choice of
materials.
To develop products of greater economic efficiency, it is important to compare the performance of similar kinds of
materials under specific service conditions. Expenditures for running an installation can be minimized by improving
the quality of construction materials and products. Construction industry economists are thus required to have a good
working knowledge, first, of the construction materials, second, of their optimum applications on the basis of their
principal properties, and, third, of their manufacturing techniques, in order that the structures and installations may
have optimum engineering, economic performance and efficiency. Having acquired adequate knowledge, an
economist specializing in construction becomes an active participant in the development of the construction industry
and the manufacture of construction materials.
1.2 SELECTION CRITERIA OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

Followings are the criteria for selecting construction materials:
A) Properties of materials
The most important factor affecting selection of materials for engineering purposes is the properties of the materials
in relation to their intended use.
The properties of the material define specific characteristics of the material and form a basis for predicting behavior
of the material under different conditions.
The important properties of materials are:

1. Physical properties
2. Mechanical properties
3. Thermal properties
4. Chemical properties
5. Electrical properties
6. Magnetic properties
7. Optical properties
B) Performance requirements
The material of which a part is composed must be capable of performing the part’s function without failure. For
example, a component part to be used in a furnace must be of that material which can withstand high temperatures.
C) Materials reliability
A material in a given application must also be reliable. Simply stated, reliability is the degree of probability that a
product, and the material of which it is made, will remain stable enough to function in service for the intended life
of the product without failure. A material if it corrodes under certain conditions, then, it is neither stable nor reliable
for those conditions.
D) Safety
A material must safely perform its function, otherwise, the failure of the product made out of it may be catastrophic.
E) Physical attributes
Physical attributes such as configuration, size, weight, and appearance sometimes also serve functional requirements.
F) Environmental conditions
The environment in which a product operates strongly influences service performance. Humidity, water, or chemicals
can cause corrosion and subsequent failure of materials.
G) Availability
Obviously, a material must be readily available, and available in large enough quantity, for the intended application.
In times of materials scarcity, this constraint become significant.
H) Disposability and recyclability
These are the newest of the constraints and increasingly important factors in materials selection.
I) Economic factors
Cost, perhaps more often than any other constraint, is the controlling factor in a given materials application problem.
For, in every application, there is a cost beyond which one cannot go that prescribes the limit that can be paid for a
material to meet the application requirements. If it becomes apparent that this limit will be exceeded, the design will
be changed to alter materials requirements.
1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIAL

Civil engineering materials are classified in various ways:
A. Based on the existence: It is classified into two types:

i) Naturally existing engineering materials e.g. stone, iron, aluminium, timber etc.
ii) Artificially made engineering materials e.g. plastic, fiberglass, cement etc.
B. Based on metallurgy: It is classified into two types:

i) Metals (a) Ferrous e.g. steel (b) Non-ferrous e.g. aluminium
ii) Non-metals e.g. timber, stone, cement, plastic etc.
C. Based on use: It is classified into three types:

i) Structural engineering materials e.g. stone, brick, cement, steel etc.
ii) Aesthetic engineering materials: these are used to exhibit beauty of the structure e.g. marble, chips,
colors, paints etc.
iii) Special need engineering materials: used for special need e.g. bathroom fittings.
D. Based on the physical and chemical characteristics: This is the most common way to classify engineering
materials. These are:
i) Metals
ii) Ceramics
iii) Polymers
iv) Composites
i) Metals
Metals are basically made of elements or groups of elements in the form of alloys. These types of engineering
materials can usually be distinguished from other categories by some of their obvious properties, such as reflectivity
of light, transmission of heat, conduction of electric current and very often, the ability to be deformed without
breaking (called malleability). Many of these elements also have the ability to mix or dissolve with each other in the
solid state, thus providing metallic alloys such as steel (a solid solution of iron and carbon). Alloys can exhibit
properties vastly different from the individual elements that constitute them, and fortunately, such properties can
usually be controlled by regulating the properties of the constituent elements.
The general properties of the metals are: malleability, ductility, hardness, toughness, opaqueness, luster,
conductivity, magnetism etc. Examples of metals are iron, steel, chromium, brass, bronze, copper, aluminium etc.
ii) Ceramics
The term ‘Ceramics’ generally means to hard, brittle objects of porcelain, china clay, glass etc. Source of the ordinary
materials of construction such as bricks, tiles and bathroom fixtures are also included in this category. In this case
we recognize ceramics as a hard, brittle material that exhibits glass like properties and break abruptly without
noticeable deformation.
The ceramic materials today are used in magnets, semiconductors, integrated circuits, high temperature engines and
rockets, nuclear fuel elements, fuel cells, high strength materials and so on.
The basic properties of ceramic materials are: brittleness, hardness, insulation, opaqueness, non-corrosiveness,
thermal resistance etc.
iii) Polymers
Polymers are the substances composed of large number of molecules joined together in chain like fashion. A
molecule is the basic repetitive chemical or structural unit of the polymer system. The majority of engineering
polymers are based on hydrocarbon molecules that consist of hydrogen and carbon atoms in various structural
arrangements.
Polymeric engineering materials consist of a large number of synthetics which are plastics in addition to many natural
polymers such as wood and rubber. Some examples of synthetics are vinyl, polyethylene, polystyrene, bitumen, tar,
PVC, glue and various types of rubber.
Nowadays, demand of engineering polymers has increased substantially. This is due to availability, economy,
convenience and technical advantages over other types of engineering materials for certain applications.
Hydrocarbon polymers, by their nature are less dense than metals or ceramics and although this may impair their
utilization in certain structural applications, it does qualify them as attractive candidates for application requiring
light weight materials. Additionally, polymers typically resist atmospheric and many other forms of corrosion,
therefore, they can eliminate many unsightly or potentially dangerous corrosion problems that would ordinarily occur
with metals.
The general properties of polymeric engineering materials are: non-corrosive, soft, ductile, insulation, malleable,
light weight and combustible.
iv) Composites
Composite engineering materials basically, are the combination of metals with ceramics or organic polymers. This
class of engineering materials illustrate that although many dissimilarities may exist between different materials,
they frequently can be utilized in conjunction to produce a material with unique properties and behavior.
Due to their unique properties and the fact that these properties may be tailored to satisfy a certain set of requirements,
composites are rapidly becoming a recognized class of engineering materials.
Composites have the advantage of having diverse characteristics such as high strength with non-corrosiveness,
strength with brittleness, compressive strength, tensile strength etc. The examples of composites are: reinforced
cement concrete (RCC), fiberglass, plastic, wired glass etc.
1.4 PROPERTIES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIAL

Properties of various materials should be known for the purpose of specifying them for particular use, classifying
them and testing them for acceptance. The properties of materials basically fall under these groups:
a) Physical properties
b) Mechanical properties (Strength)
c) Thermal properties
d) Other properties
a) Physical properties
These properties exhibit the physical status of the materials, some of which are:
1. Specific gravity: It is the ratio of the weight of material per unit volume to the weight of an equal volume of water
under standard conditions. This property is used to calculate the density and property of materials.
2. Density: It is defined as the mass of a material per unit of its volume.

