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Thermodynamics
Text book:
3- Systems of Units:
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a) English system (Foot, Pound, second). Old system.
b) Metric system (meter, gram, second). Established in 1875.
c) SI system (meter, Kilogram, second). Established in 1960.
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W= Force x Distance W= F x D (J) 1J= 1 N.m
- In the English system, the energy unit is the Btu (British thermal unit), which is
defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 lbm of water at
68°F by 1°F.
- In the metric system, the amount of energy needed to raise the
temperature of 1 g of water at 14.5°C by 1°C is defined as 1 calorie (cal),
and 1 cal = 4.1868 J.
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STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
EQUILIBRIUM:
A system will not be in equilibrium unless all the relevant equilibrium criteria are satisfied:
Thermal equilibrium: A system is in thermal equilibrium if the temperature is the same throughout the
entire system.
Mechanical equilibrium: is related to pressure, and a system is in mechanical equilibrium if there is
no change in pressure at any point of the system with time.
phase equilibrium: It happens when the mass of each phase reaches an equilibrium level and stays
there.
chemical equilibrium: It occurs if its chemical composition does not change with time, that is, no
chemical reactions occur.
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1–7 PROCESSES AND CYCLES:
Process: Any change that a system undergoes
from one equilibrium state to another is called a process.
Some common properties that are used as coordinates are: temperature (T), pressure
(P), and volume V (or specific volume v). Figure below shows the P-V diagram of a
compression process of a gas.
- The prefix (iso-) is often used to designate a process for which a particular
property remains constant.
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identical.
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such as: turbines, pumps, boilers, condensers, and heat exchangers or power
plants or refrigeration systems.
- Energy (in forms of heat) flows from higher temperature body to a lower
temperature body.
- -When a body is brought into contact with another body that is at a different
temperature, heat is transferred from the body at higher temperature to the
one at lower temperature until both bodies attain the same temperature.
- The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Temperature Scales:
- There are four temperature scales:
- Celsius scale (formerly called the centigrade scale).
- Fahrenheit scale.
- Kelvin scale
- Rankine scale.
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The relationship between different temperature scales are as following:
1–9 PRESSURE
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In the English system, the pressure unit is pound-force per square inch (lbf/in2, or psi),
and 1 atm = 14.696 psi.
The pressure units kgf/cm and lbf/in are also denoted by kg/cm and lb/in , respectively, and
2 2 2 2
they are
commonly used in tire gages. It can be shown that 1 kgf/cm = 14.223 psi.
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where γs = ρg is the specific weight of the fluid.
The negative sign is due to our taking the positive z direction to be upward so that dP is negative
when dz is positive since pressure decreases in an upward direction.
- The pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid.
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1–10 THE MANOMETER
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atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
The tube diameter has no effect on the height of the mercury column.
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