3. Bulk density or unit weight: It is defined as the total weight including solids and voids of any granular material
per unit of its volume.
4. Porosity: It is the ratio of volume of voids in a material to the volume of granular material.
5. Water absorption: It is the property of material by virtue of which it absorbs water from the ambience or
surroundings when in contact. This property is important in case of stones, bricks etc.
6. Hygroscopicity: It is the property whereby a material absorbs water present in the atmosphere, as in the case of
salt, sugar etc. Timber is a hygroscopic material.
7. Permeability: It is the property whereby a material allows water to pass through its pores. It is important in the
case of soils.
8. Moisture resistance: It is the ability of a material to resist the deformative effect due to cyclic wetting and drying
by moisture. Moisture resistance becomes important when we have to deal with exposed surface materials.
9. Fire resistance: It is the ability of a material to resist fire. For example, petrol is an inflammable while others are
combustible. Timber is an example of combustible material but is not inflammable.
10. Frost resistance: It is the ability of a material to resist the action of repeated thawing and freezing of water in
the porous material. Dense, close pores are best in resisting the action of frost. However, frost resistance of porous
material can also be materialized provided the volume of moisture does not exceed by 85% of the total voids. Frost
resistance quality of building materials needs to be taken care in cold freezing places to avoid hair-like cracks.
11. Corrosion: It is the gradual destruction of a metal or alloy due to chemical processes as oxidation.
12. Durability: It is the resistance of a material to destruction by natural agencies.
13. Soundness: It is the resistance of a material to deterioration due to heat, alternate freezing and thawing etc. It is
important in case of cement, aggregate etc.
b) Mechanical properties
These refer to the properties whereby material resists various straining actions or forces. These are:
1. Strength properties: These are the abilities of engineering material to resist against any deformation being
subjected to an action of force. In structural materials, strength is of prime important factor.
a. Tensile strength: It is the maximum stress a material can withstand under a tensile load before failure.
b. Compressive strength: It is the maximum stress a material can withstand under a compressive load before failure.
a. Shear strength: It is the maximum stress at failure under a shearing load i.e. a load parallel to the cross section of
the member.
2. Elasticity: It is the property of a material by which it tends to regain its shape after the removal of the applied
load. It depends on the magnitude of the load. Some materials are not elastic even under small loads while some
others are able to withstand larger loads. The stress at the limiting point is known as elastic limit.
3. Plasticity: It is property of material by which it retains a change in shape or size after the removal of load. Plasticity
is important when the material has to be moulded in the different shapes.
4. Hardness: It is the ability of the material to resist the effect of wear and tear, indentation, scratching, cutting,
abrasion on the surface when localized force is applied. The quality of hardness becomes relevant where material
has to bear repeated abrasion.
5. Resilience: It is the ability of the material to store energy to resist shock, impact etc. In places where one needs to
have springing effect, the material must be resilient.
6. Toughness: It is the ability of a material to absorb energy due to straining actions undergoing plastic deformation.
7. Brittleness: It is the tendency of a material to shatter on receiving a shock. Brittle materials although hard in
quality, break easily under impact load or shock.
8. Ductility: It is the ability of the material to undergo large plastic deformation before actual failure. This property
allows the drawing of thin wire of a metal.
9. Fatigue: It is the form of deformation exerted by cyclically repeated stress over the material, thus reducing its
resilient quality. Fatigue stress must be taken into consideration in the materials used for gears, aeroplane body etc.
10. Creep: It is the property of a material by which it undergoes deformation with respect to time under a constant
load.
11. Malleability: It is the ability of a material to be beaten to thin sheets.
12. Abrasive resistance: It is the ability of the material to resist wearing due to contact with another surface moving
with respect to it. This is important in road surfaces, warehouse, floors etc.
13. Impact strength: It is the ability of the material to resist shock or impact load.
c) Thermal properties
These indicate the flow of heat across the material. These are important in the heating/cooling of rooms and in
designing suitable thermal insulation. These are:
1. Heat capacity: It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of the material
by one degree.
2. Thermal conductivity: It is the amount of heat transmitted in unit time through unit area over unit length
perpendicular to the direction of heat flow when the temperature gradient across the heat conducting unit is 10.
Thermal conductivity of a materials needs to be taken care when one has to deal with external walls, flooring, roofing,
heating system of the building, refrigeration etc. Thermal conductivity of a material depends upon:
- The density of material

- The porosity of material
- The moisture content of material
- The temperature difference between the sides of the material
- The direction of flow of heat within the material
Heat flow is faster across the grain direction than along the grain direction.
3. Thermal stability: It is the ability of a material to resist the deformation due to thermal change. In materials,
which are subjected to high temperature, thermal stability must be taken care of. Asbestos, fire clay tiles offer good
example of thermal stability.
4. Thermal resistivity: It is the opposite of thermal conductivity and is defined as the time taken for a unit of heat
to be transmitted in unit time through unit area over unit length perpendicular to the direction of heat flow when the
temperature gradient across the heat conducting unit is 10.
d) Other properties
1. Chemical properties (chemical composition, acidity, alkalinity, corrosion etc.)

2. Electrical properties (resistivity, conductivity, dielectric strength etc.)
3. Magnetic properties (permeability, hysteresis etc.)
4. Optical properties (light transmission, colour, reflectivity etc.)
CHAPTER 2 – BUILDING STONES
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Stone has been defined as the natural, hard substance formed from minerals and earth material which are present in
rocks. Rock may be defined as the portion of the earth’s crust having no definite shape and structure. Almost all
rocks have a definite chemical composition and are made up of minerals and organic matter. Some of the rock-
forming minerals are quartz, felspar, mica, dolomite, etc. The various types of rocks from which building stones are
usually derived are granite, basalt, trap, marble, slate, sandstone and limestone.
Use of stone in building construction is traditional in the places where it is produced, although high cost imposes
limitations on its use. The conditions which govern the selection of stone for structural purposes are cost, fashion,
ornamental value and durability.
Stone has been used in the construction of most of the important structures since prehistoric age. Some of the
examples of stone construction are: most of the forts, the Krishna Mandir of Nepal, the Taj Mahal of India, the
famous pyramids of Egypt and the great wall of China. Stone has also been extensively used in almost all the elements
of building structures, as load carrying units as well as for enhancing the beauty and elegance of the structure. As
building material stone has gradually lost importance with the emergence of cement and steel. Other major factors
overshadowing its use are the difficulties in its transportation, dressing and consumption of lot of resources during
manufacture and construction.
Even today stones are preferred as building materials in the situation of water-logged areas as foundation; stone
packing in foundation for buildings, roads or other structures to enhance soil bearing capacity and it is the main
source of aggregates for concrete. Thus, stone is an important construction material that all civil engineers should be
familiar with.
2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BUILDING STONES

Followings are the characteristics of a stone:
1. Texture: A good building stone should have compact fine crystalline structure free from cavities, cracks or
patches of soft or loose material. The stones with such texture are strong and durable.
2. Durability: A good building stone should be durable. The various factors contributing to durability of stone are
its chemical composition, texture, resistance to atmospheric & other agencies etc.
3. Toughness index: In impact test, if the value of toughness index comes below 13, the stone is not considered
tough. If it is between 13 and 19, the stone is said to be moderately tough and if it exceeds 19, the toughness of
stone is said to be high.
4. Percentage wear: In attrition test, if wear is more than 3%, the stone is not satisfactory and if equal to 3% then
it is tolerable. For a good building stone, the wear should be equal to or less than 3%.
5. Crushing strength: For good building stone it should be greater than 100 N/mm2.
6. Hardness: The coefficient of harness, under harness test, should be greater than 17 for a stone to be used in road
works. If it is between 14 & 17 then the stone is considered as medium hardness and below 14 it is considered of
poor harness quality which is not recommended to be used for road works.
7. Appearances: For exposed face work, it should have fine, compact texture; light coloured stones are preferred
as dark colour are likely to fade with time.
8. Fracture: The fracture should be sharp, bright and clean with grains well cemented together. A dull, chalky and
earthly fracture indicates sign of early future decay.
9. Specific gravity: It should be greater than 2.7 or more for good building stone. The heavy stones are more
compact & less porous so they can be used for important load bearing structures such as dams, weirs, retaining
walls, docks, harbor etc. Whereas, lighter weight stones are preferred to be used for domes, roof covering etc.
10. Seasoning: It should be well seasoned before the use. The freshly quarry obtained stones are easy to work on
(cutting, dressing, carving etc.) due to presence of sap. The stones should be dried or seasoned before they are
used. A period of 6 to 12 months is considered to be sufficient for seasoning of stone.
11. Water absorption: For a good quality stone, percentage absorption by weight after 24 hours of soaking should
not exceed 0.60. Porous stone seriously affect durability of stones. The rain diluted with pollution is absorbed by
porous stones and reacts with different constituents which may cause disintegration of stone. Similarly, in cold
regions, the water absorbed by porous stones can crack due to volume increase on freezing.
12. Weathering: A good building stone should possess better weathering qualities. It should be capable of
withstanding adverse effects of various atmospheric and external agencies such as rain, frost, wind, local pollution
etc. The best way to know the resisting power of a stone is to study the performance of the structure in the same
areas where more or less same type of stone structures are used. The stones having excellent weathering qualities
should only be used in the construction of important structures.
2.3 SELECTION AND USE OF STONES

SELECTION OF STONE
The conditions which govern the selection of stone for structural purposes are cost, fashion, ornamental value and
durability, although the latter property is frequently overlooked or disregarded. Cost is largely influenced by
transportation charges, difficulties in quarrying and cutting, the ornamental features, and the durability of stone. The
type of dressing of stone may make a difference to the cost, particularly with the stones derived from igneous rocks.
Another factor which should be considered is the suitability of the stone for the type of design. For example, for a
highly carved design if, by mistake, a harder stone such as granite is selected the cost will be affected. Colour,
arrangement and shape of mineral constituents greatly influence fashion and ornamental value. It is important that
the designer is aware about how the colour is likely to change after long exposure and in particular how it may vary
in polluted atmospheres.
Resistance to fire and weathering—factors which are largely influenced by the mineral constitution of the rock—are
the most important determinants of durability. It is very important to select a stone according to its exposure
conditions.
Limestones, sandstones and granites all tend to crack and spall when exposed to fire, and there is really little to
choose between them in this respect.
USE OF STONE
The use primarily depends upon the factors of cost, type of element, quality, availability etc. Followings are the type
of use based on the purpose:
Foundation & wall items Facings & architectural items Building items
Road construction items Railway construction items Monumental items
Underground structures & bridges Heat & chemically resistance items
2.4 DETERIORATION AND PRESERVATION OF STONES

DETERIORATION OF STONE
There are various natural agents such as rain, heat, etc. and chemicals which deteriorate the stones with time.
Rain
Rain water acts both physically and chemically on stones. The physical action is due to the erosive and transportation
powers and the chemical due to the decomposition, oxidation and hydration of the minerals present in the stones.
Physical Action: Alternate wetting by rain and drying by sun causes internal stresses in the stones and consequent
disintegration.
Chemical Action: In industrial areas the acidic rain water reacts with the constituents of stones leading to its
deterioration.
Frost
In cold places frost enters the pores of the stones where it freezes, expands and creates cracks.
Wind
Since wind carries dust particles, the abrasion caused by these deteriorates the stones.
Temperature Variations
Expansion and contraction due to frequent temperature changes cause stone to deteriorate especially if a rock is
composed of several minerals with different coefficients of linear expansion.
Vegetable Growth
Roots of trees and weeds that grow in the masonry joints keep the stones damp and also secrete organic and acidic
matters which cause the stones to deteriorate. Dust particles of organic or nonorganic origin may also settle on the
surface and penetrate into the pores of stones. When these come in contact with moisture or rain water,
bacteriological process starts and the resultant micro-organism producing acids attack stones which cause decay.
Mutual Decay
When different types of stones are used together mutual decay takes place. For example when sandstone is used
under limestone, the chemicals brought down from limestone by rain water to the sandstone will deteriorate it.
Chemical Agents
Smokes, fumes, acids and acid fumes present in the atmosphere deteriorate the stones. Stones containing CaCO3,
MgCO3 are affected badly.
Lichens
These destroy limestone but act as protective coats for other stones. Molluses gradually weaken and ultimately
destroy the stone by making a series of parallel vertical holes in limestones and sandstones.
PRESERVATION OF STONE
Preservation of stone is essential to prevent its decay. For this purpose, the preservatives are applied on the stone
surface. An ideal preservative has the following properties:
- It doesn’t allow moisture to penetrate the stone surfaces

- It doesn’t develop objectionable colour
- It hardens sufficiently so as to resist effects due to various atmospheric agents
- It is easily penetrated in stone surface
- It is economical
- It is non-corrosive and harmless
- It remains effective for a long time after drying
- Its application on stone surface is easy
Followings are the preservatives which are commonly used to preserve the stones:
1. Coal Tar: It is one of the preservatives but the colour produces objectionable appearance and the surface
absorbs heat from the sun. Hence this preservative is not generally adopted because it spoils the beauty of
stones.
2. Linseed Oil: This may be used as raw or boiled linseed oil. The raw doesn’t disturb the original shed of the
stone however, it requires frequent renewal, usually once in a year. Though the boiled linseed oil lasts longer,
it makes the stone surface dark.
3. Paint: The application of paint serves as a preservative. The paint changes the original colour of stone. It is
applied under pressure, if deep penetration is required.
4. Paraffin: This preservative may be used alone or it may be dissolved in naphtha and then applied on stone
surface. It changes original colour of stone.
5. Solution of alum and soap: The alum and soft soaps are taken in proportion of about 0.75N and 0.50N
respectively & they are dissolved in a liter of water. This solution is applied on stone surface as preservative.
6. Solution of Baryta: A solution of barium oxide Ba (OH2) when applied on stone surface, acts as a
preservative. It is used when the decay of stone is mainly due to calcium sulphate (CaSO4).
2.5 NATURAL BED OF STONES

It is the original bed, plane or position occupied by a stone during its formation in a sedimentary rock. The stones
should be so placed that the load line is at right angles to the natural bed. In the case of metamorphic rocks, the plane
of foliation or the plane of cleavage is assumed to be its natural bed. It is very difficult to trace the natural bed in the
case of igneous rocks and the natural bed is not given due attention. The right placement of stones with regard to the
load line for a few cases is shown below:
2.6 DRESSING OF STONES

Dressing of stones is a process in which their surfaces are prepared to a form, fit to be used for any constructional
purpose. Dressing of stones is carried out according to the type of work and demand required.
PURPOSE OF DRESSING
➢ Generally, to give them neat/good appearances

➢ To provide horizontal and vertical joints in the masonry
➢ To make them fit, to be used for particular construction
The different types of dressing of stones are:
1. Hammer Dressed or Quarry-faced Surface

2. Rough tooled surface
3. Tooled Surface
4. Cut stone Surface
5. Rubbed Surface
6. Polished Surface
The details of types of dressing of stones are as follows:
1. Hammer Dressed or Quarry-faced Surface:

This is the roughest form of surface finish. Stone as removed from the quarry has large projections which are knocked
off with the quarry hammer and it is finally broken up into blocks of suitable size and shape. The faces of the blocks
are roughly planned and the stone is rendered suitable to be used in masonry.
2. Rough tooled surface:

In this type of surface finish, the projections of the stone block are removed by means of chisels and the surface is
nearly dressed correct in size. The corners and the edges are made accurate, chisel drafted margins, the side and bed
joints roughly treated to ensure proper bonding.
3. Tooled Surface:
In this type of surface finish continuous parallel chisel marks are produced throughout the width of the stone. The
parallel corrugations or chisel marks are made at closer intervals rendering the surface truly planned. Different types
of tooled finishes are obtained by use of different chisel and marking patterns.
4. Cut stone Surface:

In this type of surface finish, the surface is dressed by using a, sharp chisel using machine so that the chisel marks
are practically imperceptible. It is considered superior to tooled surface.
5. Rubbed Surface:
This type of surface finish is obtained by grinding or rubbing a cut stone surface by hand or machine until it gets
perfectly smooth face.
6. Polished Surface:
The rubbed surfaces of granite, marble of lime stones are polished to enhance their texture. Polishing may be done
by manual labour using sand and water, pumice stone etc. or by rubbing machine.
CHAPTER 3 – CLAY PRODUCTS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Clay products are one of the most important classes of structural materials. The raw materials used in their
manufacture are clay blended with quartz, sand, chamatte (refractory clay burned at 1000–1400°C and crushed),
slag, sawdust and pulverized coal. Structural clay products or building ceramics (bricks, tiles etc.) are basically
fabricated by moulding, drying and burning a clay mass.
Normally, higher the bulk specific gravity, the stronger is the clay product. This rule does not hold good for vitrified
products since the specific gravity of clay decreases as vitrification advances. Bulk specific gravity of clay brick
ranges from 1.6 to 2.5.
According to the method of manufacture and structure, bricks, tiles, pipes, terracotta, earthenwares, stonewares,
porcelain, and majolica are well recognized and employed in building construction. Clay bricks have pleasing
appearance, strength and durability whereas clay tiles used for light-weight partition walls and floors possess high
strength and resistance to fire. Clay pipes on account of their durability, strength, lightness and cheapness are
successfully used in sewers, drains and conduits.
Typical structural clay products are building brick, paving brick, terra-cotta facing tile, roofing tile, and drainage
pipe. These objects are made from commonly occurring natural materials, which are mixed with water, formed into
the desired shape, dried and fired in a kiln in order to give the clay mixture a permanent bond. Finished structural
clay products display such essential properties as load-bearing strength, resistance to wear, resistance to chemical
attack, attractive appearance, and an ability to take a decorative finish.
3.2 CONSTITUENTS OF BRICK EARTH

The earth used for brick making consists mainly of silica (sand) and alumina (clay) mixed in such a proportion that
the clay earth becomes plastic when water is added to it. It also consists of small proportions of lime, iron, manganese,
sulphur, etc. The proportions of various ingredients are as follows:
Silica 50–60%
Alumina 20–30%
Lime 10%
Magnesia < 1%
Ferric oxide < 7% Less than 20%
Alkalis < 10%
Carbon dioxide
Sulphur trioxide Very small percentage
Water
FUNCTIONS OF VARIOUS INGREDIENTS
Silica
➢ Enables to retain shape, imparts durability, heat resistivity, prevents shrinkage and warping
➢ The excess amount makes the brick brittle and weak on burning
Alumina
➢ It absorbs water and renders the clay plastic
➢ If alumina is present in excess of the specified quantity, it produces cracks in brick on drying
➢ Clays having exceedingly high alumina content are likely to be very refractory
Lime
Normally constitutes less than 10 per cent of clay. Lime in brick clay has the following effects:
➢ Reduces the shrinkage on drying.
➢ Causes silica in clay to melt on burning and thus helps to bind it.
➢ In carbonated form, lime lowers the fusion point.
➢ Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and the brick looses its shape.
➢ Red bricks are obtained on burning at considerably high temperature (more than 800°C) and buff-burning
bricks are made by increasing the lime content.
Magnesia
➢ It affects the colour and gives yellow tint to the bricks; decreases shrinkage and warping; causes the clay to
soften at slower rate
➢ Excess amount leads to decay
Iron oxide
➢ Gives red colour on burning when excess oxygen is available and dark brown or black colour when oxygen
is insufficient, however, excess makes the brick dark blue.
➢ Improves impermeability and durability.
➢ Tends to lower the fusion point of the clay, especially if present as ferrous oxide.
➢ Gives strength and hardness.
HARMFUL INGREDIENTS IN BRICK EARTH
➢ Lime: when in excess in the form of stone gets converted into quick lime which readily absorbs water &
swells causing cracks
➢ Alkalis (Alkaline salts): lowers the fusion point of clay & causes brick to fuse, twist & warp during burning;
absorbs moisture & becomes damp; produces efflorescence spoiling the appearance
➢ Pebbles/gravel: it does not harm chemically but reduces workability & homogeneity of brick earth & may
create cracks
➢ Iron pyrite: tend to oxidize and decompose the brick during burn; the brick may split into pieces
➢ Vegetation & organic matters: it contains carbon & when burnt converts into carbon dioxide so creates void
after burning and makes brick inferior
3.3 MANUFACTURE OF BRICK

Followings are the different stages of brick manufacturing with their details:
(A) Preparation of clay
It consists of the following operations:
(i) Un-soiling: The soil used for making building bricks should be processed so as to be free of gravel, coarse sand
(practical size more than 2 mm), lime and kankar particles, organic matter, etc. About 20 cm of the top layer of the
earth, normally containing stones, pebbles, gravel, roots, etc., is removed after clearing the trees and vegetation.
(ii) Digging: After removing the top layer of the earth, proportions of additives such as fly ash, sandy loam, rice husk
ash, stone dust, etc. should be spread over the plane ground surface on volume basis. The soil mass is then manually
excavated, puddled, watered and left over for weathering and subsequent processing. The digging operation should
be done before rains.
(iii) Cleaning: The clay, as obtained in the process of digging, should be cleaned of stones, pebbles, vegetable matters
etc. Thus, those items should be screened and the lumps of clay should be converted into small particles through
crushers.
(iv) Weathering: Stones, gravels, pebbles, roots, etc. are removed from the dug earth and the soil is heaped on level
ground in layers of 60–120 cm. The soil is left in heaps and exposed to weather for at least one month in cases where
such weathering is considered necessary for the soil. This is done to develop homogeneity in the mass of soil,
particularly if they are from different sources, and also to eliminate the impurities which get oxidized. The soil should
be turned over at least twice and it should be ensured that the entire soil is wet throughout the period of weathering.
In order to keep it wet, water may be sprayed as often as necessary. The plasticity and strength of the clay are
improved by exposing the clay to weather.
(v) Blending: The earth is then mixed with sandy-earth and calcareous-earth in suitable proportions to modify the
composition of soil. Moderate amount of water is mixed so as to obtain the right consistency for moulding. The mass
is then mixed uniformly with spades. Addition of water to the soil at the dumps is necessary for the easy mixing and
workability, but the addition of water should be controlled in such a way that it may not create a problem in moulding
and drying. Excessive moisture content may affect the size and shape of the finished brick.
(vi) Tempering: Tempering consists of kneading the earth with feet or machines (pug mills) so as to make the mass
stiff and plastics (by plasticity, we mean the property which wet clay has of being permanently deformed without
cracking). It should preferably be carried out by storing the soil in a cool place in layers of about 30 cm thickness
for not less than 36 hours. This will ensure homogeneity in the mass of clay for subsequent processing. For
manufacturing good brick, tempering is done in pug mills and the operation is called pugging.
(B) Moulding
It is a process of giving a required shape to the brick from the prepared brick earth. Moulding may be carried out by
hand or by machines. The process of moulding may be the soft-mud (hand moulding), the stiff-mud (machine
moulding) or the drypress process (moulding using maximum 10% water and forming bricks at higher pressures).
(i) Hand moulding: Hand moulding is further classified as ground moulding and table moulding.
a) Ground moulding: The process consists of shaping in hands a lump of well pugged earth, slightly more than that
of the brick volume. It is then rolled into the sand and with a force it is dashed into the mould. The moulder then
gives blows with his fists and presses the earth properly in the corners of the mould with his thumb. The surplus clay
on the top surface is removed with a sharp edge metal plate called strike or with a thin wire stretched over the mould.
After this the mould is given a gentle slope and is lifted leaving the brick on the ground to dry.
(b) Table moulding: The bricks are moulded on stock boards having the projection for forming the frog. The process
of filling clay in the mould is the same as explained above. After this, a thin board called pallet is placed over the
mould. The mould containing the brick is then smartly lifted off the stock board and inverted so that the moulded
clay along with the mould rests on the pallet. The mould is then removed as explained before and the brick is carried
to the drying site.
(ii) Machine moulding (plastic clay & dry clay machines)
Plastic Method: The pugged, stiffer clay is forced through a rectangular opening of brick size by means of force.
Clay comes out of the opening in the form of a bar. The brick bars are cut by a frame consisting of several wires at
a distance of brick size. This is a quick and economical process.
Dry-press Method: The moist, powdered clay is fed into the mould on a mechanically operated press, where it is
subjected to high pressure and the clay in the mould takes the shape of bricks. Such pressed bricks are more dense,
smooth and uniform than ordinary bricks. These are burnt carefully as they are likely to crack.
(C) Drying
Green bricks contain about 7–30% moisture depending upon the method of manufacture. The object of drying is to
remove the moisture to control the shrinkage and save fuel and time during burning. The drying shrinkage is
dependent upon pore spaces within the clay and the mixing water. The addition of sand or ground burnt clay reduces
shrinkage, increases porosity and facilitates drying. The moisture content is brought down to about 3 per cent under
exposed conditions within three to four days. Thus, the strength of the green bricks is increased and the bricks can
be handled safely.
The important terms to be remembered in connection with the drying is as follows:
- Artificial drying: Clay products can be dried in open air driers or in artificial driers. The artificial driers are
of two types, the hot floor drier and the tunnel drier. In both cases the heat or hot air is circulated in controlled
way to dry the green bricks. In artificial driers, temperature rarely exceeds 120°C. The time varies from one
to three days depending upon the temperature maintained in the dryer, quality of clay product etc.
- Circulation of air: The bricks in stacks should be arranged in such a way that sufficient space is left between
them for free circulation of air while drying naturally or artificially.
- Drying yard: For the drying purpose, drying yards are prepared. The yard should be slightly on higher ground
or elevated so as to prevent water/rain water entering the yard.
- Drying period: The time required for drying depend upon the moisture content of the clay product, weather
condition and method of drying. The period is usually 1~ 3 days under artificial drying and 3~10 days under
natural drying.
- Screens: Screens of different shades (% sun blocking) are used to avoid direct exposure to the wind and sun.
(D) Burning
(i) Clamp burning

The bricks and fuel are placed in alternate layers. The amount of fuel is reduced successively in the top layers. Each
brick tier consists of 4–5 layers of bricks. Some space is left between bricks for free circulation of fire and hot air.
The top and sides of the clamp are plastered with mud mixed with a coat of cow-dung, which prevents the escape of
heat. Clamp is allowed to burn for a period of about one to two months and same period is required for cooling. This
process yields about 60 per cent first class bricks. It is local method requiring lower level of skills which can yield
chimney made bricks and is economical but quality of bricks are not uniform.
(ii) Kiln burning
The kiln used for burning bricks may be underground, e.g. Bull’s trench kiln or overground, e.g. Hoffman’s kiln.
These may be rectangular, circular or oval in shape. When the process of burning bricks is continuous, the kiln is
known as continuous kiln, e.g. Bull’s trench and Hoffman’s kilns. On the other hand, if the process of burning bricks
is discontinuous, the kiln is known as intermittent kiln.
1. Intermittent kilns (Intermittent Up-draught kilns & Intermittent Down-draught kilns)
After loading the kiln, it is fired, cooled and unloaded and then the next loading is done. Since the walls and
sides get cooled during reloading and are to be heated again during next firing, there is wastage of fuel and
production time duration is longer.
2. Continuous kilns (Bull’s Trench kiln & Hoffman’s kiln on Flame kiln)
The examples of continuous kiln are Hoffman’s kiln and Bull’s trench kiln. In a continuous kiln, bricks are
stacked in various chambers wherein the bricks undergo different stages of treatments at the same time.
When the bricks in one of the chambers is fired, the bricks in the next set of chambers are dried and preheated
while bricks in the other set of chambers are loaded and in the last are cooled. This method can produce the
bricks continuously.
Example – Clamp Burning
Example – Kiln Burning

3.4 QUALITIES OF GOOD BRICKS

Followings are the characteristics of good bricks
The essential requirements for building bricks are sufficient strength in crushing, regularity in size, a low water
absorption ratio and a pleasing appearance when exposed to view.
Size & Shape: The bricks should have uniform size and plane, rectangular surfaces with parallel sides & sharp straight
edges.
Colour: The brick should have a uniform deep red or cherry colour as indicative of uniformity in chemical
composition and thoroughness in the burning of the brick.
Texture & compactness: The surfaces should not be too smooth to cause slipping of mortar. The brick should have
compact and uniform texture. A fractured surface should not show fissures, holes, grits or lumps of lime.
Hardness & Soundness: The brick should be so hard that when scratched by a finger nail no impression is made.
When two bricks are struck together, a metallic sound should be produced.
Water absorption: It should absorb water not more than 15% of its dry wt. when kept immersed in water for 24 hrs.
Crushing strength: It should not be less than 10 N/mm2.
3.5 CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS

There are different methods of classifications which are follows:
Based on the process of making they can be classified as:

- Chimney made bricks (local bricks widely available)
- Machine made bricks (Chinese bricks with limited availability)
Based on the burning process:

- Sun dried bricks: dried under sun – called Kacho Itta. Used in cheap and temporary type of construction &
should not be used exposed to heavy rains
- Burnt bricks: The bricks are ready after burning dried bricks
Based on qualities (strength, shape, size, finishing, porosity, harness, colour) they can be classified as:
First class brick (Class ‘A’) Second class brick
Third class brick Over burnt brick
First class brick

It is quality brick with following characteristics:
- Well burnt bricks with uniform colour, sharp edge, uniform & smooth faces, may get slight efflorescence,
very less cracks or flows
- Crushing strength of 10 N/mm2
- Absorbs less water (12%-15% when immersed in water for 24 hours) and can’t be scratched with fingernail
- When two bricks are struck together they give a metallic or ringing sound
Uses:
- All permanent type of works
- Used as fair face exposed brickwork with pointing
- Used in flooring and in reinforced brickwork
- Used as cladding, carving, in arch structures & as decorative items
Second class brick
They are same quality as 1st class but have somewhat irregular shape or size, have slightly less strength (crushing
strength 7 N/mm2), slightly rough surface & higher water absorption (16%-20% of wt of brick when soaked for 24
hrs).
Uses:
Plastered face brickworks, brick ballast in RCC work & in lime concrete
Third class brick
These are slightly under-burnt bricks with lighter colour, soft and emit dull sound when struck together.
Uses:
Use for temporary construction not subjected to heavy loads or heavy rains
Under-burnt bricks
They don’t get sufficient heat but slightly better than sundried bricks & can be used for same purposes.
Overburnt bricks
These are closer to fire & fused loosing their shape. They are used as aggregate for concrete, road metal, structure
foundation, inferior structures, filling materials.
3.6 STANDARD TEST FOR BRICKS
About fifty pieces of bricks are taken at random from different parts of the stack to perform various tests. For the
purpose of sampling, a lot should contain maximum of 50,000 bricks.
1) Water Absorption
The existence of minute pores confers marked capillary properties on brick ceramics. In particular all bricks absorb
water by capillary action. Normally, three bricks are selected randomly which represent the brick stack well.
Cold water test: The water absorption is obtained by calculating percentage of water absorption by brick when
immersed in water for 24 hours at 280C.
W2 – W1
Water absorption % = ------------ X 100
W1
W1 – Wt. of dry brick (dried in oven for 24 hrs. under 1100C ± 50C)
W2 – Wt. of water-soaked brick (24 hours at 270C ± 20C)
Hot water test: The procedure is same except the specimen is immersed in the water and boiled for five hours,
followed by cooling down to 27° ± 2°C by natural loss of heat within 16–19 hours. Then the wet weight is taken.
2) Hardness
It can be estimated with the help of scratch of the finger nail. If no impression is left on brick surface, it is considered
sufficiently hard.
3) Structure
The broken surface should be homogeneous, compact & free from any defects such as holes, lumps etc.
4) Shape and Size Test

The brick should be of standard size and its shape should be truly rectangular with sharp edges. For this, 20 bricks
of standard size (190mm X 90mm X90mm) are randomly selected & stacked along the length, width and height. The
permissible limit for good quality brick:
Length: 3680mm to 3920mm (single brick length: 184mm~196mm)

Width: 1740mm to 1860mm (single brick width: 87mm~93mm)
Height: 1740mm to 1860mm (single brick height: 87mm~93mm)
5) Soundness
When striking two bricks against each other or by a light hammer, a good quality brick should emit metallic or
ringing sound. It is also tested by dropping the brick flat on hard ground from a height about 1 m – a good/sound
brick should not break.
6) Crushing Strength
The frog of selected bricks are filled with mortar and left immersed in water for 24 hours. After taking out, it is wiped
and wrapped with damp jute bag and stored for 3 more days before testing. It is then tested under compression testing
machine by covering piece of plywood above and below the brick.
Maximum Load at failure (N)

Crushing strength (N/mm2) = ----------------------------------------
Average area of bed faces (mm2)
7) Presence of Soluble Salt

The ends of bricks are immersed in 25mm deep water (200 – 300 C) till the entire water is absorbed or evaporated &
water is filled again. The presence of efflorescence is classified as:
Nil – No presence Slight – covers surface <10% Moderate – Surface covers between 10~50%
Heavy – When >50% & deposit doesn't powder or flake away the brick surface
Serious - When the deposit is heavy & it powders or flake away the brick surface
3.7 TILES AND THEIR TYPES

Tiles are thin slabs of fine brick earth burnt in kiln. The tiles are prepared carefully as it is thinner than bricks and
might easily get cracks or warping in drying and burning. So the earth used to make tiles should be made pure and
carefully prepared.
Types of Tiles
Depending upon the surface treatment it can be classified as:
1) Glazed tiles: A thin transparent film is coated over the surface of tile to improve their appearance & protect against
chemical attacks. The desired surface of a burnt tile is dipped in glazing solution (common salt, lead oxide, boric
acid, quartz, china clay etc.) and fired to fuse the glazing material which produces a shining lustrous surface.
2) Non-glazed tiles: The tiles which are not treated with glazing fall under this category.
The tiles can be classified into the following 4 categories depending upon the use:
1) Roofing Tiles: These are manufactured in different sizes & shapes with main purpose to provide safe & leakage
proof roof and protection from sunlight. Ex.- plain tiles, pot tiles, pan tiles, jhingati etc.
2) Flooring Tiles: These are glazed or non-glazed thick flat slab; coloured for better appearance; manufactured in
different shapes & sizes used as flooring materials in residential or commercial building or outside of the building
as footpath.
3) Wall Tiles: These are flat thinner slab; glazed on exposed side; coloured for better appearance; manufactured in
different shapes & sizes used as cladding materials on walls in residential or commercial building inside or outside
of the building.
4) Drain Tiles: These are long curved or semi-circle; glazed or non-glazed used for draining out wastewater or
rainwater.
3.8 EARTHENWARE AND GLAZING

Earthenware
They are made by burning the ordinary clay at low temperature & cooling slowly. To avoid shrinkage, sand &
crushed pottery are mixed with clay. This increases the toughness, hardness & strength of the ware also.
Characteristics
1. Soft, porous and weak.
2. Glazed earthenware becomes resistant to weathering action.
Uses
Earthenware is used for manufacturing drain pipes, lavatory fittings and light weight partition walls.
Glazing
Bricks, tiles, earthen/stonewares are glazed by an impervious film to protect the surface from chemical attack &
other weathering agencies.
The different types of glazing in use are as to follow:
Transparent Glazing
Among many methods salts glazing is the most commonly used to make the surface impermeable. This is done by
spraying sodium chloride in kiln while burning at peak of 1200-13000C.
Lead Glazing
After burning, the product is dipped in a solution of lead oxide and tin oxide adhering the particles into the clay item.
This product is burnt in the kin making the adhered particle melt resulting in transparent coat.
Opaque Glazing
Borax, kaolin, chalk & colouring matter is fired with total or a part of felspar, flint, and lead oxide. The resulting
molten glass is poured into water to give shattered frit which is later ground. This is made into cream in which the
product is dipped and burnt in kiln for fusion to produce final glazed product.
CHAPTER 4 – LIME
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Until invention of cement, lime was used as the chief cementing material in the building construction both for mortar
& plasters. Lime is being used as cementing materials since ancient times. It is used for many types of structures-
palaces, forts, temples, gumba, monuments which are still existing. Even though, cement is remarkable material &
has replaced lime to great extent, lime has some peculiar advantages e. g. good workability & plasticity, less
shrinkage on drying and durability.
Composition: Lime is composed of higher percentage of calcium oxide, some percentage of silica and alumina. The
percentage of constituents vary depending upon the type of lime.
Manufacturing
There are 2 principal stages of manufacturing:
a) Calcination or burning: It is the process of heating the material to redness in the presence of atmospheric air
to drive carbon-dioxide out. This converts into quicklime which has great affinity for moisture (water).
CaCO3 (Limestone) + Heat CaO (Lime) + CO2 (Carbon-dioxide)
b) Hydration or slaking: The quick lime coming out from kiln is known as lump lime. Adding sufficient water
to quick lime is known as slaking. During slaking it swells and cracks & converts into hydrated lime
generating lot of heat.
CaO (Quicklime) + H2O (Water) Ca (OH)2 (Hydrated lime)
The hydrated or slaked lime obtained in the form of dry powder is packed in the bag to be sold in the market.
4.2 TYPE, PROPERTIES AND USES OF LIME

Limes are usually divided into three classes as:
1. Fat, Rich, Pure, High Calcium or White Lime

2. Poor or Lean Lime
3. Hydrated Lime
1. Fat Lime: It slakes vigorously and volume is increased about 2 to 3 times original volume. It contains about
95% Calcium Oxide & about 5% other materials as impurities after burning. Setting of this lime depends
upon absorption of CO2 from the atmosphere which is converted into CaCO3 which is quite hard & insoluble
in water. Setting and hardening process of this lime is very slow.
Properties
➢ Setting & hardening actions are slow
➢ Slakes vigorously with hissing sound & generation of lot of heat
➢ Swells 2 to 3 times original volume of quick lime after slaking
➢ Has very high degree of plasticity
➢ Soluble in water
➢ It is milky white in its purest form
Uses
White washing Manufacture of artificial hydraulic lime
Lime plastering Lime surkhi mortar
Lime sand mortar Lime cement mortar
2. Poor Lime: When the clay content is more than 30%, the lime is known as poor lime. It slakes very slowly.
It doesn’t dissolve in water but forms thin paste with water. It has poor binding property therefore used for
inferior works. It is also called impure lime.
3. Hydraulic Lime: It is the lime containing small quantities of silica, alumina and/or iron oxide which are in
chemical combination of calcium oxide. It has property to set & hard under water in the absence of air.
Depending upon clay content hydraulic lime is classified as:
a) Feebly HL: 5~15% clay; slakes slowly; small increase in volume & used for inferior masonry works.
b) Moderately HL: 16~25% clay; slakes very slowly; very small increase in volume & used for good type of
masonry works.
c) Eminently HL: 26~30%; better quality than above two.; resembles very much to Portland cement in chemical
composition; slaking is hardly noticeable & used for structural & under water.
Properties
➢ Increased % of clay renders lime more hydraulic and makes slaking more difficult
➢ It can set under water & in damp conditions
➢ It can set under situations where free air can’t reach
➢ It is not perfectly white
➢ It doesn’t dissolve in water but forms thin plastic paste with water
Types of Lime
Comparison between Fat Lime & Hydraulic Lime

4.3 PROPERTIES AND USES OF POZZOLANIC MATERIAL

Pozzolana is a volcanic powder first obtained at Pozzuoli, near Mount Vesuvius in Italy from where it derives its
name. It contains about 80% clay along with lime, magnesia, iron oxide. It doesn't have cementing value on itself,
but when mixed with lime produces cementing properties, which is more resistance to chemical attacks and hardens
slowly. It has slow rate of heat evolution & thus has long curing period to gain strength. About 70% by weight of
ordinary cement clinker is mixed with 30% by weight of pozzolana which are grinded to get Pozzolana Cement. It
is cheaper than OPC.
Pozzolanas are classified into two types as:
Natural: These are naturally available materials. The examples are: clays, shales, diatomaceous earth,
opaline cherts, volcanic tuffs & pumicites, Rhenish & Bavarian trass etc.
Artificial: These are made artificially or by-product of other materials. The examples are: fly ash, blast-
furnace slag, silica fume, surkhi, rice husk ash etc.
Properties
➢ Even though it doesn’t have cementing property independently, but when mixed with lime produces
cementing property.
➢ It has more resistance to chemical attacks.
➢ It slows setting and hardening time of cementing materials avoiding cracks
➢ It reduces permeability of concrete by filling the pores in concrete
➢ It reacts with free lime converting the mass into dense product
➢ Adding this converts fat lime into hydraulic lime
➢ It has low rate of heat evolution which requires long period of wet curing for better strength
➢ It is cheaper than cement
Uses
Due to reduced rate of hydration, slower gaining of strength and improved workability, it is suitable for mass
concreting works. It is also popularly used for masonry works, plastering and foundation concreting.
Examples: dams, retaining walls, pavement concreting, wharf walls, breakwaters, harbor works and massive
foundations etc.
CHAPTER 5 – CEMENT
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Cement in a general sense is adhesive and cohesive material which is capable of bonding together particles of solid
matter into a compact durable mass. It is an important engineering material widely used as binding & strength
resisting material in the form of mortar, PCC, RCC, slurry, grout etc. It is used in almost all types of civil engineering
works such as building, road, bridge, tunnel, dams, water retaining structures etc. The most commonly used cements
are OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement) and PPC (Pozzolana Portland Cement). However, other types of cements are
also used for specific conditions with property of quick setting, high plasticity, workability, moisture resistance, acid
resistance, early gain of strength etc.
Today (year 2018), there are around 50 cement industries are in Nepal. Of all the factories in Nepal, about 15%
industries produce clinker locally and the rest purchase clinker domestically or from India. Of the total demand 70%
clinker is produced in Nepal and rest is imported from India. Almost 90% of total cement demand is fulfilled by
cement produced in Nepal and rest is imported mostly from India. The imported cements are for some specific
projects, e.g. Hydropower, road, housing etc. Total cement demand in Nepal now is around 15 million tonnes per
year. There are seasonal variations in demand of cement in Nepal: 1st half of Nepali month almost 65% and 2nd half
the rest. The high demand of cement is around Chaitra-Asar (45~50%) and lowest around Dashain-Chaitha.
5.2 TYPE, PROPERTIES AND USES OF CEMENT

Cements are mainly classified into two types: Natural and Artificial
Natural: It is manufactured by burning and then crushing the natural cement stones containing 20~40% argillaceous
matter (clay) and remaining calcareous material (calcium carbonate). The examples are: Roman cement, Pozzolana
Cement, Medina Cement etc.
Artificial: This type of cement is most popular product in the world which is manufactured artificially under
controlled conditions in cement factories. The examples are ordinary Portland and other types of commercial
cements.
Cement can also be classified as hydraulic and non-hydraulic.
The hydraulic cement sets and hardens in water and give a stable product, e.g. Portland cement. The non-hydraulic
cement does not set and harden in water/or is unstable in water, e g. Plaster of Paris.
Properties of good cement
➢ It provides strength to the structure

➢ It hardens early
➢ It is easily workable
➢ It is an excellent binding material
➢ It possesses good plasticity
➢ It is good moisture resistance
Type of cement, its properties and uses

Depending upon their chemical composition & practical application the cement can be classified as:
Ordinary Portland Cement

It is common type of cement. It has medium rate of strength development and medium rate of heat generation. It has
30 minutes of initial setting and 10 hours of final setting time. It possesses sufficient resistance against dry shrinkage
& cracking but less against chemical attack. It is used in almost all type of construction.
High Alumina Cement
It is a type of rapid hardening cement manufactured by fusing the limestone & bauxite at high temperature. It contains
about 35% alumina and has chocolate colour. It possesses high resistance against sulphate attack, fire and acid. The
initial setting time of this cement is 2.5~3 hrs and final setting time is 4~5.5 hrs. It gains high strength in short time
as final setting is quick with faster heat generation. It is expensive than OPC and is unsuitable for mass concreting.
It is used for under water construction, cold working temperature, chemical plants and furnaces.
Portland Slag Cement

It is prepared by mixing slag from the blast furnace with cement clinker and gypsum and grinding to make final
product. It has lesser heat of hydration and better resistance to acid & other corrodent environment. The rate of
strength development is slightly lower than OPC. It is cheaper than OPC as it is mixed with slag. All other properties
are similar to that of OPC. It is generally used in mass concrete and marine works.
Rapid Hardening Cement

It provides strength faster than OPC though its initial & final setting time is similar to that of OPC. It contains more
Tricalcium Silicate – responsible for rapid hardening of cement. It is finer in size and lighter than OPC. The curing
period is short. It is used where strength should be gained earlier and formwork should be removed earlier.
Low Heat Cement

It is so called as it produces lesser rate of heat production. Tricalcium Silicate is responsible for rapid hydration (heat
production) resulting in rapid hardening but hydration of Dicalcium Silicate is slower; so, decrease in the % of
Tricalcium Silicate & increase in % of Dicalcium Silicate produces how heat cement. It possesses less amount of
compressive strength and used for mass concreting works.
Quick Setting Cement

Gypsum, which retards the setting of cement, is reduced in the cement and some aluminium sulphate is added to get
the initial setting time to less than 5 minutes and final setting time less than 30 minutes. The fineness also accelerates
the setting of cement. It is used when concreting work is to be carried out under water or in running water to set the
cement as quick as possible.
White Cement
It possesses same strength as OPC but has greater aesthetic value. It is clear white color which is due to absence of
iron oxide & magnesium oxide in cement. To avoid contamination, it is heated in oil fuel kiln instead of coal and
special care is taken while grinding the clinker. It is much expensive than OPC. It is used for finishing works on
floor finish, tile joint mortar, aesthetic precast works etc.
Coloured Cement
It is obtained by adding 5 to 15% of suitable colouring compound before grinding of cement. Iron oxide, magnesium
oxide, chromium oxide, or cobalt oxide is added to obtain red, yellow, green or blue colour in the cement. It is
expensive than OPC. It is used for aesthetic works such as floor finish, windowsill, staircase etc.
Portland Pozzolana Cement

The pozzolana contains about 80% clay along with lime, magnesia, iron oxide. It doesn't have cementing value on
itself, but when mixed with lime produces cementing properties, which is more resistance to chemical attacks and
hardens slowly. It has slow rate of heat evolution and thus needs long curing period to gain strength. About 70% by
weight of ordinary cement clinker is mixed with 30% weight of pozzolana which are grinded to get Pozzolana
Cement. It is cheaper than OPC. It is used for mass concreting ex. dams, retaining walls, pavement concreting, wharf
walls, breakwaters, harbor works and massive foundations.
5.3 INGREDIENTS OF CEMENT

The main constituents of cement are calcareous and argillaceous materials. The ordinary cement mainly consists of
3 ingredients predominantly: clay or alumina, silica and lime. Approximate composition of raw materials is:
a) Calcium Oxide [Lime (CaO)] 60~65%
b) Silica (SiO2) 20~25%
c) Alumina [Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3)] 4~8%
d) Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 2~4%
e) Magnesium Oxide (MgO) 1~3%
f) Sulphur Trioxide 1~3%
g) Alkalis (Soda & Potash) 0.2~1%
h) Calcium Sulphate [Gypsum (CaSo4)] 3~5%
The functions of various ingredients of OPC are as follows:
1. Lime (CaO)
• If in excess, it makes cement unsound and causes expansion & disintegration
• If deficient, the strength of cement is decreased and the cement sets quickly
• With right proportion, cement becomes sound and strong
2. Silica (SiO2)
• Imparts strength due to formation of dicalcium and tricalcium silicate
• In excess, it provides greater strength and prolongs its setting time
3. Alumina (Al2O3)
• Imparts quick setting quality to cement
• Act as a flux and lowers the clinkering temperature
• In excess, it reduces the strength of cement
4. Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4) - Gypsum
• It helps increase/decrease the initial setting time of cement
5. Iron Oxide (Fe2O3)
• Provides colour, hardness and strength to the cement
• Helps fusion of raw materials during manufacturing of cement
6. Magnesium Oxide (MgO)
• If present in small amount, imparts hardness & colour to the cement
• If in excess, makes the cement unsound
7. Sulphur Trioxide (SO3)
• If present in very small quantity, makes the cement sound
• If in excess, it causes the cement become unsound
8. Alkalis
• Should be present in small quantities
• Alkalis in excess will cause efflorescence
Harmful Constituents of Cement
Presence of these 2 oxides affects the quality of cement adversely:
1. Alkali Oxide (K2O & Na2O): If the amount exceeds 1%, it leads to failure of concrete.
2. Magnesium Oxide (MgO): If the amount exceeds 5%, it causes cracks after mortar or concrete hardens.
Setting of cement: the cement mix after adding water goes through initial hydration during which plasticity gradually
disappears and becomes stiff and changes into solid mass which is called initial setting. After sometimes the solid
mass starts gaining the strength which is called final setting time of cement.
5.4 MANUFACTURE OF CEMENT (FLOW DIAGRAM)

Cement Production goes through the following phases to complete the production cycle:
1. Extraction of raw materials / Quarrying

2. Grinding, Proportioning and Blending
3. Pre-heating phase
4. Kiln phase
5. Cooling and final grinding
6. Packing and transporting/ shipping
Cement can be manufactured by following two methods:
1) Dry Process 2) Wet Process
Process of cement Manufacturing

Dry Process
- The limestone & clay are ground separately to fine powders and then mixed together in desired proportions
- The water is then added & the resulting product is dried and burnt in kilns
- To the clinker obtained after burning is added3~5% of gypsum & ground to very fine powder which makes
final product ready to be used
This process is slow and costly. Also, due to difficulty in proportioning correct mixing of constituents, the final
product is not as good as that of wet process.
Wet Process
- The limestone is ground separately

- Clay materials are mixed with water in wash mills and stored
- The crushed dry limestone & wet clay are mixed in correct proportions
- The resulting slurry is fed into the kiln for burning
- To the clinker obtained after burning is added3~5% of gypsum & ground to very fine powder which produces
final product ready to be used
Manufacture Flow Diagram

5.5 COMPOSITION AND FUNCTION OF CEMENT CLINKER

Composition
- The various constituents combine in burning and form cement clinker.
- The compounds formed in the burning process have the properties of setting & hardening in the presence of
water.
- These compounds are known as Bogue Compounds after the person who invented it.
The following Bogue Compounds are formed during clinkering process:
The compounds undergo chemical combination during burning & fusion and produces followings with these specific
properties:
i) Tri-calcium silicate (3CaO.SiO2)

a) this is best cementing material constituting 25~50% (normally 40%) of the total
b) renders the clinker easier to grind, increases resistance to freezing & thawing
c) hydrates more rapidly by generating heat more rapidly
d) possesses less resistance to chemical attacks
e) develops hardening and gains strength early
ii) Di-Calcium silicate (2CaO.SiO2)

a) it constitutes about 25~40% (normally about 32%) of the total
b) imparts ultimate strength to the cement
c) offers more resistance to chemical attack
d) hardens and hydrates slowly
e) Raising this content renders clinker harder to grind, reduces early strength, decreases resistance to freezing
& thawing at early age & decreases heat of hydration
iii) Tri-calcium aluminate (3CaO.Al2O3)

a) constitutes about 5~11% (normally about 10.5%) of the total
b) rapidly reacts with water and is responsible for flash set of finely grounded clinker
c) causes initial setting of cement
b) reacts faster, generating large amount of heat
c) doesn’t contribute developing strength
d) raising it reduces setting time & weakens against sulphate attack
iv) Tetra-Calcium aluminium ferrite (4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3)

a) constitutes about 8~14% (normally about 9%) of the total
a) poor cementing value & comparatively inactive
b) responsible for flash setting but reacts slowly, generating small amount of heat
Most of the strength developing properties of cement are controlled by tricalcium silicate & dicalcium silicate.
Thus, by changing the relative proportions of these compounds, various types of cements are manufactured.
5.6 STANDARD TEST OF CEMENT

In cement we seek permanency of structure, strength, and rate of setting suitable to the demands of the work. To
determine these qualifications, both physical (more often) and chemical tests are made. The most common physical
tests determining the acceptability of cement are:
1) Soundness Test
2) Strength (Tensile & Compressive) Test
3) Consistency Test
4) Setting Time (Initial & Final) Test
5) Fineness Test
1) Soundness Test:
It is to determine if excess of lime, magnesia or sulphur is present in cement which are undesired & harmful
The following two types of tests are used for soundness:
a) Le Chatelier’s Test (using Le Chatelier’s apparatus): it indicates unsoundness due to lime only. Following
are the procedures:
- 100g of cement is mixed with 0.78 times water & the paste is filled on the mould of which top and bottom
are covered with glass plate.
- It is submerged in water at 27~320C and removed after 24 hrs & the distance separating the indicator points
is measured.
- The sample is again submerged in water which is boiled for 3 hours & taken out.
- After cooling the sample, the distance between the indicators are again measured.
- The difference between the two measurements represents the unsoundness of cement which should not be
more than 10mm (for OPC, rapid hardening & low heat cement).
Apparatus for test
b) Autoclave Test: It indicates unsoundness due to both lime & magnesia. Following are the procedures:
- A 25 X 25 X 250 mm specimen bars of neat cement paste are removed from the moist atmosphere after 24
hrs from mould and measured.
- The samples are placed in autoclave with raised steam pressure of 2.1 N/mm2 which is maintained for 3
hours before turning off slowly.
- The autoclave is cooled with a rate of 0.1N/mm2 then the specimens are placed in water at temperature of
900C which is gradually brought down to 27±20C in 15 mins.
- The specimens are maintained at the same temperature for another 15 mins the length of specimen bars is
measured again.
- The difference in two measurements gives the unsoundness of the cement which (expansion) should not be
more than 0.6%.
2) Strength Test:
The strength of mortar / concrete depends upon the type & nature of cement. So, it should develop a minimum
specified strength if it is to be used in structures.
a) Tensile Strength: It may be determined by Briquette test method or split tensile test.
Briquette test:
- It is tested by fracturing 6 standard briquettes made of normal consistence cement mortar (1:3) using cement
& standard sand
- % of water by wt. of cement is given by the relation P/5 + 2.5 where P is the % water required to make
normal consistency
- A cement mortar (1:3) is prepared & filled in standard briquette mould & cured for 24 hrs. at temperature of
27±20C
- Tensile test is carried out for 3 or 7 days also. For OPC the average value should not be less than 2.0 N/mm2
& 2.5 N/mm2 respectively
b) Compressive Strength: It is determined by cube test method
- It is tested by crushing 3 standard cubes made of normal consistence cement mortar (1:3) using cement &
standard sand
- % of water by weight of cement is given by the relation P/4 + 3.5 where P is the % water required to make
normal consistency
- A cement mortar (1:3) is prepared & filled in standard cube (70.6mm size) mould & vibrated for about 2
minutes and cured for 24 hrs. at temperature of 27±20C
- Compressive test is carried out for 3 or 7 days also. For OPC the average value should not be less than 10.5
N/mm2 & 17.5 N/mm2 respectively
3) Consistency Test
This is a test to estimate the quantity of mixing water to form a paste of normal consistency.
- A cement paste is made by mixing 300g cement with 25% water

- The paste is filled in Vicat’s apparatus and levelled well
- A round needle (10mm size diameter) attached to the plunger is lowered to touch the top surface of cement
paste
- Plunger is released quickly & the needle penetrates the sample
- If the reading on the attached scale shows 5~7mm from the bottom of the mould, it is considered consistence
paste. If not, the sample is prepared again with water adjustment and tested again until correct water amount
is determined
After correct consistency, another sample is prepared with same percentage of water for testing of setting time
of cement.
4) Setting Time of Cement
- Setting time is categorized as initial and final setting time

- Initial setting time is the time after which the cement paste starts losing its plasticity
- So, initial setting time is considered to know the available time for mixing, transportation, placing &
compaction of cement product
- The final setting time is the time at which cement paste completely loses its plasticity and attains strength to
resist certain pressure
- Initial setting time of OPC should not be less than 30 minutes and final setting time should not be more than
10 hours
i) Initial Setting time of cement

- The consistence cement paste is placed in Vicat’s mould
- A needle of 1 mm2 is fit to the apparatus and is brought in contact with top surface of cement paste & released
- The process is carried out until the needle penetrates the paste 43-45mm from the top or 5-7mm from bottom
- The time elapsed from placing water to the cement and allowing this standard penetration is the initial setting
time of cement
ii) Final Setting time of cement

- After determining the initial time same sample is tested further for final setting time
- For this test a plunger with annular collar of 5mm (1mm2 tip of 0.5mm projection at the center) is brought
in contact with top surface of cement paste and released quickly
- The final setting is said to occur when the central needle makes an impression over the surface of the paste
but circular cutting edge fails to do so
- The time elapsed from placing water to the cement and determining this standard penetration is the final
setting time of cement
5) Fineness Test
- It is carried out to check proper grinding of cement

- It may be determined by sieve method (using 90-micron sieve), air permeability method (Nurse & Blains
method) or sedimentation method (Wagner turbidimeter method)
- The first method measures the grain size whereas last two methods measure the surface area of cement
- The first method doesn’t represent true value as tiny cement grains tend to conglomerate into lumps
- Fineness is generally expressed in terms of specific area, which is total surface area of the particles in unit
weight of material
a) Sieve method: A 100g of cement sample is taken and continuously passed for 15 minutes through standard
90-micron sieve. The residue is weighted which should not be less than 10% for OPC & 5% for both rapid
hardening (RHC) and Portland pozzolana cement.
b) Air permeability method: The cement is placed and air pressure is applied in the apparatus & the specific
surface area is determined which is 2250 cm2/g for OPC, 3250 cm2/g for RHC & 300 cm2/g for PPC.
c) Wagner turbidimeter method: A sample of cement is dispersed uniformly in a rectangular glass tank filled
with kerosene. The light rays are passed thought the solution which strike the sensitivity plate of
photoelectric cell. Then readings are taken with regular intervals while the cement particles are falling in the
solution. The readings are expressed in cm2/g
5.7 CEMENT WATER PROOFERS

A waterproofing material is impervious, durable & should be able to resist loads to which it is subjected without
failure. There are different types of water proofers one of which is cement water proofer. Water proofing is done by
adding certain water proofing compound to mix of cement (slurry, mortar or concrete). This compound will add
certain qualities to the product which improves cement flexibility & strength; water & damp resistance and excellent
adhesion.
These materials are available mainly in three forms & may be available commercially with different names.
i) Compounds made from chalk, talk, fullers earth which may fill the voids of cement product.
ii) Compounds like alkaline silicate, aluminium sulphate, calcium chloride etc. which react chemically with
cement to produce water proofing properties.
iii) Compounds like soap, petroleum, oils, fatty acid compounds (stearates of calcium, sodium, ammonia etc.)
work on water repulsion principle. When these are mixed with cement products, it becomes water repellent.
5.8 ADMIXTURES
Admixtures are materials which are added to the concrete mix before or during mixing to improve certain properties
in fresh or hardened state.
The admixture may affect more than one property. The functions of admixture are:
✓ Accelerate the initial setting of cement (speed up early strength)

✓ Retard initial setting
✓ Increase concrete strength
✓ Improve workability
✓ Reduce heat evolution
✓ Increase durability of concrete against freezing and thawing
✓ Control expansion
✓ Increase impermeability
✓ Reduce segregation
✓ Increase flowability & pumpability
✓ Strengthen bond between old & new concrete, iron bars & concrete
✓ Resistance to corrosion
✓ Resistance to chemical attack
✓ Produce non-skid or coloured or insecticidal properties
Admixtures may be classified as:

1. Accelerators: It accelerates rate of hydration & consequently rate of gain of strength and reduce the setting
time. Ex- sulphates (except calcium sulphate); alkali carbonates, aluminates & silicates; aluminium chloride;
calcium/ sodium chloride; sodium & potassium hydroxide; formaldehyde etc.
2. Retarders: Retards initial setting time to allow longer transport & placing of concrete in the site which is far
from batching plant. Ex- the most common is calcium sulphate
4. Water proofers: Explained on previous topic.
5. Workability agents: These agents increase the workability by increasing the amount of paste in concrete &
hence the cohesiveness. If excess – causes cracking & strength loss. Ex- Lime, bentonite, kaolin, chalk,
diatomaceous earth etc.
6. Surface active agents: These agents decrease the surface tension & commonly known as air entraining agent
which increases the slump of concrete & so the compaction.
Ex- Natural wood resins & their sap
Animal or vegetable fats/oils such as tallow or olive oil
Wetting agent such as alkali salts of sulphonated or sulphated organic compound
7. Pozzolanas: They are siliceous materials which are inactive alone but will react, in the presence of water,
with lime to form compounds having cementitious properties.
Ex- lime, fly ash, burnt clay, blast furnace slag etc.
CHAPTER 6 – MORTAR
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MORTAR

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TRIVUBAN UNIVERSITY

PULCHOWK ENGINEERING COLLEGE

CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

CIVIL SECOND YEAR – FIRST PART

COURSE CODE: CE 506

CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

1.1 SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT

1.2 SELECTION CRITERIA OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

The important properties of materials are:

H) Disposability and recyclability

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIAL

A. Based on the existence: It is classified into two types:

B. Based on metallurgy: It is classified into two types:

C. Based on use: It is classified into three types:

1.4 PROPERTIES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIAL

2. Density: It is defined as the mass of a material per unit of its volume.

12. Durability: It is the resistance of a material to destruction by natural agencies.

11. Malleability: It is the ability of a material to be beaten to thin sheets.

- The density of material

1. Chemical properties (chemical composition, acidity, alkalinity, corrosion etc.)

CHAPTER 2 – BUILDING STONES

2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BUILDING STONES

2.3 SELECTION AND USE OF STONES

2.4 DETERIORATION AND PRESERVATION OF STONES

- It doesn’t allow moisture to penetrate the stone surfaces

2.5 NATURAL BED OF STONES

2.6 DRESSING OF STONES

➢ Generally, to give them neat/good appearances

The different types of dressing of stones are:

1. Hammer Dressed or Quarry-faced Surface

The details of types of dressing of stones are as follows:

1. Hammer Dressed or Quarry-faced Surface:

2. Rough tooled surface:

4. Cut stone Surface:

CHAPTER 3 – CLAY PRODUCTS

3.2 CONSTITUENTS OF BRICK EARTH

FUNCTIONS OF VARIOUS INGREDIENTS

HARMFUL INGREDIENTS IN BRICK EARTH

3.3 MANUFACTURE OF BRICK

The important terms to be remembered in connection with the drying is as follows:

(i) Clamp burning

(ii) Kiln burning

Example – Clamp Burning

Example – Kiln Burning

3.4 QUALITIES OF GOOD BRICKS

Crushing strength: It should not be less than 10 N/mm2.

3.5 CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS

Based on the process of making they can be classified as:

Based on the burning process:

First class brick (Class ‘A’) Second class brick

Third class brick Over burnt brick

First class brick

Second class brick

Third class brick

3.6 STANDARD TEST FOR BRICKS

4) Shape and Size Test

Length: 3680mm to 3920mm (single brick length: 184mm~196mm)

Maximum Load at failure (N)

7) Presence of Soluble Salt

3.7 TILES AND THEIR TYPES

3.8 EARTHENWARE AND GLAZING

The different types of glazing in use are as to follow:

There are 2 principal stages of manufacturing: