Network Plus 2009

Copyright 2009 by KeenSkills, Inc.
All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this book
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ISBN: 1-893596-44-3
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02 1
Publisher: KeenSkills, Inc.
Author: KeenSkills, Inc.
Contributing Writers: Richard Harrison
Garrett Smiley
Maverick A. Bolen
Editor: Susan Schmidt
Trademark Acknowledgments
Brands and product names cited in this manual are trademarks or registered trademarks
held by their respective companies. Any use of a term in this book should not be regarded
as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark.
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS...............................................................................................................I
INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................1
COMPTIA TEST OBJECTIVES FOR NETWORK+...........................................................................2
STUDY PLAN STRATEGIES ....................................................................................................18
HOW TO TAKE THE TEST......................................................................................................19
Who may take the test? ...............................................................................................19
How to Prepare to Ensure Exam Success...................................................................19
Step 1 – Prepare for the Training............................................................................19
Step 2 – Do the Coursework (Text and Videos/CDs).............................................20
Step 3 – Prepare for the Network+ Exam................................................................21
Step 4 – Take the Certification Exam.....................................................................21
ABOUT THIS COURSE...........................................................................................................23
CHAPTER 1 – NETWORKING FUNDAMENTALS...................................................24
INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING............................................................................................24
Benefits of Networking Computers.............................................................................24
Local Area Networks (LAN) and Wide Area Networks (WAN).................................25
The Client/Server Relationship...................................................................................26
Client/Server Networking............................................................................................26
Peer-to-Peer Networking............................................................................................27
BASIC NETWORK STRUCTURE (TOPOLOGY).............................................................................28
Bus Topology...............................................................................................................28
Star Topology..............................................................................................................29
Ring Topology.............................................................................................................29
SPECIAL TOPOLOGIES...........................................................................................................30
Hybrid Topologies.......................................................................................................30
Mesh Topology............................................................................................................30
Wireless Topology.......................................................................................................31
NETWORK ACCESS...............................................................................................................33
Token Passing.............................................................................................................33
Ethernet.......................................................................................................................33
Fast Ethernet...............................................................................................................34
HUBS AND CONCENTRATORS..................................................................................................35
Passive Hubs...............................................................................................................35
Active Hubs.................................................................................................................36
Hub-Based Networks...................................................................................................36
SUMMARY...........................................................................................................................37
KEYWORDS EXERCISE ...................................................................................................38
REVIEW QUESTIONS - CHAPTER 1..........................................................................................39
CHAPTER 2 - NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS (NOS).....................................40
WHAT IS AN OPERATING SYSTEM?.........................................................................................40
Preemptive vs. Non-preemptive Multitasking.............................................................41
WHAT IS A NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM (NOS)?................................................................42
Peer-to-Peer LANs......................................................................................................42
Windows for Workgroups ......................................................................................42
i
Network + Training & Test Preparation Guide
Windows 95/98........................................................................................................42
Windows ME...........................................................................................................43
Windows 2000 Professional....................................................................................43
Windows XP Home.................................................................................................43
Windows XP Professional ......................................................................................43
Windows 2003 Server.............................................................................................43
Windows Vista........................................................................................................43
Windows Server 2008.............................................................................................44
Warp Connect..........................................................................................................44
Other Peer-to-Peer LANs........................................................................................44
Server/Client Software................................................................................................44
Client Software........................................................................................................45
Server Software.......................................................................................................45
The Redirector (Requester).....................................................................................46
NOS PACKAGES.................................................................................................................47
Novell NetWare...........................................................................................................47
NetWare Directory Services (NDS)........................................................................47
NetWare File Services.............................................................................................48
NetWare Security....................................................................................................48
NetWare Print Services...........................................................................................48
NetWare Message Handling Service (MHS)..........................................................48
NetWare Interoperability.........................................................................................48
Microsoft Windows NT Network Operating System...................................................48
Windows NT File Services......................................................................................49
Windows NT Security.............................................................................................49
Windows NT Print Servers......................................................................................50
Windows NT Services.............................................................................................50
Interoperability........................................................................................................50
Windows 2000 Server.............................................................................................51
UNIX Operating Systems............................................................................................51
Banyan VINES (Virtual Integrated Network Service).................................................51
SUMMARY...........................................................................................................................53
KEYWORDS EXERCISE....................................................................................................54
KEYWORDDEFINITIONCLIENT SOFTWARECSNWDSMNFATFILE
SERVERGSNWINTEROPERABILITYMHSLINUXMACINTOSHMULTITASKINGNDSNON-PREEMPTIVE
MULTITASKINGNOSNTFSNWLINKPREEMPTIVE MULTITASKINGPRINT
SERVERREDIRECTOR/REQUESTERSECURITYSERVER SOFTWAREUNIX.........................................54
REVIEW QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................54
CHAPTER 3- THE OSI MODEL AND COMMUNICATION STANDARDS...........57
THE SEVEN LAYERS OF NETWORK COMMUNICATION................................................................57
SEVEN LAYERS OF THE OSI MODEL......................................................................................58
Application Layer........................................................................................................58
Presentation Layer......................................................................................................59
Session Layer..............................................................................................................59
Transport Layer..........................................................................................................59
Network Layer.............................................................................................................60
Data Link Layer..........................................................................................................60
Logical Link Control (LLC)........................................................................................61
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Table of Contents
Media Access Control (MAC).....................................................................................61
Physical Layer.............................................................................................................62
PROTOCOL STACKS..............................................................................................................64
Communication Between Peer Layers........................................................................64
OSI AND THE REAL WORLD.................................................................................................66
DEVICES AND THE OSI MODEL.............................................................................................68
Repeaters.....................................................................................................................68
Bridges........................................................................................................................68
Routers........................................................................................................................68
Brouters.......................................................................................................................69
Gateways.....................................................................................................................69
IEEE 802 STANDARDS........................................................................................................70
NETWORK DRIVERS AND THE OSI MODEL..............................................................................72
NDIS (Network Driver Interface Specification)..........................................................72
ODI (Open Data Link Interface).................................................................................72
PROTOCOLS AND OSI...........................................................................................................72
Protocol Binding.........................................................................................................73
Connection-Oriented vs. Connectionless....................................................................73
Routable vs. Non-Routable Protocols.........................................................................73
Networking Protocols and Stacks...............................................................................74
AppleTalk....................................................................................................................75
DECnet........................................................................................................................75
IPX/ SPX.....................................................................................................................75
SMB (Server Message Block)......................................................................................76
SNA (Systems Network Architecture)..........................................................................76
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)........................................................................76
IP (Internet Protocol)..................................................................................................76
UDP (User Datagram Protocol).................................................................................76
FTP (File Transfer Protocol)......................................................................................76
Telnet...........................................................................................................................77
NFS (Network File System).........................................................................................77
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)......................................................................77
RIP (Routing Information Protocol)...........................................................................77
NTP (Network Time Protocol)....................................................................................77
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)...............................................................................77
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)............................................................................77
X.25.............................................................................................................................77
XNS (Xerox Network System)......................................................................................78
Non-Routable Protocols..............................................................................................78
DLC (Data Link Control)............................................................................................78
LAT (Local Area Transport).......................................................................................78
NetBEUI (NetBIOS Extended User Interface)............................................................78
Other Protocols...........................................................................................................79
SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol)...........................................................................79
PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)....................................................................................79
PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol)................................................................79
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)........................................................79
ISO/OSI Standard.......................................................................................................79
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)...............................................................79
iii
DNS (Domain Name System)......................................................................................79
XDR (External Data Representation).........................................................................79
RPC (Remote Procedure Call)....................................................................................79
SUMMARY...........................................................................................................................81
KEYWORDS EXERCISE ...................................................................................................82
REVIEW QUESTIONS – CHAPTER 3.........................................................................................84
CHAPTER 4 - HARDWARE MEDIA AND PERIPHERALS.....................................86
NETWORK CABLING.............................................................................................................86
Coaxial Cable.............................................................................................................86
Thinnet.....................................................................................................................86
Thicknet...................................................................................................................86
Summary of Coaxial Cables....................................................................................87
Coaxial Connectors.....................................................................................................87
BNC Cable Connectors...........................................................................................87
N Connectors...........................................................................................................88
Transceivers.............................................................................................................88
Vampire Taps..........................................................................................................89
Twisted-Pair Cable.....................................................................................................89
UTP.........................................................................................................................90
STP..........................................................................................................................90
Twisted-Pair Connectors.........................................................................................90
AppleTalk................................................................................................................90
Distribution Panels..................................................................................................91
Fiber-Optic Cable.......................................................................................................91
IBM Cabling................................................................................................................92
Summary of Cabling....................................................................................................94
Media...........................................................................................................94
CABLING TERMS..................................................................................................................95
AWG (American Wire Gauge)....................................................................................95
Bandwidth...................................................................................................................95
Plenum Grade Cabling...............................................................................................95
Selecting Cables..........................................................................................................96
NETWORK INTERFACE CARDS (NICS)....................................................................................98
Preparing the Data.....................................................................................................98
Signals and Clocking..................................................................................................98
Signals.....................................................................................................................98
Clocking..................................................................................................................98
Network Addressing/MAC Address.............................................................................98
DMA (Direct Memory Channel).................................................................................99
Controlling the Data Flow..........................................................................................99
Configurable Options..................................................................................................99
IRQ (Interrupt Request).........................................................................................100
Base I/O Port Address...........................................................................................100
Base Memory Address..........................................................................................100
DMA Channel ......................................................................................................100
Boot PROM...........................................................................................................100
Ring Speed............................................................................................................101
Connector Type.....................................................................................................101
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Table of Contents
Wireless NICs............................................................................................................101
Fiber-Optic NICs......................................................................................................101
DATA BUS ARCHITECTURE..................................................................................................102
Standard Bus Types...................................................................................................102
Laptops......................................................................................................................102
NETWORK PERFORMANCE...................................................................................................103
WIRELESS NETWORKS........................................................................................................104
Why Wireless?...........................................................................................................104
Wireless Transmission Methods................................................................................105
Infrared Networks..................................................................................................105
Radio Transmission...................................................................................................106
Narrow-Band Radio Transmission........................................................................106
Spread-Spectrum Radio Transmissions.................................................................106
Microwave.............................................................................................................107
Packet-Radio Networking.....................................................................................107
Cellular Networking..............................................................................................107
Satellite Station Networking......................................................................................107
Terrestrial Microwave...........................................................................................107
Satellite Microwave...............................................................................................107
SUMMARY.........................................................................................................................109
KEYWORDS EXERCISE..................................................................................................110
REVIEW QUESTIONS CHAPTER 4..........................................................................................111
CHAPTER 5 – NETWORK PROTOCOLS & STANDARDS...................................114
ACCESS METHODS.............................................................................................................115
CSMA/CD (Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection).....................115
CSMA/CA (Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)....................116
Token Passing...........................................................................................................116
Demand Priority.......................................................................................................116
NETWORK COMMUNICATIONS (FRAMES AND PACKETS)...........................................................118
Packet Structure........................................................................................................118
Packet Components...................................................................................................118
Headers..................................................................................................................118
Data.......................................................................................................................119
Trailer....................................................................................................................119
NETWORK STANDARDS.......................................................................................................121
Logical Link Control (802.2)....................................................................................121
Ethernet (802.3)........................................................................................................121
10BaseT (Twisted Pair).........................................................................................122
10Base2 (Thinnet).................................................................................................122
10Base5 (Thicknet)...............................................................................................122
10BaseFL (Fiber Optic).........................................................................................122
100 Mbps IEEE Ethernet Standards......................................................................122
100VG-AnyLAN...................................................................................................123
100BaseX (“Fast Ethernet”)..................................................................................123
Gigabit Ethernet....................................................................................................123
Other Ethernet Considerations..............................................................................124
Token Ring (802.5)...............................................................................................125
How it Works........................................................................................................125
v
Start Delimiter ................................................................................................125
Access Control .................................................................................................125
Frame Control ...................................................................................................125
Destination Address ........................................................................................125
Source Address ................................................................................................126
Message ...........................................................................................................126
Beaconing..............................................................................................................126
Multistation Access Unit (The Hub).....................................................................127
Token Ring Cabling..............................................................................................127
Token Ring Connectors.........................................................................................127
Token Ring Patch Cables......................................................................................127
Token Ring Fiber-Optic........................................................................................128
Token Ring Repeaters...........................................................................................128
Token Ring Adapter Cards....................................................................................128
AppleTalk..................................................................................................................128
LocalTalk...............................................................................................................129
AppleShare............................................................................................................129
Zones.....................................................................................................................129
EtherTalk...............................................................................................................129
TokenTalk.............................................................................................................129
ARCNet ( Attached Resource Computer Network)...................................................130
SUMMARY.........................................................................................................................132
CHAPTER 6 – NETWORK DESIGN...........................................................................138
STARTING A NETWORK PROJECT..........................................................................................138
The Customer............................................................................................................138
The Network Goals....................................................................................................139
DETERMINE NETWORK TYPE...............................................................................................141
When to Choose Peer-to-Peer...................................................................................141
When to Choose Client/Server..................................................................................142
Making the Choice....................................................................................................143
Public and Private networks.....................................................................................143
DESIGN THE NETWORK.......................................................................................................149
Media Selection.........................................................................................................149
Environmental Concerns...........................................................................................151
NOS Selection...........................................................................................................151
Protocol Selection.....................................................................................................151
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER..................................................................................................153
Cable to Computer....................................................................................................153
Cable to Hub.............................................................................................................153
Network Adapter Cards............................................................................................154
NETWORK AND HARDWARE COMPATIBILITY...........................................................................156
Adapter Card Compatibility......................................................................................156
Card to Network....................................................................................................156
Card and Computer...............................................................................................157
Media Compatibility.................................................................................................157
Computer Compatibility............................................................................................158
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Table of Contents
PREVENTING COMPATIBILITY PROBLEMS ...............................................................................159
Hard Work.................................................................................................................159
Standards..................................................................................................................159
RESOLVING COMPATIBILITY PROBLEMS.................................................................................160
Minimum Requirements............................................................................................160
HCL and Windows 2000...........................................................................................161
CHAPTER 7 - EXPANDING A NETWORK...............................................................163
EXPANDING A LAN WITH HUBS..........................................................................................163
WHEN A LAN IS TOO SMALL............................................................................................164
Repeaters ..................................................................................................................164
Bridges .....................................................................................................................164
Routers .....................................................................................................................165
Gateway ...................................................................................................................165
CONNECTION SERVICES.......................................................................................................166
Carriers.....................................................................................................................166
WAN Overview..........................................................................................................167
Analog Connectivity..................................................................................................167
Digital Connectivity..................................................................................................168
Circuit-switched Networks........................................................................................169
Packet Switching Networks.......................................................................................169
VLAN.........................................................................................................................170
Advanced WAN Environments..................................................................................171
X.25.......................................................................................................................171
Frame Relay..........................................................................................................172
ISDN .....................................................................................................................172
SMDS....................................................................................................................172
SONET .................................................................................................................172
SDH.......................................................................................................................172
MODEMS..........................................................................................................................173
REMOTE ACCESS COMPUTING (RAS)..................................................................................175
Connecting Two Computers......................................................................................175
RAS Protocols...........................................................................................................176
SLIP (Single Line Interface Protocol)...................................................................176
PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)...............................................................................177
PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol)............................................................177
IPsec......................................................................................................................177
L2TP......................................................................................................................178
SSL........................................................................................................................178
TLS........................................................................................................................178
Kerberos................................................................................................................178
ICA (Independent Computing Architecture).........................................................178
Installing and Configuring RAS................................................................................179
Troubleshooting a RAS setup....................................................................................179
Limitations of RAS....................................................................................................179
KEYWORDS EXERCISE ................................................................................................181
KEYWORDDEFINITIONANALOG SIGNALBRIDGECARRIERCONCENTRATORCSU/DSUDIGITAL
SIGNALDUNFRAME
vii
RELAYGATEWAYHUBSICAIPSECISDNKERBEROSL2TPMAUPPPPPTPRASREPEATERROUTERS
DHSLIPSMAUSONETSSLT1VLANX.25..................................................................182
CHAPTER 8 – TCP/IP ESSENTIALS..........................................................................186
INTRODUCTION TO TCP/IP ................................................................................................186
RFC (Request For Comments)..................................................................................186
TCP/IP PROTOCOLS..........................................................................................................189
The Top Five TCP/IP Protocols................................................................................189
Other TCP/IP Protocols............................................................................................191
NAMING SYSTEMS .............................................................................................................194
DNS...........................................................................................................................194
WINS.........................................................................................................................195
NETBIOS...................................................................................................................195
HOSTS file.................................................................................................................195
LMHOSTS file...........................................................................................................195
IP Gateway................................................................................................................195
DHCP........................................................................................................................195
BOOTP......................................................................................................................196
NETWORK CONNECTION UTILITIES.......................................................................................196
NAT...........................................................................................................................196
IP Proxy Servers.......................................................................................................196
ICS.............................................................................................................................197
TCP/IP ADDRESSING........................................................................................................198
IPv4...........................................................................................................................198
IP Addresses..............................................................................................................199
Class A Addresses.....................................................................................................199
Class B Addresses.....................................................................................................199
Class C Addresses.....................................................................................................199
Class D and Class E Addresses................................................................................199
IPv6 (IP Next Generation)........................................................................................200
SUBNETTING......................................................................................................................203
ClassDefault Subnet MaskNumber of NetworksNumber of
HostsA255.0.0.012616,777,216B255.255.0.016,38465,534C255.255.255.02,097,152
254How to Subdivide a Network...............................................................................205
Determine the number of Network IDs required...................................................205
Determine the number of Host IDs per subnet......................................................205
Define the Subnet Mask........................................................................................205
Determine the Network IDs .................................................................................207
Binary Network IDDotted-decimal ID11000000 00100100192.36 (overall network
address)11000000 00100100 001192.36.3211000000 00100100
010192.36.6411000000 00100100 011192.36.9611000000 00100100
100192.36.12811000000 00100100 101192.36.16011000000 00100100
110192.36.192Determine the Host IDs.................................................................208
TCP/IP CONFIGURATION CONCEPTS....................................................................................210
IP Address.............................................................................................................210
DNS.......................................................................................................................210
Default Gateway....................................................................................................210
WINS.....................................................................................................................210
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Table of Contents
DHCP....................................................................................................................211
KEYWORDS EXERCISE ................................................................................................212
CHAPTER 9 – TCP/IP UTILITIES..............................................................................216
NETWORK MANAGERS - SNMP..........................................................................................216
Management Software...............................................................................................216
Agent Software..........................................................................................................217
Communities..............................................................................................................217
VALIDATION TOOLS...........................................................................................................217
EVENT VIEWER.................................................................................................................218
ROUTE..........................................................................................................................218
NBTSTAT.....................................................................................................................218
NETSTAT.....................................................................................................................218
TRACERT.....................................................................................................................218
TROUBLESHOOTING TOOLS..................................................................................220
IPCONFIG/WINIPCFG.............................................................................................................220
IFCONFIG.....................................................................................................................220
ARP...............................................................................................................................220
RARP.............................................................................................................................220
PING..............................................................................................................................220
NSLOOKUP..................................................................................................................220
KEYWORDS EXERCISE .................................................................................................222
CHAPTER 10 – NETWORK SECURITY...................................................................225
USER AND SHARE LEVEL....................................................................................................225
User-level Security....................................................................................................225
Share-level Security..................................................................................................226
SECURITY TECHNIQUES.......................................................................................................228
Firewalls...................................................................................................................228
Blocking Port Numbers.............................................................................................228
Backing up Data........................................................................................................228
Backup Options.........................................................................................................229
Removable Disks...................................................................................................229
Tape Backup..........................................................................................................229
Backup Software.......................................................................................................230
Full, Differential, and Incremental Backups............................................................230
Volumes.....................................................................................................................230
Fault Tolerance and RAID........................................................................................230
Disk Striping (RAID 0).........................................................................................231
Disk Mirroring (RAID 1)......................................................................................231
Disk Striping With Parity (RAID 5)......................................................................231
RAID 6 and Beyond..............................................................................................231
Storage Area Network (SAN)...............................................................................232
Network-Attached Storage....................................................................................232
Fault Tolerance and Power .....................................................................................232
UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply)....................................................................232
Surge Protectors....................................................................................................232
ix
PASSWORD PRACTICES AND PROCEDURES..............................................................................233
Encryption.................................................................................................................234
Disaster Recovery.....................................................................................................235
Viruses.......................................................................................................................235
KEYWORDDEFINITIONDATA ENCRYPTIONDIFFERENTIAL BACKUPDISASTER RECOVERYDISK
MIRRORINGDISK STRIPINGFIREWALLFULL BACKUPINCREMENTAL BACKUPNASPASSWORD
SECURITYRAIDSANSHARE LEVEL SECURITYUSER LEVEL SECURITYVOLUMES.......................238
REVIEW QUESTIONS CHAPTER 10........................................................................................239
CHAPTER 11 – TROUBLESHOOTING A NETWORK...........................................241
BASIC TROUBLESHOOTING...................................................................................................241
Establish the symptoms: .......................................................................................241
Identify the affected area ......................................................................................242
Establish what has changed...................................................................................242
Select the most probable cause..............................................................................243
Implement a solution ............................................................................................244
Test the Result ......................................................................................................245
Recognize the potential effects of the solution.....................................................245
Document the solution ..........................................................................................245
NETWORKING AND TROUBLESHOOTING TOOLS .......................................................................246
Hardware Networking Tools.....................................................................................246
Wire Crimper.........................................................................................................246
Punch Down Tool..................................................................................................246
Hardware Troubleshooting Tools.............................................................................247
The Multimeter......................................................................................................247
Media Tester..........................................................................................................247
Tone Generator and Tone Locator........................................................................248
Test Cables............................................................................................................249
Time Domain Reflectometer.................................................................................249
Protocol Analyzer..................................................................................................249
Optical Tester........................................................................................................250
MAINTAINING AND TROUBLESHOOTING NETWORKS.................................................................251
TROUBLESHOOTING SCENARIOS ...........................................................................................253
Misbehaving Protocols.............................................................................................253
Cable Problems.........................................................................................................255
NIC Indicator Lights.................................................................................................256
Name Resolution ......................................................................................................256
Performance..............................................................................................................256
Bandwidth and Throughput...................................................................................257
Latency..................................................................................................................257
Application Efficiency..........................................................................................257
Server/Workstation Limits....................................................................................257
CONCLUSION................................................................................................................261
APPENDIX A – TECH SUMMARY.............................................................................263
x
Table of Contents
5-4-3 RULE......................................................................................................................263
COAXIAL CABLE TYPES......................................................................................................263
ETHERNET CABLING...........................................................................................................264
UTP CABLE CATEGORIES...................................................................................................265
IBM CABLE TYPES (TOKEN RING).....................................................................................265
TYPEWIRE SPECSUSES1TWO STP SOLID CORE 22 AWG WIRES – MAXIMUM LENGTH 101 METERS
(331 FEET).CONNECT BETWEEN TERMINALS AND DISTRIBUTION BOXES OR BETWEEN DIFFERENT WIRING
CLOSETS.2SIX TWISTED PAIRS, TWO STP AND FOUR UTP – MAXIMUM LENGTH 100 METERS (328
FEET).SAME AS TYPE 1, BUT ADDS VOICE CAPABILITY ALONG WITH DATA.3FOUR UTP WITH TWO
TWISTS PER INCH – 22 OR 24 AWG WIRE –MAXIMUM CABLE LENGTH IS 45 METERS (148
FEET).LOWER COST ALTERNATIVE TO TYPE 1 OR 2. CANNOT BE USED FOR 16 MBPS TOKEN RING.
VOICE-GRADE CABLE.4NOT DEFINED5TWO 62.5/125-MICRON MULTI-MODE FIBERS.FIBER
OPTIC6TWO STP – 26 AWG WIRE.DATA PATCH CABLES.7NOT DEFINED8TWO STP – 26
AWG.CONTAINS A SHIELD FOR USE UNDER CARPETS.9TWO STP –26 AWG WIRE.PLENUM
GRADE.IEEE 802.X STANDARDS.........................................................................................266
IRQ ASSIGNMENTS............................................................................................................267
OSI MODEL.....................................................................................................................269
SUBNET MASKING.............................................................................................................270
TCP/IP PORTS.................................................................................................................271
TCP/IP UTILITIES.............................................................................................................271
TOPOLOGY REVIEW............................................................................................................271
TRANSMISSION MEDIA........................................................................................................274
TROUBLESHOOTING TOOLS..................................................................................................274
APPENDIX B – USEFUL WEB SITES........................................................................277
MICROSOFT:......................................................................................................................277
NOVELL...........................................................................................................................277
COMPUSERVE....................................................................................................................277
OTHER HELPFUL SITES.......................................................................................................277
APPENDIX C – NETWORK STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS............................279
ANSI..............................................................................................................................279
CCITT...........................................................................................................................279
EIA................................................................................................................................279
IEEE..............................................................................................................................280
ISO.................................................................................................................................280
SAG...............................................................................................................................280
APPENDIX D – HOW TO REGISTER FOR THE EXAM........................................281
TO REGISTER FOR THE NETWORK+ EXAMS...........................................................................281
APPENDIX E – GLOSSARY.........................................................................................283
APPENDIX F – CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS...................302

REVIEW QUESTIONS CHAPTER 6 .........................................................................................314
xi
REVIEW QUESTIONS CHAPTER 7 .........................................................................................315
INDEX..............................................................................................................................322
xii
Introduction
Introduction
This Training Guide is designed to meet all of the Network+ exam objectives. It can be
used in conjunction with the QuickCert Network+ video training series, as a stand-alone
textbook, or as a textbook in a classroom environment. We have carefully prepared this
multi-media training material to provide you with the needed information in a logical,
easy to follow format.
Our staff consists of Microsoft Certified Professionals, Technical Writers, Technical

Editors, Computer Graphics Experts, and Digital Video Studio Professionals. We hope
you enjoy your Network+ training program. Remember, at QuickCert, our success is
directly tied to the success our students have with our training programs. We are here to
help with all of your training and certification needs!
1
CompTIA Test Objectives for Network+

CompTIA is an acronym for Computing Technology Industry Association
The following excerpt is from http://certification.comptia.org/resources/objectives.aspx

dated 12/12/08:
“The skills and knowledge measured by this examination are derived from industry-wide
job task analysis and validated through an industry wide survey. The results of this
survey were used in weighing the domains and ensuring that the weighting is
representative of the relative importance of the content.”
“This examination includes blueprint weighting, test objectives and example content.
Example concepts are included to clarify the test objectives and should not be construed
as a comprehensive listing of the content of the examination.”
The exam consists of 100 questions with a maximum allowable time of 90 minutes and
you must achieve a score of 720 within the possible range of 100 to 900 to pass. The
objectives are weighted in the following manner:
NETWORK+ CERTIFICATION % OF EXAMINATION

DOMAIN AREAS
1.0 Network Technologies 20%
2.0 Network Media and Topologies 20%
3.0 Network Devices 17%
4.0 Network Management 20%
5.0 Network Tools 12%
6.0 Network Security 11%
Total 100%
2
Introduction
The following is a further breakdown of the specific areas covered on the Network+
exam:
1.0 Network Technologies

1.1 Explain the function of common networking protocols
TCP
FTP
UDP
TCP/IP suite
DHCP
TFTP
DNS
HTTP(S)
ARP
SIP (VoIP)
RTP (VoIP)
SSH
POP3
NTP
IMAP4
Telnet
SMTP
SNMP2/3
ICMP
IGMP
TLS
1.2 Identify commonly used TCP and UDP default ports
TCP ports
3
FTP – 20, 21
SSH – 22
TELNET – 23
SMTP – 25
DNS – 53
HTTP – 80
POP3 – 110
NTP – 123
IMAP4 – 143
HTTPS – 443
UDP ports
TFTP – 69
DNS – 53
BOOTPS/DHCP – 67
SNMP – 161
1.3 Identify the following address formats
IPv6
IPv4
MAC addressing
1.4 Given a scenario, evaluate the proper use of the following addressing
technologies and addressing schemes
Addressing Technologies
Subnetting
Classful vs. classless (e.g. CIDR, Supernetting)
NAT
PAT
SNAT
Public vs. private
4
Introduction
DHCP (static, dynamic APIPA)
Addressing schemes
Unicast
Multicast
Broadcast
1.5 Identify common IPv4 and IPv6 routing protocols
Link state
OSPF
IS-IS
Distance vector
RIP
RIPv2
BGP
Hybrid
EIGRP
1.6 Explain the purpose and properties of routing
IGP vs. EGP
Static vs. dynamic
Next hop
Understanding routing tables and how they pertain to path selection
Explain convergence (steady state)
1.7 Compare the characteristics of wireless communication standards
802.11 a/b/g/n
o Speeds
o Distance
o Channels
o Frequency
Authentication and encryption
5
o WPA
o WEP
o RADIUS
o TKIP
2.0 Network Media and Topologies

2.1 Categorize standard cable types and their properties
Type:
CAT3, CAT5, CAT5e, CAT6
STP, UTP
Multimode fiber, single-mode fiber
Coaxial
o RG-59
o RG-6
Serial
Plenum vs. Non-plenum
Properties:
Transmission speeds
Distance
Duplex
Noise immunity (security, EMI)
Frequency
2.2 Identify common connector types
RJ-11
RJ-45
BNC
SC
ST
LC
6
Introduction
RS-232
2.3 Identify common physical network topologies
Star
Mesh
Bus
Ring
Point to point
Point to multipoint
Hybrid
2.4 Given a scenario, differentiate and implement appropriate wiring standards
568A
568B
Straight vs. cross-over
Rollover
Loopback
2.5 Categorize WAN technology types and properties
Type:
Frame relay
E1/T1
ADSL
SDSL
VDSL
Cable modem
Satellite
E3/T3
OC-x
Wireless
ATM
7
SONET
MPLS
ISDN BRI
ISDN PRI
POTS
PSTN
Properties
Circuit switch
Packet switch
Speed
Transmission media
Distance
2.6 Categorize LAN technology types and properties
Types:
Ethernet
10BaseT
100BaseTX
100BaseFX
1000BaseT
1000BaseX
10GBaseSR
10GBaseLR
10GBaseER
10GBaseSW
10GBaseLW
10GBaseEW
10GBaseT
Properties
8
Introduction
CSMA/CD
Broadcast
Collision
Bonding
Speed
Distance
2.7 Explain common logical network topologies and their characteristics
Peer to peer
Client/server
VPN
VLAN
2.8 Install components of wiring distribution
Vertical and horizontal cross connects
Patch panels
66 block
MDFs
IDFs
25 pair
100 pair
110 block
Demarc
Demarc extension
Smart jack
Verify wiring installation
Verify wiring termination
3.0 Network Devices

3.1 Install, configure and differentiate between common network devices
Hub
9
Repeater
Modem
NIC
Media converters
Basic switch
Bridge
Wireless access point
Basic router
Basic firewall
Basic DHCP server
3.2 Identify the functions of specialized network devices
Multilayer switch
Content switch
IDS/IPS
Load balancer
Multifunction network devices
DNS server
Bandwidth shaper
Proxy server
CSU/DSU
3.3 Explain the advanced features of a switch
PoE
Spanning tree
VLAN
Trunking
Port mirroring
Port authentication
3.4 Implement a basic wireless network
10
Introduction
Install client
Access point placement
Install access point
o Configure appropriate encryption
o Configure channels and frequencies
o Set ESSID and beacon
Verify installation
4.0 Network Management

4.1 Explain the function of each layer of the OSI model
Layer 1 – physical
Layer 2 – data link
Layer 3 – network
Layer 4 – transport
Layer 5 – session
Layer 6 – presentation
Layer 7 – application
4.2 Identify types of configuration management documentation
Wiring schematics
Physical and logical network diagrams
Baselines
Policies, procedures and configurations
Regulations
4.3 Given a scenario, evaluate the network based on configuration management
documentation
Compare wiring schematics, physical and logical network diagrams,
baselines, policies and procedures and configurations to network devices
and infrastructure
Update wiring schematics, physical and logical network diagrams,
11
configurations and job logs as needed
4.4 Conduct network monitoring to identify performance and connectivity issues
using the following:
Network monitoring utilities (e.g. packet sniffers, connectivity software, load
testing, throughput testers)
System logs, history logs, event logs
4.5 Explain different methods and rationales for network performance
optimization
Methods:
QoS
Traffic shaping
Load balancing
High availability
Caching engines
Fault tolerance
Reasons:
Latency sensitivity
High bandwidth applications
o VoIP
o Video applications
Uptime
4.6 Given a scenario, implement the following network troubleshooting
methodology
Information gathering – identify symptoms and problems
Identify the affected areas of the network
Determine if anything has changed
Establish the most probable cause
Determine if escalation is necessary
12
Introduction
Create an action plan and solution identifying potential effects
Implement and test the solution
Identify the results and effects of the solution
Document the solution and the entire process
4.7 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common connectivity issues and select an
appropriate solution
Physical issues:
Cross talk
Nearing crosstalk
Near End crosstalk
Attenuation
Collisions
Shorts
Open impedance mismatch (echo)
Interference
Logical issues:
Port speed
Port duplex mismatch
Incorrect VLAN
Incorrect IP address
Wrong gateway
Wrong DNS
Wrong subnet mask
Issues that should be identified but escalated:
o Switching loop
o Routing loop
o Route problems
o Proxy arp
13
o Broadcast storms
Wireless Issues:
o Interference (bleed, environmental factors)
o Incorrect encryption
o Incorrect channel
o Incorrect frequency
o ESSID mismatch
o Standard mismatch (802.11 a/b/g/n)
o Distance
o Bounce
o Incorrect antenna placement
5.0 Network Tools

5.1 Given a scenario, select the appropriate command line interface tool and
interpret the output to verify functionality
Traceroute
Ipconfig
Ifconfig
Ping
Arp ping
Arp
Nslookup
Hostname
Dig
Mtr
Route
Nbtstat
Netstat
5.2 Explain the purpose of network scanners
14
Introduction
Packet sniffers
Intrusion detection software
Intrusion prevention software
Port scanners
5.3 Given a scenario, utilize the appropriate hardware tools
Cable testers
Protocol analyzer
Certifiers
TDR
OTDR
Multimeter
Toner probe
Butt set
Punch down tool
Cable stripper
Snips
Voltage event recorder
Temperature monitor
6.0 Network Security

6.1 Explain the function of hardware and software security devices
Network based firewall
Host based firewall
IDS
IPS
VPN concentrator
6.2 Explain common features of a firewall
Application layer vs. network layer
Stateful vs. stateless
15
Scanning services
Content filtering
Signature identification
Zones
6.3 Explain the methods of network access security
Filtering:
ACL
o MAC filtering
o IP filtering
Tunneling and encryption
o SSL VPN
o VPN
o L2TP
o PPTP
o IPSEC
Remote access
o RAS
o RDP
o PPPoE
o PPP
o VNC
o ICA
6.4 Explain methods of user authentication
PKI
Kerberos
AAA
o RADIUS
o TACACS+
16
Introduction
Network access control
o 802.1x
CHAP
MS-CHAP
EAP
6.5 Explain issues that affect device security
Physical security
Restricting local and remote access
Secure methods vs. unsecure methods
o SSH, HTTPS, SNMPv3, SFTP, SCP
o TELNET, HTTP, FTP, RSH, RCP, SNMPv1/2
6.6 Identify common security threats and mitigation techniques
Security threats
DoS
Viruses
Worms
Attackers
Man in the middle
Smurf
Rogue access points
Social engineering (phishing)
Mitigation techniques
Policies and procedures
User training
Patches and updates
17
Study Plan Strategies
The material in Network+ is not complicated. However, if this is your first exposure to
networking, it may seem so. To get the best results from your training, use a study plan,
such as the one suggested below:
You can maximize your multi-media learning experience by using all of the courseware
materials as you study for your certification. This combination of resources will provide a
thorough understanding of the concept or function being presented.
Suggestion:
• Watch each video segment with the study guide in hand.
• Make notes in the study guide as necessary for your understanding.
• Pause and rewind to review the concepts as often as necessary.
• Complete the questions and exercises at the end of each segment of this study
guide and in the textbook.
• Use the “Help” button where available.
• Practice the function on your computer. Hands-on experience is best, not all
concepts and functions can be performed on a workstation.
• Use the Practice Exam Simulator to test your knowledge.
18
Introduction
How to Take the Test

Passing a certification exam takes more than just skimming through a book. Certification
exams are becoming more and more comprehensive. This helps to ensure that a person
who has earned the certification actually understands the concepts and functions of
networking versus simply memorizing definitions.
Who may take the test?
Network+ is open to anyone who wants to take the test. There are no specific
requirements, except payment of the test fee. The exam is targeted for technicians with
18-24 months experience in the IT industry. A typical candidate would have A+
certification or equivalent knowledge, but A+ certification is not required.
The Network+ exam was launched worldwide April 30, 1999. Prometric and VUE testing
centers administer the exam. The Network+ test is currently available throughout the
world in English, German, French and Japanese.
How to Prepare to Ensure Exam Success

There are many ways to prepare for the exam. Since most of us learn in different ways,
there is no one method that will work for everyone. The following is a suggestion you
may find helpful. This method is based on utilization of several learning skills. Read
through these suggested steps and modify it as necessary to meet your needs.
Step 1 – Prepare for the Training

Obtain the best possible materials and instruction you can find.
CONGRATULATIONS, YOU’VE COMPLETED THE 1ST STEP BY SELECTING

QUICKCERT TO BE YOUR TRAINING PARTNER!
Evaluate your learning aptitudes.

• How do you learn best (reading, watching, hearing or doing)?
• What time of day is best for you (night person/morning person)?
• What are your limits before you get bored (or fall asleep)?
19
Make a plan to learn.
Based on your time to learn (and your schedule), set aside the time to learn. Make
an appointment with yourself. Put it on your calendar and keep it!
The time it takes you to read the text may be different from the time needed to
watch the video or do the practice exercises.
Evaluate your active schedule – determine when you have some free time. If you
don’t have any free time – MAKE SOME!
Be committed to your plan!
Step 2 – Do the Coursework (Text and Videos/CDs)

Your objective is to get an understanding of the material and the scope of the course.
Complete the entire course one time through using the following methods:
• Break the course down into bite size chunks (a chapter or two at a time).
This workbook will make this task much easier.
• Read through the text to get an understanding of the material. It is not
necessary to memorize or even understand the material at this point, just
get a feel for it.
• Watch the videos that correspond to the chapters you read. At this time,
you want to begin to understand. Use the rewind button as often as
necessary.
Complete the course a second time. What you learned in the later chapters may help you
get a better understanding of the material the second time through.
Re-read the test and review the video presentation. You will be surprised at how much
more sense it makes this time. You will also “pick up” some concepts that you missed the
first time through.
Focus on the areas that you had trouble with the first time.
Review the video presentation one more time if necessary.
If you need to, go though the entire course again. Your objective is to own the
information (make it part of you).
20
Introduction
Step 3 – Prepare for the Network+ Exam

Place the practice exam simulator in your computer’s CD-ROM and select the exam you
wish to take or practice with.
Evaluate the questions you missed.

• Did you understand the questions? Did you misinterpret or read more into
it than was there?
• Did you understand the material?
• Did you read the whole question?
• Study the areas that you are weak in.
Continue retaking the practice exams and studying the areas that require improvement
until you are consistently scoring in the 90% range on the practice exam.
Step 4 – Take the Certification Exam

To schedule your exam with Prometric, call 888-895-6116 or go online to
www.2test.com. To schedule your exam with VUE, call 877-551-7587 or go online to
www.vue.com. Prometric and VUE have testing centers around the world, so one should
be located near you. Part of the registration process is payment of the exam fee.
As you prepare for your certification exam it may be helpful to know what to expect
when you arrive at the testing center:
• You will be asked to sign the logbook upon arrival and upon departure.
• You will be required to show two forms of identification, including one
photo ID, (such as a driver’s license or company security ID) before you
take the exam.
• The test administrator will give you a Testing Center Regulations form,
which explains the rules you will be expected to comply with during the
test. You will be asked to sign the form, indicating that you understand the
regulations and will comply with them.
• The test administrator will show you to your test computer and will handle
any preparations necessary to start the testing tool and display the exam on
the computer. You will have the opportunity to take a sample test, (the
sample test is unrelated to the Network+ exam) to give you a feel for how
the test is conducted. If you have never taken one of these computer-
generated exams, it might be a good idea to take advantage of this feature.
• You will be provided with a set amount of scratch paper or a small dry
erase board for use during the exam. All scratch paper or boards are
collected at the end of the exam.
21
• It is a closed book exam. You may not use a laptop computer or have any
notes or printed material with you during the exam session.
HINT - Some people find it helpful to study the memorization type materials, (such as
the RAID and SCSI Information) just before entering the exam site and then
immediately upon starting the test, jotting down their notes on the scratch paper that the
testing facility provides.
Before you begin the exam the test administrator will tell you what to do when you
complete the exam. If the administrator does not do this, or if you are unclear about what
you should do, ask the administrator BEFORE beginning the exam.
Keep track of the time and pace yourself. You have 90 minutes. (That may not sound like
much, but it really is plenty!)
Usually, you are given the ability to skip a question, mark a question or answer a
question. At the end of the exam you will be able to see which ones are answered,
marked or skipped. If you know the answer, answer the question. If you’re not quite sure,
mark it and come back to it. If you don’t know the answer, skip it. Sometimes later
questions will help answer earlier questions. Trust your first instinct about an answer!
Go back and answer any marked or unanswered questions. If you positively don’t know
the answer, guess. An unanswered question is always wrong!
Stay calm. Do not read too much into the question, but be sure to read it in its entirety.
Make sure to note if it is a multiple answer question and select the correct amount of
answers. (At the end of the test when you have the opportunity to review, you can see
which questions are not answered. Make sure ALL questions are answered BEFORE you
exit the test!)
When you’ve completed the test and exit the system, you are given immediate online
pass/fail notification and your score. You will also receive a printed Examination Score
Report indicating your pass or fail status from the test administrator. It lists your score by
objective, which will enable you to see which areas require improvement if you didn’t
pass.
The testing center will notify CompTIA of your score and they will confirm your
certification with you. (You don’t need to send them the score report.)
If you don’t receive a passing score:
If you do not receive a passing score, you may call an authorized testing center to
schedule a time to retake the exam. Before retaking the exam, put in extra study time in
the objective areas that need improvement. Please note: YOU MUST PAY FOR EACH
EXAM RETAKE!
22
Introduction
About This Course
This study guide is divided into 11 chapters. It is designed to be an effective study tool
that will help you retain the information that is presented in the course.
23
Chapter 1 – Networking Fundamentals

This chapter introduces you to the basics of networking. It is very important that, as a
networking professional, you understand exactly what a network is. This section focuses
on what a network is and why they are used so extensively in today’s computer
environment.
After completing this chapter you will understand why networking is important and how
it relates to the computer environment. You will also be able to identify the two major
network configurations and describe the difference between a LAN and a WAN.
Introduction to Networking
There are many different uses for the term “networking.” Real estate professionals would
think of networking as a means to make more sales through talking to people about what
they do.
An affiliation of broadcasting companies is also called a network (you’ve heard of

NBC?). But for our purposes, a network is a system of connecting independent computers
so that users may share data, peripherals, and applications (resources).
Benefits of Networking Computers
The main reason that we network computers is to be able to share resources. Through
networking, users can access programs, files, and peripherals without using what is
fondly known as the “sneaker net.” (Taking a floppy disk with the information that you
want to share or print to the computer that can provide the desired service.)
Most companies network their office computers for the simple reason of economics. It is
much less expensive to purchase one network printer to serve everyone’s needs (or one
department’s depending on the size of the network) than purchasing a printer for every
user.
Sharing applications ensures that all users are using the same programs (and versions)
and makes it much easier to manage documents. Another advantage of networking is the
ability to have a centralized location for document storage. Saving files to one location
(usually the file server) makes it easy for everyone to gain access to the files that they
need. Additionally, a central file server can keep unauthorized users from accessing
confidential or sensitive files. A central file server also allows for an easier backup
strategy to be implemented.
24
Local Area Networks (LAN) and Wide Area Networks (WAN)
There are two basic structures of network types:
• LAN (Local Area Networks)
• WAN (Wide Area Networks)
LAN
WAN
A network is classified into one of these groups based upon its size and function. A LAN
is the basic (and smallest) starting point of any computer network. Even if the network is
merely two computers connected by a cable to share information, or if its hundreds of
computers spread throughout a high-rise office building, it is still considered a LAN. The
main distinction between a LAN and a WAN is that a LAN is confined to a limited area
whereas a WAN has no geographical limits.
When LANs are connected they create a WAN. A WAN can connect networks in the
same building or across the world. The Internet is the world’s largest WAN.
There is really a third classification of networks: a MAN (Metropolitan Area Network).

A MAN is larger than a LAN but is limited to a metropolitan area such as a city or
25
county. It is important to know what a MAN is, but they are not common. The Internet
has replaced most MANs today.
The Client/Server Relationship
A network is classified by how it shares information. A network can be either a peer-to-
peer network or a server-based network.
Servers and clients are roles played by computers and users as they interact in their daily
activity. These terms are not interchangeable; it is the role they play in the dynamic world
of desktops and laptops that changes.
A workstation is a computer workspace that is connected to a network, and is a client,

when the user is getting information from the server. However, if that same workstation
happened to be connected to a printer that another user wanted to access, that access
would cause the workstation to become a server, since it would be serving the needs of a
user (or client).
The only true client/server relationship where the roles do not change is the mainframe
computer. A mainframe will handle all the functions, including applications. The
mainframe is always the server and anyone who accesses it is always the client.
Client/Server Networking
In a server-based network there is a dedicated computer called a server that is the central
location of resources. Users, also known as clients, log onto the server to access the files
or applications that they wish to use. A server is a high-end computer that has a very
large amount of storage, including hard disk space and RAM, that is capable of servicing
clients who access shared files. A large network may have more than one server. For
example, there may be a dedicated server for file storage (called a file server), one for
applications (application server), one for printing (print server), or a mail server (E-mail).
Usually in a network with multiple servers, one is designated as the primary server. For
example, in Windows NT, the primary server is called the PDC or Primary Domain
Controller. In Windows 2000 server and beyond, the servers are all peers.``
The advantages of this type of network are central administration, efficiency in backing
up the data, network security, and expandability. The disadvantages are greater expense
and the complexity of installation. Also, configuration and management may be more
challenging. Since the client/server network is the most common choice of businesses
today, it would appear that the advantages outweigh the disadvantages.
26
Client/Server Network
Peer-to-Peer Networking
In a peer-to-peer network there are no separate computers that act as servers. All of the
computers on the network can act as either clients or servers depending upon the needs of
the user. This type of network is most often used when fewer than ten computers are
involved.
A peer-to-peer network is simple and inexpensive to install. The computers are simply
cabled together, and as long as each computer has an operating system capable of
client/sharing (e.g. Windows 95 and up) they will be able to communicate via the
network. In a peer-to-peer network all computers are equal.
A disadvantage of the peer-to-peer network is that since users are responsible for their
own systems’ security, network security is unreliable. Also, a peer-to-peer network is
difficult to expand.
Peer-to-Peer Network
27
Basic Network Structure (Topology)

A network’s basic structure, or topology, refers to its physical layout, design, map,
scheme, or diagram. As a network professional, you will need to know how to choose the
network topology that will best suit the needs of your network. The type and capabilities
of the equipment that will be used, future growth needs, and how a network will be
managed are all potential problems that need to be considered when planning a network.
Setting up a network requires more than just cabling the computers together. Different
topologies have different cabling requirements. NICs, (Network Interface Cards, also
called Network Adapter Cards), connectors, how the computers will talk to each other
(protocols), and even how the cabling is run through a building, are all determined by the
topology used.
There are three standard topologies that a network professional needs to understand:
• Bus Topology
• Star Topology
• Ring Topology
Bus Topology
The simplest and probably the most used form of network topologies is the Bus topology
(sometimes called a linear bus). The nodes (computers or devices connected to the
network) are all connected along a single cable. This cable is called a trunk, backbone, or
segment.
Devices on a Bus topology communicate by sending data to a specific address on the

network (a device’s address). An electronic signal is sent out on the cable to all of the
devices connected on the network. However, only the device whose address matches the
address encoded in the signal will respond to the signal.
Only one computer at a time can transmit data on a Bus network or signals will collide
and the transmission will fail. This means that the more computers that are connected to a
Bus the slower the network becomes as devices are waiting to transmit or retransmit.
The Bus topology is a passive topology. Devices only listen for data being transmitted,
they do not move the transmissions along. The signal is sent out on the cable and it
travels from one end of the cable to the other. If not prevented, the signal would travel
back and forth along the cable and cause what is known as signal bounce. While the
signal is bouncing back and forth, it prevents other devices from sending data. To stop
signal bounce, a component called a terminator is installed at each end of the cable. A
terminator absorbs the signal and stops signal bounce.
In a Bus network, if the cable breaks or becomes disconnected, the network will go down
and devices will not be able to communicate with each other.
28
Star Topology
In a Star topology, all devices are connected to a central point called a hub. It requires a
lot more cable than the Bus topology, but the advantage is that if one computer (or the
cable that connects one computer to the hub) goes down, the rest of the network will still
continue to function. If the hub fails, however, the entire network will go down.
Star Topology
The hub used in this type of topology provides an excellent point for centralized
administration. Resources and files can be managed from one location, making it much
easier to perform administrative tasks such as data backups.
Ring Topology
In a Ring topology, the devices are connected in one continuous circle of cable. There are
no ends to terminate. The data is transmitted around the loop in one direction and passes
through each computer on the network. The Ring is not a passive topology like the Bus
topology. The signal is actually boosted and sent on along the cable when it passes
through the computers on the network. A disadvantage is that if one computer fails, it can
affect the entire network.
29
Special Topologies
In addition to the above topologies, today’s networking professional will encounter many
network topologies that are combinations of the above configurations. These are known
as Hybrid topologies. Before you can understand some of these special topologies, you
will need to know the difference between a physical and a logical topology. So far, we
have been discussing physical topologies. These are the methods in which a network is
actually wired. You will be able to see a physical topology. A logical topology, on the
other hand, is how the network actually works. For example, most Ethernet networks
today are wired using a hub. This gives us a physical star topology. However, they
operate like a bus topology and are therefore a logical bus. Also, most Token Rings are
physical stars and logical rings.
Hybrid Topologies
The Star Bus topology is a hybrid of the Star and Bus topologies. This is where a network
consists of several Star topology networks that are linked using linear Bus trunks.
The Star Ring topology is similar to the Star Bus, but the hubs in a Star Ring are
connected in a star pattern by a main hub.
Mesh Topology
In the Mesh topology every device is connected to every other device by separate cables
and has redundant paths. This is very expensive to install but it is extremely reliable
because of the redundant paths.
30
Wireless Topology
A Wireless topology is one in which there aren’t any cables connecting the network
devices to the LAN or one which the LAN uses wireless technology between access
points (such as routers). The benefits of wireless technology will be discussed at length in
Chapter four of this book.
31
32
Network Access
The topologies that we have been discussing describe the way in which the computers
and other devices on a network are connected. This is based on the media or wiring of the
network. Another aspect of networks that is related to topology is the way in which the
network is accessed by individual devices. With several devices connected to one media,
we create a party line. The method that is used for an individual device to be able to use
the network party line is called media access. The two most common network standards
are distinguished by their respective media access methods, they are called Token Ring
and Ethernet. We will also cover access methods in more detail in the chapter “Network
Protocols and Standards.”
Token Passing
Token passing is the method of sending data around a Token Ring topology. A token is
passed along from device to device until it is received by a computer that needs to
transmit. The sending computer grabs the token and encodes it with addressing
information for the receiving computer and sends it out on the ring. It is passed along
from device to device until it arrives at the computer whose addressing information
matches the one encoded on the token, and the message is delivered. The receiving
computer then sends the token back to the sending computer to let it know that it received
the message. The sending machine then creates a new token to send around the ring that
will be grabbed by the next device that wants to transmit data on the network.
Token Passing
Ethernet
Ethernet uses a system known as Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD). It also uses the Bus topology discussed earlier in this lesson. Carrier Sense
means the network card listens to the cable for a quiet period during which it can send
messages. Multiple Access means that more than one computer can be connected to the
same cable. Collision Detection is the ability to detect whether messages have collided in
33
transit (neither message will arrive at their destination and both will be retransmitted).
Ethernet can also use CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance). This differs from CSMA/CD by having each computer signal its intent to
transmit before it actually transmits data, thus avoiding possible transmission collisions.
Collision Detection
Fast Ethernet
Fast Ethernet was developed to meet the increasing demands on networks. Fast Ethernet
works on the same principals as Ethernet but operates at 10 times the speed of the
original. Ethernet transmits at 10 Mbps and Fast Ethernet transmits at 100 Mbps.
34
Hubs and Concentrators

More and more networks are using hubs and they are pretty much standard equipment in
today’s networks. Today, hubs come in a variety of names depending on their function.
The most common name used with Ethernet is a hub or a concentrator. With a Token
Ring, they are called MAUs (Multiple Access Units). Essentially, they are all the same,
since they provide a common location for connecting the cabling of a network. Just
remember, not all hubs are the same and you must use one that is designed to meet the
needs of the network. Hubs can be classified as either passive or active.
Passive Hubs
A passive hub acts as a connection point only. Signals pass through the hub but are not
regenerated or amplified. They do not require any electrical power to function.
Passive Hub – Patch Panel
35
Active Hubs
Most of the hubs used today are active hubs. An active hub regenerates or amplifies a
signal when it is passed through. They require electrical power to function.
Active Hub
Hub-Based Networks
Hub-based networks are increasing in popularity. They have many advantages over other
types of networks: 1) If a cable breaks only the portion of the network on that segment is
affected. 2) Centralized monitoring of traffic and activity along with diagnostic
capabilities are available. 3) A variety of cable types can be accommodated. 4)
Expanding the network can be easily accomplished by using hubs. Hub-based networks
are being replaced by switch-based networks, which run more efficiently.
36
Summary
In this chapter we learned that the main reason for networking (as it relates to computers)
is the sharing of resources. The two types of networks are LANs and WANs. A LAN is
the smallest form and is the basic building block for larger networks. A WAN is not
geographically limited and the Internet is the world’s largest WAN.
We also learned about the two basic network classifications of networks: the peer-to-peer
network and the server-based network. It is important to know the differences between
these two classifications and the advantages and disadvantages of each.
Topology is a term we use to describe the connection of computers in a network. The

three main types of topology are bus, star, and ring.
Be sure to complete the following exercises and review questions. If you are having
trouble with any of these concepts, go back and review the chapter again.
37
KEYWORDS Exercise
Define each of the following keywords. Hint: There’s a glossary in the back of this book.
Keyword Definition
Active Hub
Application
Application Server
Bus Topology
Client
Data
Fax Server
File Server
Hub
Hybrid Topology
LAN
Mail Server
MAN
Media
Mesh Topology
Network
Network Administrator
Passive Hub
Peer-to-peer
Peripheral
Print Server
38
Keyword Definition
Resources
Ring Topology
Security
Server
Server-based
Sharing
Star Topology
Token Passing
User
WAN
Wireless Topology
39
Review Questions - Chapter 1
1. What is the key difference between a local area network (LAN) and a wide area
network (WAN)?
2. What is the main reason for networking computers?
3. What is a “sneaker net”?
4. Name some advantages of having centralized documents.
5. What does MAN stand for and why is it no longer in use?
6. Name some advantages of a Peer-to-Peer network.
7. Name some disadvantages of a Peer-to-Peer network.
8. Name some advantages of a Server-based network.
9. Name some disadvantages of a Server-based network.
10. Name the three basic topologies.
11. What is the difference between a physical and logical topology?
12. Name two media access methods.
40
Chapter 2 – Network Operating Systems (NOS)
Chapter 2 - Network Operating Systems (NOS)

Up to this point we have focused on the design aspects of networking. Even if you have
the best network design composed of the best hardware in the universe, if you don’t have
the software to run it, it is just a pile of metal and plastic. You can get it all set up and
turn on the power, but without an operating system, it will just sit there.
This chapter is all about the various operating systems that a networking professional
needs to be familiar with. When we are talking about operating systems, what we are
really talking about are network operating systems.
Network operating systems (NOS) are specialized operating systems designed to

integrate computers in a networking environment. Some network operating systems are
intended to work with an existing operating system that runs the computer only, and
others are designed to run the computer as well as the network interfaces. In this chapter,
when we refer to operating systems, we will be referring to network operating systems.
In this chapter we will explore the features and benefits of the more popular network
operating systems that are available. We will also discuss their minimum requirements
and interoperability capabilities. The differences between server and client operating
systems as well as preemptive and non-preemptive multitasking will be covered as well.
What is an Operating System?

Not that long ago, network operating systems were designed to operate on top of an
existing operating system. A computer needed two sets of software in order to function in
a networking environment. Today, most networked computers run software that was
specifically designed to run both the computer’s stand-alone functions as well as its
networking functions.
Hardware resources such as RAM, processor time, hard disk space, and peripherals are
all controlled by the operating system (the software). The operating system is also
responsible for the running of applications (e.g. word-processing, spreadsheet, and
database programs). The main objective is to make sure that the hardware and the
applications are all compatible with each other, as well as the operating system.
41
Preemptive vs. Non-preemptive Multitasking
Multitasking, put simply, means that an operating system has the ability to perform more
than one task at a time. A true multitasking operating system is able to process as many
tasks as it has processors. Most operating systems appear to be performing multiple tasks
by alternating between tasks until they are all completed.
Preemptive multitasking means that the operating system can take control of the
processor without a task’s permission. Non-preemptive multitasking is when the task
decides when it is done with the processor. In non-preemptive multitasking, the processor
is never taken away from a task.
42
What is a Network Operating System (NOS)?

A NOS is an operating system that includes other software, such as BSD UNIX, Novell
NetWare, MS LAN Manager, or a similar program, to communicate with other
computers over a network.
Peer-to-Peer LANs
Many smaller networking environments utilize the peer-to-peer network configuration.
Peer-to-peer LANs are an excellent choice for the network that has less than ten
computers and no need of security (such as a small office environment). It is certainly the
most economical of the networking choices. Usually only NICs and cabling will need to
be purchased to implement this kind of network.
A peer-to-peer LAN is not a client/server-based network. Instead, each workstation may

act as either a client or a server depending upon whether it is accessing resources on
another workstation or if another workstation is accessing its resources. Usually this type
of network only shares files and peripheral devices. Most of the operating systems in use
today are already capable of managing this type of network.
Windows for Workgroups

Windows for Workgroups is a version of Windows 3.1 that included the capability to run
a peer-to-peer network. This version included an E-mail program (Microsoft Mail) and a
scheduling program (Schedule+) in its suite.
Basically, a group of computers was connected in a Workgroup, thereby allowing sharing

of files and peripherals. Resources have to be publicly listed as available for sharing in
order for other users to see (and therefore use) them. Drive letters are assigned to shared
directories and peripherals and a redirector routes the requests to the proper location of
the resource. Windows for Workgroups is compatible (if in a limited way) with NetWare.
Windows 95/98
Windows 95 was the first Windows program to actually be an operating system. Its new
graphical interface and networking capabilities made it a vast improvement over its
predecessor. Windows 95 uses an icon called the Network Neighborhood for desktop
access of the network. All shared resources are arranged on a hierarchical basis and
displayed in Network Neighborhood.
Plug-n-Play technology has also made installing a NIC much easier. Windows 95/98 is
also able to better identify NICs. To install a NIC with Windows 95/98 is as simple as
installing the card, turning on the computer and answering questions. Then, all you have
to do is share any directories and peripherals to the network, and you have a working
network.
Windows 95 also performs very well as a client with both the NetWare and Windows NT
operating systems. It is necessary to install the requester software (NetWare Client32 for
Windows 95) with NetWare. With NT the only drawback is that you will not be able to
43
utilize NT’s advanced security features because Windows 95 is not compatible with the
NTFS file system.
Windows ME
Windows ME is the client operating system that has followed the Windows 9x operating
systems. It is well-suited for editing home movies, moving photos to the Web, and
archiving music. It protects critical files and will allow you to revert your system back to
normal if anything goes wrong. Help and support is improved from Windows 98 and
home networking is made easier than ever.
Windows 2000 Professional

Windows 2000 Professional is the client counterpart to Windows 2000 server. It features
file protection, driver certification, remote OS installation, multilingual support, peer-to-
peer support for Windows 9x and NT, EFS (Encrypting File System), IPsec and Kerberos
support. It also supports Microsoft Management Console (MMC) and group policies.
Windows XP Home
Windows XP Home edition is a newer edition of Microsoft’s OS for home users. It
allows for faster user switching, a simplified visual design, It also uses System Restore,
like ME, which allows for safety with possible data loss. It, like the rest of the client OS
software mentioned here, is set up to be networked easily. Windows XP Home can not
join a domain though.
Windows XP Professional
Windows XP Professional edition is a very common client in the Microsoft’s OS family,
designed for the business environment. Similar to Windows XP Home, this OS adds
features that would include being able to join a domain.
Windows 2003 Server

Windows 2003 Server, based on Windows 2000 Server technologies, is a very common
Microsoft NOS that can be used as a domain controller or a member server. This version
of the Microsoft server family built in an additional security center. This was also a
benchmark in Microsoft's history because this was the first time a workstation was not
released as the same time as the server. This server also came in four edition, Standard,
Enterprise, Datacenter, and Web.
Windows Vista
Windows Vista comes in four different editions, Vista Home basic, Vista Home
Premium, Vista Business, and Vista Ultimate. Windows Vista adds in many options to
the OS, like Windows Defender, User Account Control, an enhanced media center,
Windows Mail, Internet Explorer 7, and much more depending on the version purchased.
Like Windows XP, the home versions are unable to join a domain. Enhanced networking
is built in, that will automatically adjust the Windows Firewall.
44
Windows Server 2008
Windows Server 2008 is a build upon Windows 2003 Server. It enhances reliability,
security, supports remote clients, and focuses on performance. As with Windows 2003
Server, Windows Server 2008 had four versions, Standard, Enterprise, Datacenter, and
Web. It takes advantage of 64-bit processing as well giving greater capabilities.
Warp Connect
OS/2 was a joint project with IBM and Microsoft. After this project failed to meet their
expectations they dissolved the relationship. Microsoft went on to develop Windows NT
and IBM released OS/2 Warp.
Warp Connect is used to combine OS/2 Warp and WIN-OS/2 peer-to-peer networking.
This provides a more reliable network with better security than Windows for
Workgroups.
Other Peer-to-Peer LANs

The following table lists other peer-to-peer LAN software and their manufacturers that
the networking professional may come across:
45
Software Name Manufacturer
10NetPlus Digital Communications Associates, Inc.
AppleTalk Apple Computer
Easy Net LanMark
GV LAN OS Grapevine LAN Products
LANsmark D-Link Systems
LANsoft ACCTon Technology
LANStep Hayes Microcomputer Products
LANtastic Artisoft
NET/30 Invisible Software
Network OSCBIS Peachtree
OS/2 Warp IBM Corporation
Personal NetWare Novell
POWERLan Performance Technology
ReadyLink Compex
WEB WebCorp
Server/Client Software
In a peer-to-peer network, the computers act as both a client and a server. However, it is
necessary to have an operating system that can perform in this environment. In a Server-
based network, the purpose of a network operating system is to connect all devices on a
network (computers and peripherals) and to coordinate their usability. It also provides
accessibility and security for all devices on a network. Some network operating systems
require that different versions are installed depending on whether a computer is the server
(provides resources remotely over a network) or a client (provides resources locally).
46
There are two types of networking software that must be considered:
• Client Software
• Server Software
Client Software
If you type a command for your stand-alone computer to perform a task, the command is
processed over the computer’s internal CPU via the computer’s local bus. However, if
you were requesting resources or services that exist on a remote server, the operating
system has to have the capability to redirect (forward) the request away from the local
bus, out onto the network, and to the server. The component that handles these requests is
called the redirector.
Server Software
As their name implies, Servers exist to serve. They process requests from clients for
resources such as files and peripherals. They are the storage facility for the bulk of the
data in a network environment and as such are an excellent point from which to centrally
manage a network. Unlike most client software, server software includes services for the
following:
• Managing User Accounts
• Security
• Data Protection
Managing User Accounts
Servers make it possible to manage users from a central location. Users are required to
enter a password before they can log on and gain access. Administrators set up and
manage user accounts and passwords.
Security
Administrators can set up the accounts to determine who gets privileges to what
resources and change them as needed (including denying access). The server keeps track
of who is logged onto a network and what resources have been (or are being) accessed.
Network security is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 10.
Data Protection
As we already discussed, most of the data is stored on the server. This makes it an
excellent point from which to perform regular backups. Most network administrators
provide some sort of fault-tolerance system on the server. At the very least, the server
should be attached to an uninterruptible power supply (UPS). In a network with multiple
servers, data protection is performed by a process called replication. Replication is simply
47
making a copy of the data stored on one server on another server. This way, if one server
goes down, the other server can take over immediately.
The Redirector (Requester)

The redirector (in Novell NetWare this is called the requester) is responsible for
forwarding requests away from the local bus and redirecting them to the server.
Basically, it is a section of code located in the network operating system that intercepts
requests and determines if they are local requests, or if they need to be redirected to the
server.
The purpose of the redirector is to make network resources look like local resources to
application programs. It does this by assigning drive letters, called drive designators, to
resources. If it is a local designator (drive C: for example) the request is passed on to the
local bus. If it is a network designator the request is forwarded to the server, which opens
the file or transfers the print job to the network printer, etc. This makes the application
program believe that it is simply working with a very large hard drive or with a local
printer. It does not need to know anything about networks.
48
NOS Packages
There are a multitude of network operating systems available for use. Each of them has
its own advantages and disadvantages. In this section, we will take a closer look a some
of the more popular ones.
Microsoft Windows NT Network Operating System

While NetWare was the network operating system of the 80s and early 90s, its popularity
is being replaced by Microsoft Windows NT (NT stands for New Technologies). Unlike
NetWare, Windows NT combines the computer and the network operating system into
one. This makes it more difficult to work in multi-operating system environments, but it
does have several advantages. The services provided by the server are more powerful and
it is easier for programmers to develop software that takes advantage of NT’s
server/workstation technology.
The NT technology actually evolved from a project that was jointly developed by IBM
and Microsoft (OS/2). Microsoft released the Windows NT operating system and a
network operating system version, Windows NT Advanced Server in 1993. Today,
Windows NT has two versions: Server (the server software) and Workstation (the client
software). Although Server and Workstation can both operate as either stand-alone or
network systems, Server is much more powerful so that it may provide network
management.
Windows NT’s first version was 3.1 (as in Windows 3.1) and it used the same graphical
interface as Windows 3.1. Windows NT 3.5 and 3.51 followed. With these versions, the
differences between Server and Workstation began to manifest themselves and NT began
to utilize network groups called domains. NT 4.0 uses the same interface as Windows 95.
Windows NT File Services

Like NetWare, the Windows NT Server may be configured to store each Workstation’s
directories in order to provide centralized data management and backups. Files in
Windows NT may be shared by using a simple file sharing method similar to sharing files
on a peer-to-peer network. This type is performed by each Workstation or Server publicly
sharing a directory on the network. The attributes such as Read, Change, Full Control, or
No Access may be set on the directory. You must have administrative privileges in order
to share anything on a Windows NT network.
In order to take maximum advantage of the security features in Windows NT, another
method of sharing must be utilized. With this method, you may assign directory and file-
level permissions to the data, allowing restricted access to individuals or groups. The NT
file system (NTFS) must be utilized in order to take full advantage of NT’s security
features. The advanced security features of NT are not available if you choose the DOS
file system (FAT - File Allocation Table) during installation. It is possible to use both the
NTFS and FAT file systems as long as they are in different partitions on the hard drive. A
disadvantage of this is that anyone not using NTFS cannot recognize NTFS directories,
and is limited to the publicly shared files mentioned earlier.
49
Windows NT Security
Security was a major concern in the development of NT. NT employs domains to deal
with this problem. A domain is simply a group of workstations with a shared security
database. A domain controller is assigned to each network. This is a server that maintains
and manages all accounts, permissions, and user rights. Rights must be assigned to users
in order for them to use any resources or perform any tasks in NT. See Chapter 10 for
more information on network security.
Windows NT Print Servers

Any workstation or server may perform as a print server in NT. A printer need only be
shared to the network to be accessible to anyone on the network. (Of course a user still
has to be assigned the permission to access a resource.) Installing a network printer is just
like installing a local printer, except that you are asked if it is to be a network or local
printer. Even if you are installing a local printer, you are given the option to share it to the
network. Remember, more than one printer can be installed to any machine. Printing is as
easy as selecting the printer that you want to use (assuming that you have the appropriate
permissions).
Windows NT Services
There are many services available in NT to manage network flow:
Messenger Service monitors the network and provides pop-up messages for the user.
Alerter Service sends the notifications that are monitored by the messenger service.
Browser Service provides a list of all available domain and workgroup servers.
Workstation Service is the redirector service in NT.
Server Service provides access to network resources.
Interoperability
As Novell NetWare was the “big kid on the block” when NT came on the scene,
Microsoft wanted to make NT as compatible with NetWare as possible. The following is
a list of services included with NT to ensure NetWare compatibility:
NWLink is actually a clone of Novell’s IPX/SPX protocol and is used for

communication between NT and NetWare.
GSNW (Gateway Services for NetWare) provides the gateway between an NT domain
and the NetWare server. This is necessary because all NT workstations in a domain must
connect to a NetWare server through a single contact point. Network performance will
decrease as the number of computers accessing the gateway increases.
50
CSNW (Client Services for NetWare) is the NT service that allows workstations to use
file and print services on a NetWare server. It is part of the GSNW service.
FPNW (File and Print Service for NetWare) is a utility that enables NetWare clients to
access NT file and print services. This software does not come with NT and is purchased
separately.
DSMN (Directory Service Manager for NetWare) is another add-on utility that is used
to integrate user and group account information between the two operating systems.
Migration Tool for NetWare is a tool used to convert from NetWare to NT. Its purpose
is to move (called migrating) NetWare account information to NT’s domain controller.
Windows 2000 Server

Windows 2000 server is the server-side OS to Windows 2000 Professional. Probably the
biggest feature in Windows 2000 server is the addition of Active Directory. Active
Directory is a directory service that stores information about objects on a network and
makes this information available to both users and administrators. It allows for a single
logon to access resources anywhere on the network. It also offers an improved version of
NTFS and fault tolerant versions of RAID on dynamic drives. Group policies can be
utilized with server 2000, which govern how an object and its child behave.
Windows 2003 Server

Windows 2003 Server is more widely used now than Windows 200 Server. By
enhancing security, Active Directory, storage management, clustering services, and many
other features founded in Windows 2000 Server, Windows 2003 Server is widely used
today. Windows 2003 Server also reorganized system and network accounts to make
deployment even easier. In doing this, it paved the way for other programs to be
integrated like Share Point.
Windows 2008 Server

Windows 2008 Server is the newest NOS Microsoft has released. Like in previous
versions, it is a continuation of the NT platform. Windows 2008 and 2003 Servers work
well together supporting a myriad of application and support. With more management
tools, improved security, and full support of a 64-bit system, Windows 2008 Server is
extremely capable of handling the tasks.
UNIX Operating Systems

UNIX stands for UNiplexed Information and Computing System. Even though UNIX
was not designed as a network operating system it can be, and is, used as such. UNIX is a
bulky operating system. It is primarily used on minicomputers and has many features that
are favored in the engineering and scientific environments.
UNIX is a multi-tasking, multi-user, general-purpose operating system. A UNIX system

consists of a host (a central computer) with terminals for the users. These terminals are
not stand-alone computers, but rely solely on the UNIX host for resources. Software is
51
available, however, to convert the UNIX host into a file server. The multi-tasking UNIX
host will run this software as just another application. The UNIX-based workstation can
run DOS, OS/2, UNIX, or Macintosh System 7 for its operating system. A file redirector
is used to allow the workstation to store and retrieve UNIX files as if they were in the
original format.
Banyan VINES (Virtual Integrated Network Service)
Like Windows NT, Banyan VINES is a client/server-based network operating system. At
one time, it was an extremely popular network operating system, but has lost market
share since the arrival of NetWare.
VINES was originally based on UNIX and has a directory services application called
StreetTalk layered on top. StreetTalk provides directory, security, and messaging
services, as well as file and printer sharing.
Like Novell NetWare, VINES is a great performer in multi-operating system

environments.
Linux
Linux is another operating system similar to UNIX. It is a publicly open system that has
made it popular among enthusiasts already familiar with a UNIX interface. At its
inception, Linux was designed to be less expensive than UNIX. It uses a GUI (graphical
user interface), TCP/IP, and many other features associated with an OS. It is available on
both Intel (PC) and PowerPC (Mac) platforms, as well as others.
Linux has hundreds of distributions available, but SUSE Linux became the new backbone
for NetWare. Red Hat is probably the most widely used distribution.
Macintosh
The Macintosh ("Mac") was developed by Apple Computer in 1984. In conjunction with
Xerox, they developed what later came known to be the mouse and the first GUI display.
The Mac OS X is the most current operating system used in conjunction to the Apple
computer (at the time of the writing of this book), and the processor used in Apples today
is called PowerPC. Macs are known for being used primarily in video or graphic
production, but users also use them personally, both at home and on the go.
52
Summary
Operating systems are the lifeblood of the computer. Without an operating system a
computer is just another pile of metal and plastic. Network operating systems allow a
computer to function in a network environment. Today, the most popular network
operating systems also function as the operating system. There still are numerous LANs
that use a network operating system over a conventional operating system.
In a peer-to-peer network, the computers may function as either a server (when sharing
resources to others on the network) or a client (when sharing the resources of another
computer on the network). In a server-based network, the client computers rely on the
server for their resources.
Server and client machines typically use different operating systems. Novell’s NetWare
allows for client machines to use a variety of operating systems. Windows NT has Server
software for the server and Workstation software for client machines. The main
advantages of the server-based network are increased security, centralization of
administration, and data backups.
A key component in a network operating system is the Redirector (called the Requester in
Novell NetWare). The function of the redirector is to determine whether a requested
resource is located locally (on the client computer) or exists on the server (remotely). The
redirector then routes the request to the proper bus accordingly. With the redirector, an
application is unaware that it is working from a network.
It is important for the networking professional to know the major network operating
systems used today, such as Novell NetWare and Windows NT, and at least be familiar
with others, (UNIX, Banyan VINES, etc.). It is also important that you to know the
minimum hardware requirements for Novell NetWare and Windows NT.
Be sure to complete the following exercises and review questions. Study through the
chapter again if you need to.
53
KEYWORDS Exercise
54
EYWORDS Exercise
Keyword Definition
Client Software
CSNW
DSMN
FAT
File Server
GSNW
Interoperability
MHS
Linux
Macintosh
Multitasking
NDS
Non-Preemptive
Multitasking
NOS
NTFS
NWLink
Preemptive Multitasking
Print Server
Redirector/Requester
Security
Server Software
UNIX
55
Review Questions
1. What is the difference between an operating system and a network operating

system?
2. What is the difference between preemptive and non-preemptive multitasking?
3. What is the purpose of the redirector?
4. NetWare is designed as an operating system that will overlay _____________

environments.
5. Purchasing NetWare requires a type of licensing. What happens when the number
of users exceeds the number of licenses?
6. What is NDS?
7. What are the minimum hardware requirements for installing Novell NetWare
version 5?
8. Define interoperability.
9. Unlike NetWare, Windows NT combines the _____________ and the

___________________ into one.
10. What is NTFS?
11. What is a domain?
56
12. What are the minimum hardware requirements for a Windows NT Workstation?
13. What are the minimum hardware requirements for Windows NT Server?
14. Name some of the services and protocols that Microsoft included with Windows
NT to ensure interoperability with NetWare.
15. Describe a UNIX system.
16. What OS is similar to UNIX and is a publicly open system?
17. What type of computer was developed by Apple computer in 1984?
18. What type of network would utilize Windows for Workgroups as an operating
system?
57
58
Chapter 3 – The OSI Model and Communication Standards
Chapter 3- The OSI Model and Communication

Standards
In this chapter you will learn about the OSI (Open System Interconnection) model, what
it is and what its primary function is. You will learn about which layer of the OSI model
handles which function, and which devices function at which layer. We will also discuss
the IEEE 802 standards as well as touch on various protocols and how they relate to the
OSI Model. The OSI model and IEEE 802 Standards are a big part of the Network+
exam.
The Seven Layers of Network Communication

The Open Systems Interface (OSI) model is the most commonly referenced standard in
the networking industry today. The International Standards Organization (ISO) released a
set of specifications for connecting devices on a network in 1978. These specifications
were updated in 1984 to what we know today as the OSI model. The purpose of these
specifications is to describe how network hardware and software communicate with one
another. These specifications allow hardware and software manufacturers to develop
products that are compatible with each other. The OSI model is designed as a framework
that allows communication between similar and dissimilar computer systems across a
network.
The OSI Model was created after many of the protocols it represents were already in use.
As a result, some of the information regarding these protocols may appear to be
inconsistent with the OSI Model.
There are seven steps required to prepare data for transmission between the sending
application and the receiving application. The OSI model represents these seven steps as
seven layers. These layers are used extensively in network environments and it is
imperative that the networking professional understand the different layers and their
functions.
The OSI model defines the rules involving how network devices will contact each other,
and how they will communicate if they are using different languages. The OSI model
also defines how a device knows when to transmit; when not to transmit; and how to
make sure that transmissions are received correctly by the recipient. Even how the
physical media is arranged and connected; how the data will flow (at what speed); and
how bits are represented on the medium are defined within these specifications.
59
The Seven Layers of OSI
The first thing you probably notice is we’ve listed the layers from the top down. This
model is usually represented in this way because we refer to the layers as upper and lower
layers, depending upon their functions.
Seven Layers of the OSI Model

The following is a summary of the seven layers of the OSI model starting with the top
layer:
Application Layer
This layer of the OSI Model defines how network
services or applications interact with the network.
These services include file, print, and messaging
services. Error recovery may also be a function of
the Application layer.
This layer and the lowest layer (Physical layer) are the only layers that do not add a
header to a packet before passing the data along.
60
The Application layer is responsible for communication between a user’s application and
the network. This is not the actual application or program, simply a support layer that
allows an application to use the network by acting as a translator. This is the layer that
allows users to send E-mail, transfer files across the network, or access a network
database. This layer enables computer applications to communicate with applications on
remote machines as if they were local.
Presentation Layer
The Presentation layer is the translator for the
network. It translates data into a format that is
compatible with the network, and then the
Presentation layer of the receiving computer
translates the data back into a format that is compatible with the computer. This layer is
also responsible for data compression, protocol conversion, (so that an IBM compatible
computer may communicate with a Macintosh, etc.) character set conversion, interpreting
graphics commands, bit ordering, and data encryption.
The network redirector operates at this layer. The redirector is responsible for making
network services appear to be local services to a computer.
As its name implies, it presents data to the application layer. The presentation layer acts
as a translator between an application’s native format and the network.
Session Layer
The Session layer organizes the flow of data between
devices. This layer is responsible for establishing,
managing, and ending connections. This connection is
called a session. The Session layer uses a name
lookup service such as NetBIOS to identify and establish sessions between two
computers. It is also responsible for security and other functions that allow two
applications to communicate over the network.
The Session layer controls the communication between the two computers and
determines who can transmit, or receive, and when. The Session layer organizes data
synchronization and also inserts checkpoints in the data. These checkpoints ensure that
all data is sent (or received) and make it possible to limit retransmissions in the event of a
network failure during transmission. Only the data after the last transmission will have to
be retransmitted after a failure.
Sessions may be established using simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex communication.

Transport Layer
The Transport layer is responsible for the error- free
delivery of the transmitted data. It provides a
logical connection between the two devices. The
Transport layer is also responsible for packaging, and un-packaging the data for transport.
In short, it will break the data into packets, add any addressing information and error
correction information, and prepare it for its journey.
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The Transport layer is responsible for delivering data that is in sequence, without
duplication, and error free. The Transport layer accepts packets from the Session layer
and repackages them. It is responsible for resizing them before being sent to the
destination computer. For example, if the packets are too small, they will be combined
together. If they are too large, they will be broken into smaller packets. The Transport
layer of the destination computer reassembles the data (returns it to its original state) and
checks for errors and duplications. Once the data is reassembled, the destination
computer will send an acknowledgement that the data was received. The sending
computer does not send any more data until it receives the acknowledgement for the
previous transmission. If the sending computer does not receive an acknowledgement, it
will retransmit after a specified amount of time.
When the data is received, it will be un-packed, stripped of its addressing information,
checked for errors, and then assembled and sent up to the Session layer. In an ideal
world, all data packets will be sent and retrieved in an orderly, error free manner. Should
an error occur, however, the Transport layer will sort out the problems and request that
missing packets be retransmitted.
TCP and UDP are Transport layer protocols. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. If
using a connection-oriented protocol, the Transport layer is responsible for the
guaranteed delivery of packets. This is accomplished through various error control and
other protocol-dependent features. UDP is a connectionless protocol. If using a
connectionless protocol, delivery of packets is not guaranteed. Connectionless protocols
are faster, but connection-oriented protocols are more reliable.
Network Layer
The hardware that is used to construct the network
plays an important role at this layer. The network
layer handles all the routing information as packets
travel from one network to another.
The Network layer is responsible for communication between computers via their IP
addresses. This layer makes routing decisions for transmissions that are further away than
a single link. It translates logical network addresses into physical machine addresses and
determines the best route to the destination computer. This controls network congestion,
especially on large intranetworks where there may be more than one way to reach a
destination.
This layer is also responsible for breaking packets into smaller chunks, if they are larger
than the largest acceptable frame size on a network. For example, the largest frame size
on an Ethernet is 1,518 bytes and the smallest is 64 bytes. This layer also reassembles the
data before passing it up to the Transport layer on the receiving side. Routers and NICs
function on this layer.
IP and IPX are Network layer protocols.

Data Link Layer
The Data Link layer is the second lowest layer in the
OSI model. This layer is responsible for
communication from NIC to NIC. It receives a packet from the Network layer and
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packages it into what is called a frame. Its header includes the hardware address of the
sending and destination NIC cards. (These addresses are hardwired onto the NIC by the
manufacturers.) It also includes control information such as frame type, segmentation
information and routing information.
In addition, the Data Link layer is responsible for error-free transmissions. It adds a
trailer to the frame that includes the CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check). The CRC is
simply a calculation that assigns a value to the frame. If the Data Link layer in the
destination computer comes up with the same value when it receives the frame, it
assumes the data was not damaged in transmission and sends an acknowledgement to the
sending computer. If the calculation does not check out, the destination computer will ask
for a retransmission.
In a broadcast network such as Ethernet, the data is sent out on the wire to all computers.
The frame is accepted by the Physical layer of all of the computers on the network and
passed up to the Data Link layer. It is the Data Link layer that determines whether the
message is for an individual computer or not. If it is, it accepts the data and passes it up to
the next layer. If it is not, it discards it.
The IEEE Committee thought that the Data Link layer needed to be further defined. They
accomplished this by splitting the Data Link layer into two sub-layers.
Logical Link Control (LLC)
The Logical Link Control (LLC) sub-layer of the Data Link layer is the upper of the two
sub-layers. It is responsible for connecting two computers on a network and maintaining
that link.
The LLC sub-layer provides SAPs (Service Access Points) that are used by other
computers to transfer information to the upper OSI layers. The Logical Link Control
layer is concerned with managing traffic over the physical medium. It identifies a line
protocol, such as SDLC, NetBIOS or NetWare and may also assign sequence numbers to
frames and track acknowledgements. The IEEE 802.2 standard defines how this takes
place.
Media Access Control (MAC)
The Media Access Control (MAC) sub-layer of the Data Link layer controls the way that
multiple computers share the same media channel. The way that a network shares the
channel is called its access method. The three main types of access methods are
Contention (CSMA/CD & CSMA/CA), Token Passing, and Demand Priority.
This sub-layer communicates directly with NICs using the MAC address. The MAC
address is another name for the 12-digit (6 byte or 48 bits) hexadecimal address that is
hardwired on the NIC by the manufacturer. It uniquely identifies devices on the same
medium. The first 3 bytes (6-digits) identify the manufacturer, (they are the vendor code
that is assigned to a manufacturer by the IEEE Committee) and the last 6-digits identify
the NIC (host). The manufacturer is assigned blocks of numbers to assign to NIC cards.
The combination of these numbers assures that each NIC that is manufactured (by any
vendor) will have a unique MAC address. Although quite rare, it is not unheard of for
these addresses to be duplicated even with these precautions having been taken. MAC
addresses are copied to RAM when a NIC is initialized.
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Here is an example of a MAC address: 00-00-13-35-FD-AB
Bridges operate at the Data Link layer. Bridges are devices that connect network
segments and filter data using MAC addresses. Switches, which are intelligent hubs that
use MAC addresses to send packets, work at the Data Link and Physical layer of the OSI
model.
Physical Layer
The Physical layer is the bottom layer of the OSI
model. It is the only layer of the OSI model that
communicates directly with its peer on another
computer. It is responsible for the mechanical and electrical functions of transmitting data
over a network. It converts the data into the raw bits and signals (1’s and 0’s) that are
actually transmitted over the network medium. The Physical layer of the receiving
computer converts the bits back into frames.
The Physical layer is not concerned with the contents of the packets, it is only concerned
with the physical elements of the network and the transmission and reception of signals.
It specifies such things as how many pins a network connector will have, and what each
one will do. It identifies the NIC, synchronizes the data, and determines when and how
data may be transmitted.
Point-to-point and multipoint connections are addressed at the Physical layer. Point-to-
point communication is where one computer communicates with one other. Multipoint
communication is where one computer talks to two or more computers.
The physical characteristics of a network will affect the specifications of the Physical
layer. For example, an Ethernet network using UTP would have different specifications
than an Ethernet network using Fiber Optic cable.
Devices such as repeaters, passive hubs (or simple active hubs), transceivers, and
receivers all operate at the Physical layer of the OSI model.
Note: For more information on the OSI Model, visit www.iso.ch/.
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Protocol Stacks
When more than one protocol is necessary to accomplish a task, protocols can be layered
so that specific protocols handle their appropriate subtasks at specific layers of the OSI
model. These subtasks are stacked in such a way that together they complete a whole
task. This is called a protocol stack, or suite. Each protocol receives services from the
layer directly below it, and provides services to the layer directly above it.
TCP/IP is a common example of a protocol stack. In order for computers to communicate

with each other they need to be using the same protocol stacks. In this way even
completely dissimilar systems running different operating systems will be able to
communicate. Each protocol will communicate with its peer or equivalent on the other
computer.
Communication Between Peer Layers
Most network models utilize this layered architecture. The affect of this layering is that
communication is seemingly only taking place between the associated layers of the two
computers. Even though the data is passed down through the sending computer’s layers,
over the network medium, and up through the receiving computer’s layers, in effect there
is a logical or virtual connection made directly between the two associated layers.
This is accomplished by each layer (with the exception of the top and bottom layers)
adding a header to the message (or removing it on the receiving end) before passing it
down (or up) to the next layer. For example:
You send a request for services to the server. You are communicating directly with the
Application layer. (Remember, the Application layer is not the actual application, simply
a support layer to allow applications to perform network functions.) The request is in the
form of a packet. The request is then passed to the Presentation layer where a header is
added to the message. The Presentation layer passes the modified packet down to the
Session layer, which also adds a header and passes the packet down to the Transport
layer. This process continues until the packet reaches the Physical layer. The Physical
layer does not add a header, it simply converts the packet into a bit stream and sends it
out onto the network medium.
When the destination computer receives the data, the process of moving through the
layers is reversed. As the packet travels up through the layers, each layer strips its peer’s
header before passing the packet up to the next layer. When it arrives at the Application
layer of the destination computer, the data is back in its original form so that it may be
interpreted and the request processed.
In addition to adding or removing headers, each layer is responsible for performing

certain functions. The header information actually contains instructions for its peer on the
receiving computer.
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Note: Packets (also called service data units) are made up of data and headers
acquired from upper layers. Because of this, they are sometimes referred to by
different names at different layers. The term packet is appropriate to all of the layers,
but the following table lists the other names that might be associated with them at the
various layers:
Physical LayerSignals or Bits or Data Stream into FramesData Link LayerFrames into
PacketsNetwork LayerFrames or Datagrams into SegmentsTransport LayerSegments
into dataSession LayerDataPresentation LayerDataApplication LayerData into Data
Files or Messages
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OSI and the Real World
When working with the OSI model, you must keep in mind that it was created after many
popular protocols had already been developed. This means that if you were to attempt to
map a protocol or a standard directly to the OSI model, it would not match.
In fact, some of the components or layers may actually do the work of several layers of
the OSI Model, as in the case of the TCP/IP protocol. Also, the OSI Model is not real. Its
purpose is to provide a graphical image of how network protocols work together to
provide communication between two computers. By relating various protocols to the OSI
model, we can better understand how they communicate across the layers.
Data will travel from one computer to another on a network from the Application layer to
the Physical layer on the sending computer, then to the Physical layer on the receiving
computer and back up to the Application layer. This communication will take place as
long as both computers are using the same protocols. The various layers of the protocol
are communicating as though they have virtual connections.
Flow of Data
As part of the Network+ Certification program, you will need to know the seven layers of
the OSI model. The following mnemonics are commonly used to help remember the
layers:
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Mnemonic OSI Layer Mnemonic
Away Application All
Pizza Presentation People
Sausage Session Seem
Throw Transport To
Not Network Need
Do Data Link Data
Please Physical Processing
No matter how you memorize the layers, you do need to remember the different layers
and what task each layer is responsible for. Keep in mind that it isn’t actually the layer
that performs the task, it is the appropriate hardware or software that does the work. The
OSI model simply defines which functions need to be completed at each layer and which
protocols are to be used at each layer. This is so that different types of computers with
different types of hardware and software can communicate.
These specifications make it possible for hardware and software manufacturers to create
products that will function in different computing environments. The specifications
describe how components are supposed to function. Without them we would not have
nearly as many software or hardware packages available to us, because each product
would have to be specialized towards each type of computer or operating system, etc.
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Devices and the OSI Model
As a networking professional, you will usually be working in the first three layers of the
OSI model: The Physical layer, Data Link layer and the Network layer. These are the
layers that have the most to do with hardware devices and other components that you can
change. Programmers usually deal with the upper layers and decide what protocols, etc.
are going to be used when they write a program.
Repeaters, bridges, routers, and gateways are the most common devices that are used to
expand a network. The networking professional needs to be familiar with these devices,
as well as where in the OSI model they operate.
Repeaters
A repeater operates at the Physical layer of the OSI model. It regenerates or amplifies a
signal across LANs. As electrical signals travel across a network medium the signal
weakens as a result of resistance from the cabling itself. This weakening is known as
attenuation. A repeater reconditions and re-times these signals so that they can travel
further or across LANs.
Bridges
A bridge operates at the Data Link layer of the OSI model. Bridges connect two separate
networks to form one logical network. They rely on MAC addressing to forward
messages to their destination.
Routers
Routers operate at the Network layer of the OSI model. Routers are similar to bridges
except that they make intelligent decisions about routing a signal to its destination. Most
routers today support multiple protocols such as:
TCP/IP SNAP
SNA PPP
SLIP PPTP
X.25 XNS Protocols
IPX/SPX DECnet
The following is a list of NON-ROUTABLE protocols:
• NetBEUI
• DLC
• LAT
There are two different types of routers: static routers and dynamic routers. The first is a
static router. With these routers, the routing information is permanent and requires an
administrator to change. Each static router has its own table that defines all routes
connected to it. A dynamic router, on the other hand, will search its connections and
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automatically update the routing information. Since the routing information is in a
constant state of change it is dynamic.
Brouters
A brouter operates at both the Data Link and Network layers of the OSI model. It is a
device that combines the functions of the bridge and router. If a routable packet is
received the brouter will route it using a routing table (make intelligent decisions of how
best to route the data). However, if a packet is received from a computer using a non-
routable protocol such as NetBEUI, the brouter will bridge the packet based on its MAC
addressing.
Gateways
Gateways operate in the upper layers of the OSI model (from the Transport to
Application layers, but usually in the Application layer). A gateway connects two
computer networks that use different protocols. The gateway translates between the two
networks so that they may communicate. A computer with special software serves as a
gateway and allows for communication between completely dissimilar networks.
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IEEE 802 Standards

In 1980 the Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc. (IEEE) formed a
committee to create standards for LANs. This project is known as the 802 project (named
for the year and month the project started, February 1980). These standards were
prepared before the OSI standards, but the two sets of standards were designed to be
compatible. The following table lists the 802 standards by category: (The ones you need
to know are the ones in bold!)
Number Defines
802.1 Internetworking
802.2 Logical Link Control (LLC)
802.3 Carrier Sense with Multiple Access and Collision

Detection (CSMA/CD)
802.4 Token Bus LAN
802.5 Token Ring LAN
802.6 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
802.7 Broadband Technical Advisory Group
802.8 Fiber Optic Technical Advisory Group
802.9 Integrated Voice/Data Networks
802.11 Wireless Networks
802.12 Demand Priority Access LAN, 100BaseVG AnyLAN
If you would like more information on these standards, visit IEEE’s web-site at
http://www.standards.ieee.org
There are also many other web sites that discuss these standards, and if you would like
more information on them, a little surfing might be in order.
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Network Drivers and the OSI Model

Just like every other device in a computer, the NIC also needs a device driver to function.
The driver allows communication between the operating system and the NIC, and hence,
the network. The NIC driver operates at the Media Access Control (MAC) sub-layer of
the Data Link layer of the OSI model. Two sets of standards have been developed to
define the interfaces between the NIC and the driver. The purpose of these standards is to
allow operating system vendors (such as Microsoft and Novell) to write multiple drivers
for the same NIC. This way more than one protocol stack can be bound to a single NIC.
NDIS (Network Driver Interface Specification)
NDIS was co-developed by Microsoft and 3Com Corp. and it defines the interface
between the Data Link layer NIC driver and the network transport protocol. It defines a
way to bind more than one protocol to a single driver, which will allow a NIC to support
multiple protocols. This vendor-neutral interface provides a boundary between a protocol
and the driver, which allows any NDIS-compatible protocol stack to function with any
NDIS-compatible driver.
ODI (Open Data Link Interface)
ODI was co-developed by Novell and Apple and serves the same purpose as NDIS, but is
designed for use with Novell NetWare and Macintosh environments. However, NDIS and
ODI are incompatible with one another.
Protocols and OSI

Protocols are the rules that govern communication between computers. The protocols
used to communicate in a network environment are called protocol suites or stacks. This
is because of the way they work within the OSI layers (on top of one another). Network
protocols are responsible for addressing and routing communication over a network.
They also handle error checking and acknowledgments of transmitted data.
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Network protocols work at various layers of the OSI model. It is the protocol operating at
a certain OSI layer that defines that layer’s function. Application layer protocols provide
support for application-to-application functions in the upper layers of the OSI Model.
Transport layer protocols reside in the middle layers of the OSI model and are
responsible for establishing sessions and ensuring that data is sent and received error free,
and in full. Network protocols reside in the lower layers of the OSI model and handle the
addressing and routing functions of network communication. The network layer protocols
also are responsible for error checking (CRC) functions.
Protocol Binding
In order to function, a protocol must be bound to the NIC. This binding process is what
links the protocol stacks to the NIC driver. It is possible to bind two protocols to one NIC
(such as TCP/IP and IPX/SPX) or to have two NICs with one protocol bound to each one.
(This is useful if your network communicates with another entirely dissimilar network.)
The order in which these protocols are bound to the NIC determines which one the
network operating system will attempt to use first. For example, if TCP/IP is bound first,
the operating system will attempt to communicate using TCP/IP first. If that fails, it will
then attempt to communicate with the second protocol.
Connection-Oriented vs. Connectionless
Communication between computers may be connection-oriented or connectionless.
Connection-oriented would be like dialing up your friend to ask them to come to a party.
You speak directly to your friend who either agrees or disagrees to come. In a
connectionless scenario, it would be like calling your friend and simply leaving a
message on their answering machine. You have no confirmation (unless they call you
back) that they got the message.
In connection-oriented communication, the sending and receiving computers actually

establish a connection to communicate. The receiving computer acknowledges that it
received the data that was sent. This form of communication protocol guarantees the
delivery of data.
In a connectionless communication, the data is simply sent and assumed to be received.

There is no guarantee that the message was delivered. Connectionless communication is
faster, but connection-oriented is more reliable.
Routable vs. Non-Routable Protocols
In the early days of networking, LANs were usually just one network that served a single
company or department. In today’s LANs however, it is not uncommon for more than
one LAN to be connected together using a device called a router. Protocols that are able
to route messages across these devices are called Routable. Protocols that are unable to
send messages across routers are called Non-Routable.
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The following is a list (in alphabetical order) of some routable protocols:
• AppleTalk
• DECnet
• IPX/ SPX
• PPP
• PPTP
• SLIP
• SMB
• SNA
• TCP/IP
• UDP
• X.25
• XNS Protocols
The following is a list of NON-ROUTABLE protocols:
• DLC
• LAT
• NetBEUI
Non-routable protocols cannot be used in routed environments (such as the Internet). It is

important that the networking professional know the difference between routable and
non-routable protocols and which protocols are routable.
Networking Protocols and Stacks
The following are common routable networking protocol stacks. The networking
professional should be familiar with the more common ones and should also know which
are routable and which OSI layer they function in.
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AppleTalk
This proprietary protocol stack allows Macintosh systems to operate in a network
environment. This stack consists of:
• AppleShare – This provides Application layer services for Macintosh.
• AppleTalk Filing Protocol (AFP) – This manages file sharing.
• AppleTalk Transaction Protocol (ATP) – This provides connection between two

computers at the Transport layer.
• Datagram Delivery Protocol (DDP) – This provides transmission of packets across

a network. It resides in the Network layer.
DECnet
This is Digital Equipment Corporation’s protocol stack. It is a routable protocol that can
also use TCP/IP and OSI protocols.
IPX/ SPX
Even though Novell NetWare 5.1 has incorporated TCP/IP into its design, the majority of
NetWare networks function with this proprietary protocol suite. This stack has many
protocols within it:
• IPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange) – Works on the Network layer of the
OSI model and provides connectionless service. It uses the MAC address
and is non-routable. (If data must cross a router SPX is used.)
• SPX (Sequenced Packet Exchange) – Is a Transport layer protocol and is a
connection-oriented protocol. It is a routable protocol.
• MLID (Multiple Link Interface Driver) – Resides in the Data Link layer in
the MAC sub-layer. This is the NIC driver in the IPX/SPX suite.
• LSL (Link Support Layer) – Also resides at the Data Link layer and
provides the interface between the MLID and the upper layers.
• RIP (Routing Information Protocol) – This is a simple routing protocol
that counts the hops needed to reach a destination. It chooses the route
with the fewest hops, regardless of speed. It resides in the Network layer.
• NLSP (NetWare Link Services Protocol) – This Network layer protocol is
also a routing protocol. In addition to hop count, this protocol takes into
consideration link speed and network traffic to make more efficient
routing decisions than RIP.
• NCP (NetWare Control Protocol) – This control protocol resides at four
different layers of the OSI model, and handles file and print services. At
the Application layer it handles application interfaces. At the Presentation
layer it handles data translation. At the Session layer it establishes and
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controls sessions. At the Transport layer it handles sequencing, flow
control, and connection-oriented error control services.
• SAP (Service Access Protocol) – This Application layer protocol is used
on servers to broadcast (at specified intervals) the location and services
that are available from that server.
• NWLink – This Transport layer protocol is Microsoft’s version of
IPX/SPX. It is routable and provides support for NetBIOS names.
SMB (Server Message Block)
This Microsoft protocol operates at the Presentation layer and is used for communication
between the server and the redirector.
SNA (Systems Network Architecture)
This protocol suite is used with IBM mainframes and AS/400 systems. The two main
protocols in this stack are APPC (Advanced Peer-to-Peer Communications) and APPN
(Advanced Peer-to-Peer Networking). APPC supports Transport and Session layer
services, while APPN provides Network and Transport layer connections.
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
The TCP/IP suite contains two major protocols, TCP and IP. It also contains several
others that the networking professional needs to be familiar with. We will cover TCP/IP
extensively in Chapters 8 & 9.
TCP functions at the Transport layer of the OSI model and is a connection-oriented
protocol. TCP is responsible for adding header information that contains error checking
and flow control information.
IP (Internet Protocol)
IP is a connectionless protocol. It operates at the Network layer of the OSI model and is
responsible for addressing packets and routing them over the network.
UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
UDP provides the datagram service in TCP/IP. A datagram is a kind of packet that has
minimum overhead. No error checking exists and delivery is not guaranteed, so the
application must do the error checking and retransmission if necessary. Missing packets
and out-of-sequence data is not checked and no acknowledgements are sent. It is faster
than TCP because it is connectionless. It is also layered on IP like TCP.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
This protocol is used for file sharing between computers on a TCP/IP network. FTP is an
Application layer protocol and is available for nearly every operating system. It is used to
upload and download files on the Internet and between two computers.
TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol)
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is used for transferring files quickly and more
simply than the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). It is less capable than FTP because it uses
UDP rather than TCP, making it connectionless. If you do not need to use passwords,
then TFTP would be advisable over FTP.
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Telnet
This Application layer protocol allows a user to log on and run applications remotely.
The local computer acts as a display only and all processing occurs remotely.
NFS (Network File System)
Sun Microsystems developed NFS as a file and drive sharing system. It operates like a
combination of Telnet and FTP and allows users to access files and drives on remote
computers as if they were local resources. It is an Application layer protocol.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
SMTP is an Application layer protocol that is responsible for sending E-mail from the
sender’s server to the recipient’s E-mail server.
RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
RIP (Routing Information Protocol) – This is a simple routing protocol that counts the
hops that will be needed to reach a destination. It chooses the route with the fewest hops,
without regard to speed. It resides in the Network layer.
NTP (Network Time Protocol)
Network Time Protocol (NTP) is used in a networked environment to synchronize
computer clock times. It uses Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to synchronize
computer clock times to a millisecond. It is designed to be reliable and allows for
scalability.
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
Like RIP, this is also a Network layer protocol. OSPF counts the number of hops to the
destination computer, but in addition, it also takes into consideration the network speed
and traffic and makes routing decisions based on the best route, instead of only the
number of hops.
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
ARP keeps a table of matching MAC and IP addresses. A sending computer must know
the MAC address of the destination computer in order to send data. ARP will first check
its list and if a matching address is not found, it will send out a “discovery packet” over
the network. The computer that has the corresponding IP address will respond by sending
its MAC address. ARP will add the information to its table for future use. RARP
(Reverse Address Resolution Protocol) is a related protocol that performs the same
function, but in reverse.
X.25
X.25 is a packet switching protocol that is sometimes referred to as a public data network
(PDN) because it is sometimes used by more than one organization. This is really a type
of network that is owned by telephone companies who charge organizations for use. It
uses standard telephone lines and switches, which can be unreliable due to the quality of
phone lines.
In addition, X.25 is also an equipment specification. The first specification refers to the
DTE (Data Terminal Equipment). This is the host on an X.25 network. The second part
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of the specification is the DCE (Data Communications Equipment). The DTE acts as an
endpoint for communications and the DCE acts as an entry point for the DTEs.
This is an older packet switching network that uses switches and circuits. Data is routed
via the best connection at a given time. This means that routes change as conditions
change. Packets from the same transmission are routed via the best route (and don’t
necessarily follow the same route) and are reassembled at the receiving end. Because of
this, the X.25 network is sometimes referred to as a cloud. Data goes in and comes out,
but in between, it is out of the administrator’s control.
X.25 functions take place at the Physical and Network layers and normally interface with
a protocol called LAPB (Link Access Procedures-Balanced).
XNS (Xerox Network System)
XNS is a proprietary protocol developed by Xerox for their Ethernet LANs. It is bulky
and slow and has largely been replaced by TCP/IP.
Non-Routable Protocols
The following protocols are non-routable. This means that they may not be used with
networks that use routers to connect multiple LANs. This also means that they may not
be used to connect to the Internet.
DLC (Data Link Control)
DLC operates at the Data Link layer of the OSI model. It was originally used to connect
IBM mainframes to HP network printers. This protocol is not used for data
communication. Instead, it is installed only on the print server and communicates directly
with the printer.
This is not an actual protocol and is not used to perform networking functions, only
printing functions.
LAT (Local Area Transport)
This protocol does not have a Network layer and that is the reason it is non-routable. It is
a DEC protocol used for interactive, asynchronous terminal traffic over a LAN. It is
typically used between a DECserver and a VAX minicomputer.
NetBEUI (NetBIOS Extended User Interface)
This non-routable protocol works at the Transport layer of the OSI model. It is fast, easy
to configure and small, which is an advantage if using older MS-DOS-based systems. It
may be used with bridges, but is primarily used today for backward compatibility with
existing networks.
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Other Protocols
The following are some protocols that the networking professional needs to be familiar
with:
SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol)
SLIP supports TCP/IP connections made over serial lines. It does not support IPX,
NetBEUI, or DHCP. SLIP requires static IP addressing and doesn’t support data
encryption. SLIP is not used as much as PPP.
PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)
This protocol was developed to replace the SLIP protocol and alleviate some of its
limitations. This protocol supports IPX, NetBEUI, DHCP, and others as well as TCP/IP.
It also supports data encryption.
PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol)
This is an extension to the PPP protocol. The main improvement is that it allows clients
to connect remotely from over the Internet. PPTP encapsulates TCP/IP, NWLink and
NetBEUI, enabling it to use the Internet as a backbone for NWLink and NetBEUI. Users
can establish secure encrypted access to their corporate networks via Virtual Private
Networks (VPNs) that PPTP establishes.
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
Devices using TCP/IP use SNMP for controlling network communications. This
management protocol interfaces with network analyzer software making it easier to
manage complex networks. SNMP is used extensively with intelligent hubs.
ISO/OSI Standard
This is a complete standard with each layer having a protocol (or protocols) mapped
directly to it. It provides full networking functions at every layer of the OSI model.
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
ICMP is used in error-handling and control procedures. It operates at the Network layer
of the OSI model and performs connection services and flow control services. Like a
traffic report on your radio, it detects congested areas and links that are down, and
notifies upper layers to route around them.
DNS (Domain Name System)
DNS translates names that humans understand into names that the computer understands.
It maintains a database and provides name-to-address mappings for applications.
XDR (External Data Representation)
XDR handles translation and operates at the Presentation layer. It provides machine-
independent data translations that may include encryption and data descriptions.
RPC (Remote Procedure Call)
RPC operates at the Session layer of the OSI model. It handles session establishment,
administration, file transfers, and connection release. RPC is used by the redirector to
determine if a resource is local or on the network. It makes the remote resources appear
local to the computer.
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Note: TCP/IP is such an important protocol that we will be covering it in depth later in
the text.
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Summary
In this chapter, we learned about the OSI model and its importance in networking. We
also learned what type of devices function at various levels of the OSI model and how
these devices interact with each other.
It is important to note that memorizing the OSI model will not only help you pass the test,
but also help you to narrow down problems when troubleshooting a network.
For example, if you can get to the server through a router, you know that networking is
taking place and that you have functionality up to layer three.
The OSI model is an invaluable tool to the networking professional.
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KEYWORDS Exercise
Keyword Definition
802.x Standards
Application Layer
Bridge
Brouter
Data Link Layer
Gateway
LLC (Logical Link Control)
MAC (Media Access

Control)
Network Layer
Non-Routable Protocol
OSI
Physical Layer
Presentation Layer
Protocol Stack
Repeater
Routable Protocol
Router
Session Layer
Transport Layer
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Review Questions – Chapter 3
1. Who developed the OSI model?
2. Name the seven layers of the OSI model.
3. A network adapter card operates at the _____ layer of the OSI Model.
4. A bridge operates at the ________ layer of the OSI model.
5. A router operates at the _________layer of the OSI model.
6. Data compression takes place at the __________ layer of the OSI.
7. Which OSI layer is responsible for NIC to NIC communication?
8. What is the function of the Application Layer?
9. The ____________ layer is responsible for the mechanical and electrical functions of
transmitting data over a network.
10. What is the function of the Presentation Layer?
11. Which OSI layer is responsible for establishing, managing, and ending connections?
12. What is a MAC address?
13. Which OSI layer makes routing decisions?
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14. Which OSI layer is responsible for delivering data in sequence, without duplication
and error free?
15. The Data Link layer has been split into two sub-layers. What are they?
16. What is the function of a Gateway?
17. Which IEEE standard defines the Logical Link Control (LLC) sub-layer?
18. What are NDIS and ODI?
19. Describe protocol binding.
20. Which is faster, connection-oriented communication or connectionless

communication?
21. Name as many routable protocols as you can remember.
22. You have expanded your NetBEUI network into two segments and are using an
intelligent router to optimize network traffic. Will this work? Why or Why not?
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Chapter 4 – Hardware Media and Peripherals
Chapter 4 - Hardware Media and Peripherals

This chapter explores network media, and the hardware aspect of network operations.
There are several cabling options, which we will address here, along with connectors,
network adapter cards, and other hardware and peripherals.
The effect of hardware on network performance will be key to your networking

operation. Understanding how different network topologies interact with different types
of cable is essential. How to properly configure and use network adapter cards, and
learning how wireless networks function are among the topics we will cover in this
chapter.
Network Cabling
Although wireless networks do exist, (and we’ll cover them later in this chapter), most
networks utilize some type of cable to carry transmissions on the network.
There are numerous kinds of cable, but fortunately for the networking professional there
are only three major types that you need to understand.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable is fairly inexpensive, light, flexible, and easy to install. It consists of a
copper core (either solid or stranded) surrounded by plastic foam insulation, a braided
metallic shield called the ground as well as an outer cover. Because it is shielded, it is
less susceptible to EMI than UTP.
Coaxial cable is used in Ethernet Networks; 10Base2 (Thinnet) and 10Base5 (Thicknet)
in a Bus topology.
It can transmit voice, video, and data over longer distances that UTP or STP.
Thinnet
Thinnet is about ¼-inch thick and is flexible and easy to install. It has a maximum
segment length of 185 meters (about 606 feet) and a transmission speed of 10 Mbps. It
uses a BNC (British Naval Connector) “T” connector to connect directly to the NIC.
Thicknet
Thicknet is about ½-inch thick and fairly rigid. Its copper core is thicker than Thinnet and
can carry signals farther (maximum segment length is 500 meters or about 1650 feet). It
also has a transmission speed of 10 Mbps. It uses a device called a transceiver to connect
the Thicknet cable to the NIC via a drop cable. The drop cable is connected to the NIC’s
AUI (Attachment Unit Interface) port connector, or DIX (Digital, Intel, Xerox), which is
more commonly known as a DB-15 connector.
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Because it is thicker than Thinnet, it is not as easy to install. Thicknet is often used as a
backbone to connect several Thinnet networks. It is more expensive than Thinnet but
does offer longer segment lengths.
Summary of Coaxial Cables

Not all coaxial cables are the same. They are specified based on their impedance.
Impedance is a unit of measurement for resistance to AC voltages. It is expressed in
ohms. In order for the network to operate at peak performance, all electronic components
must operate at the same impedance. Using the wrong cable will cause poor performance
and/or failure of the network.
UsesTypeImpedan
ce – Ohms
10Base5
ThicknetRG-850
10Base5
ThicknetRG-1150
10Base2
ThinnetRG-5850
Cable TVRG-5975
ARCnetRG-6293
Coaxial Connectors
British Naval Connectors (BNC) are used in both Thinnet and Thicknet networks to
connect the cable to the computers. As a networking professional you will need to be
familiar with the different types and their uses, as well as how they are attached to the
cables.
BNC Cable Connectors

The BNC cable connector that is used to connect cable segments is the T connector. It is
either soldered or crimped to the end of the cable.
BNC T Connector
The BNC T connector is used to connect the network interface card to the cable. It is
attached directly to the NIC.
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BNC Barrel Connector
The BNC barrel connector is used to connect two lengths of Thinnet cable together. It is
soldered or crimped onto the cable to make the connection.
BNC Terminator
Both ends of the cable must be terminated to absorb signals and eliminate signal bounce.
The BNC terminator is a connector that has a resistor built in that performs this function.
One of the terminators must be grounded.
BNC Connectors
N Connectors
Thicknet uses N connectors that screw on. Both ends of the cable need to be terminated
with one end grounded.
N Connector
Transceivers
The computers in a Thicknet network do not connect directly to the cable as with
Thinnet. Thicknet uses a device called a transceiver. A transceiver is a device that
transmits and receives signals on a network medium.
The transceiver has a port for an AUI connector (AUI port connectors are also called DIX
connectors or DB-15 connectors), and an AUI cable. This cable is called a drop cable or a
transceiver cable, and is used to connect the device to the network. It is common to
connect a Thinnet LAN to a Thicknet backbone using a transceiver.
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Transceiver
Vampire Taps
Although transceivers can be connected by cutting a cable and splicing N connectors and
T connectors on the transceiver, this is so time-consuming that it is not the common
approach. Instead, most networking professionals use a clamp-on transceiver. These
clamp-on transceivers are often referred to as vampire taps because they utilize sharp
teeth that puncture the cable to make the connection.
Vampire Tap
Twisted-Pair Cable
Twisted-pair cable has become the most popular type of cable used in networks today. It
is flexible and easy to install and is the least expensive of all the cable types.
This cable type consists of two insulated strands of copper wire that are twisted around
one another. These twists help prevent crosstalk and sensitivity to EMI. There are two
types of twisted-pair cables: Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) and Shielded Twisted-Pair
(STP). The telephone wire we have all seen in our homes is an example of twisted-pair
cabling.
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UTP
Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) cabling is the less expensive of the twisted-pair cable
types and hence the most popular. Since it is unshielded, it is more sensitive to EMI. It
has a maximum segment length of 100 meters. The quality of UTP is based on the
number of twists per inch in each pair of wires. Currently, there are six categories.
Category 3 cabling has a transmission speed of 10 Mbps. Category 5 UTP has a
transmission speed of up to 100 Mbps. UTP wire typically consists of eight wires or four
pairs. The following is a summary of UTP cables.
Category Maximum Data Rate Uses
1 Less than 1 Mbps Doorbell Wiring
2 4 Mbps Token Ring and Voice
3 16 Mbps 10BaseT and Token Ring
4 20 Mbps Token Ring
5 100 Mbps ATM and Gigabit Ethernet
5e 100 Mbps ATM
6 155 Mbps Extremely fast broadband
7 1000 Mbps Extremely fast broadband
STP
Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) cabling is insulated with a foil mesh between the wire pairs.
This results in less sensitivity to EMI, less crosstalk, and a higher bandwidth, up to 100
Mbps.
Twisted Pair Cabling
Twisted-Pair Connectors
UTP and STP are usually connected with RJ-45 connectors. An RJ-45 connector looks
just like a common telephone jack (RJ-11) only larger. An RJ-11 jack has four
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connection points where an RJ-45 jack has eight. The plug-ins are not the same. An RJ-
45 is too large to fit into an RJ-11 (telephone) jack.
RJ-45 Connector
AppleTalk
AppleTalk networks utilizing STP cabling uses a DIN-type (DB-9) connector.
Distribution Panels
Distribution racks and shelves are sometimes used to create more room for cables when
floor space is at a premium. This is an excellent way to organize network cables.
Expandable patch panels (sometimes called punch down blocks) are also used with UTP
installations. They come in various sizes up to 96 ports and support transmission speeds
of up to 100 Mbps (and beyond). These patch panels act like a switchboard where cables
are connected and organized. The wire is assembled in the back of the patch panel in
what is called the pin location. The pin location is a color-coded slot into which the wire
is punched down using a punch tool to make the proper connection. The front of the
patch panel is where the patch cable with the RJ-45 connector is plugged into a port (a
port is a female plug for the RJ-45). Jack couplers and wall plates are also commonly
used in UTP installations.
Wall Plates for RJ-45

Fiber-Optic Cable
Fiber-optic cable is the ideal cabling for networking. It supports extremely high
bandwidths and is not subject to EMI or RMI. It also supports much longer segment
lengths (several miles). However, as it is the most expensive and most difficult to install
of all the cabling types, it is not as common as UTP or Coaxial.
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Fiber-optic cable consists of a glass core surrounded by a coating of cladding (layer of
glass or plastic). This cladding reflects the signal back into the fiber, which reduces signal
loss. (The core can also be made up of plastic, which is easier to install, but plastic core
fiber-optic cannot carry the signals as far as glass.)
Because data only passes in one direction over fiber-optic cable, it consists of two
separate strands enclosed in a plastic jacket for strength. One strand transmits and one
receives. Signals are sent along the cable as pulses of light.
SC Connector (for Fiber Optic Cable)
ST Connector (for Fiber Optic Cable)
Because data is transmitted as light and not as electrical impulses, the data cannot be
tapped or stolen. Because of this feature, fiber-optic is used in networks that need a
secure media that transmits at high speeds over long distances.
IBM Cabling
IBM has its own special cabling for use on their Token Ring networks. They do not
conform to the same specification as used with standard UTP. IBM cabling is based on its
Type. The following is a summary of IBM Types:
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94
Type Wire Specs Uses

Connect between terminals and
1 Two STP solid core 22 AWG
distribution boxes or between
wires – maximum length 101
different wiring closets.
meters (331 feet).
2 Six twisted pairs, two STP and Same as type 1 but adds voice
four UTP – maximum length capability along with data.
100 meters (328 feet).
3 Four UTP with two twists per Lower cost alternative to type 1 or
inch – 22 or 24 AWG wire – 2. Cannot be used for 16 Mbps
maximum cable length is 45 Token Ring.
meters (148 feet).
4 Not Defined
5 Two 62.5/125-micron multi- Fiber Optic

mode fibers.
6 Two STP – 26 AWG Wire Data patch cables.
7 Not Defined
8 Two STP – 26 AWG Wire Contains a shield for use under

carpets.
9 Two STP –26 AWG Wire Plenum grade.
IBM has developed its own cabling complete with its own standards and specifications.
The connector that they developed is unique in that any connector can connect to another
as opposed to having “male” and “female” connectors as with other types of connectors.
An IBM connector is sometimes called a hermaphrodite.
IBM Connector
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Summary of Cabling
The following table summarizes the specifications for network media:
Media Bandwidth (Mbps) Nodes/ Maximum Maximum

Segment Nodes Cable Length
per Network (meters)
UTP 4-100 1 1024 100
STP 16-155 Varies 260 100
Coaxial 10 100 300 500

Thicknet
Coaxial 10 30 90 185
Thinnet
Fiber 2000 1 1024 2000

Optic
Infrared 1-10 NA Varies 32
Note: We will discuss Infrared later in this chapter.
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Cabling Terms
The following are some terms that you will encounter when working with network
cabling:
AWG (American Wire Gauge)
AWG is the standard that describes wire thickness. As the AWG wire number decreases,
the wire thickness increases. For example, 10-gauge wire is heavier than 14-gauge wire.
Typical STP and UTP wires are 24-gauge.
Bandwidth
Bandwidth is a term used to measure the ability of a network medium to transmit data.
Bandwidth is measured in megabits per seconds (Mbps).
Baseband vs. Broadband
There are two techniques that are used to transmit signals over cable:
• Baseband uses the entire capacity of the cable as a single channel. It is used with
digital and utilizes TDM (Time Division Multiplexing). The signal flow is bi-
directional.
• Broadband allows two or more channels to share the bandwidth of the cable or
medium. It is used with analog and utilizes TDM (Frequency Division
Multiplexing). The signal flow is uni-directional.
Simplex vs. Duplex
• Simplex refers to one-way communication only. For example, a pager can receive
a message, but cannot send a message.
• Half-Duplex can send transmissions both ways, (send and receive) but only one at
a time. An example would be a CB radio transmission where only one person can
talk at a time.
• Full-Duplex allows for two-way simultaneous transmissions. For example, the

telephone utilizes full-duplex transmissions. Both you and the party you are
talking to can send and receive at the same time.
Plenum Grade Cabling
A plenum is the space between the ceiling and the floor above. This space is used to
circulate air through a building. Because this space does circulate air through a building,
fire codes are very specific about what types of cabling can be run in this space.
Coaxial cable comes in two grades: Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) and Plenum. PVC is used
for the outer cover and the insulation in Polyvinyl Chloride grade cabling. PVC gives off
poisonous smoke and gas when burned. If this type of cable were used in the plenum,
these fumes would end up circulated throughout a building in the event of a fire.
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Plenum grade cable is insulated and jacketed in special materials that give off a minimum
amount of smoke and fumes. A networking professional must be aware of local fire codes
regarding plenum cabling.
Plenum Grade Cables

Selecting Cables
As a networking professional you will need to determine which kind of cabling medium
to use for a given network. There are many factors that you must consider if you are to
meet your networking objectives, such as:
• Budget
• Network Traffic
• Security Needs
• Size/Distance
• Environment
The installation parameters need to be considered as well. For example, how will the
cable need to be installed? (If there are tight corners, the flexibility of the medium should
be considered.)
Will plenum grade cable need to be purchased? (If installing cabling in the plenum, local
fire codes will need to be addressed.)
Will the cable be installed in noisy areas where EMI will be a factor? (If installing the
cable near equipment or fluorescent lighting, shielded cable might be more appropriate.)
How long will the cable runs need to be? (If the network will be small, there is no need to
use heavy duty cabling when another type would be more cost-effective. On the other
hand, attenuation could have an affect on network performance if you use cabling on a
large network where long cable runs are a factor.)
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Is crosstalk going to be a factor for security issues? (If security is an issue on the network
and the data to be transmitted needs to be secure, fiber-optic cabling might be appropriate
to avoid any tapping.)
Is future growth of the network expected? (Expandability for future growth is easier to
achieve if it is planned for in advance.)
Transmission speeds and last, but not least, cost, are issues that will need to be addressed
when planning your network. Building a low-cost network that doesn’t do the job won’t
win you any brownie points in the long run!
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Network Interface Cards (NICs)

Network Interface Cards or NICs, are also known as Network Adapter Cards. NICs are
used to connect the computer to the network. The purpose of this card is to translate the
data that the computer can understand into signals that can be transmitted over the
network medium. (And of course to translate it back again.)
This card is installed into an expansion slot on every computer on the network and the
cable is connected to the card’s port. It makes the physical connection to the network,
handles network addressing, and controls the flow of data on the network.
Preparing the Data
Computers carry data internally via data pathways called buses. Because these paths are
side-by-side, data is moved along in groups. This is known as parallel communication.
Network cabling moves data in a single data stream. This is known as serial
communication.
Data traveling via a computer’s bus is traveling in parallel because the bits are traveling
along side-by-side. Older computers had 8-bit buses which meant that data could be sent
8-bits at a time. Today, most buses are 16-bit or 32-bit. We’ll discuss the different data
bus architectures a little later.
The NIC takes data coming from the computer in parallel form and converts it into serial
data so that it can be sent along the network cable.
Signals and Clocking
In order to understand how a NIC works, you need to have a basic understanding of
signals and clocking.
Signals
There are two types of signals:
Analog: Signals or waveforms that frequently take the form of sine waves, which
constantly vary in one or more values. Analog data has an infinite number of possible
states.
Digital: Signals that are simple 1’s (on), or 0’s (off).
Clocking
Clocking is the method used by the NIC to count and pace the number of signals that it
sends and receives. Signals are sent in a continuous flow that represents the start and stop
of a data frame. This is how the NIC keeps track of how much data has been sent or
received.
Network Addressing/MAC Address
The NIC is also responsible for encoding the signals it sends out on the network medium
with its unique address. This informs the other computers on the network of its location.
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Each NIC has a unique address that is hardwired onto it by the manufacturer. The IEEE
(Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) committee assigns blocks of these
unique numbers to each manufacturer.
DMA (Direct Memory Channel)
The NIC must be able to communicate with the computer in order to prepare data for
transmission on a network medium. Most computers utilize Direct Memory Access
(DMA) and the computer assigns some of its memory space for use by the NIC.
DMA allows the NIC to access the computer directly without having to go through the
CPU. This makes transferring data much faster.
The NIC signals the computer to send the data that it wants to transmit and the
computer’s bus moves the data from memory to the NIC.
Data often moves faster than a NIC can process it. When this occurs, the data is sent to
the card’s RAM (buffer) until it can be processed.
Controlling the Data Flow
Before transmitting, a NIC will send data over the network to the receiving card. This
communication takes place so that both the sending and receiving cards can agree on data
flow and confirmation parameters. Before transmission actually takes place the NICs
agree on the following points:
• The maximum size of the groups of data to be sent.
• The amount of data that will be sent before a confirmation.
• The time intervals between data chunks.
• The amount of time between confirmations.
• How much data each card can hold before overflow occurs.
• The speed of the transmission.
If one card is faster or more sophisticated than another card, they agree on common
parameters so that the data is sent at a speed that can be handled by the slowest card.
Once all of these parameters are agreed upon, the two cards start sending and receiving
data.
Configurable Options
In order for the computer to communicate with the NIC, the NIC may need to be
configured. Plug-and-Play cards configure themselves to be compatible with the
operating system so that they may utilize the system’s resources. Other cards will need to
be configured manually. Some of these settings are configured by using DIP switches or
jumper settings, and some are set using software.
The operating system and the NIC need to have compatible resource settings, such as:
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IRQ (Interrupt Request)
The Interrupt Request (IRQ) line is used by the NIC (and other devices) to contact the
CPU. These IRQ lines are part of the system hardware and each device needs its own
line. In practice, certain IRQs are almost always used for specific devices. Having an IRQ
conflict (more than one device sharing an IRQ) can cause problems.
Typically IRQ5 is used for the network adapter card. IRQ3 and IRQ15 may also be used
if IRQ5 is already assigned. The main concept to understand is that the NIC is set up to
use an IRQ that is not already assigned to another device. Check your system’s
documentation to determine its current IRQ settings. The most important thing to
remember about IRQs is that no two devices can use the same interrupt.
See Appendix A for common IRQ assignments.
Base I/O Port Address

This is the channel through which data flows between a computer’s hardware (like a
NIC) and the CPU. Each device must have a unique base I/O port number. These
hexadecimal port numbers define a channel between a device and the processor. Check
your system’s documentation for assignment and availability of base I/O port addresses.
Base Memory Address

The base memory address marks the location in a computer’s RAM of the beginning of
the buffer area that is reserved for use by the NIC. This is sometimes referred to as the
RAM start address. This buffer area is used to store incoming and outgoing data frames.
Some NICs have settings that allow you to specify the size of the buffer, while others do
not use RAM addresses at all.
See Appendix A for common address assignments.
DMA Channel
Configuration of DMA channels is similar to IRQs. The main difference is that there are
only eight DMA channels available. The good news is that unlike an IRQ, not all devices
need one. Only devices like NIC cards that need to efficiently move data are assigned
DMA channels.
Boot PROM
Boot Prom’s (Programmable Read Only Memory) function is to allow the NIC to boot up
and connect over a network. It contains the necessary connection software to use and is
often used for diskless workstations.
In some network environments computers do not have any floppy or hard disks for
security reasons. Without a hard or floppy disk, data cannot be downloaded and stolen.
Since computers usually boot from information contained on a hard or floppy disk, this
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chip, (called a remote boot PROM) is located on the NIC, and performs the boot function
remotely over the network.
Ring Speed
In Token-Ring networks the ring speed must be set on the NIC. The two speeds available
are 4 Mbps or 16 Mbps. If the correct ring speed is not set a computer will not be able to
connect to the network and may even cause the network to fail.
Connector Type
Your NIC may automatically adjust to use the kind of connector that you are using (BNC,
RJ-45, or both), or you may have to configure it manually.
Wireless NICs
Wireless NICs are used to connect wireless network systems to the computer. They
usually use a type of antenna (omnidirectional) and an antenna cable. Special software is
usually needed to connect a wireless NIC. Wireless LANs are discussed later in this
chapter.
Fiber-Optic NICs
Due to the high-cost of fiber-optic adapter cards, they are usually only used in special
cases where high-speed direct computer to fiber-optic cable connections are required.
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Data Bus Architecture

A data bus is a group of parallel conductors (circuit traces) found on the motherboard that
is used by the CPU to send and receive data from all the devices in the computer.
Standard Bus Types
There are six data bus architectures found in Intel-based computers: The Industry
Standard Architecture (ISA) is an 16-bit bus. The Extended Industry Standard
Architecture (EISA) is a 32-bit bus. Micro Channel (MCA) is a 32 bit bus. The Peripheral
Component Interconnect (PCI) is a 32-bit bus, but can be a 64-bit bus. Micro Channel is a
data bus developed by IBM that requires licensing to be used by manufacturers and isn’t
used much. Today most buses are either EISA or PCI.
Laptops
PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association) are credit card
sized expansion buses that are used in portable computers. They are also called PC-Card
Buses. With this card comes the same expandability enjoyed by desktop PCs, including
network connectivity. They are generally 32-bit buses.
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Network Performance
The speed of the NIC will affect network performance. This is especially true on a bus
network because computers must take turns using the cable.
Because of the effect that the NIC can have on network performance, it is important that
it is configured correctly and optimally. Most cards offer features that are designed to
improve network performance:
Utilizing Direct Memory Access (DMA) improves network performance by allowing the
computer to move data directly to the NIC’s buffer without going through the CPU.
Shared Adapter Memory is a method by which a NIC contains RAM that it shares with
the computer as if it were actually installed in the computer.
Shared System Memory is a method by which the NIC utilizes a portion of the
computer’s memory to process data.
Both EISA and MCA NICs offer Bus Mastering. This is a method by which the NIC
takes temporary control over a computer’s bus, thereby bypassing the CPU. The data
would then move directly to system memory leaving the CPU free to process other tasks.
This type of card is expensive, but investing in one can increase network performance by
20 to 70 percent.
RAM Buffering holds data in RAM chips that are located on the NIC until it can be
processed. Network traffic travels faster than most NICs can process data. Without this
feature, the NIC would be a bottleneck.
Some NICs have onboard microprocessors that eliminate the need of the computer’s CPU
to process data, thereby improving network performance.
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Wireless Networks
The term wireless network implies that it is a network that doesn’t use any cabling. This
is misleading as most wireless networks utilize a system that consists of both cabling and
wireless components.
Wireless networks can be classified into three basic categories:
• Local Area Networks (LANs) – There are fully wireless systems, but usually the
wireless components are members of a wire-based LAN.
• Extended Local Area Networks - Wireless networks are frequently used to

connect two LANs. For example, a company needs to connect two networks
located in two nearby buildings.
• Mobile Computing - Cellular and satellite technologies are increasing the

popularity of wireless networking. People who are constantly on the move are
able to access their networks whether they are at home, the office, or on the road.
Why Wireless?
Wireless networks are useful if you need to provide a temporary network where running
cabling would not be cost effective. They are also useful to create a backup system for an
existing network. In some applications it is crucial that the network never goes down. A
wireless system can help ensure that the network will still function even in the event of
cable breaks.
Mobility is another reason wireless networks are created. Doctors make rounds all over
the hospital and are often not at their desks when they need to access their computers.
With wireless systems, a user can access from anywhere in the building.
Wireless is also an option for areas where installing cabling would be impossible or
unsightly. This would include historical buildings where local codes would not allow
renovations, or open reception areas where the cables would be visible. Outdoor
installations often utilize wireless systems. Sometimes wireless systems are used to
connect to remote locations or including ocean dwelling oil platforms.
Wireless networks are more portable than cabled systems, making them ideal for uses
that require frequent moving.
Wireless networks use wireless access points to “connect” the network devices to each
other. They function just like other access points (i.e. – routers), but through the use of an
infrared or radio medium.
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Wireless Antennae
Wireless Transmission Methods
There are four basic methods of wireless transmissions:
• Laser
• Radio
• Microwave
• Infrared
Believe it or not, you have used infrared transmissions every time you use your TV’s
remote control. This involves using infrared light to carry signals to a receiver. These
signals need to be rather strong because they can be affected by light sources, such as
windows. The effective distance between a transmitter and a receiver is limited to about
100 feet.
Infrared is not sensitive to radio-frequency interference, and because the transmissions

are tightly focused, they are also fairly immune to eavesdropping.
Infrared transmits very fast because of its high bandwidths. Infrared networks typically
broadcast at 10 Mbps.
Infrared Networks
There are four types of infrared networks:
• Reflective Infrared
• Line-of-Sight Infrared
• Scatter Infrared
• Broadband Optical Telepoint
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Reflective Infrared
With reflective infrared, the signal is beamed towards a central unit, which then routes
the signal appropriately.
Line-of-Sight Infrared
With this type of infrared system, there must be a direct line-of-sight path between the
transmitter and receiver.
Scatter Infrared
Transmission rates are slower with this type as the signal is designed to bounce off of
walls, ceilings, etc. until it reaches the receiver. The effective distance of the signal is
limited to about 100 feet.
Broadband Optical Telepoint
Broadband Optical Telepoint, as the name implies, uses broadband technology.

Transmission speeds with this high-end type are competitive with cable-based systems.
Radio Transmission
Radio transmission wireless is popular with a high bandwidth at 10 Mbps. It does,
however, require an FCC license and is subject to eavesdropping.
Narrow-Band Radio Transmission

This is sometimes called single-frequency radio and is similar to broadcasting from a
radio station. The transmitter and receiver are tuned into the same frequency and thus it
does not require line-of-sight transmission. The signal can be blocked by heavy concrete
or metal walls, but unblocked it can enable mobile computing over a limited range.
Spread-Spectrum Radio Transmissions

Because spread-spectrum broadcasts over a range of frequencies, it is less susceptible to
eavesdropping. This type of transmission is commonly used to connect multiple LAN
segments together.
The signals can be broadcast via two methods: hopping, or direct sequence modulation.
In the hopping method, the available frequencies are divided into hops and the
transmitters and receivers “hop” from frequency to frequency for a predetermined length
of time.
In the direct sequence modulation method, the message is broken into parts (called
chips), which are then transmitted over separate frequencies.
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Microwave
Due to microwave transmission capabilities, mobile computing is a growing technology
that provides a nearly limitless range for traveling users of this type of network. There are
three forms of mobile computing:
• Packet-Radio Networking
• Cellular Networking
• Satellite Station Networking
Packet-Radio Networking
Packets are sent via a satellite. These network-style packets are encoded with source and
destination address information, and only the destination device can receive and read the
packet.
Cellular Networking
Cellular networking is achieved via the cellular phone network. The packets sent are
called Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) and this form provides very fast
communication.
Satellite Station Networking
Microwave is currently the most common of the long distance transmission methods in
the US. It is used for line-of-sight communication.
Terrestrial Microwave
This is used for earth-based communication such as between two buildings, or across
large flat open areas like bodies of water or deserts. This form of microwave
communication is used to transmit over shorter distances.
Satellite Microwave
This is a very expensive technology and is utilized by very large corporations who pool
the billions of dollars required to develop and launch a satellite. Signals are beamed up to
the satellite and then sent back down to the appropriate receiver. This form of microwave
communication is used to transmit globally.
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Summary
The first part of this chapter covers the various aspects of network media or cables. There
are three primary types of cabling: Coaxial, Twisted Pair, and Fiber-Optic. Coaxial
comes in two types: Thinnet and Thicknet. Twisted Pair can be Unshielded (UTP) or
Shielded (STP). Fiber-Optic cable uses pulses of light to carry signals.
The networking professional must know the types of connectors used for each cable type:
BNC, RJ-45, AUI, etc. The networking professional also must know the maximum
segment lengths for each cable type.
After looking at network cabling we took a look at the hardware that acts as the
intermediary between the cabling and the computer itself. This device is called the
network interface card (NIC) and provides the physical connection to the network. It
prepares, transmits, receives, and controls data flow over the network. As a network
professional, it is important for you to be able to configure the network card for optimum
performance.
Finally, we took a look at the future. Wireless networking is the trend of the future. As a
networking professional, it is important to understand the concepts associated with
wireless networks. The four basic wireless types are: Infrared, Laser, Radio, and
Microwave.
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KEYWORDS Exercise
Keyword Definition
Analog Signals
AWG
Bandwidth
Base I/O Port Address
Base Memory Address
Baseband
BNC Connector
Boot Prom
Broadband
Buffer
Cellular Networking
Clocking
Coaxial Cable
Digital Signals
DMA (Direct Memory

Channel)
EISA Bus
Fiber-Optic Cable
Full-Duplex
Half-Duplex
IRQ
ISA Bus
Laser Transmissions
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Keyword Definition
MCA Bus
Microwave Transmissions
Narrow-Band Radio
Network Adapter Card
Network Interface Card
PCI Bus
PCMCIA Card
Plenum
Reflective Infrared
Ring Speed
RJ-11 Connector
RJ-45 Connector
Satellite Microwave
Scatter Infrared
Shielded Twisted Pair
Simplex
Single-Frequency Radio
Spread-Spectrum Radio
Terminator
Terrestrial Microwave
Thicknet
Thinnet
Transceiver
Unshielded Twisted Pair
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Review Questions Chapter 4
1. What is the maximum segment length of Thinnet?
2. What is the maximum segment length of Thicknet?
3. What type of connectors are used with Coaxial cable?
4. What is the purpose of a transceiver?
5. How is a vampire tap connected?
6. What is the purpose of plenum cabling?
7. What is the maximum segment length of UTP?
8. What is the transmission speed of category 5 cabling?
9. What is the most popular of the cable types?
10. Which twisted pair cabling is less sensitive to EMI?
11. What type of connector is used with twisted pair cable?
12. What is the most expensive cable type?
13. What is the least expensive of the cable types?
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14. List some advantages of fiber-optic cable.
15. What does AWG stand for and what is it?
16. Describe baseband.
17. Describe broadband.
18. What is the difference between simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex

communication?
19. What is the function of a network adapter card?
20. In what type of network would you expect to find boot PROM capabilities?
21. In Token Ring networks, what are the two ring speeds available?
22. Where would you expect to find a PCMCIA card?
23. What are some of the reasons you would need to install a wireless network?
24. What are the four basic wireless transmission types?
25. Which is the most secure type of radio wireless network?
26. Which microwave transmission type is used to transmit globally?
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Chapter 5 – Network Protocols & Standards

In previous chapters, we laid the groundwork for understanding networking and we
looked at the different networking topologies and cabling options. This chapter explores
the various protocols used in network communication. Access methods used by various
network protocols will also be discussed, along with the way data is transmitted over a
network in packets, or frames.
Ethernet is one of the most popular networking architectures. In this chapter, we will
discover how Ethernet works, as well as how Token-ring networks function. AppleTalk
and ARCNet networks are also included in this chapter.
After completing this chapter, you will have a working knowledge of the different
network architectures and the access methods that they use. You will also understand
how networks send data and what information is included in the frames that are
transmitted across the network medium. You will develop an understanding of Ethernet
networks and the IEEE standards for Ethernet. You will also know how Token Ring
networks function and what hardware is required to make them function. AppleTalk and
ARCNet architecture, while not as popular as Ethernet, are still important technologies
that the networking professional needs to comprehend.
A protocol is a language that computers use to communicate with other computers, in this
case, over a network. In Chapter 3, you saw how each layer of the OSI Model has
different protocols that define how the information travels. The way these protocols
interact is called a protocol stack.
The following main protocol stacks are the most important:
• Internet Protocol Suite TCP/IP
• Novell NetWare’s Protocol Suite, IPX/SPX
• IBM’s Systems Network Architecture, SNA
• Digital’s DECnet
• Apple’s AppleTalk
The OSI Model was created at a later date than some of the aforementioned protocols;
thus, they do not map directly to the OSI Model.
Protocols function at three basic levels:
• Application protocols provide support for application-to-application interaction

and data exchange.
• Transport protocols ensure that data is sent to the correct destination without
errors.
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• Network protocols route information, handle addressing, and check for errors.
Network protocols also set the standard for communicating in different network
environments.
A protocol must be bound to the network adapter card, also known as the network
interface card (NIC), in order for it to be used with a network computer. In some
instances, as in the case of TCP/IP or IPX/SPX, two protocols may be bound to one card.
The order in which the operating system will use the protocol is determined by the order
in which the protocols are bound to the NIC.
Access Methods
In a network, multiple computers are contending with each other for access to the
network media. The rules for determining how a computer may send or receive data on
the network is called the access method.
The access method that a system uses is designed to prevent simultaneous sending of data
along the cable. If two or more computers were to send data at the same time, the data
may collide and be destroyed (or partially destroyed). The access method organizes the
sending and receiving of data. All computers on the network need to utilize the same
access method in order to be consistent in the way that the data is handled. This will
ensure that a dominant access method being used by one computer doesn’t override
access to the cable causing the network to fail.
There are three primary access methods:
• CSMA/CD (Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) or

CSMA/CA (Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)
• Token Passing
• Demand Priority
CSMA/CD (Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection)
CSMA/CD is known as a contention method. This is because computers on the network
compete with each other for the chance to transmit data on the cable. With CSMA/CD
each computer on the network checks the network cable for traffic. If it “senses” (carrier-
sense) that the cable is free, it will send data. While there is data traveling on the cable,
no computer will transmit data.
Occasionally, however, two computers will transmit data at the same time and the data
will collide. The Collision Detection aspect of CSMA/CD causes the two computers to
stop transmitting and then attempt to retransmit after a specified period of time.
This sounds time-consuming, but in actuality this all happens fast enough that users are
usually unaware that they are using a contention access method. There is a distance
limitation of about 2500 meters with the Collision Detection capability. Due to
attenuation, segments are not able to sense collisions beyond that distance.
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Naturally, the more users who are connected to a network, the denser network traffic
becomes. Greater network traffic can dramatically slow down the CSMA/CD access
method.
CSMA/CA (Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)
This access method is not as popular as CSMA/CD because the sending computer will
transmit its intent to transmit before sending out data. Sending out messages that it is
about to transmit increases network traffic and slows down network performance.
Token Passing
The token passing access method is used on networks that utilize the ring topology. A
token is circulated (a token is a special type of packet) around the ring from computer to
computer. If a computer needs to transmit data on the network, it must wait until it
possesses the token.
A computer that is waiting to transmit will take control of a free token. It will add
additional header and trailer information to the token as well as the data that it wishes to
transmit. Data is transmitted in frames. The header information that is added to the token
includes sending and receiving addressing information. The trailer includes error control
information.
When the computer is ready, the token is released back out onto the network and
continues around the ring until it reaches the destination computer. The destination
computer grabs the token and receives the data. It then adds some data to the token
indicating that it received the data and releases the token back out onto the ring. The
token continues around the ring until it arrives back at the source computer.
The source computer takes the token and confirms that the data it transmitted was
received. It then creates a new “free” token and releases it back out on the network to be
used by any computer that needs to transmit.
If either the source (sending) or destination (receiving) computer detect errors in the data
that was transmitted, the frame would be resent. A computer in a Token Ring network
must possess a token in order to transmit. Because only one computer at a time may
transmit, this is not a contention method and there are no data collisions. (Some recent
versions of the Token Ring network have the capability to pass two tokens around the
ring.)
Demand Priority
The demand priority access method is designed for the 100 Mbps Ethernet standard
100VG-AnyLAN. It has been addressed in the IEEE 802.12 standard and is based on the
hubs and end-nodes being the two components that make up a 100VG-AnyLAN network.
An end node in a 100VG-AnyLAN could be a computer, router, switch, or bridge.
The hub manages network traffic by searching for requests to transmit from all the nodes
connected to the network. The hub is responsible for verifying that all end-nodes,
addresses, and links are functioning.
Demand priority is more efficient than CSMA/CD because there is only traffic between
the sending computer, hub, and destination computer, instead of broadcasts over the
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entire network. Because of the cabling method used with this access method, (four pairs
of wires are used, which enables quartet signaling) computers can send and receive at the
same time.
Contention can occur with demand priority if two computers transmit at exactly the same
time, but it is possible to configure so that certain types of data receive priority when
there is contention. If the hub receives two transmissions simultaneously, the one with the
highest priority is serviced first. If the two transmissions have the same priority level,
they are serviced at the same time by alternating between the requests.
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Network Communications (Frames and Packets)

As we’ve discussed previously, data needs to be processed into a form that can be
transmitted across a network medium. Data files tend to be quite large, and if they were
sent out onto the network medium in this form they would overload the network cabling
and slow the network dramatically. Another reason for not transmitting data in such large
chunks is error detection.
Data is broken down into small chunks called frames or packets. (The terms frames and
packets are often used interchangeably, but we will use the term packets.) Data is
converted to packets in order for it to be moved across the network medium more
quickly. Also, if there is a transmission error, only a small portion of the data is affected
(and needs to be re-transmitted). The destination computer receives the packets and
reassembles them in the correct order to translate it back into the original message.
The sending computer breaks the data into packets and adds information to each packet in
order to make it possible for the receiving computer to reassemble them in the correct
order. This information allows for error checking after the data has been reassembled.
Packet Structure
Packets may contain:
• Files, information, or messages.
• Computer control data such as service requests and commands.
• Session control codes to indicate the need of a retransmission.
All packets contain:
• The source address of the sending computer.
• Instructions for the network indicating how to transmit the data.
• Instructions that tell the receiving computer how to reassemble the data.
• The data to be transmitted.
• The destination address of the receiving computer.
• Error checking information such as Cyclical Redundancy Check (CRC)

information.
Packet Components
Headers
Headers are attached to each packet. The header contains information such as an alert
signal to announce that a packet is being transmitted, the source and destination
addresses, and clocking information.
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Data
This part of the packet contains the actual data that is to be transmitted. Depending upon
the network, packets can be various sizes, usually from 512 bytes to 4Kilobytes. Most
files are much larger than this so many packets will be made up to complete the
transmission.
Trailer
The information in the trailer can vary depending upon the communication method or
protocol used in a network. Usually, the trailer contains the error checking information.
CRC (Cyclical Redundancy Check) is a mathematical calculation that is calculated at the

source computer and attached to the packet. When the packets are reassembled at the
destination computer, the calculation is run again. If the results are the same, the
computer assumes that the packets all arrived intact. If there is a discrepancy, the CRC
asks the source computer to retransmit.
A Packet
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Network Standards
Network standards can best be described as the physical and functional characteristic of a
network. Protocols that are used with the OSI model define the rules of communication.
The standards define the means of communications. For example, in a railroad, data (in
this case passengers and freight) are moved in various cars. There are rules or protocols
that govern how the cars are loaded and the origination and destination points. However,
it is the rails and switches that govern the actual movement of the trains (data). These
provide the standards for the railroads. Not all railroads are the same (some are electric,
some are diesel, some are wide gauge, and some are narrow gauge), but all railroads that
are built to the same standards can exchange cars (data). In this section, we are going to
look at different standards for networks. Standards work in the Physical and Data Link
layers of the OSI model.
Logical Link Control (802.2)
the Logical Link Control layer, as addressed previously, is one of two sublayers of the
Data-Link layer and is concerned with managing traffic over the physical medium. The
LLC has the ability to track acknowledgements, but its primary function is maintaining
the network link by identifying a line protocol, like NetBIOS (Windows) or NetWare
(Novell).
Ethernet (802.3)
Ethernet is a non-propriety network architecture that was originally developed at the
Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) by Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs. The
original version was a 2.94 Mbps network system that would connect over 100 computers
on a one-kilometer cable.
Ethernet is defined in the IEEE 802.3 standard and is a method for computers and data
systems to connect over shared cabling. Ethernet uses a bus or star topology (10BaseT
and 100BaseT use the star topology and 10Base2 and 10Base5 use a bus topology), and
typically transmits at 10 Mbps. It is a baseband system and utilizes the CSMA/CD access
method. It is probably the most popular network architecture used today. It can be
installed with Thinnet coaxial (10Base2), Thicknet coaxial (10Base5), or Twisted Pair
cable (10BaseT and 100BaseT).
There are a number of Ethernet IEEE standards. The following are the four that transmit
at 10 Mbps:
• 10BaseT
• 10Base2
• 10Base5
• 10BaseFL
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10BaseT (Twisted Pair)
The “10” in 10BaseT indicates that it transmits at 10 Mbps. The “Base” indicates that it
uses Baseband technology (single channel). And the “T” indicates that it uses Twisted
Pair cabling. While 10BaseT can and does work with STP cabling, it is most commonly
created with UTP cable.
10BaseT has a maximum segment length of 100 meters (Twisted Pair wiring maximum
segment length) and it is connected using RJ-45 connectors. If the segment must exceed
this limitation, repeaters can be used for longer distances. The maximum number of
nodes per network is 1024 and the minimum distance between nodes is 2.5 meters.
10BaseT uses the star topology.
10Base2 (Thinnet)
10Base2 uses Thinnet (coaxial) cable with BNC connectors in a Bus topology. As its
name implies, it transmits at 10 Mbps using baseband technology. The “2” stands for 2
times 100 meters, indicating its maximum segment length. The actual maximum segment
length, however, is 185 meters. The maximum number of nodes per segment is 30. The
maximum number of segments containing nodes per network is 3. (There may be five
segments but only three may be populated.) This makes the maximum number of nodes
per network 90. The minimum distance between nodes is .5 meters.
10Base5 (Thicknet)
10Base5 uses Thicknet (coaxial) cable, BNC connectors and a transceiver. It transmits at
10 Mbps using baseband technology in a bus topology. The “5” stands for 5 times 100
meters, meaning 10Base5 has a maximum segment length of 500 meters. The maximum
number of nodes per segment is 100 in a 10Base5 system, and the maximum number of
segments is 5 with 3 being populated. This makes the maximum number of nodes per
network 100. The minimum distance between nodes is 2.5 meters.
10BaseFL (Fiber Optic)

10BaseFL is the specification for running Ethernet over fiber-optic cable. It transmits at
10 Mbps using baseband technology. The main use for this specification is for long cable
runs. The maximum segment length for 10BaseFL is 2000 meters.
100 Mbps IEEE Ethernet Standards

The IEEE committee has introduced new specifications for 100 Mbps Ethernet standards
that can meet the demands of today’s high-bandwidth applications. These applications
include video, document and image storage, and computer aided design, to name a few.
The two Ethernet standards for 100 Mbps are:
• 100BaseVG-AnyLAN Ethernet
• 100BaseX Ethernet (Fast Ethernet)
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100VG-AnyLAN
In 100VG-AnyLAN the VG stands for Voice Grade. It is known by at least four names:
100VG-AnyLAN, 100BaseVG, VG, and AnyLAN. When you see any of these terms,
they are referring to the same thing.
The IEEE specification 802.12 is the standard that defines this technology. It is basically
a way of transmitting Ethernet frames and Token Ring packets. This uses a star topology
over fiber-optic and Category 4 and 5 twisted pair cable at a data transmission rate of 100
Mbps. It can support the demand priority access method as well as an option for filtering
address frames at the hub for added privacy.
100BaseVG requires its own hub and cards, and the longest cable length is 250 meters.
(It can be extended longer but it requires special equipment.)
100BaseX (“Fast Ethernet”)

Fast Ethernet (as 100BaseX is sometimes called) is simply an extension to the existing
Ethernet 10Base Ethernet standard. It uses Category 5 twisted pair cable or fiber-optic
cable in a Star Bus topology, using the CSMA/CD access method. There are three
different specifications:
100BaseT4 (this uses UTP four-pair Category 5)
100BaseTX (this uses UTP or STP two-pair Category 5)
100BaseFX (this uses two-strand fiber-optic)
As you know, the 100 means that it transmits at 100 Mbps and the Base means it uses
baseband technology. The T4 means that it uses four-pair twisted pair cable, the TX
means it uses two-pair twisted pair cable, and the FX means fiber-optic cable is used.
Gigabit Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet is a transmission technology based on the Ethernet frame format and
protocol used in local area networks (LANs), and provides a data rate of 1 billion bits per
second (one gigabit). Gigabit Ethernet is currently being used as the backbone in many
larger networks.
Because of its intense speed, Gigabit Ethernet is carried primarily on fiber optic cable,
although copper can be used with much shorter distances. ATM competes, to some
degree, with Gigabit Ethernet, but that will be referred to later in this book. 10-Gigabit
Ethernet is also on the horizon.
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Other Ethernet Considerations

Many communication protocols are compatible with Ethernet including TCP/IP. It is also
compatible with operating systems such as:
• Microsoft Windows 2000
• Microsoft Windows NT Server
• Microsoft Windows NT Workstation
• Microsoft Windows 95 and Windows 98
• Microsoft Windows for Workgroups
• Microsoft LAN Manager
• IBM LAN Server
• AppleShare
• Novell NetWare
Ethernet networks may be segmented in order to improve performance, by joining with

either a router or a bridge. It also works in the UNIX environment.
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Token Ring (802.5)
The Token Ring architecture is defined in the IEEE 802.5 standard. IBM introduced
Token Ring around 1984. It is not as popular as Ethernet, but is still used today, primarily
in IBM mini and mainframe systems.
The Token Ring access method, more than the cable design, is what sets Token Ring
apart. The name Token Ring implies that the physical layout is that of a ring. Actually, it
is a star ring with each node connected to a central hub. The physical ring is in the hub
and the logical ring represents the data’s path between the nodes.
The cable used is STP and UTP (IBM types 1, 2, and 3), and it has a transmission speed
of 4 or 16 Mbps. Like Ethernet, it uses the baseband technology.
How it Works
Basically, the network creates a token when the first computer comes online. The token is
actually a stream of data that allows a computer to transmit data on the cable. This token
will travel around the ring until a computer signals that it needs to send data. Each
computer on the network acts as a repeater and regenerates the signal as the token/data
frame passes through it. A computer cannot transmit data in a Token Ring environment
unless it possesses the token. Data collisions are avoided because only one computer is
transmitting at a time and no other computer is allowed to transmit unless it possesses the
token (which won’t be released until the previous computer is finished).
The computer that wants to transmit takes possession of the token. While the token is in
use by a computer to send data, it is known as a data frame. The data frame is a different
type of frame than the token. This is so that no other network computer will try to possess
it to transmit data. The sending computer encodes the data frame with information such
as:
Start Delimiter
This marks the start of the frame.
Access Control
This sets the frame priority and is also where it is encoded to let the network
computers know whether the frame is a token or a data frame.
Frame Control
The information here determines whether the frame is being transmitted to all
computers on the network or one specific “end station” computer.
Destination Address
This is the address of the receiving computer.
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Source Address
This is the address of the sending computer.
Message
This is the data or file to be transmitted.
Cyclical Redundancy Check (CRC)
This is information for error detection.
After encoding the data frame, the sending computer releases it out onto the network
where it travels around the ring until it reaches the destination address.
Note: Data travels in only one direction on a Token Ring network. Whether it travels
clockwise or counter-clockwise is a matter of convention. The IEEE 802.5 standards
say it travels clockwise, while IBM says counter-clockwise.
The receiving computer copies the data into its buffer. It then encodes the frame with
information indicating that it received the data and there were no errors detected. Or, if
there were errors, it would indicate that the data needed to be retransmitted.
The frame is then released back out onto the cable where it travels back to the sending
computer. Assuming that the frame acknowledges that the transmission was successful,
the old frame is removed and the computer creates a new token and releases it back out
onto the ring.
Beaconing
In a Token Ring environment, the first computer to come online is assigned to monitor
network activity. This computer, called the active monitor, has the responsibility of
making sure that frames are being sent and received accurately. The active monitor
investigates any frames that have traveled the ring more than once and ensures that only
one token is traveling the ring at any one time.
To accomplish this task, the active monitor performs a process known as beaconing.
Every seven seconds the active monitor will send out a beacon. The beacon is passed
from node to node around the ring. If a computer doesn’t receive a beacon when
expected, it will notify the monitor that it didn’t receive an expected signal. This signal
contains the address of its upstream neighbor, as well as its own address. The network
will then attempt to diagnose and repair the problem without disrupting the entire
network.
As each new computer comes online, the Token Ring network initializes it so that it may
join the ring. Its address is checked to confirm that there are no duplicate addresses on the
network and the other computers on the ring are notified of the new computer’s active
status.
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Multistation Access Unit (The Hub)
The actual ring in a Token Ring network is in the hub. This hub is known by a few
names, such as:
• MAU (Multistation Access Unit)
• MSAU (Multistation Access Unit)
• SMAU (Smart Multistation Access Unit)
A Token Ring network can be expanded to have as many as 33 hubs. Each node is
connected to the hub via a cable, just as in other networks that use a hub. When a
computer is connected, the internal ring converts to an external ring at each connection
point.
MAUs can sense when one of the connected computers fails. The faulty node is then
disconnected from the ring so as not to affect the rest of the network. In a pure token
passing environment, the failure of one computer will bring down the rest of the network.
Token Ring Cabling

STP or UTP is used to connect each node to the hub. Most Token Ring networks use
IBM Type 3 UTP cabling, but types 1 and 2 may also be used. Type 1 has a maximum
distance from the computer to the hub of 101 meters. Using STP, the maximum distance
from the computer to the hub is 100 meters. Using UTP, it is only about 45 meters. The
minimum distance using either STP or UTP is 2.5 meters.
There is some contention as to the maximum distance from the computer to the hub using
Type 3 cable. IBM states that it is only 46 meters, but some vendors state that it is as
much as 152 meters.
The maximum distance between two MAUs is 152 meters. Using STP, each ring can
connect up to 260 computers. Using UTP, each ring can connect up to 72 computers.
Token Ring Connectors

Token Ring networks use MIC (Media Interface Connectors) connectors for Type 1 and
Type 2 cable. This is known as a hermaphroditic connector, as there are no male and
female ends. Instead the connectors can be flipped over to connect to one another. Type 3
cable is connected with RJ-45 (8-pin) connectors if using four-pair or RJ-11 (4-pin) if
using two-pair. Media filters convert cable connectors between the adapter card and the
telephone jack (RJ-45/RJ-11) and reduce line noise. Using the RJ connectors allows for
one cable run to connect both data and telephone equipment.
Token Ring Patch Cables

IBM Type 6 cable is used for patch cables in a Token Ring network. These patch cables
extend the connection between the computer and the hub or between two hubs. The Type
6 cable has a maximum distance of 46 meters between the computer and the hub. Type 6
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may also be used to increase the length of Type 3 cable or for connecting computers
directly to the hub. Patch panels are used to organize patch cables.
Token Ring Fiber-Optic

Using fiber-optic cabling in a Token Ring network can increase the range up to ten times
that of copper. Token ring networks are well suited to fiber-optic cable.
Token Ring Repeaters

Just as in other network environments, Token ring cable lengths may be increased by
using repeaters. Using a pair of repeaters, hubs may be up to 730 meters apart with Type
1 or Type 2 cable and up to 365 meters apart using Type 3 cable.
Token Ring Adapter Cards

A Token Ring has two transmission speeds: 4 Mbps and 16 Mbps. The 16 Mbps card
allows for a larger frame length, thereby decreasing the number of transmissions needed
for data transfers. All cards on the network need to be set at the same speed. A 16 Mbps
card can slow to 4 Mbps, but a 4 Mbps card cannot speed up to 16 Mbps. Therefore, care
must be taken that all cards on the network are compatible.
AppleTalk
AppleTalk is the network architecture used in a Macintosh environment. Although it is
not nearly as popular as the Ethernet or Token Ring architectures, it is still an
environment that you may be dealing with as a networking professional.
AppleTalk is included with the Macintosh operating system software; therefore network
capabilities are built into all Macintosh computers.
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AppleTalk networks are usually called LocalTalk. When a computer goes online in a
LocalTalk network, the device assigns itself an address. This address is chosen at random
from a range of available addresses. It will then broadcast the chosen address to
determine if any other computer online is using the address. If it is not being used by
another computer, it will store it to use each time it goes online.
Apple has always been open to third-party development. As such, AppleTalk can be used
by non-Macintosh computers such as IBM compatible computers, mainframe computers,
Digital Equipment Corporation’s VAX™ computers, and even some UNIX computers.
LocalTalk
LocalTalk uses STP, UTP, or Fiber-Optic cable in a Bus topology. It uses the CSMA/CD
access method and can connect a maximum of 32 devices. Since Macintosh builds-in the
hardware for LocalTalk in every computer, it is very inexpensive to initiate. LocalTalk
performance is rather limited, so it is not used as often as Ethernet or Token Ring.
AppleShare
The file server on an AppleTalk network is called AppleShare. AppleShare also provides
a print server. The client software for AppleShare is also included in the Apple operating
system.
Zones
LocalTalk networks may be joined together using zones. A zone is a named Subnetwork
that users may access simply by selecting it. This is useful for expanding the LocalTalk
network or for relieving traffic on a larger network. AppleTalk can incorporate other
types of networks such as Token Rings, by using zones.
EtherTalk
EtherTalk is simply a way to run AppleTalk on coaxial cable using an EtherTalk NB
NIC. EtherTalk may be implemented on Thinnet or Thicknet coaxial cable.
TokenTalk
TokenTalk is simply a way to run AppleTalk in a Token Ring (IEEE 802.5 Standard)
environment. The TokenTalk NB card is used to attach to a Token Ring network.
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ARCNet ( Attached Resource Computer Network)

In 1977 Datapoint Corporation developed the ARCNet technology. It is a simple and
inexpensive network architecture that may use a Bus or Star Bus topology.
ARCNet was developed before the IEEE 802 specifications, but it can be adequately
charted to the 802.4 standards (Token Bus LAN). It uses a token-passing access method
that transmits at 2.5 Mbps. A later version, called ARCNet Plus, has a data transmission
rate of 20 Mbps.
Just like other token-passing access method architectures, a token is needed in order for a
computer to transmit data. Instead of the token traveling around a ring, the token is
passed in numerical order. If computer #1 is at one end of the network and Computer #2
is at the other, the token still passes in numerical order. Obviously, this can really slow a
network down if the computers are not in order.
ARCNet transmits data in packets. These packets contain the destination address, the
source address and up to 508 bytes of data. The ARCNet Plus architecture can hold up to
4096 bytes of data.
ARCNet utilizes hubs. These hubs may be passive, active, or smart. ARCNet can use
twisted-pair or fiber-optic cabling, but is normally installed using RG-62 A/U coaxial
cable. If using an active hub in a Star topology, with coaxial cable and BNC connectors,
the maximum cable distance between the computer and the hub is 610 meters. This
distance drops to only 305 meters if using the Bus topology. If using either the Star or
Bus topology with UTP and RJ-45 or RJ-11 connectors, the maximum cable distance is
244 meters.
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Wireless (802.11)
IEEE 802.11 is the latest generation of enterprise-class wireless LAN technology. Speeds
up to 144 Mbps will be available within wireless networks (LANs to be more specific).
Interference can be lessened by their ability to function in their own band (in the GHz
range, generally). The capacity to use wireless technology is there for large-scale
deployments as well. Wireless technology is discussed in further detail in chapter four.
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Summary
This has been another information intensive chapter and we covered a lot of information
on the different networking architectures. Managing network data is all about traffic
control, and the access method (such as CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA, Token Passing and
Demand Priority) is the governor of how traffic is controlled on a network. It is important
for the networking professional to understand the characteristics of each access method.
Data is sent out on the network in smaller chunks of data called packets (or frames). If it
were sent out in one continuous stream it would quickly bring network traffic to a halt
due to the large size of the data. Packets will include information to identify the source
address, destination address and the actual data that is being transmitted. Most packets
also include error checking or CRC (Cyclical Redundancy Check) methods to check the
reliability of the packets received. Packets consist of three components: the Header,
which includes an alert signal that a computer is transmitting, the source and destination
addresses, and clocking information; the Data; and the Trailer, which is where the error
checking calculation is located.
The popular Ethernet architecture is defined in the IEEE 802.3 standards. As a

networking professional you will encounter this type of network most often. Therefore, it
is important that you are knowledgeable about the different types of Ethernet such as
10Base2, 10Base5, and 10BaseT. The 100 Mbps and Gigabit Ethernet architectures will
be even more prevalent in the future. It is extremely important that you understand the
different cabling schemes and their connectors as well as the maximum segment lengths
for all of these different architectures.
Although Token Ring is not as popular as Ethernet, it is still a common architecture and
is said to be increasing its market share by as much as 20% per year. Be sure that you
understand how this architecture works, as well as the different cabling schemes and
cable distances, etc.
AppleTalk and ARCNet architectures may be used less than Ethernet or Token Ring, but
as a networking professional you will encounter them. It is important that you understand
their specifications and access methods as well.
Be sure to complete the following exercises and review questions. If you are having
trouble with any of these concepts, go back and review the chapter again.
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KEYWORDS Exercise
Keyword Definition
Access Method
AppleShare
AppleTalk
ARCNet
Beaconing
CRC
CSMA/CA
CSMA/CD
Demand Priority
Ethernet
EtherTalk
Frames
Header
Hub
LocalTalk
Multistation Access Unit
Packets
Patch Cable
Smart Multistation
Access Unit
Token Passing
Token Ring
TokenTalk
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Keyword Definition
Trailer
Zones
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1. What are the three primary access methods?
2. Describe the difference between the two different contention methods, CSMA/CD
and CSMA/CA.
3. Why isn’t token passing considered a contention method?
4. Describe how data is transmitted in the Token Ring architecture.
5. What happens if two computers using the demand priority access method transmit at
exactly the same time?
6. How is data transmitted over the network cable?
7. What is CRC and what part of the packet is it usually located in?
8. What sort of information do packet headers contain?
9. What does the “T” in 10BaseT indicate?
10. What is the maximum segment length in 10Base2?
11. What type of connectors are used in 10Base5?
12. What type of cable is used in 10BaseFL?
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13. Name the two main 100 Mbps Ethernet Standards.
14. Which IEEE Specification defines Ethernet?
15. Which IEEE Specification defines Token Ring?
16. What are the two transmission speeds of Token Ring?
17. How are data collisions avoided in the Token Ring architecture?
18. Describe beaconing as it applies to Token Ring architecture.
19. Which way does data travel in a Token Ring network?
20. What is a SMAU?
21. Describe a MIC connector.
22. How does a computer on a LocalTalk network obtain its address?
23. What is the purpose of AppleShare?
24. What type of access method does an ARCNet network utilize?
25. How does data flow in an ARCNet network?
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Chapter 6 – Network Design

In this chapter we are going to put to use many of the terms and concepts that we studied
in earlier chapters of this training guide. We will start by looking at what it takes to
layout a network from scratch. Then we will study in more detail network adapter cards,
how they are installed and how to troubleshoot them. Finally, we will consider hardware
compatibility. Hardware compatibility is a major consideration in network design and is
often the source of troubles when expanding or upgrading networks.
Starting a Network Project

A unique opportunity for any network professional is to design a network from beginning
to end. For most of us this will be a rare event since most companies already have a
network and are working with expanding or increasing the performance of what they
already have. The most important aspect of creating a new network is to document
everything that you do. This is especially true if you will be maintaining or upgrading this
network in the future. (If not, whoever is assigned the upgrade project will be forever in
debt to you.)
The place to start a new network is with a pad of paper and a pencil or two. Even if this
network is your own, rather than a client’s, you need to approach the project as if it were
for someone else. This will give you the discipline to ask yourself the right questions and
to begin the process of documentation. There are two things that you will need to know.
The Customer
Obtaining a clear understanding of your customer and their needs is essential when
designing a network. As a network professional, you will have a lot of knowledge and
expertise with networks. This is well and good if you are designing a network for your
own use. However, in many cases, you are not designing for yourself. You could design
the best high-speed low-cost Windows system that was ever imagined, but if your
customer is a Macintosh user, your design will not work for them. The following is some
suggested information that you should gather about your customer:
The basics – name, address, etc. (demographics).
The size of the company and the portion of the network affected.
The product – this is very important as a graphic arts client will have different needs than
an engineering firm or a law office.
The facility – how big is the building(s) and what is the layout of the various offices?
Current level of technology – how many computers do they have, who has them, are
there any printers or scanners, etc? If, for example, this is a Macintosh-based company,
you certainly don’t want to design a network around Windows. Most importantly, pay
attention to details.
The customer’s likes, dislikes, and goals.
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The Network Goals
In addition to the customer’s needs, you must get a clear definition of goals of the
network. The following are some questions to consider:
Will this be a simple LAN or a complex WAN with Internet and remote users?
What are the future needs? Is this network to start small and expand later, or will it meet
the requirements of the latest technology?
How much traffic do you anticipate now and in the future? A business office moving
1000 documents and spreadsheets across a network will generate far less traffic than a
graphic arts or engineering office moving 1000 large imaging files. For example, a text-
only MS Word file will be approximately 30 KB of data while a single page image file
will average 50 KB, if the file is compressed, or as much as 8 MB for the same image
scanned (black and white) at 300 dpi uncompressed (even more if color or grayscale). So,
the same 1000 documents could be as little as 30 MB, or as large as 8 GB.
Is an Internet connection needed now or in the future? Will it be for all users or just a
select few?
What additional services will the network need to provide? Sharing of resources, files
services, print services, etc.
Once you collect this information, prepare a design document. Your document should
include a summary of all the information you collected. This can be done using any word
processor or spreadsheet program. You may want to consider using a drawing program to
create a layout of the facility. This can be a simple program like Microsoft Paint, or as
complex and as expensive as AutoCAD. There are many intermediate drawing packages
that are available. A good intermediate program is Visio 2002. This program provides
simple templates for both facilities and network components. Remember, at this time,
you are not documenting your network, only documenting the facility and the
requirements of the network. You will need this information as you make decisions in the
next few steps.
With this information in hand, you are now ready to begin the designing of the network.
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Determine Network Type

Once you collect all the information described above, you will need to start making some
decisions. The first is the type of network you will be designing. Here you will have two
choices: peer-to-peer or client/server. The decision that you make at this time will have
an affect on the hardware and software choices that you make in the future. You will
need to take careful consideration of the information collected in the first step to assist
you with this decision. The following lists the information that you will need in order to
choose your network type. If you do not have this information or need more details, go
back and get it. The wrong choice now, may cause problems in the future.
The number of nodes (computers and other resources) on the network.
The level of security required. This can range from none to very high. Also, not all nodes
may need the same level of security.
The type of business and how that will affect network traffic.
Skill level of the network users. Are they able to handle a sophisticated network or must
the network be transparent to them?
The available budget (both now and in the future).
The commitment of management and users. Are they committed to the change or are they
going to resist the change?
When to Choose Peer-to-Peer
There are many reasons why you would want to choose peer-to-peer. The most prominent
are simplicity and cost. In a peer-to-peer network, all computers are equal. They can
provide services to the network and use services provided by others. For example, if you
have a printer connected to your computer, you can share it to the network and anyone
who has access to the network can send work to it. Likewise, if a colleague has a color
printer and you don’t, you can send work to it if you need color printing (assuming that
they share the printer to the network).
Peer-to-peer networks are economical to setup and implement. First, they do not require a
high-power computer with lots of speed and processing power. Most personal computers
today will have more than enough power to successfully operate in a peer-to-peer
environment. You may have to add network cards and cabling, but most operating
systems like Windows 95 and up and Macintosh OS X are “network ready.” That is, they
include the necessary software and protocols for file and print sharing. You may need to
install the software, as generally it is not installed during a standard installation. As long
as you have the original software disk (CD), you will have no problem. Keep in mind that
you may not be able to mix two different operating systems without additional software
or upgrading to a client/server network.
The disadvantages of peer-to-peer networks are security and limited network size. Peer-
to-peer networks do provide some security in the form of allowing you to select what you
want to share to the network. This sharing is on a directory level. This means that every
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file in the directory will be available to the network. As for size, the general rule is that
peer-to-peer networks should be limited to about 10 workstations. You can connect more
workstations, but there will most likely be reductions in network performance as stations
are added. In a peer-to-peer situation, if anyone is using a resource on your workstation,
such as your printer, they will also be using your processor to do their printing. The result
will be a slow-down of performance on your workstation. This will be especially true if
your workstation is using an older, slower processor and/or has limited memory (RAM).
In a small network where everybody knows each other and security is not an issue, a
peer-to-peer network may be the perfect solution. Also, a client with a limited budget
may consider this type of network as a starting point or entry-level network.
When to Choose Client/Server
On a client/server network (also known as server-based networks), all network resources
are usually centralized. This means that one or more computers are designated as servers
and provide the resources for the entire network. Since these computers are larger, have
high-power processor, and lots of memory, the performance of the network will be better
than in a peer-to-peer network. Another advantage of server-based networks is that the
servers are never turned off. This means that if you need to use the color printer that is
connected to the print server, you will not need to worry if Mary is on vacation and her
computer is turned off (since she is the only one in the company that has a color printer).
Using a file server to maintain all of the company-wide files, instead of backing up
individual workstations, is another advantage of a server-based network. This centralized
file system also makes for easy transfers of files throughout the company, 24-hours per
day. Also, if employees need remote access, information can be made available to them
through a RAS (Remote Access Server) connection.
Perhaps the most significant aspect of using server-based networks is security. These
server-based networks provide a central database that manages access to all the resources
as well as the network itself. Before you can use any resource, you must have both the
authorization to use the network and permission to use the resource. In a strict peer-to-
peer network, any user can log on to a workstation (with a new name and password) and
gain access to the network. In a server-based network, only a network administrator can
create a user name and assign permissions to that user.
Last but not least, server-based networks are scaleable. This means that you can start
small with one server and a few workstations, and expand as your needs expand.
While there are many advantages, you will also need to consider the disadvantages. The
most prominent disadvantage is the cost to install and operate the network. It is obvious
that server-based networks will require better and higher-powered hardware, but what is
often overlooked is the cost to administer the network. The more sophisticated the
network, the more knowledgeable the administrator needs to be. Most employees have
little or no knowledge of the workings of computers, must less the workings of a
network. For these people, the network must operate transparent to them. In small
networks, all that is needed is one or two knowledgeable people to act as administrators.
Remember, this will take part of their normal workday will be taken up to react to any
problems and maintain existing accounts, etc. In large networks, administration can be a
full-time job for one or more people and may even require the skills of a certified
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network professional. Each network operating system supplier has their own certification
program such as Microsoft’s MCSE (Microsoft Certified System Engineer) and Novell’s
CNE (Certified Novell Engineer).
Making the Choice
Making that final decision is often difficult. In some cases, the answer will be very
obvious; in others it could go either way. When you are sitting on the fence, be sure to
follow a disciplined procedure:
Collect all your information.
If you are not sure you have enough information, get more.
Prepare a case (on paper) of the pros and cons of each.
If all else fails, present each case to the client and let them make the final decision.
Once you have made this decision, stick with it and move forward. This decision will be
the basis for the rest of your network design.
Public and Private networks
In addition, let us define the difference between the terms public and private network,
since your organization will more than likely need access to the Internet and networks
outside of their LAN. A private network would be a corporate network or an Intranet,
which would limit its access to those outside of the company. A public network would be
the Internet, with open access to the global community.
You can use certain IP addresses privately within your own intranet, as long as the global
community does not see them. These “private” addresses cannot be used on the Internet:
10.0.0.0
172.16.0.0
192.168.0.0
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Define the Starting Place
If you are designing a network from the ground up and literally starting with a blank
piece of paper, you can skip this section. On the other hand, if all or part of a network
already exists, you will need to make a detailed inventory of the materials you already
have. You may also want to take an inventory as part of your initial evaluation.
The documenting of existing equipment includes two components: hardware and

software. When taking this inventory, whether hardware or software, don’t just simply
ask someone what he or she has, ask him or her to show you. Remember, this is a
detailed inventory that requires someone that is knowledgeable in computers and
networks. That person is you! Be sure to take a small toolkit and a flashlight with you.
Some of the information you need may be inside the machine and you will have to
remove a case or two.
The best approach is to make an inventory sheet for each piece of equipment. This form
should identify the equipment and its specifications. The following page shows an
example of what an inventory sheet might look like. Use it as a starting place to build
your own. Also, if you are creating a new network and have no inventory to work with,
you must add new hardware, use this sheet to define your proposed new equipment. The
following is an example of an inventory sheet. Feel free to use this as a starting place for
developing your own customized form.
Network Equipment Inventory Sheet

Item Number: ___________
Type of Equipment: o Computer o Printer o Telecommunication o Other
If Other: _______________________________________
Location:
Identification: Make: ____________________________
Model: ____________________________
Serial #: _____________________________
Computer: Processor (Type and Speed) ____________________
RAM ____________________
Hard Drive(s) ____________________
Monitor ____________________
Video Card ____________________
Modem ____________________
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Connected Peripherals ____________________
Bus Type (ISA, PCI, etc.) ____________________
# of Free Slots ____________________
Network Card ____________________
Printer: Installed RAM ____________________
Interface (Parallel or SCSI) ____________________
Network Compliant (Yes/No) ____________________
Peripheral: Type of Device ____________________
Interface (Parallel or SCSI) ____________________
Telecommunication: Describe the device and its function.
Software: If this device uses software, describe each program.
Name of Program:(Operating System) __________________
Version Number: ____________________
Licensing Information: ____________________
____________________
Original Disk (CD) Available: ____________________
Name of Program: ____________________
Version Number: ____________________
____________________
Name of Program: ____________________
Version Number: ____________________
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____________________
Use additional paper if necessary.
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Design the Network

At last we should have enough information to start designing our network. It is time to
get out that pencil and paper, or the software drawing program that you used to create the
layout of the facility, and collect all of the documentation you have been working on.
Using the inventory sheets and the objectives of the network, make a drawing of the
facility and each network node. Start with the location of existing equipment (if any) then
draw the location of the new equipment. This might be a good time to start identifying
each node with a name and number. By assigning them a number now, it will make future
documentation easier.
A Network Layout
Media Selection
Media selection is an aspect of installing a network that should not be taken lightly. It is
the most labor-intensive of all the processes and the most costly to replace. The most
important aspect of media selection is to be sure that the media you choose will meet the
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performance criteria of the network. For example, a small network with only a few
workstations sharing files and printing will probably work fine with CAT 3 UTP cables.
The 10 Mbps speed of this media will handle this workload without problems. However,
if you are going to have hundreds of computers or transfer large quantities of large files,
such as in an imaging environment, you will need to install CAT 5 UTP to be able to take
advantage of its 100 Mbps speed. In addition, if you are not sure if expansion is in your
future, it would be worthwhile to spend a little more now and install CAT 5 than to
replace it in 2 to 3 years. Realistically, CAT 5 is the UTP of choice.
If economics are a major concern and you are designing a small LAN, consider Thinnet
coaxial cable. These cables are inexpensive and if all computers are in the same
proximity, a simple bus topology with each computer in a series will save on the budget
(don’t forget to terminate each end).
Cable lengths must be considered. If you intend to use UTP or STP cables, you must
make sure that the longest connection (computer to computer, or hub to computer) does
not exceed 100 meters (328 feet). In most environments this will be no problem, but if
this is a large facility, and the run from the server room to the maintenance shop is 400
meters (1312 feet), you will need Thicknet coaxial cables.
On the high end, where money is no object and security is critical or you have long
distances to cover, (up to 2 kilometers – 6562 feet) choose fiber optics.
The following are several other factors that must be considered before making your final
choice:
Topology – If you use a physical star topology, you will need to remember that all cables
must originate from the hub. Therefore, hub location is critical for determining cable
lengths.
Cable Grade – Local fire codes, or just good common sense, may require that you install
plenum grade cables for part or all of your installation. It may be more cost effective to
purchase a large quantity of plenum grade rather than a mix of plenum and standard
grade.
Cable Type – If your goal is to save money now and you don’t need a high-speed
network, you might consider CAT 3. However, for long term use and eventual upgrade to
100 MHz, the cost of CAT 5 is not significantly more than CAT 3. It will cost a lot more
to upgrade later.
5-4-3 – If your installation is Ethernet, you must comply with requirements of the 5-4-3
rule for number of segments, repeaters and nodes.
Noise – If all or part of the installation is located in an industrial environment (vibration

and noise), or uses lots of electrical or electronic equipment that generates EMI
(electromagnetic interference) or RFI (Radio Frequency Interference), you may need to
install fiber optics at least in that area.
Environment – If all or part of the network is in a hostile environment (corrosive -

manufacturing) you should consider alternatives like fiber optics.
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Environmental Concerns
A major concern that is often overlooked when designing a network is the actual
environment that the computers will be operating in. Like us, they are sensitive to
temperature changes. Fortunately, the same conditions that are good for people are often
ideal for computers.
Constant temperatures of around 70° F, with a relative humidity of 30 percent, are

usually what is found in the office environment where most networks are installed, and
this is also the ultimate atmosphere for a computer. Variable temperatures, low-humidity,
which can generate damaging ESD, high-humidity, which can cause corrosion, and
fluctuating line-voltages from the incoming power source, can all cause a computer to fail
or behave erratically. Less than ideal conditions will also decrease the life expectancy of
your equipment.
Most larger companies will have a dedicated room for their server (the Server room),
which is kept at the ideal temperature for the equipment. It is not strictly necessary to
have a dedicated room for the equipment, but it is important that the room be well
ventilated and climate controlled. The equipment should be shielded from ESD, EMI, and
RFI, and should have a method to ensure that clean power is available, such as a surge
suppressor and an uninterruptible power supply.
Note: Never place any electronic equipment directly in front of a

space heater or other heat source, as this can cause premature failure
of the equipment.
NOS Selection
Choosing the network operating system is a matter of user preference. Most network
operating systems today are robust and will operate transparent to the users. Therefore,
on the surface, it doesn’t really matter. As long as it is configured well and meets the
needs of the customer, it will work. On the other hand, sometimes the customer will make
the choice for you. If the customer has always used Novell NetWare and is satisfied with
the performance, it may not be prudent to recommend the change to Windows NT/2000.
Protocol Selection
The most important issue with selecting a protocol is to use the same protocol throughout
the network. The next choice is whether to use a routable or non-routable protocol. The
non-routable protocols, such as NetBEUI are simple and work well with peer-to-peer
networks and small LANs. However, if you intend to work with a larger network or
WAN, which requires the use of routers, you need a routable protocol such as TCP/IP.
These routable protocols are more difficult to configure, but are not limited.
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Putting it all together

Installing the media is a task that is often best left to someone who specializes in cable
installation. So let’s assume that you or your specialist has run all the cables. There are a
few more components that need to be installed. Make sure that either you or the specialist
marks each cable at both ends. This way you can identify each location.
Cable to Computer
Depending on the selection of cable, you will most likely need to install a wall outlet. The
type of outlet will depend on the type of cable. In most cases, if using CAT 3 or CAT 5, it
will be a wall plate with an RJ-45 outlet. These outlets will make for a nice and neat
installation and will make the room ready to connect a computer to the network. The next
step will be a patch cable that runs between the network adapter card and the outlet. One
thing to remember about these patch cables is that their length must be considered as part
of the overall length of the cable.
One advantage of using CAT 3 or CAT 5 cable in a star topology from a hub, is that you
do not have to install a computer on every outlet. The hub will know that the cable is not
connected and will simply ignore it. This way, you can install future or optional locations
in preparation for expanding.
Connecting to a computer
Cable to Hub
The connection of the cables to the hub will usually take place in the “server room.” This
is a centrally located room or closet that will house the primary server and hub. All the
cables will be brought to one location. To keep these organized, the cables are connected
to a patch panel. This is just a strip of RG-45 connectors. Each cable is in turn connected
to one of the outlets and a patch cable is then used to connect it to the hub.
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Connecting to a Hub
Network Adapter Cards
Installing the cabling for a network is literally installing the Physical layer of the
network. Once that is done, there is one more part of the Physical layer that must be
installed. That part is the network adapter card. This card is a circuit board with all the
electronic circuitry and components necessary to physically connect to the computer and
the media. Because it must connect to both the computer and the media, we must select a
card that is compatible with both. Therefore you must know the requirements of each.
Actually, there are three things to consider:
• Network Compatibility
• Media Compatibility
• Computer Compatibility
Connecting to a NIC
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Network and Hardware Compatibility

Network compatibility is a key consideration in network design. Building across-the-
board compatibility for hardware and software at the design stage will simplify future
maintenance and troubleshooting. Making incompatible components work together is
possible in most instances, but in the long run this will add significantly to the cost and
time requirements of maintenance, administration, and expansion projects. This section
will look at compatibility issues.
Adapter Card Compatibility
A network card acts as the interface between the computer and the network. Therefore,
there are compatibility issues on both sides of the interface.
Card to Network
Network adapter card compatibility is simple. The adapter card (NIC) must be able to
communicate on the network using the same standards and protocols as the other
components. If you are installing a Token Ring network, you must have Token Ring
cards. An Ethernet card simply won’t work on a Token Ring network. Also, the speed of
the card is important. When installing an Ethernet network, a 10 Mbps card (10BaseT)
will work on a 100 Mbps network (100BaseTX), but only at 10 Mbps. Some of the newer
100BaseTX cards will work on a 10BaseT network, but only at 10 Mbps.
In addition to being compatible with the network, the card must be compatible with the
computer. Resolving these issues is actually quite simple, but requires some knowledge
of the inside workings of a computer. The processor (CPU) in a computer will
communicate with the expansion cards through the expansion bus. This bus is a group of
parallel conductors that carry digital information to and from the CPU to all parts of the
computer. Depending on the vintage of the computer, the number of connectors and the
speed at which data can be moved will change. Network cards are designed to meet the
standards of the bus.
The actual connection between the card and the bus is called an expansion slot because of
the way the cards are installed. On one side of the circuit card are a group of gold
“fingers” that fit into the slot to provide the electrical connection. The different types of
cards are designated by the orientation and number of these connections. There are four
types of cards that you will encounter (ISA, EISA, Micro Channel, and PCI).
Before purchasing a network card, you will have to know the type of expansion slots used
in the computer and whether or not there are any free slots. The best way to find out is to
remove the case and look.
Note: Laptops and proprietary computers will have special cards designed to fit their
architecture. Laptops generally use PCMCIA cards.
Some network cards provide diagnostic lights, which can be a useful tool. These are little
LEDs (one, two, or three) that indicate the status of the card. Not all cards are the same,
so you will have to check the documentation to be sure of their meaning. In general, a
green light indicates that a proper network connection exists and a flashing yellow light
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indicates that data is being transferred. Keep in mind that a green light does not mean that
the computer is properly configured and you can use the network; it only means that the
proper connection has been established between the card and the network.
Card and Computer

Installing a network adapter card is not any different than installing any other expansion
card in a computer. Understanding the installation process is the key to preventing
conflicts.
The details of installation will vary depending on the type of computer and the operating
system installed. Since describing the installation of a network adapter card for every
system is beyond the scope of this training course, the following is a generic procedure
that defines the key points that you must follow:
Purchase the card. First ensure that it is compatible with your system (network and
computer).
Configure the IRQ and I/O address. In most cases with a new card, this will be done with
the installation software or by the operating system. If your system is not Plug-n-Play,
you may still have to manually set some jumpers or switches. If you must do this
manually, be sure that no other device has already been assigned the IRQ or I/O address.
If there are any conflicts, the computer may not boot.
Physically install the card. Remove the case and install it into a free expansion slot. Note:
If you must remove the case, be sure to follow ESD (electro-static discharge) procedures.
Hint: you may not want to put the case back on until you have confirmed that the card is
working.
Connect the network cabling.
Install the appropriate drivers for the card. Drivers are usually supplied with the network
card. Many operating systems already include drivers for most network cards. If you
don’t have the driver or want to make sure that you have the latest driver, you can usually
download them from the manufacturer’s web site. In addition, if you upgrade your
operating system, you may need to download a new driver in order to make it work or to
increase its performance.
Now the network adapter card is installed, but you are not finished yet. You need to
configure the card to work with your network software. You still need to bind the card to
the network protocols that you are going to use. Finally, you will need to check the
documentation for the network operating system that you are using.
Note: Many computers that are designated as servers or gateways can have more than
one network card installed. Each card must be configured for a different network.
Media Compatibility
Media compatibility is the ability of the cabling to physically connect to the card. In the
case of UTP, the card should have an RJ-45 connector. For Thinnet or Thicknet, the card
must have a coaxial BNC connector. Some STP cards require special connectors. For
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example, AppleTalk employs a DIN-type connector and IBM Token Ring uses a DB-9
connector.
To increase marketability of their cards, some manufacturers will provide two, and
possibly three, different connectors allowing for multiple installation scenarios. The
bottom line is to be sure to look before you buy.
Computer Compatibility
Computer compatibility is often a serious problem encountered when installing a network
in an existing facility. Many growing companies purchase their computers only as needed
and will select the best buy of the day. While this makes good sense to the accounting
department, it can create havoc when you have to connect them and actually have them
communicate. You may have to connect some older “legacy” hardware with some new
high-speed high-tech machines. A typical problem encountered with highly
departmentalized companies is that each department has its own preferences. For
example, the graphics arts department may be Macintosh-based, the engineering
department may be PC-based, and the administrative department may just be thankful for
having whatever they could get their hands on.
These types of problems can be more personal in nature, as some individuals will not
want to change their way of doing things just to have a network. If you encounter this
type of situation, the decision may end up with the company’s management and you will
have to work with it. However, it is your responsibility to point out the strengths and
weaknesses of each scenario, as well as possible solutions.
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Preventing Compatibility Problems

There are really only two methods of resolving compatibility issues. They are hard work
and standards.
Hard Work
Hard work and attention to detail are your only allies when it comes to setting up a
network from an existing system. Unless you are very lucky and are installing a new
network, with identical computers that were purchased from the same supplier, that were
identically configured, you are going to have your work cut out for you. Your only
recourse is to document every computer and piece of hardware that must be connected to
the network, and detail both its hardware and software. This will most likely require that
you remove covers and identify components such as the modem and the network card, if
installed. You will also need to know the type of processor and the type and number of
available expansion slots. With this done, boot up each computer and note the operating
system and any installed software.
With this information in hand, and knowledge of the network operating system, you
should be able to predict potential hardware compatibility problems and take action to
prevent them.
Standards
Earlier in this training course, we learned about network protocols and standards.
Standards are one way in which hardware and software suppliers can develop a product
and be assured that it will work with the products of other suppliers. As long as the
system is designed to meet the same standards, each component will work with the
others. As the network designer or administrator, you will need to establish the standards
for your network. By defining the standards to which the network must comply, you will
be assured that any new additions will function properly.
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Resolving Compatibility Problems

No matter how careful you are, sooner or later you will encounter compatibility
problems. The networking industry is in a constant state of change and unless you want to
be left behind, you will need to upgrade. Most hardware compatibility problems are
resolved by installing the latest drivers. For example, when upgrading from Windows 95
to Windows NT, you find that your modem, network card and/or printer no longer work.
More than likely, all you need to do is install the Windows NT drivers for the offending
hardware. The first thing you need to do is determine if the original disks/CD that came
with the device has the drivers to match the new operating system. If the operating
system was released after you purchased the device, you probably do not have the
necessary drivers. In this case, the Internet is the answer. If drivers exist, you will be able
to locate and download them from the manufacturer’s web site. Also, there are several
web sites that specialize in downloading drivers. Drivers for a particular device are not
always available for all operating systems. You should always confirm the availability of
drivers before purchasing an unknown device. Some devices do not have drivers for all
operating systems.
Minimum Requirements
When evaluating or considering an upgrade or change of an operating system, you will
need to check the manufacturer’s recommendations for the minimum requirements to
operate. These are the bare minimum requirements to run the system. These requirements
by no means indicate what you should purchase, only that if you don’t meet these
requirements, the system will not run. Most manufacturers will also publish suggested
minimum requirements. These will be somewhat higher than the required minimum and
are what you need to operate the system at a normal performance rate. A good example is
Windows 95. Microsoft says that you do not need a mouse to run this operating system.
This is a true statement; however, have you ever tried it? You can run Windows 95
without a mouse by using only keystrokes, but your proficiency will be very low. The
later Windows operating systems require a mouse as one of the minimum requirements.
HCL and Windows 2000, 2003, and 2008

To help alleviate compatibility issues some manufacturers provide HCLs, or hardware
compatibility lists. An operating system such as Microsoft Windows 2000, 2003, and
2008 is hardware dependent. It is considered an advanced operating system and will not
work with all hardware. If you were to purchase an econo-version of a computer or one
that is highly proprietary, it most likely will not work with Windows 2000, 2003, or
2008. To assist in making an informed purchasing decision, or to confirm whether or not
your existing hardware will work with the Windows version you have, you will need to
check the HCL for that product. This list will ship with the NOS package (on the CD-
ROM) and 2000, 2003, and 2008 will make a check during installation. If you want the
latest list, you can get it from one of Microsoft’s web sites.
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164

1. What are the two tools required to initiate a network design?
2. What are the two areas of concern when starting a network project?
3. What are the two most prominent reasons to choose a peer-to-peer network?
4. What is the number one reason for choosing a client/server network?
5. Is NetBEUI a good protocol to use with a large WAN?
6. Your client is installing a small Ethernet network and trying to save money at the
same time. However, he intends to expand the network in the future. Give one reason
why you should recommend that he spend a little more now and install CAT 5
cabling instead of CAT 3.
7. You are expanding your network and will need to invest in 50 to 100 new network
cards. Your accounting office found a really good deal on network cards, but they are
not all the same. Why should you refuse this offer?
8. Your company just bought ten new computers and all are guaranteed to meet the
minimum requirements of Windows NT. Was this a good purchase?
9. How do you know if a new piece of hardware will work with Windows NT?
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Chapter 7 - Expanding a Network

No matter how well you design a network, sooner or later, it will be too small. This
chapter will discuss several techniques for expanding a network.
Expanding a LAN with Hubs and Switchs

A less common method, today, for expanding networks is to use a hub. A hub is a device
that acts like the central station for all computers on the network. There are several
different types of hubs, from simple five-connector hubs used to connect five devices, to
larger hubs that can connect many more computers. For example, you cannot use an
Ethernet hub on a Token Ring network. In addition to being called “hubs,” you may also
hear them referred to as:
• Concentrators
• MAU or MSAU– Multistation Access Unit (Token Ring)
• Patch Panel
• SMAU – a Smart MAU
Hubs can be either active or passive. An active hub will require power and will often
provide some form of signal conditioning (amplifies weak signals). Active hubs can be
used to extend the length of network cabling by connecting them in a series. Passive hubs
do not use external power and are used only to concentrate the cables in a common
location.
A switch the most common method for expanding a network today. A switch is
effectively a powered hub with logic built in. With this logic, it maps out where nodes
are located and instead of broadcasting the packet to all nodes, it can target the packet
directly to its destination. This greatly reduces the collision domain.
Switch can be either managed or unmanaged. An unmanaged switch can just be plugged
in and connected. It will operate without any configuration. A managed switch can be
configured to separate out ports so that traffic can not go from one port to another, called
VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network). A managed switch typically will have a console
port on the back or front where configuration can be made with a tool like hyperterminal
or a command prompt and telnet to the switch.
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Chapter 7 – Expanding a Network
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When a LAN is Too Small

There are several reasons to consider expanding a LAN:
• Too much network traffic.
• Long waits to access a printer or file.
• Traffic-generating applications, such as databases, have increased response times.
• You are just plain tired of your old system and want to get your system updated.
When the time comes to make a serious expansion to a LAN, the simple hub just won’t
do the job. Depending on the objectives of the LAN, you will have to employ one or
more different pieces of hardware. Fortunately, there are several other devices that can be
used to expand a network. Each has its own unique advantages and disadvantages.
Repeaters
A repeater is a device that is used to extend the cable length on a network. They do not
translate or filter any information. They do however, amplify the signal, thereby
compensating for signal loss due to long cable lengths. Repeaters work in the Physical
Layer of the OSI model.
Repeater
Bridges
A bridge does the same things as a repeater, but has one additional feature. A bridge can
be used to isolate segments on a LAN, thus reducing the traffic for each segment. Bridges
work in the Data Link Layer of the OSI model.
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Bridge
Routers
A router has all of the features of a bridge, but it can switch packets across multiple
networks. Routers can also determine the best path for “routing” traffic and filter
broadcast traffic on the local segment. Not all network protocols will work with a router.
For example, the NetBEUI protocol is not routable.
Router
Gateway
Gateways make it possible to connect different network architectures. Think of a gateway
as a computer that acts as a translator between two networks that don’t speak the same
language. It is an entrance to another network that controls traffic on your network.
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Gateway
Connection Services
When expanding a network beyond the local area cable boundaries, it is likely that you
will need to connect to a third party’s cabling system. An example of such a system is the
telephone company. When considering which connection service to use, be sure to take
into account your throughput, the distance the data must travel, and the cost of the
service.
Carriers
Carriers are the companies that we contract with to carry our data over long distances.
They are providing the cabling, microwave, and satellite connections. When thinking of a
carrier, we most commonly think of our local telephone company or one of the long
distance carriers. Keep in mind that there are many carrier companies that provide many
different services at a variety of rates. Be careful when choosing a carrier. Be sure to
compare them on an equal basis and look for hidden costs. Just because the cost looks
good, does not mean that it is the best value.
When thinking of telephone lines, there are two levels of service to consider. The first is
public dial-up network lines. These are our standard telephone connections. With dial-up
networking, each computer must use a modem and establish a direct connection.
Typically, these connections are slow and not very reliable. Some of the newer digital
services will claim to have a speed of 56 Kbps, but connecting at this rate is rare. The
second choice is leased, or dedicated, lines. These powerful full-time dedicated
connections do not use a series of switches to complete the connection. Speed for leased
lines can reach 45 Mbps.
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WAN Overview
When the physical capabilities and distance limits of a LAN need to be exceeded, items
such as bridges, routers and communications services are used to create a WAN. These
physically larger networks will appear to function the same as a LAN. Most WANs are a
collection of LANs. WAN links can include any of the following:
• Cable Television Coaxial Systems
• Fiber-Optic Cable
• Microwave Transmitters
• Packet Switched Networks
• Satellite Links
Those using a WAN link to connect LANs will need to use CSU/DSUs. A CSU/DSU
(Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit) is a hardware device responsible for changing
the frame type from whatever the LAN is using into a frame that will work on the WAN.
It also changes the frame type back when frames are sent back.
The CSU is responsible for both the signals received from the WAN, as well as those
transmitted to it. The DSU is responsible for converting both the input and output
between the frame types between the LAN and the WAN. It can regenerate the signal, if
necessary, and deals with timing issues.
You can also use ISDN adapters if you are using ISDN PRI for WAN connectivity.
Communication between LANs will involve one of the following technologies:
• Analog
• Digital
• Packet Switching
Analog Connectivity
Analog communication is the one that we are most familiar with. It is based on PSTN
(Public Switched Telephone Network). There are two types of PSTN: dial-up lines and
dedicated analog lines.
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Analog Signal
The dial-up lines can be further classified as:
Line Type Description
1 Basic voice.
2 Voice with some quality control.
3 Voice/radio with tone conditioning.
4 Data applications below 1200 bps.
5 Basic data.
6 Voice and data over trunk circuits.
7 Voice and data over private lines.
8 Voice and data over trunks between computers.
9 Voice and video.
10 Application relays.
Digital Connectivity
When you need a faster, more secure line than can be provided by an analog connection,
you need DDS (Digital Data Service). The primary reason for using digital lines is that
they are 99% error-free.
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Digital Signal
T1 is the most widely used type of digital line. It is capable of 1.544 Mbps transmissions.
It can be used to transmit digital voice, data, and video signals. The following table lists
the most common connection types:
Connection T1/E1/OC1 Voice Channels DATA RATE

Type Channels (MBPS)
T1 1 24 1.544 Mbps
T3 28 672 44.736 Mbps
E1 1 32 2.048 Mbps
E3 16 512 34.368 Mbps
XDSL N/A N/A Varies

depending ISP;
faster download
than upload
OC-1 1 N/A 51.8 Mbps
OC-3 3 N/A 155.52 Mbps
ATM N/A N/A Either 155.520

or 622.080 (can
reach 10 Gbps)
The T1 and the T3 standard are American, whereas the E1 and the E3 are the European
standard.
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Circuit-switched Networks
Circuit-switched networks set up a continuous direct connection between the individual
calling and the one being called. POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service) or the telephone
lines are the most common example of this type of network. Obviously, since the
infrastructure of the phone line we use today was created long before the advent of the
personal computer and the Internet, this particular type of network is not suited for most
companies’ business needs. Plus, analog phone lines do not lend themselves to error
checking, compression, and encryption; all things that are a necessity for information
transferred from location to location, especially information between businesses. It may
be simpler to use the phone line to transfer data, but the end-to-end connection that has to
take place is time-intensive.
Circuit-switched Network
Packet Switching Networks
Packet switching is a means of providing fast, convenient, and reliable network
messaging. A packet switched network takes each piece of data to be transmitted and
breaks it down into small packets. A packet contains information such as the destination
and source addresses, error control information, and the actual data to be transmitted.
Each packet is then individually sent from the source to the destination where they are
reassembled into the complete data.
Both local and long distance carriers offer a LAN-to-LAN digital dial-up service called
switched 56. This is a 56 Kbps connection that can be used on demand, thus eliminating
the cost of a leased line. If you don’t need continuous high-speed connections, this may
be a cost-effective alternative. However, you will need to install CSU/DSU so that you
can dial-up another switched 56 site.
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Packet Switching
VLAN
Virtual LANs (VLANs) can be viewed as a group of devices on different physical LAN
segments that can communicate with each other as if they were all on the same physical
LAN segment. It is best understood as a “logical” LAN, which lays out hosts (computers,
printers, etc.) by another means apart from how they are connected physically and
geographically. An administrator might set up a VLAN based on certain departments
within their company, or by the specific use of the computers, or any other logical means.
This allows the administrator the luxury of modifying the VLAN, whether it be adding
computers or adjusting resources, without having to change the physical picture of the
network. This type of network is most closely associated with a “campus environment.”
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VLAN
Advanced WAN Environments
If the existing services available do not meet the needs of your WAN, you might consider
some of the advanced WAN technologies. One of these may just provide you with the
necessary bandwidth and speed that you need.
ATM - Asynchronous transfer mode is an advanced packet switching system. These

systems are designed to operate at a throughput rate of 1.2 Gbps. However, in actuality,
they currently operate at as high as 622 Mbps with most commercial boards operating at
155 Mbps. ATM is not media dependent and will operate on coaxial, twisted pair, or fiber
optic. It is, however, media limited. This means that the choice of media will limit the
maximum speed of the network. ATM is relatively new and will require special hardware
and bandwidth to reach its full potential. As well as the common voice and data, ATM
can be used with FAX, video, audio, and imaging. It uses a 53 byte cell.
FDDI - Fiber Distributed Data Interface is the basis of fiber optic communication. It was
designed specifically for Token Ring networks and has a maximum ring length of 100
Kilometers (62 miles). It will support 500 computers and run at 100 Mbps. While not a
good choice for WANs, it is a good choice for LANs that require large bandwidth and
high speeds. Because it is fiber optic-based, it will provide a secure network that is
immune to interference.
X.25
X.25, is an older packet switching protocol that utilized telephone lines and it is good for
use with voice. It uses transmission links only when needed. It only provides speeds up to
64K and bandwidth is fixed, so you get the bandwidth whether you need it or not.
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Frame Relay
Frame Relay is an improved version of the X.25 packet switching technology that it is
based on. Unlike X.25, which was designed for voice, frame relay is fast because it does
not attempt to correct errors. If a frame is found to have an error, it is “dropped” meaning
it is discarded. Error checking is something that is left up to the services on the end points
of the connection, as well as the retransmission of the information in any “dropped”
frames. This technology is designed for use in LANs connecting to WANs.
ISDN
Integrated Services Digital Network was one of the early digital services, and focuses on
the home and business market, while using copper telephone wires. ISDN BRI (Basic
Rate Interface), which is intended for use in the home or small business, has two 64 Kbps
B-channels for data or voice (128 Kbps), and one 16 Kbps D-channel for control. ISDN
PRI (Primary Rate Interface), which is intended for use by large businesses, has twenty-
three 64 Kbps B-channels for data or voice (1.544 Mbps), and one 64 Kbps D-channel for
control.
SMDS
SMDS - Switched Multimegabit Data Service offers high bandwidth at speeds of up to 34
Mbps. This service is provided by some local companies and works well for MAN
installations (compatible with IEEE 802.6).
SONET
SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) is a fiber optic-based technology that specifies
the speeds at which the equipment can multiplex signals from sources into high-speed
carrier devices. It includes a set of signal rate multiples for transmitting digital signals on
optical fiber (OCx). It is capable of transmitting voice, data and video at rates ranging
from 51.84 Mbps (OC-1) all the way up to 40 Gbps (OC-768).
SDH
SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) is a standard technology for synchronous data
transmission on optical media. Internationally, it is considered the equivalent of
Synchronous Optical Network. To be more precise, it is the European equivalent of
SONET, much like E1 is to T1. It carries all the bits from say, a call, within one
transmission frame. It uses Synchronous Transport Modules (STM), like OCx with
SONET. The data-rate can vary anywhere from STM-1 (155 Mbps) up to STM-64 (10
Gbps).
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Modems
Expanding a network requires an understanding of the additional devices necessary to
make the connections. As we have already learned, connecting a few computers together
to form a local area network requires cabling and network cards. The problem with these
devices is that they all have limitations that prevent long distance communication. To
increase our network beyond a few computers, or over long distances, requires some
additional hardware that will overcome the limitations of the cables, network cards, and
media.
A modem is a device that makes it possible to communicate long distances over standard
telephone lines or cable. The name is derived from the words MOdulate and
DEModulate.
Some of the basic functions of a modem are to:
• Convert digital signals used by computers into analog signals that can be
transmitted via telephone lines.
• Convert the parallel digital data into serial digital data.
Modems are available in both internal (standard expansion card) and external (connected
to a serial port and has its own power supply) versions.
Modems transmit data at various speeds. These speeds are measured as bits per second.
Speeds will range from very slow speeds of 300 bps to 56,600 bps. FAX modems will
send and receive data at speeds up to 14,400 bps. Originally modem speeds were
measured in terms of Baud. The Baud rate equals the frequency in cycles per second that
can be transmitted via telephone lines. With early modems, the Baud rate was equal to
the bps. However, due to the physical characteristics of copper wire and the effects of
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transmitting signals over long distances, there is a limit of 2400 Baud. This limit cannot
be exceeded without encountering signal distortion. To overcome this and increase the
speeds of data transmission via modems, designers learned how to place several signals
within one cycle. Therefore, a given Baud rate could transmit data at 2, 4, 8, etc. times as
fast as the Baud rate. With this change, the term Baud is disappearing and being replaced
with bps. Today, modems have reached a new technology limit of 56,600 bps. The next
leap that will overcome this barrier in modem communication will take place with fiber
optic cables and digital services. We are already seeing this technology with the new
cable modems and ISDN services.
When purchasing a modem, it will be classified by its “V” rating. The following is a list
of common “V” ratings:
Standard bps Notes

V.22bis 2400 An old standard. Sometimes included with
the purchase of a computer.
V.32 9600 Sometimes included with the purchase of a
computer.
V.32bis 14,400 High-speed version of the V.32 standard.
V.32terbo 19,200 Not officially a standard yet. Will only
communicate with another V.32terbo.
V.34 28,800 Improved V.FastClass. Backwards
compatible with earlier V. modems.
V.42 57,600 Backwards compatible with earlier V.
modems – error correction standard.
V.90 56,600 56K modem standard – resolved
competition for standard between US
Robotic X2 and Rockwell K56 Flex
standards.
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180
Remote Access Computing (RAS)

One of the most common forms of expanding a network is through a Remote Access
Server, or RAS (pronounced RAZ) connection. You may be more familiar with the term
dial-up network (DUN). Actually, both of these terms mean the same thing. The
difference is how each computer is being utilized. With RAS, the computer is acting as a
server or gateway to a network and will receive calls via a modem from other computers.
Dial-up networking is the client-side of the connection. For example, when you access
your Internet connection from your computer at home (via a modem connection) you are
establishing a dial-up connection –you are the client. On the other hand, the server that
you call (your Internet Service Provider) is providing a RAS connection to you – it is the
server that is providing the connection to the Internet for you. The difference between a
simple computer (Windows NT Workstation or Windows 95/98) and a RAS server (such
as Windows NT Server) is the number of inbound connections. A system running
Windows NT Workstation or Windows 95/98 will allow only one inbound connection,
while a true server like Windows NT Server will allow 256 inbound connections.
RAS Connection
Connecting Two Computers
Establishing a remote connection can be either between two computers or between a
remote computer and a network. Let’s first look at connecting two computers. Any two
computers can be connected, either via modems and telephone lines, or directly via COM
ports and a cable.
When connecting two computers in close proximity (same room or building), all you
need to do is connect a cable between a COM port on each computer. A COM port is a 9-
pin male connector (it can be 25-pin but this is not as common as the 9-pin) on the back
of the computer. The trick is that you cannot use just any cable with 9-pin female
connectors. You must use a Null-Modem cable. This is a specially wired cable that
actually replaces the modem. Since the two computers are directly connected, there will
be no need to connect to telephone wires or dial a number, so this cable eliminates that
part of a modem connection. Also, the COM port provides the parallel to serial data
conversion that is necessary to complete a connection.
Both computers will have to run compatible software so that one will act as a server and
the other as a client. There are many off-the-shelf software packages that will perform
this type of communication. In addition, Windows 95/98 has an accessory called a direct
cable connection. By running this accessory and following the simple instructions
provided, you can connect any two Windows-based computers and share data with only a
cable connection.
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Note: This accessory is not part of the default setup, so you may be required to install it
first.
Direct Cable Connection
Making a RAS connection to a server is similar to a direct connection but, in this case,
you will use a modem to establish the connection. The server you are contacting may be
an individual computer or a server that provides access to a larger network. On the server
side, the RAS software must be installed and running. With this in place, the server will
answer the phone and allow the connection if you are an authorized user. On the client
side, your computer will have to make the phone call and provide the necessary security
authentication information to the server. Normally, the client computer will establish the
connection via DUN software. Windows (95/98 and NT) has an accessory called Dial-Up
Networking. From this accessory, you can set up the proper configuration for the
connection and dial the appropriate number.
RAS Protocols
In order for any connection to work, both computers must be using the same protocol.
RAS/DUN supports various connection protocols to ensure proper connections and
security. These protocols are:
• SLIP (Single Line Interface Protocol)
• PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)
• PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol)
• IPsec (Internet Protocol Security)
• L2TP (Layer Two Tunneling Protocol)
• SSL (Secure Socket Layer)
• TLS (Transport Layer Security)
• Kerberos (Greek mythology – three-headed canine who guards Hades’ gates)
• ICA (Independent Computing Architecture)
SLIP (Single Line Interface Protocol)

Serial Line Interface Protocol is a standard protocol for connections using TCP/IP
(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). This is a relatively old standard
(1984), but is still in use with some systems. While this was the protocol of choice for a
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long time, in today’s networks it has several disadvantages. Some of these disadvantages
include:
• It requires a static IP address for each node.
• It transmits in text only.
• It supports only TCP/IP.
• It cannot encrypt logon information.
• It’s only supported by RAS clients.
PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)

The Point-to-Point Protocol was designed as an upgraded protocol to SLIP. With the
rapid growth of the Internet and remote communications, the limits of SLIP caused many
problems. PPP was intended to overcome these limitations and is very common today.
Some of these improvements include:
• Support for TCP/IP, IPX, NetBEUI, AppleTalk, and DECnet.
• It supports encrypted passwords.
• It provides data compression and error control.
• It provides security.
PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol)

Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol is the new player and provides enhancements over
PPP. Even with all the improvements of PPP, it was not enough. PPTP includes all the
specifications of PPP plus:
• Secure transmission over TCP/IP networks.

• It enables highly private network links over the public Internet.
• Encrypted Connections.
• VPN (Virtual Private Networks).
• RAS and Security.
IPsec
IPsec (Internet Protocol Security) is a framework of open standards for security at the
network layer of the OSI model. It is designed to protect IP packets as well as to provide
defense against network attacks. It is used in conjunction with VPNs (Virtual Private
Networks) and remote access for users who need access to resources on a private
network. It is based on an end-to-end security model, meaning that the computers, both
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sending and receiving, are the ones aware of the IPsec transmission. It is transparent to
the user.
IPsec allows for either ESP (Encapsulating Security Payload) or AH (Authentication

Header). ESP, which is the highest security method, authenticates the sender of data and
encrypts the data as well. AH only authenticates the user. Kerberos V5, certificates (like
X.509) and preshared keys can be used for authentication in conjunction with IPsec.
L2TP
Layer Two Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) is the next version of the Point-to-Point Tunneling
Protocol (PPTP). Unlike PPTP, it does not require IP connectivity. It combines Cisco’s
Layer 2 Forwarding (L2F) with PPTP. It functions at the Data-link layer of the OSI
model and is used in conjunction with VPNs.
SSL
The Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) is a protocol for addressing the security of an Internet
transmission between a client and a server. It uses a key to encrypt the data, usually a
user’s credit card number. It is included in both Microsoft’s Internet Explorer and
Netscape’s Navigator and it is a complimentary addition to HTTPS, discussed here in the
next chapter.
TLS
TLS (Transport Layer Security) is the evolution of SSL. It can work with SSL and uses
Triple DES encryption (three 56-bit keys).
Kerberos
Kerberos is a secure method for authenticating a request for a service in a computer
network. It allows a user to request an encrypted ticket, or virtual proof-of-identity cards
so the user can request a service from a server. It does not provide authorization; it only
establishes the user’s identity at logon. Windows 2000 uses this type of security.
ICA (Independent Computing Architecture)

ICA is a remote connection established using Citrix software (like WinFrame or
MetaFrame) and a thin client environment. Thin clients are computers with no hard drive,
a bare-bones operating system (such as Windows CE), limited RAM, and a processor in
the range of 200 MHz to 300 MHz. ICA can be used with Windows, UNIX, Linux, and
Macintosh computers.
In addition to providing remote sharing of information, RAS provides several layers of
security. As with all security measures, you must implement or enable them during
configuration of the RAS server. Here is a summary of RAS security functions:
Auditing
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The server can create and maintain an audit trail of all connections. This audit can
include who signed on and when they signed on.
Callback Security
One method of providing both security and cost control is to require the server to
callback anyone that attempts to logon. By requiring RAS to call back to the
client that is requesting a connection, you can restrict the numbers that RAS will
call, therefore ensuring that the connection is legitimate. This feature can also be
used to ensure long distance charges are charged to the company rather than the
caller. This is a great benefit for those who travel for business and need access to
the network.
Security Host
A security host is a separate server that works between the RAS server and the
client. This provides for additional authentication, and thus more security.
PPTP Filtering
PPTP filtering will filter out any packets that are not PPTP.
Installing and Configuring RAS
Installing RAS on a server is dependent on the network operating system installed on the
server. Before installation, you will have to collect all the information from your
operating system supplier to ensure that you have everything necessary. In addition, you
will need to collect data on the type of connection you intend to make and the specifics of
the computer hardware and network. At a minimum you will need to know the following:
• Your modem specifications including having the appropriate drivers for
your network and/or computer operating system.
• The type of communication port you intend to configure.
• Are there any client protocols that will have to be enabled?
• What are the security requirements of the connection/network?
Troubleshooting a RAS setup
While not usually complicated, installing RAS can be frustrating. If it does not work the
first time, you will have to carefully go through all the configuration parameters and
check every one. All it takes is one number or check mark out of place to prevent the
connection from working properly. Be sure to check everything including the RAS
configuration, the modem configuration, and any other software that might use the
modem. If another software package has “control” of the modem, your new RAS system
may not be able to gain access.
Limitations of RAS
As good as RAS is, it is not always the solution for every network. As a networking
professional, you will need to understand both its strengths and weaknesses. You should
consider RAS when your bandwidth is less than 128 Kbps, you want to keep the costs
down, and you don’t need a fulltime connection.
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KEYWORDS Exercise
Keyword Definition
Analog Signal
Bridge
Carrier
Concentrator
CSU/DSU
Digital Signal
DUN
Frame Relay
Gateway
Hubs
ICA
Ipsec
ISDN
Kerberos
L2TP
MAU
PPP
PPTP
RAS
Repeater
Router
SDH
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Keyword Definition
SLIP
SMAU
SONET
SSL
T1
VLAN
X.25
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Questions Chapter 7
1. What is the difference between a hub and a MAU?
2. What is the difference between an active hub and a passive hub?
3. Define a repeater, a bridge, a router, and a gateway.
4. What is analog communication?
5. A form of digital line that is capable of 1.544 Mbps transmissions is called?
6. Name three advanced WAN environments.
7. What are the two components of remote network accessing?
8. Name three RAS protocols.
9. Name four forms of RAS security.
10. Describe the difference between BAUD and bps.
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Chapter 8 – TCP/IP Essentials

Introduction to TCP/IP
TCP/IP is the Internet protocol. It is also used with Ethernet networks, intranets, and the
Internet. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the most common Transport layer
protocol (based on the OSI Model). TCP is built on top of IP (Internet Protocol), and is
usually seen in the combination, TCP/IP.
TCP/IP was developed by the Department of Defense agency (DARPA) in the 1960s as
part of a military research project. TCP/IP was designed to accommodate a large
internetworking environment comprising several different types of computers. From this
beginning, it has evolved into the protocol of the Internet. This is the most common
protocol suite that the networking professional will be working with. It is important for
the networking professional to know that this is the protocol that is used on the Internet
and that it can be used with almost any network operating system.
RFC (Request For Comments)
A series of documents called RFCs (Request For Comments) serve as the standards that
were used in the development of TCP/IP. Although RFCs are not true standards (they are
documents that describe work in progress), some are considered to be Internet standards.
These standards, as well as Internet standards, are the responsibility of the IAB (Internet
Activities Board).
The TCP/IP protocol suite includes a number of protocols, such as SMTP, SNMP, and
FTP, which will be discussed later in the chapter. TCP/IP is a routable protocol that
provides full duplex connections. Full duplex means that data can travel in both
directions at once. Its popularity is largely attributed to the fact that it is not owned by a
specific vendor. TCP/IP is an open protocol and is considered to be an industry standard.
Also, these protocols were available on UNIX early on, and were even built into the
Berkeley Standard Distribution, known as BSD UNIX. TCP/IP is now the standard on all
versions of UNIX, and is in fact, the recognized standard for internetworking altogether.
The TCP/IP suite consists of four layers. Each layer maps to one or more layers of the
OSI model. The four layers are: Application, Transport, Internet and Network Interface.
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TCP/IP and OSI
The four layers that make up TCP/IP provide a guideline for this model. There are
actually five protocols that work within these layers to provide network connections.
These five protocols are:
• TCP- Transmission Control Protocol
• UDP – User Datagram Protocol
• IP – Internet Protocol
• ICMP – Internet Control Message Protocol
• ARP – Address Resolution Protocol
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TCP/IP Protocols
As a network technician, and for the Network+ exam, you will not have to be an expert
on the workings of TCP/IP. However, you will need to know the various protocols and
how they relate to the OSI model.
The Top Five TCP/IP Protocols
As mentioned earlier, there are five major protocols used within TCP/IP. Let’s take a
look at them.
TCP
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) functions at the Transport Layer of the OSI Model.
Its job is to ensure that data transferred from one computer to another reaches its
destination intact. TCP breaks data into tiny chunks, called packets, or into even smaller
units of measurement called datagrams. It then routes the information to its destination,
and reassembles the data. This data exchange can be verified at various checkpoints.
Should lost or corrupted packets be detected, they can be retransmitted in a timely
manner.
TCP operates by first establishing a connection-oriented session through the use of ports
and sockets. It will then use the concept of sliding windows and acknowledgements to
ensure fast and accurate data transmission. Let’s take a look at how this works.
On a TCP/IP network, the origination point and destination point of the computers
between which data travels are called ports. A port is a virtual outlet that can be
opened on a network device. Port numbers are generally predetermined and
correspond to a specific service that is running on a machine.
Port numbers for some protocols are better known than others. The following list
provides a few examples:
For: Use Port

FTP 21
TELNET 23
SMTP 25
HTTP 80
POP3 110
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The sending computer’s address is called the source port number, and the receiving
computer’s address is called the destination port number. The addresses, or port
numbers, consist of a unique 16-bit numeric address ranging from 0 to 65,535. The
well-known ports are associated with the range of possible port numbers from 0
through 1023. The registered ports are associated with the range from 1024 through
49151. The private or dynamic ports are associated with the range from 49152
through 65535. When you open a dial-up connection to the Internet, and specify a
certain protocol, i.e. FTP, HTTP, Telnet, etc., you are automatically connected to the
correct port for that particular data type. Although the terms, “port” and “socket” are
often used interchangeably, a port is different from a socket. The port number
identifies the application associated with the data. A socket is the combination of an
IP address and a port number.
Connection-Oriented Communication means that direct communication is

established between two machines. This communication is called a session and is
used to provide guaranteed delivery between the two machines.
Acknowledgements are used to ensure the reliability of the data being transmitted.
For each packet sent, an acknowledgement of receipt is returned. Think of it as a
return receipt like the one you get from the Post Office when you want to be sure
that a package has been delivered.
Sliding windows are used to increase the speed of data transfer. This allows a
receiving machine to collect packets out of order and hold them in a buffer until
all packets in a specified group are received. Both machines have a sending and
receiving window to buffer the data flow. Transmission speed is increased by
sending a window of information at a time without having to get an
acknowledgment back for each packet. Both machines keep track of the data so
that any packets not received can be resent.
UDP
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a connectionless protocol residing on the Transport

layer of the OSI Model. UDP transports data, but does not acknowledge delivery, nor
does it check for errors. UDP packets are delivered through ports and sockets and do not
require the opening of a session. The advantage of UDP over TCP is speed and is often
used when transmitting streaming audio or video.
IP
Internet Protocol (IP) is the Network layer part of TCP/IP, which is responsible for
moving the data from its origination point to its destination point. IP is connectionless,
meaning that it establishes an end-to-end connection and starts transmitting without
swapping control information. TCP tells IP that the data has arrived at its destination. If
the transmission has not been successful, TCP will retransmit the data. IP merely routes
the data, inserting its own header into the datagram when it is received from TCP. The IP
header consists of the source and destination addresses, the protocol number, and a
checksum. The IP header is necessary so that gateways are able to determine where to
route the datagram.
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Note: A checksum is simply a calculation that is performed on data by the sending
computer. The checksum is the answer that is derived from this calculation. When the
data arrives at the destination computer, the receiving computer performs the
calculation. If the checksum is the same, the data is assumed to have arrived intact.
The following are key elements of IP:

Addressing – provides the address of both the sending and receiving machines.
Broadcast – provides broadcast addressing within a network segment.
Fragmenting and Reassembly – if data packets are too large for the underlying
network, it will be broken down into a manageable packet size for transport.
Routeability – provides routing information from one network to another.
Time to Live – provides TTL data. This defines the number of hops a packet can
make before it is discarded.
ICMP
Internet Control Message Protocol is part of the Internet layer. It is responsible for errors
and messages regarding delivery of IP datagrams.
ARP
The Address Resolution Protocol is responsible for keeping track of the mapping of IP
addresses to physical addresses. Each device on the network maintains an ARP cache.
This cache contains a list of all the devices that it is communicating with. The contents of
a cache can be displayed by using the ARP.exe command in Windows or the /sbin/arp
command under UNIX.
Other TCP/IP Protocols
In addition to the top five, TCP/IP uses several other protocols:
POP3
Post Office Protocol Version 3 (POP3) allows the client computer to retrieve E-mail from
a POP3 server using a temporary connection.
IMAP4
Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is also a protocol for accessing email from
your local server. Your Internet server holds your incoming email until users logon and
download it. It is more advanced than POP3 because you can use folders and mailboxes
on the server, run searches, or access multiple mail servers.
POP and IMAP allow a client to pull their mail from a server. Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP), a protocol for transferring e-mail between points on the Internet, which
what you use when you send out mail. SMTP is server to server, whereas POP or IMAP
are client to server.
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SMTP
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is a server-to-server protocol that acts under the
control of the message transport system. SMTP is used to transfer E-mail between
computers, usually over the Internet. An easy way to think of it is SMTP stands for “Send
Mail To People.”
SNMP
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is the Internet protocol that manages
nodes (individual computers) on an IP network. SNMP is not limited to TCP/IP.
FTP
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a client-server protocol that allows a user to transfer files
from one computer to another over a TCP/IP network. The user accesses a special
directory hierarchy containing public access files, by typing in a user name, or the word
“anonymous.” The password is the user’s E-mail address. Files may then be uploaded or
downloaded between the computers.
HTTP
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a client-server protocol that is used on the World
Wide Web (www) to access HTML documents, such as web pages.
HTTPS
HTTPS (Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is a Web protocol that encrypts and
decrypts, using SSL as a sub layer underneath HTTP, allowing access to a secure Web
server. It uses port 443, the secure SSL port instead of port 80, the HTTP port. HTTPS, as
well as SSL, allow for the use of X.509 digital certificates for authentication of a user.
SHTTP
SHTTP, a security-enhanced version of HTTP, is not the same as HTTPS. It does,

however, provide for secure transactions on the Internet.
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Naming Systems
Naming conventions and addressing is a large part of networking and TCP/IP.
Remember, we are working in two worlds, the computer world of numbers and our world
of user-friendly names. Understanding the difference between these two worlds and how
to work in both of them is an important part of networking.
DNS
Domain Name Service (DNS) is a network service that translates host names to IP
addresses over a TCP/IP network. The network administrator defines and configures the
DNS settings using a standardized lookup table. DNS functions like a telephone
directory. The network administrator need only remember the host and domain names. A
domain name server is a computer that "remembers" the user-friendly names of the other
computers and their IP address numbers. For example, the domain Bigcompany.com may
have an IP address of 192.49.238.33. This allows users to simply remember the user-
friendly name while the domain name server remembers the numbers used by the
network computers.
A domain is a group of computers that share a common general purpose, such as

government, education, commerce, or interest. Internet domains are established in a
hierarchical order. A Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN) consists of a hostname and
a domain name. The Internet Network Information Center (InterNIC, also known as
Network Solutions) controls the top-level domains. These domains require suffixes such
as .com for businesses or .edu for educational institutions. It is also common practice for
various companies to register domain names for you.
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The following table lists some Internet domains:
.com Commercial Organizations
.net Networks (The backbone of the Internet.)
.edu Educational Institutions
.org Non-profit Organizations
.gov Non-military Government Organizations
.mil Military Government Organizations
.biz Businesses
.pro Professional
.info Information services
.xx Two Letter Country Code
For instance, Big Company Inc. in Italy

might be http://www.Bigcompany.com.it
or in Australia www.Bigcompany.com.au.
Also, .tv is gaining in popularity. Tuvalu
is a small country, which receives
financial benefit from the registration
fees.
For instance, Big Company Inc. in Italy might be http://www.Bigcompany.com.it or in

Australia www.Bigcompany.com.au. Also, .tv and .mobi are gaining in popularity.
(.mobi is for mobile compatibility) Tuvalu is a small country, which receives financial
benefit from the registration fees.
WINS
In a Windows-based network, the Windows Internet Name Service (WINS) is used to
resolve NetBIOS computer names to their IP addresses. This is a dynamic service and
requires that the workstation register with the WINS server each time it logs on to the
network.
NETBIOS
NetBIOS defines a session-level interface and a session management/data transport
protocol so computers can converse in session mode or send messages without
connection in datagram mode, leaving the responsibility for error-checking up to the
application.
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A NetBIOS name is a unique 16-byte address (only 15 can be used for the actual name)
used to identify a NetBIOS resource on a network. There are four node types: B-node
(broadcast), P-node (peer-peer), M-node (mixed – B and P) and H-node (hybrid – P and
B).
HOSTS file
HOSTS file is a static text file that maps host names to IP. It predates DNS. It must be
manually created and changed.
LMHOSTS file
LMHOSTS is static text file that are used to look up and resolve NetBIOS names and IP
addresses. It predates WINS and is rarely used today. It must be manually created and
changed.
IP Gateway
A gateway is used to connect two networks with dissimilar protocols. For example, it
could connect a LAN to the Internet. In order for a gateway to work with the Internet, it
must be assigned a static IP address. This means that it is permanently assigned. It would
be difficult to find if it were constantly changing.
DHCP
Assigning IP addresses is like assigning telephone numbers, sooner or later we will run
out of numbers. In smaller isolated networks, IP address assignment is not a big problem
and each workstation or device can have a static address. However, as the number of
addresses required increases, you will sooner or later come up with a number shortage.
To resolve this, IP addresses can be dynamically assigned. That is, assigned on an “as
needed” basis. Each host will lease an address only for the period of time required. When
not needed, the address can be leased to another host. To accomplish this, you will need
to use Dynamic Host Control Protocol (DHCP). Upon logon a DHCP server will provide
a client with an IP address, subnet mask, and a default gateway if needed.
Notice that the IP addresses are leased. This means that they will expire after a specific
amount of time. This is to prevent one user from monopolizing the connection. A lease
can be renewed. When the term of the lease is at 50%, the client will send a request for
renewal. If the demand for connections is low (there are spaces available), the lease will
be renewed without interruption. If not renewed, a second request will be sent at 87.5%
of the lease. If all addresses are being used, the lease will expire and the address will be
assigned to another user. In this case, the original user will have to wait for an opening
before getting another lease and a new IP address.
BOOTP
BOOTP (Bootstrap Protocol) is a protocol that is used by diskless workstations to obtain
their IP addresses (as well as the server’s address and its default gateway) from a BOOTP
server. BOOTP was the foundation of the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP).
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Network Connection Utilities
NAT
NAT (Network Address Translation) is the translation of an IP address used within an
organization internally (private IP address) to an IP seen by the Internet (Public IP
address). It allows for use of one public IP address for many private IP addresses. NAT
also acts as a firewall, since it keeps the private IP addresses hidden from the outside
world.
IP Proxy Servers
Earlier, we talked about the client/server relationship in terms of the roles of various
users and servers. In the case of a proxy server, it serves many clients through only one
connection. The user is connecting to the Internet via a secondary source, i.e. the proxy
server. Compare this to a “he said-she said” scenario where an intermediary delivers the
message between two parties who do not speak directly to each other. The proxy server is
a liaison between the two parties, who think they are communicating directly with one
another. The proxy server may function in the role of the server or the client, depending
on the direction in which the communication is traveling at any given time.
Proxy Server
ICS
ICS allows computers within a network, like a LAN, to share a single connection to the
Internet. It contains DHCP, NAT, and DNS. ICS allows multiple users to fully utilize that
connection by performing different tasks at the same time. It can also work in
conjunction with Routing and Remote access.
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TCP/IP Addressing
IPv4
Enough talk about IP address names, let’s now take a look at IP address numbers.
Network computers require a unique IP address so that the other computers on the
network can identify them and be able to communicate with them. This IP address is a
32-bit binary number. A 32-bit binary number can represent (232) or 4,294,967,296 (4.2
billion) different numbers. Imagine how difficult it would be to have to remember a
combination of 32 1s and 0s for each address. Although that is easy for a computer, it is
not easy for us.
To simplify these addresses, they are broken down into four octets. An octet is a group of
eight binary digits and a period or “dot” separates these octets. Each of these octets
represents a number from 0-256. The result is called a dotted decimal number. A basic
knowledge of the binary numbering system is required to understand network addressing:
The 32-bit binary number: 00100001001001110000100011000010
Broken down into four octets: 00100001.00100111.00001000.11000010
Each octet represents a number between 0-256:
1st octet: 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
-----------------------------------------------------------------
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Adding the values assigned to the “1” positions gives us a value of 33 for the first octet.
2nd octet: 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
-----------------------------------------------------------------
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
The value of the 2nd octet is 39.
3rd octet: 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
-----------------------------------------------------------------
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
The value of the 3rd octet in our example is 8.
4th octet: 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
------------------------------------------------------------------
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
And finally the value of our 4th octet is 194.
So the dotted decimal address of our example is 33.39.8.194.
If a network is internal and does not access the Internet, the administrator may assign an
IP address to each computer (as long as the number is unique). Internet IP addresses,
however, are assigned by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
(ICANN) and these IP addresses are further divided into classes. It is important that the
networking professional have a basic understanding of these classes.
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IP Addresses
The dotted decimal number is further broken down into two components. The octet(s) on
the left represents the Network ID (Network ID) and the octet(s) on the right represents
the Host ID (Host ID). The class of the IP address determines which octets identify the
Network ID and which octets identify the Host ID. Within classes, the first octet on the
left is always part of the Network ID and the last octet on the right is always part of the
Host ID. The two octets in the center can be either assigned to the Network ID or the
Host ID. Depending on the assignment, the network is divided into classes. The class can
be determined by the value of the first octet. There are five common classes: A through
E. For the Network+ exam, you should pay special attention the Classes A, B and C.
Class A 01-126 (leading bit = 0)
Class B 128-191 (leading bit = 1)
Class C 192-223 (leading bits =11)

Class A Addresses
If the network applying for Internet IP addresses is extremely large, only the first octet is
used for the Network ID and all three remaining octets identify the host (Host ID). (A
host may be any device on the network.) The first octet in a Class A address is always a
number between 1 and 126. The example we used to define a dotted decimal address of
33.39.8.194 would be an example of a Class A address. The first octet (33) would
identify the network (Network ID) and the rest of the octets would identify the host (Host
ID) 39.8.194. The leading bit in the binary representation of a Class A address is always
0 (00000000).
Class B Addresses
This class is assigned to medium sized networks. The first two octets identify the network
(Network ID) and the last two octets identify the host (Host ID). The first octet in a Class
B address is always a number between 128 and 191. An example of a Class B IP address
would be 129.39.8.194. In this case 129.39 would be the Network ID and 8.194 would be
the Host ID. The leading bit in the binary representation of a Class B address is always 1
(10000000).
Class C Addresses
These are the most common and are used for smaller networks. In this class the first three
octets are used for the Network ID and only the last octet is used for the Host ID. The
first octet of a Class C address is always a number between 192-223. An example of a
Class C IP address would be 193.39.8.194 where the Network ID would be 193.39.8 and
the Host ID would be 194. The leading bits in the binary representation of a Class C
address are always 11 (11000000).
Class D and Class E Addresses

Class D cannot be used for networks (multicast) and Class E IP addresses are reserved for
future use.
Since a Class A Network ID uses the remaining three octets to assign numbers for the
Host ID, there are 16,777,214 possible Host ID numbers. Likewise, Class B uses two
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octets for the Network ID and two octets for the Host ID, there are only 65,534 possible
Host ID numbers. Class C uses three octets for the Network ID and only one for the Host
ID, so there are only 254 addresses available for hosts. You can see that Class A has the
largest number of hosts, with the least number of Network IDs. Also, Class C has a large
number of Network IDs and only a few Host IDs.
Note: The existing shortage of addresses has made it impossible to obtain a Class A
address for a long time.
Some IP Addresses are reserved for special purposes:
If: Network ID Host ID IP Address
All Zeros This Network This Node Default Route for RIP
All Ones All Networks All Nodes Broadcast
127 Local Node
It is important for the networking professional to be able to identify whether an IP

address is a Class A, B or C address. Use the following table to memorize the different
classes:
CLASS A 1 - 126
CLASS B 128 - 191
CLASS C 192 - 223
In addition, there are some IP addresses that are reserved for special purposes:
Addresses that begin with 127 and 224 through 255 are used for testing purposes and are
not available. (For example, the Network ID of 127 designates the local node and allows
that node to send a test packet to itself without generating network traffic. This is the
loopback address, specifically 127.0.0.1)
Class A - used by very large networks. All in use and no longer available.
Class B - used for medium-sized networks. Class B IP addresses are all in use and no
longer available.
Class C - used for smaller networks that do not exceed 254 hosts. Class C IP addresses
are still available.
As we mentioned earlier, if a network is going to be connected to the Internet, you must

petition the official Internet authorities for the assignment of a network address. This
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organization is called InterNIC (Internet Network Information Center), and they are
responsible for the assignment and regulation of IP addresses.
Contact InterNIC at:
Network Solutions InterNIC

Registration Services
505 Huntmar Park Drive
Herndon, VA 22070
You can also E-mail to hostmaster@internic.net.
IPv6 (IP Next Generation)

IPv6 (IP Next Generation) is the latest IP technology. It uses 128-bit addressing, as
compared to IPv4, which only uses 32-bit addressing. It does, however, demand high
bandwidth. The benefits of IPv6 include improved scalability, as well as ease of
configuration and security built right in.
IPv6 uses hex numbers (0 to 9, then A to F) instead of decimal because of the length of
the new addressing scheme. It uses eight 16-bit pieces with colons as separators as
opposed to the full stops used in IPv4. An example of IPv6 is as follows:
AAAA:BBBB:0000:0000:0000:0081:FFFF:DDDD
A shorthand version of the previous IPv6 address:
AAAA:BBBB:0:0:0:81:FFFF:DDDD
Leading zeros can be taken out, but at least one must be left in each 16-bit field. You can
compact multiple fields of zero beyond the previous example. This happens to supercede
the rule about one zero having to be left in a field. A double colon can be used to
represent multiple contiguous fields of zeros.
For example, the following address
0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000
0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0005
can be represented in their compacted form by
::
::5
You cannot, however, use the double colon more than once in an IPv6 address. It would
make it unclear as to what was represented.
Rather than having “classes” like IPv4, IPv6 uses format prefixes (FP), which are
variable-length fields that comprise the high-order bits, to define the address type. The
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address types are Unicast, Anycast, and Multicast. Unicast is an address for a single host.
Here is an example of a Unicast address:
1070:0:0:0:7:777:300F:754B
Unicast addresses can be broken down further into four sub-groups: Global aggregatable
address, Site-local address, Link-local address and IPv4-compatible address. An
aggregatable global address uses a fixed prefix of 2000::/3. A Site-local address uses the
prefix FEC0::/10 and can be regarded as private addresses, since they can be used to limit
traffic to a domain. Link-Local addresses use the FE80::/10 prefix and are used by hosts
on a local link. Finally, IPv4-compatible IPv6 addresses have zeros in the section beyond
the normal IPv4 32-bit address (0:0:0:0:0:0:A:B:C:D or ::A:B:C:D)
Anycast is an address for a set of interfaces that typically belong to different hosts and is
delivered to the closest one. Multicast, which replaces broadcast, is an address for a
group of hosts within a scope and has a FF00::/8 prefix.
The Loopback address in IPv6 is 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1 or ::1, just like 127.0.0.1 with IPv4.
All in all, IPv6 allows for a multitude of IP address possibilities for the future of
networking. Ipv6 is integrated into Windows Vista and Windows 2008 server. It is also
available through many networking devices.
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Subnetting
Subnetting is the process of breaking an IP address down into meaningful and
manageable groups (network and host). For example, a large university may have a
network spread over several building and perhaps remote campuses. By using a subnet,
you can reduce the overall network traffic. In this example, all the traffic within a
building or campus will be kept locally except when it needs to go to another subnet.
Since a router connects each subnet, only the traffic that is not local will pass through.
The router acts as a filter.
A subnet works by taking the IP address and dividing it into the network portion and host
portion. Even though this may be understood working within the boundaries of classes,
bits can be borrowed from the host portion of the IP address. Bit borrowing will be
addresses fully in the next section.
By using a concept called subnet masking, a router can determine what addresses are
local and what addresses are for other subnets within the network. The router uses binary
addition to make this determination.
Before looking at binary addition, lets look at subnet masks. A subnet mask is an IP
address (dotted-decimal number) where all ones represent the network portion of the IP
address and all zeros represent the host portion of the IP address. For example:
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
or
255.255.0.0
In regards to classes, a subnet mask can be 255.0.0.0 (Class A), 255.255.0.0 (Class B), or
225.255.255.0 (Class C). The number of octets that contain 0s determines the maximum
number of available hosts within the sub-network.
Default Subnet Masks
255.0.0.0 Class A (16,777,216 hosts)
255.255.0.0 Class B (65,534 hosts)
255.255.255.0 Class C (254 hosts)
Note: You cannot use IP addresses with all 1s or all 0s. You can use a subnet mask that
does not completely use all the bits in an octet. You must however, have all 1s to the
left and all 0s to the right. Subnet masks with full octets (255) are the default subnet
mask.
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The purpose of a subnet mask is to determine the network portion of the IP address,
separating it from the host portion of the address. This is done with binary addition,
which uses a certain logic to determine the network portion of the address. If you add the
IP address to the subnet mask, the results will be the actual network portion of that IP
address (not necessarily the default network portion determined by its class).
Remember, for binary addition:
1+1=1
1+0=0
0+0=0
Now, using our previous example of 33.39.8.194, let’s add it to the subnet mask of
255.224.0.0.
00100001.00100111.00001000.11000010 (33.39.8.194)
11111111.11100000.00000000.00000000 (255.224.0.0)
equals
00100001.00100000.00000000.00000000 (33.32.0.0)
Noticing that all the places that have ones, add through leaving only the digits for the
network portion or 33.32.0.0, while the Host ID 0.7.8.194 is determined by the zeros in
the subnet mask. By using this method, a router can determine if a message is for a
destination on the local network or for a machine on a remote segment. Any local
addresses will not pass through, thus reducing the traffic on the rest of the network. It is
common in TCP/IP to omit the trailing octets in the Network ID and the leading octets in
the Host ID. Therefore in our example the Network ID is 33.32 and the Host ID is
7.8.194. Since the subnet mask only goes 3 bits into the second octet, it recognizes the
first 11 bits as the network portion of this address. Those 11 bits equal a network portion
of 33.32. The remaining 21 bits in the IP address is the host portion This equals 7.8.194.
The network and host portions do not break down neatly into octets since the subnet
mask does not take up a complete second octet. The following tables summarize IP
addresses and subnet masks:
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Default Subnet Mask and Network Classes
Class IP Address Default Subnet Mask

A 001.a.b.c to 126.a.b.c 255.0.0.0
B 128.a.b.c to 191.a.b.c 255.255.0.0
C 192.a.b.c to 223.a.b.c 255.255.255.0
Maximum Networks and Hosts per Class
Class Default Number of Number of

Subnet Mask Networks Hosts
A 255.0.0.0 126 16,777,216
B 255.255.0.0 16,384 65,534
C 255.255.255.0 2,097,152 254
How to Subdivide a Network
The process of subdividing a network into logical units is called subnetting or
subnetworking. There are several reasons to divide a network in this manner.
• Connect physically remote local networks.
• Connect a mix of network technologies (Ethernet and Token Ring).
• Allows an unlimited number of hosts to communicate.
• Reduce network traffic by limiting broadcast and local traffic to a single
segment.
There are steps to follow when subnetting:
Determine the number of Network IDs required.

A unique network ID is required for each subnet and each wide area network. Be sure to
include some room for growth of the network.
Determine the number of Host IDs per subnet.

A unique host ID is required for each TCP/IP computer network interface card, each
TCP/IP printer network interface and each router interface on each subnet. If a router is
connected to two subnets, it will require an address for each subnet.
Define the Subnet Mask

The goal is to define one subnet mask for the entire internetwork that gives the desired
number of subnets and allows enough hosts per subnet. To begin this process, you will
need to start with the network ID supplied by InterNIC. We will use an InterNIC ID of
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191.36. First, we will notice that this is a Class B network and therefore the default
subnet mask will be 255.255.0.0. With this number, we have one network with
approximately 65,000 hosts. As we begin to subnet, we are increasing the number of
network addresses that we can use and decreasing the number of host. We do this by
using bits from the next octet or octets as part of our network addresses that we assign.
The following table shows the subnet mask created by borrowing bits and how it will
affect our network.
Class B Subnet Mask (2 to 14 bits borrowed) Bits Subnets Hosts
255.255.192.0 2 2 16,382
255.255.224.0 3 6 8190
255.255.240.0 4 14 4096
255.255.248.0 5 30 2046
255.255.252.0 6 62 1022
255.255.254.0 7 126 510
255.255.255.0 8 254 254
255.255.255.128 9 510 126
255.255.255.192 10 1022 62
255.255.255.224 11 2046 30
255.255.255.240 12 4096 14
255.255.255.248 13 8190 6
255.255.255.252 14 16,382 2
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Class C Subnet Mask (2 to 6 bits borrowed) Bits Subnets Hosts
255.255.255.192 2 2 62
255.255.255.224 3 6 30
255.255.255.240 4 14 14
255.255.255.248 5 30 6
255.255.255.252 6 62 2
To make this easy, you can use the calculator supplied with Windows. For this example,
lets keep our network ID of 191.36 as assigned to us by InterNIC. We already know that
the first two octets will be 10111111 00100100 from this ID, the question is how many
bits of the third octet do we need to use?
After examining our network requirements, we determine that we will need 14 subnets to
meet our current needs. Just to be on the safe side, let’s add 4 more for future expansions,
giving us a total requirement of 18. Now we get out our Windows calculator. Make sure
that it is in scientific view (that’s the big calculator).
1. Make sure that the decimal mode (Dec) is selected.

2. Enter the value of 18.
3. Change the mode to binary (Bin). The number 18 will now be in
binary (10010).
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4. Count the number of binary digits (5). This will be the number of
bits required for the third octet.
This will actually allow us up to 30 subnets with 2,000 hosts each. Also notice that had
we chosen 14 (no allowance for growth), our answer would have been to use 4 bits and
we would have been limited to a maximum of 14 subnets. Had we needed to add a new
subnet, we would have had to reconfigure the entire network, instead of selecting the next
subnet on our list. For this example, the subnet mask would be 255.255.248.0.
Determine the Network IDs

One you determine the number of subnets required and the subnet mask, you can
determine the available Network IDs. To keep things simple, let’s look at the subnets for
the subnet mask of 255.255.224.0 and the network address of 192.36. The following table
shows the six subnets created when using the three bits of the third octet:
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Subnets (Subnet Mask 11111111 11111111 111)

Binary Network ID Dotted-decimal ID
11000000 00100100 192.36 (overall network address)
11000000 00100100 001 192.36.32
11000000 00100100 010 192.36.64
11000000 00100100 011 192.36.96
11000000 00100100 100 192.36.128
11000000 00100100 101 192.36.160
11000000 00100100 110 192.36.192
The host ID can be assigned as any number starting with the last digit of the forth octet
(00000001), up to and including the remaining digits not used with the subnet ID. In
dotted-decimal format, this means that the number starts with .001 in the last octet, and
continues up to one less than the subnet ID of the next subnet. The only restrictions are
that you cannot use .000 or .255; these are reserved for broadcast addresses.
Summary of Subnets
Subnet masks are used on TCP/IP networks to determine whether a message is for a
computer that resides on the local network, or one that is located on a remote network.
For example, on a Class A network the default subnet mask would be 255.0.0.0. This
indicates that the Network ID is located in the first octet of the network address. A Class
B network default subnet mask would be 255.255.0.0 and the default Class C subnet
mask would be 255.255.255.0, indicating that the Network ID is contained in the first two
or three octets respectively. The zeros indicate the location of the Host ID.
The sending computer checks the octets of the destination address against its own to
determine if the destination computer is on the local network or a remote network. (If the
sending computer and the destination computer have the same subnet mask, they are on
the same network. If it is different, the sending computer will send the message to a
router for delivery.)
NETWORK CLASS DEFAULT SUBNET MASK CLASS ID
CLASS A 255.0.0.0 1 - 126
CLASS B 255.255.0.0 128 - 191
CLASS C 255.255.255.0 192 - 223
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TCP/IP Configuration Concepts

The Windows Registry database contains the TCP/IP configurations, in addition to other
hardware and software configurations. Only administrators who have detailed knowledge
and experience working with the Registry should attempt to change the default TCP/IP
parameters in Registry Editor. However, other TCP/IP settings may be established or
changed by first clicking on the Network icon in the Control Settings window. Next, click
the Protocols tab, right-click on TCP/IP Protocol, and click Properties. This opens the
TCP/IP Properties window and you can now click on the appropriate tab and enter your
configuration information. The appearance of these dialog boxes may vary depending on
which operating system you are using.
IP Address
Here, you may specify a particular IP address, or click the radio button next to “Obtain an
IP address automatically,” and the computer will capture one from the DHCP server.
DNS
You can enable or disable DNS. Click the radio button to enable DNS, and enter the
information in the appropriate fields.
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Default Gateway
Type the IP address of the gateway routers you have installed on your network. Use the
“New” and “Add” command buttons to add a new gateway to the list of installed
gateways. Whichever one appears first on the list is considered the default gateway. On
some screens, you will need to type in the specified default gateway.
WINS
Windows Internet Naming Service (WINS) is central to Microsoft’s networking
topology. WINS maps NetBIOS names to IP addresses.
DHCP
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is used on a TCP/IP network to send

configuration data to clients. This information includes the TCP/IP address configuration,
default gateway, and subnet mask configuration. It also includes the DNS configuration.
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KEYWORDS Exercise
Keyword Definition
ARP
BOOTP
Class A IP Address
Class B IP Address
Class C IP Address
Default Gateway
DHCP
DNS
FTP
HOSTS file
HTTP
HTTPS
ICMP
ICS
IMAP4
IP
IP Address
LMHOSTS file
NAT
NetBIOS
Octet
POP3
220
Keyword Definition
Port Number
Proxy Server
SMTP
SNMP
Subnet Mask
Subnetting
TCP
UDP
WINS
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1. What are the four layers that make up the TCP/IP protocol suite?
2. How many primary protocols are used to make the TCP/IP Suite?
3. Name three of the five other protocols used within TCP/IP.
4. What is the purpose of DNS?
5. What is an FQDN and give an example?
7. Who is responsible for maintaining top-level domains?
8. Which of the name resolution services will work only in Windows?
9. IPv4 addresses consist of a ______ bit number.
10. What is the value of the leading bit (one on the far left) for a Class A IP address?
Class B? Class C?
11. Subnetting is the process of breaking an IP address into _________ and ________
groups.
12. What are five reasons to use subnetting?
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223
Chapter 9 – TCP/IP Utilities

One of the advantages of using TCP/IP as your network protocol is that it comes with
several utilities that you can use to validate and troubleshoot the network. In addition,
you can obtain several third party software packages that will help you manage a
network.
Network Managers - SNMP

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an open protocol that allows third
party software vendors to create products to manage networks. Using one of these
products, you can remotely monitor any SNMP compatible device. The following are
several SNMP managers:
Hewlett-Packard Open View
IBM NetView
InterMapper (Macintosh)
MRTG (Multi Router Traffic Grapher – UNIX)
NetMinder
Sun Net Manager
Cisco Work
SNMP utilizes three elements for the complete system:
The management system software
The agent software
Communities
Management Software
This is the primary software package that is used by the administrator. It is run on a
single computer and is used to access any SNMP devices and collect data. The data is
then compiled in a database called a MIB (Management Information Base). From the
database and the software interface, the administrator can create reports and charts that
define the status of the network.
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Agent Software
The agent software resides on the SNMP compliant device. It will respond to commands
issued by the management software. The three commands are:
Get: request data from the device.
Get-next: request the next value in a sequence.
Set: sends a configuration value to a device.
An additional SNMP command is the trap. This command will capture any errors and
problems that occur on the agent device and send it to the manager.
Communities
Communities are logical groups consisting of at least one manager and agent (usually
several agents are assigned to one manager). The value of using communities is to limit
the number of managers and agents. A community can also restrict access, therefore
providing a level of security.
Validation Tools
TCP/IP provides several command-level tools that can be used to validate various
parameters within a network. These commands can be entered from a DOS prompt.
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Event Viewer
Event Viewer is a Windows utility that will allow you to log any events and errors. This
includes critical system errors, and TCP/IP events and errors. Note in the graphic below
that an icon indicates that the event is critical (a stop occurred), serious (!), but did not
cause a stop, and normal (i).
ROUTE
The ROUTE command will show you the routing table and allow you to make edits to it.
NBTSTAT
This command will display NetBIOS over TCP/IP statistics. Nbtstat -c provides the
remote name cache with the IP addresses. Nbtstat -n provides local NetBIOS names.
Nbtstat -r provides names resolved by both broadcast and the WINS service. Nbtstat -R
both purges and reloads the remote name cache table.
NETSTAT
This command will display all the TCP/IP protocol statistics. Netstat -a shows all
connections and listening ports. Netstat -e shows Ethernet statistics. Netstat -r shows the
content of the routing table. Netstat -s shows statistics on a per-protocol basis.
TRACERT
A Trace Route command-line utility, TRACERT, shows every router interface that a
TCP/IP packet passes through on its way to its destination.
226
Hint: Use these line commands by clicking the Start button in your taskbar, clicking Run,
and typing in either cmd or command.
227
TROUBLESHOOTING TOOLS
TCP/IP also provides several useful troubleshooting tools. The following three are the
most common and are covered in more detail in the next chapter.
IPCONFIG/WINIPCFG
These commands are the same, and will display the current configuration of a computer.
IPCONFIG is entered from a DOS prompt and WINIPCFG can be used from RUN on the
START menu.
IFCONFIG
IFCONFIG displays the status of the network interface configuration. You should use
this command when you want to verify a user’s configuration or if there are problems
reaching a remote host.
ARP
ARP will allow you to find the physical address (MAC address) of a computer by using
the IP address of that computer. For example, the IP of a host might be 192.168.12.1, and
you would use this IP to find its MAC address or its physical address, which might be 00-
00-05-67-FF-33. Arp -a displays the current ARP entries (resolved IP to MAC addresses)
on your client. Arp -s is used to change the IP address of a device.
RARP
RARP accomplishes the reverse of the ARP by using the known MAC address to find a
host’s IP address.
PING
The lowest level test to find out if a remote host is “alive.” Ping works at the IP level, and
will often respond even when higher-level TCP-based services cannot. Ping -t performs a
continuous ping and ping -n pings the IP address more than once.
NSLOOKUP
This command is used to troubleshoot DNS problems and can display the DNS entry for
a given IP address. NSLOOKUP -t shows all records of the type specified. NSLOOKUP -
a shows aliases of clients in the domain. NSLOOKUP -d shows all records for the
domain. NSLOOKUP -h shows CPU and operating system information for the domain.
NSLOOKUP -s lists well-known services of clients in the domain.
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229
KEYWORDS Exercise
Keyword Definition
ARP
Event Viewer
IFCONFIG
IPCONFIG
Management Software
NBTSTAT
NETSTAT
NSLOOKUP
PING
RARP
SNMP
TRACERT
230

1. You are the manager of a large network and have been getting complaints about the
system being slow. What kind of software package can you purchase to help analyze
your network?
2. In order for your new network management software to monitor the activities of the
entire network, each device will need to be _________ compliant.
3. TCP/IP provides several tools that you can use to validate statistics of your network.
List as many as you can.
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Chapter 10 – Network Security

Security is a vital aspect of a network that cannot be ignored. Password practices and
procedures, data encryption, and firewalls are critical parts of your network. Select a
basic security model that will meet the needs of your network and customize it as your
needs change.
User and Share Level

Users will have different levels of access, depending on the roles they play in your
company. All users will have access to the network and to their own files (documents
they themselves have created). Most users will also be able to access shared files. Very
few users will have access to administrative features, such as setting up E-mail addresses
and initial passwords.
There are a number of reasons for maintaining a secure network. Once a company’s files
have been set up for maximum access, unless safeguards are built in, anyone can get into
any file and do anything to it they want to do. Limiting access via passwords can prevent
an inexperienced user, motivated by curiosity, from wandering into unprotected areas and
inadvertently corrupting or deleting files.
Although corrupting and deleting files accidentally can cause serious problems, you must
also be prepared for the possibility of malicious intent. A disgruntled employee, or
anyone who has access to your network for that matter, can deliberately damage your
network, creating chaos and costing thousands, or even millions, of dollars.
The best time to set up your network security, or at least have your plan intact, is right up
front, before you set up the network. As you might have already deduced, the network
administrator has complete responsibility for anything that happens to the network.
Therefore, he or she must develop a plan that will meet the needs of their particular
network. A good plan will include the following considerations:
• Size of network
• Scope of network
• Type and amount of usage of the network
• Who will have access to what

User-level Security
All employees should be assigned user names and passwords, as well as the levels of
permission necessary for these individuals to do their jobs. Users should be held
responsible and accountable for the security of their individual workstations. Most
network security breaches are the work of someone from inside the company. Whether
the sabotage is malicious, or an irresponsible prank, the results can be devastating.
Privacy and confidentiality are important to most users. If the user is not able to trust that
the documents he or she creates are safe from outside access, the user will be inclined to
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Chapter 10 – Network Security
be less attentive to personal security. Password protection is, among other things, a
gesture of respect for the user and the system. It creates an atmosphere of confidentiality,
and cultivates a conscientious attitude toward security.
User-level security requires the user to logon using a Username and password. A
verification method called “authentication” verifies the identity of a person or process. In
a manner similar to the signature on a document, authentication confirms that messages
received truly originated from their stated source.
User Logon
Share-level Security
With the share-level security model, passwords are assigned to network resources rather
than to users. This way, users can access a shared resource, such as a template or another
type of file. They can then copy the file to a local drive or a personal folder on the server.
This way, the user can edit the file as necessary, while the original file remains intact.
Information on the shared drive cannot be changed by anyone other than the person who
created the file. However, the file can be accessed by anyone who has the password and
knows how to use it to access the shared resource.
The systems administrator should have an assistant or backup person who will have total
access to the system, should the administrator be unavailable at a time when
administrator access is required. A roadmap of all user names and passwords should be
kept in a secure place, where the administrator can easily retrieve it.
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Password Security
234
Security Techniques
There are a number of techniques and practices that will enhance the security of your
network. Some will be more suitable to your system than others. Your security needs will
determine which techniques will best meet your system’s needs.
Firewalls
A firewall is designed to prevent access to your network from outside the company. It is
an important part of a network security plan. If you are accessing the Internet from your
network, you will most likely be using E-mail, at the very least. A firewall will need to be
part of your security plan in order to prevent unauthorized access from outside of your
network. Some firewalls will only allow E-mail to pass through, or they can be
configured to suit your specific security needs. Windows XP, Vista, 2003 and 2008
Server all have Windows Firewall built into the OS. This is great for internal protection.
Network protection should be a hardware based firewall.
Firewalls can trace calls and locate the computer trying to break in, but they are not
particularly effective if your goal is to protect trade secrets or other types of proprietary
information. They can permit or deny traffic at a certain level, they can be host-based,
and work at the application level. Protocol-specific application proxy firewalls may
provide increased access control, or auditing, by forwarding application traffic through
the firewall. Gateway hosts (also called bastion hosts) create fortified areas in the
network’s security perimeter. As the system administrator, you will be responsible for
choosing the type of firewall that best meets your network’s needs.
Firewall
Blocking Port Numbers
You can block port numbers for security purposes on your firewall or router so as to
allow only specific traffic into your network. For example, if you wanted to block
Internet traffic from entering your intranet, you would block port 80.
Backing up Data
Another integral part of network security is your backup system. Files need to be backed
up daily, and even more often on larger networks. This needs to be handled in such a way
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that production will not be interrupted, and your company’s files and directories will be
safe and available when you need them.
It may make more sense to have two medium-sized servers, rather than one larger server,
so if one goes down the other can maintain network operations. Ideally, the second server
should serve as a backup to the first.
Most file server manufacturers recognize the need for data redundancy and thus, offer
server equipment with multiple hard drives that mirror each other. If anything happens to
one, the other can take over without compromising network operations. These multiple
disks are called disk arrays, and are more commonly known as RAID.
Another more common form of backup is to a tape drive. Although slower than RAID, it
is still a viable option.
Backup Options
Before we discuss the different RAID fault tolerance strategies, let’s discuss the various
backup methods that are available.
As a computer professional, you know how important a backup plan is to the safety of
your network’s data. Nothing will save you time and stress like an effective and thorough
backup strategy in case the worst happens and your system crashes.
While planning your backup strategy, you must answer important questions about what to
backup, where you will keep the backup information (on-site or off-site), and how often
backups will be performed. In addition, your plan will need to include information about
who will be in charge of performing the backups, how the backup information will be
tested, and the procedure to follow for recovery.
Remember, those who fail to plan, plan to fail, so make sure not to neglect this important
part of network security.
There are several options available, called the backup medium, for performing and
storing data backups:
Removable Disks
There are two categories of removable disks: Small-Capacity and Large-Capacity. As you
might guess, the small-capacity category includes the floppy disk. Floppy disk capacities
today, range from 1.44 MB for the standard floppy disk to up to 250 MB capacities for
ZIP disks. This backup medium is suitable for small companies.
Large-capacity disks include such options as the removable optical disk, which uses laser
technology to read and write information onto a removable disk that has capacities of 128
MB to 650 MBs.
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Tape Backup
This is probably the oldest and most popular backup medium in use today. The tape
backup method is inexpensive and simple to implement. It also has large capacities of up
to 50 GB for some systems.
Back It Up
Backup Software
Software programs or utilities are available that make backing up data easier and more
efficient. Most operating systems come with a backup utility, but usually these won’t
have the features available on a third-party backup program.
Full, Differential, and Incremental Backups
There are three backup types available: Full, Differential and Incremental. The Full
backup, as its name implies, will backup all data on the network. This method will take
the largest amount of storage media, but will be the easiest to restore from. This type of
backup is usually performed weekly.
The Differential backup is used for backing up only the files that have changed since the
last full backup. An archive bit is used to identify the files that have changed. When
recovering from a failure, both the differential backup tape copies and the last full backup
tape copies will need to be used.
The Incremental backup is used for daily backups. This will reduce the amount of time
needed to perform backups to the server, as only the data that has changed since the last
backup will be copied. This method also uses an archive bit to identify which files have
changed. To restore, the last full backup and the most recent incremental backup tapes
will be needed.
Volumes
Volumes are a way to organize storage disks so that the network operating system can
store data on a disk. It is a named portion or chunk of disk space. A volume can be part of
a disk or an entire disk.
Fault Tolerance and RAID
The ability of a system or component to continue normal operations, despite the presence
of hardware or software failures, is called fault tolerance. This usually involves some
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degree of redundancy, and utilizes different means of dealing with security issues at this
level.
The following are common RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks)

specifications:
RAID 0 - Non-redundant striped array (disk striping)
RAID 1 - Mirrored arrays (disk mirroring)
RAID 2 - Parallel array with ECC (disk striping with ECC)
RAID 3 - Parallel array with parity (disk striping with ECC stored as parity)
RAID 4 - Striped array with parity (disk striping with large blocks)
RAID 5 - Striped array with rotating parity (disk striping with parity)
NOTE: The acronym for RAID has also been referred to as: “Redundant Array of
Inexpensive Disks.”
Disk Striping (RAID 0)

The segmentation of logically sequential data, such as a single file, so that segments can
be written to multiple disk drives (or other physical devices) in a round-robin fashion is
called disk striping. If your processor is capable of reading or writing data faster than a
single disk can keep up, this relatively inexpensive technique can be very useful.
However, if anything happens to one of the drives, the data in the stripe set is lost and
cannot be retrieved. (Provides no fault tolerance.)
Disk Mirroring (RAID 1)

Disk mirroring or disk duplexing involves using one or more mirrors of a hard disk. The
data is written to two separate hard disks in order to preserve the data in the event of a
device failure. This technique may be applied in either software or hardware, and is a
standard feature of RAID systems. Several operating systems, including Novell NetWare,
support either disk mirroring or disk duplexing.
Disk Striping With Parity (RAID 5)

The most common of RAID strategies, this one uses the parity method of ensuring that
the data stored is really the same data that was sent. Using an additional bit for every 8-
bits of data, parity protocols check transmitted data for errors in transmission. This
method does not identify which part (bit or bits) of the transferred data is inaccurate, only
that some part of it is. This method does provide fault tolerance, in that if one disk fails,
data is not lost.
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RAID 6 and Beyond
RAID-6 includes a second disk striping with parity scheme, which provides for even
more fault tolerance. This, however, is not being used commercially at the moment to an
large degree. RAID 7 offers a real-time operating system and the functionality of a stand-
alone computer. RAID-10 is comprised of an array of stripes (each stripe equals a RAID-
1 array), which allows for better performance. Cost, as you might guess, is an issue.
RAID-53. is like RAID-10, but uses a striping scheme where each stripe is a RAID-3
array of disks. Like RAID-10, it offers better performance, but at a greater cost.
Storage Area Network (SAN)

A SAN (Storage Area Network) is a back-end network connecting storage devices
(generally by using SCSI). A SAN can either be centralized or decentralized. A
centralized SAN generally ties many hosts together into one storage system. A RAID
system is the most common example of a centralized SAN. A decentralized SAN
connects multiple hosts with many storage systems. SAN traditionally have been used for
the purposes of archiving data that is needed but infrequently used. SANs are channel
attached whereas NASs are network attached.
Network-Attached Storage
Network-attached storage (NAS) is hard disk storage (RAID) like SAN, but it is treated
just like any node on the network and is subject to all the positives and negatives of that
identity. It is assigned an IP address and it is attached to a LAN. It functions faster, since
it is not dependent on another computer. It also has a bare-bones OS (microkernel) for
processing I/O requests.
Fault Tolerance and Power
You need to protect your network from data loss due to power surges and failures. There
are several tools on the market that will help prevent data loss from power fluctuations. In
this case, the best tools seem to be the more expensive ones. The equipment described
below is among the best available:
UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply)

A UPS is battery powered, and guaranteed to provide power to a computer in the event of
interruptions in the incoming electrical power. There are different types of UPS devices,
and each type provides power for a different length of time.
An Interactive UPS (also called an “intelligent UPS”) connects to the computer's serial
port and provides information, such as battery time remaining, allowing the computer to
shut down before complete loss of power.
Surge Protectors
Surge Protectors, also called surge suppressors, are power strips that provide protection
from voltage spikes, surges, and sags in the power supply.
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Password Practices and Procedures

A network administrator may encrypt password information that is automatically sent to
the server when users log on to the network.
Passwords should be changed at certain designated times, such as when an employee

leaves. Users working with sensitive information such as budgets, personnel records and
other confidential data should change their passwords at least every 30 days. Policies that
spell out password procedures should be given to all users so they will know what is
expected of them. This holds users accountable for their actions on the network, and
discourages them from wandering into unauthorized areas.
The most effective passwords are ones that are the maximum number of characters long
and use a combination of letters, symbols, and numbers. Passwords should be changed
frequently in high-security networks. Some “classified” networks require password
changes every day, but most networks can get by with changing their passwords every 30
days. So, an effective password policy is one in which passwords change on a regular
basis, include characters, numbers and symbols, but are easy enough that users can
remember them. Password security is compromised if a user writes his or her password
down where it might be seen by others.
The importance of users logging off and locking their workstations when they are not
physically using them cannot be stressed enough. No one, no matter who they are, should
be given the opportunity to look through another person’s desk while they are not there.
If the network administrator needs to use the workstation, he or she will know how to
accomplish the task. There is no reason for anyone other than the user to access the user’s
files, so why make them available by not cleaning off your electronic desktop when you
leave your workspace?
Many large companies implement a “clean desk policy.” What this means is that if the
employees leave their workstations (for any reason) they are required to clean off their
desks or workstations and lock documents, etc. away. In order for this policy to be
effective, management must randomly check to make sure that the policy is being
adhered to.
Evaluate your security policy on a regular basis to ensure that it is up to speed, and
troubleshoot before the trouble starts. This is known as a security audit.
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Encryption
Data can be encoded at the sender’s end and decoded at the recipient’s end so that no one,
other than the person for whom the message was intended, can understand the message.
This practice is called cryptography and the system is called a cryptosystem. Encryption
converts regular text into ciphertext by combining the original data with one or more
“keys” known only to the sender and recipient. These keys are numbers or strings of
characters combined with the original text to create an algorithm.
Encryption is used to scramble passwords on an internal network so that they may not be
stolen during logon. It is also used to secure data over VPNs (Virtual Private Networks).
A VPN is a network that uses the Internet to connect remote users to an internal network.
Encryption is also used to encrypt E-mail transmissions, and most recently has been used
extensively for online commerce (e-commerce) and online banking.
Without encryption the Internet would be a hotbed for high-tech thieves who could tap
into it and steal information and credit card numbers. Even with encryption, the Internet
is not the securest of environments.
DES (Data Encryption Standard) is the fastest and easiest method of sending an
encrypted message, because the sender and receiver use the same key to decrypt the data.
DES was developed by IBM and is now the most commonly used Private Key encryption
system used. This method uses a 56-bit private key.
RSA is a public-key cryptosystem for both encryption and authentication. It was invented
in 1977 by Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman. The name comes from their
initials. The entire security of RSA depends on the difficulty of factoring large prime
numbers. RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman) uses both a public key and a private key. The
recipient’s public key is used by the sender to encrypt the message, and the recipient’s
private key is used to decrypt it.
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Extra data appended to a message, which identifies and authenticates the sender and
message data using public-key encryption, is called a digital signature.
Public Key encryption uses the Diffie-Hellman algorithm and is a one-way type of
encryption method. The sender encrypts the message using a public key and the receiver
decrypts it using a private key. If the receiver wishes to respond, the message is
encrypted using the original sender’s public key. The recipient of the response would
then use their private key to decrypt the message.
Symmetrical Keys are known as Private Keys, and in this method of encryption both
parties have the same key. Initially, in order to send the same key to both parties, the
Public Key method must be used.
PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) is based on Public Key encryption and was developed to
encrypt E-mail messages. As the name implies, it is not a completely secure encryption
method.
EES (Escrowed Encryption Standard) is known as skipjack and uses an 80-bit key. It is
similar to DES, but the use of the 80-bit key makes it much more complex. Skipjack was
originally designed to be integrated onto a chip known as a clipper chip.
Disaster Recovery
A disaster recovery plan (DRP) lays out how an organization or business is to deal with
disasters. It is designed to offset or minimize the effect of a potential disaster on the
business or organization. It should keep the mission-critical functions first and foremost,
so as to allow the business or organization to quickly resume their activities. Prevention
should also be addressed in the plan. Since the financial impact on a business can be
severe if even down for an hour, much less a day, it is imperative that all possible disaster
scenarios be addressed.
Ensuring the integrity of your network infrastructure to the best of your ability, both on
location and at backup sites, will ensure a much quicker recovery.
Viruses
Viruses are those nasty little programs that can wreak havoc on a computer and its data.
The sole purpose of a virus is to replicate and make life miserable for computer users.
Many viruses are simple annoyances, but some of them can cause irreparable harm to
files. Most viruses are written by hackers who are trying to show off.
Viruses can be caught from various sources including: shareware, files downloaded from
the Internet, software from unknown origins, and bulletin boards.
There are four basic types of viruses:
File Infectors: These attach themselves to executable files and spread to other files when
the program is run.
Boot Sector: These replace the master boot record (or boot sector on a floppy). They will
write themselves into memory any time the computer is booted.
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Trojan Horses: These appear to be legitimate programs, but when loaded, they will go to
work on the system.
Macro Virus: The biggest nuisance now is macro viruses (such as those that infect Word
documents). These attach themselves as executable code to documents and run when the
document is opened. (They can also attach to some kinds of E-mail). It used to be true
that you couldn’t get a virus from opening a document, just from running a program.
Unfortunately while macros are very valuable, they mean that when you open a document
you are running a program.
Unfortunately viruses have become a way of life in the computer world. With this in
mind, there are several measures you can take to prevent or at least minimize the damage:
Purchase an antivirus program—there are several good ones on the market. Make sure it
is compatible with Windows.
If the computer has a BIOS setting that allows you to disable boot-sector writes,
(prevents applications from writing to the boot section of the hard disk), enable it! This
setting must be disabled before installing Windows.
Many viruses are transmitted by floppy disks. Be careful when reading floppies of
unknown origin or using your disk on unfamiliar machines.
These days, many viruses and macroviruses are transmitted over the Internet. Use
extreme caution when you download files, especially if they come from sources other
than a manufacturer’s Web site. The most secure protection against Internet-distributed
viruses is to make sure you have an antivirus program running at all times (or at least
when you’re downloading and first running new files).
Trust no one when it comes to loading programs on your machine.
Keep your anti-virus program updated. Hundreds of viruses are written each month.
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KEYWORDS Exercise
Keyword Definition
Data Encryption
Differential Backup
Disaster Recovery
Disk Mirroring
Disk Striping
Firewall
Full Backup
Incremental Backup
NAS
Password Security
RAID
SAN
Share Level Security
User Level Security
Volumes
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1. What are the two requirements of user level logon?
2. In a share level model, passwords are assigned to __________.
3. What is the function of a firewall?
4. What does the acronym RAID stand for?
5. What are the six common levels of RAID?
6. What purpose does encryption play in your security model?
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Chapter 11 – Troubleshooting a Network

Being a computer and network professional automatically implies that you are a
troubleshooter. If fact, troubleshooting comprises perhaps the single largest aspect of
working with computer and network hardware and software. After all, if you are the
expert, you will most likely be called when there is a problem, not when all is well. The
majority of this course has focused on the facts and science of networks. This chapter will
focus on the application of these facts to solve problems. Being an effective
troubleshooter does not come automatically with networking knowledge (even though it
is implied). Troubleshooting is an art and can be learned. What you must learn is how to
approach a problem in an organized and methodical manner. This chapter will begin with
some basic troubleshooting techniques, and progress on with some specific tools you can
employ to simplify the process.
Basic Troubleshooting
As mentioned, troubleshooting is more of an art form than a science. For some
technicians troubleshooting comes naturally, while for others it is a struggle. For those
who must endure the struggle, a habit of applying a methodical and determined approach
will soon result in it becoming second nature for you. Let’s take a look at an eight-part
approach that will lead to successful troubleshooting. They are as follows: establish the
symptoms, identify the affected area, establish what has changed, select the most
probable cause, implement a solution, test the result, recognize the potential effects of the
solution and document the solution. It is proper use of all the parts that will make your
next troubleshooting exercise easier.
Establish the symptoms:

Defining a problem is not always as simple as it sounds. In most cases, it is well defined
by the person who calls and complains. But is it really defined? Frequently the problem,
“as reported,” is really just the symptom and not the true cause. To make matters worse,
computers never fail at a convenient time. They always fail in the middle of a job, or
when there is a deadline and the user must have it fixed now. This added frustration often
leads to confusion and stress. Remember, you are looking for the cause, not the symptom.
As a troubleshooter, you must be able to quickly and confidently eliminate as many
alternatives as possible, so that you can focus on the things that might be the cause of the
problem. In order to do this, you must be organized.
The first step is the most critical and often the most ignored. Without a complete
understanding of the problem (the entire problem) you can spend a great deal of time
working on the symptoms instead of the cause. The only tools required for this phase are
a pad of paper, a pen (or pencil), and good listening skills.
Be sure to listen carefully to your client or co-worker. The user of the computer or
network is your best source of information. Don’t assume that just because you are the
expert, the operator doesn’t know what caused the problem. They may not know the
technical reason for the failure, but they often hold the keys to the problem. Remember,
you may know how the computer and network runs and can find the technical cause of
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the failure, but the operator was there before (and after) the problem started and may
recall the events that led up to the failure. You may, however, have to ask some specific
questions to jog their memory, or help them focus on what was going on when the
problem first occurred. Do not make the questions too technical, and most importantly,
do not intimidate the user.
Ask a few questions to help identify the problem and list the events as they occurred
before the failure. You may want to create a form with these questions (and others
specific to the situation) for taking notes:
When did you first notice the problem?
What has changed since the computer was last used?
(New Software, network or computer moved, recent software upgrade.)
Show me how to create the error.
Describe any changes in the computer (noise, screen changes, lights, and so forth).
Are you the only one having the problem?
Did anyone else use this computer?
The list of questions could go on forever. You will need to create your own list based on
the situation. With a little experience, you will be able to identify the best questions for
the situation.
Identify the affected area

The next step involves the process of isolating the problem. Isolating the problem is the
art of eliminating what you know from what you don’t know. For example, if a keyboard
is not working and you connect a known good keyboard to the computer and it works,
you have isolated the problem to the keyboard or its cabling. There is no particular
approach to follow and there is no substitute for experience. The best you can do is to
eliminate any obvious problem and work towards the more complex. The purpose is to
narrow the search down to one or two general categories. Be sure to observe the failure
yourself. If possible, have someone demonstrate the failure to you. If it is an operator-
induced problem, it is important to observe how it is created, as well as the results.
Establish what has changed

The most difficult problems to isolate are the intermittent ones. These never seem to
occur when you are present. The only way to resolve these is to be able to re-create the
set of circumstances that causes the failure. Sometimes, the process of elimination is all
that you can do. This will take time and patience. The user will need to keep detailed
records of what is being done before, and when, the failure occurs. One thing that might
help in such cases is to tell the user to not do anything with the computer when the
problem recurs, but to call you. That way the “evidence” is not disturbed.
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Isolation of a problem requires a structured approach. It requires two simple steps, make
a plan and follow it.
Select the most probable cause

Make a Plan and Follow it from Beginning to End
Create a planned approach to isolate the problem based on your knowledge at this
point. Start with the most obvious or easiest solution to eliminate, and move
forward. Write down your plan!
The first step of any plan should be document and back up. Do not make any
assumptions. If you must make any assumptions, write them down. You may have
to refer back to them later.
Once a plan is created, it is important to follow it through. Jumping around and

randomly trying things can often lead to more serious problems. Document every
action and its results. If the first plan is not successful (it won’t always be), create
a new plan based on what you discovered with the previous plan. Be sure to refer
to any assumptions you may have made.
In the case of a network problem, the first step in isolation is to separate a network
(hardware) problem from a workstation problem. For example, is the problem occurring
on more than one workstation or is it only on one? If you determine that the problem is
only on one workstation and the cabling and network card are working properly, then you
need to further isolate the problem to determine which program is experiencing difficulty.
If for example, you can “see” other computers in the network neighborhood, but you
cannot receive any E-mail, then you know for sure that the network is physically
working, but something must be wrong in the E-mail software or configuration.
The general procedure for isolating network problems is to start globally and work to
locally. Starting from the top, isolate the problem to:
A WAN or LAN
A segment of a LAN
A workgroup or domain
A server or workstation
A workstation or user
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Once the search has been narrowed, start looking for specific hardware:
Routers
Hubs/Concentrator
Cabling or Connections
Adapters
Software related problems could also be isolated to several causes:
Protocols
Authentications
As often as not, the problem may be caused by the operator, and not the hardware or the
system. In these cases, you must be careful as to how you resolve the problem while not
alienating the operator. Frustrated and confused operators can lead to further problems.
Here are a few suggestions for isolating the hardware/software from the operator:
Have another operator perform the same task on their own workstation, as well as the one
that is causing problems. It is important to use another operator. This will keep you
removed from the problem and eliminate the “it always works for the expert” syndrome.
Confirm that the operator is using standard operating procedures. This means to have the
operator duplicate the problem while you watch – do not tell them how.
Implement a solution
After locating or at least narrowing the problem to a few possibilities, either repair or
replace the defect. With hardware, repair or replacement is usually all that is needed.
However, if the problem is software or configuration related, it may require some
additional effort. To resolve these types of problems, you must do three things:
Formulate a correction (write down what you think will resolve the problem).
Test the correction (make sure that the changes work).
Implement the solution.
Note: If the problem is software-oriented, be sure to record the “before” and “after”
changes.
Resolving operator-induced failures is more difficult than hardware induced failures. In

these situations, you must be very careful to treat the cause and not the symptoms. For
example, if an operator is afraid of computers in general, no amount of training or
instruction will solve a problem until that general fear is removed.
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Now we want to separate the true professional from the amateur. Many troubleshooting
and repair services operate on the fix and run principle. The basis for this policy is that
once the system is running, you are wasting your time and should be working on the next
problem. The reality is that the time you spend after the repair can save repeat service
calls and shorten the time-cycle for future service calls.
Test the Result

No repair is complete without confirmation that the job is done. Confirmation means to
make sure that the problem no longer exists. Ask the user to test the solution and confirm
satisfaction.
Recognize the potential effects of the solution

Make sure that the fix did not create other problems. You have not done a professional
job if the repair was completed at the expense of something else. Confirmation of the
repair can save you a return trip to repeat the fix or to correct a problem that you created.
Confirming the repair may include some form of feedback from the user, or a follow up
call just to make sure all is well.
Document the solution

Finally, document the problem and the repair. This means to document (in writing) the
symptoms, the problem, and the repair. In troubleshooting, there is no substitute for
experience. You must look at every new problem as an opportunity to expand that
experience. Keeping a copy of the repair procedure in your technical library may come in
handy in a year or two when the problem (or one like it) happens again. This is one way
to build, maintain, and share experience.
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Networking and Troubleshooting Tools

Just like a good computer repair technician, a network troubleshooter will need a few
tools to make the process of troubleshooting easier. Networking tools can be divided into
two categories: hardware tools and software tools.
Hardware Networking Tools
Before we get into the tools that are designed specifically to troubleshoot and ensure the
integrity of your network, let us quickly cover some tools used to setup the network
cabling.
Wire Crimper
The wire crimper is a versatile tool that strips and cuts copper wire as well as crimping
solderless terminals. The narrow nose with its serrated jaws is used for pulling or coiling
wire.
Wire Crimper
Punch Down Tool

Punch down tools are used to “punch down” cabling to “blocks” in your wiring rack.
They secure the connection between the wires and the block.
Punch Down Tool
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Hardware Troubleshooting Tools
Hardware troubleshooting tools are used to confirm the integrity of the cabling. Network
cabling is, in principle, very easy to troubleshoot. Since it is made up of wires, you can
have only one of two problems. A good cable will provide continuity or current flow
from one end to the other. A bad cable will be either open or shorted. An open conductor
means that the cable is broken and the current will not flow from one end to the other. A
shorted conductor means that the current is flowing to ground or another cable instead of
being isolated. These failures are like a water pipe that is broken (open) or has a leak
(shorted). There are several tools we can use to check for open and shorted wires. We
will start by looking at a multimeter, which is one of the most basic tools for electronic
troubleshooting.
The Multimeter
The name multimeter was derived from its ability to measure several different
parameters. You can test for AC and DC voltage, resistance, and continuity. Some meters
will let you test for current as well, but only low amounts (less than 10 amps). With it you
can test various electronic components, as well as the electrical power in the computer.
Most will consist of a digital or analog meter or display, a pair of wires with probes (one
black and one red), and a switch for adjusting the range of settings to be measured. The
red wire is the positive probe and the black wire is the negative or ground probe. When
working with network cabling, we will have to know how to test for continuity.
The purpose of continuity testing is to confirm a complete electrical circuit. For example,
it is to check to see that a wire is not broken. Most multimeters have a “continuity”
setting, which will indicate a complete circuit by either a light or a sound. When you
connect both leads of the meter to each end of the device you are testing, a positive test
(the light comes on or it makes a noise) means that the circuit is complete. If the test is
negative (no light or noise), the circuit is broken. If your meter does not have a continuity
setting, it is still possible to test for continuity. All you need to do is use the resistance
setting and test the device. In a wire for example, the resistance reading for continuity
would be zero – meaning that current is flowing without resistance. If the wire is broken,
the resistance reading will be infinity or maximum – meaning that no current is flowing.
Media Tester
Media testers are usually devices used to test the cabling, whether it be RJ-11 or RJ-45.
They can check for continuity and how the pin outs line up. These devices are generally
used when you make your own cabling.
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Network Tester
Tone Generator and Tone Locator

A multimeter is a universal tool and almost any electrical or electronic technician will
have one. The problem when using this tool for testing continuity of a network cable is
the length of the cable. If both ends are in the same location, this is not a problem.
However, if the cable is a hundred feet long and spans the length of a building, testing for
continuity will require an additional wire. You can use a pair of wires (very common in
network cables) and connect the two wires at one end, and test at the other end. However,
there are more often than not, several pairs of wires at one end (the hub or patch panel).
The question then becomes which pair goes to which room? Solving these problems with
continuity testing can take a long time unless you are just lucky.
Telephone and phone wiring companies use two tools, called tone generators and tone
locators, to find pairs of wires in a bundle. The tone generator is connected to the wires at
the known location (the room with the outlet). This applies a signal on the wires. The
tone locator is a receiver that is set to the frequency of the generator. When the receiver is
placed in close proximity to the wire that has the signal applied, it will emit a tone, thus
locating the wires. When used together, these tools are often called a fox and a hound.
255
Tone Generator
Test Cables
One method of isolating problems is to use a special cable to remove a workstation from
a network and simulate that it is still connected. Two such cables are the hardware
loopback and the crossover cable. A loopback cable is just what the name implies. It is a
single-ended cable that connects to a network card. It has the transmit and receive wires
connected. Any signal placed on the transmit wire will loopback to the receive wire, and
therefore back to the network card. If you are able to send a signal and have it return, you
will know that the network card and the protocol stack are functioning. A crossover cable
is similar to a loopback, but is double-ended. The transmit wire on one connector is
connected to the receive wire on the other (and vice versa). These cables can be used to
connect two computers into a single network eliminating any other network hardware. Be
careful when using a crossover cable, because they look just like patch cables but are not
interchangeable.
Time Domain Reflectometer

For those who are serious network troubleshooters, there are advanced tools that may
well be worth the time and investment. The Time-Domain Reflectometer (TDR) is used
to find breaks and shorts in network cabling. By calculating the time it takes a signal to
travel the length of a cable and to be reflected back, the location of any break or short can
be determined.
Protocol Analyzer
A protocol analyzer is used to monitor and analyze network traffic. Software analyzers,
also called packet sniffers, are usually a PC with a special network card. They will
monitor network traffic, capture packets and generate reports. Many protocol analyzers
will include a TDR as one of their functions.
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Optical Tester
Optical Testers or optical time domain reflectometers (OTDR) are essentially the same
as a TDR, but used for fiber optic cabling. OTDRs also calculate the locations of breaks
by the amount of time it takes for a signal to travel the length of the cable and back.
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Maintaining and Troubleshooting Networks

Maintaining and troubleshooting networks differs from operating system to operating
system. Therefore, you will need to refer to the operating systems’ manuals for detailed
troubleshooting procedures. The following table provides some generic troubleshooting
concepts:
Network Troubleshooting
Situation Probable Cause
A single workstation does not Usually these are authentication errors, but
connect to the network. can be caused by a disconnected cable.
Authentication A common failure is for a user to be unable

to logon. Often these are caused by typos
when entering user names and passwords.
Some passwords are case-sensitive, and a
stuck caps-lock key can cause errors.
Common Mode Failures Common mode failures are generated when

one component of a LAN causes the entire
LAN to fail. An example would be a
network card that begins to continually
broadcast useless information and overloads
the network. This is sometimes called a
broadcast storm.
Loss of Data If data transfers are incomplete or

inaccurate, check to ensure all network
cabling and connectors are intact.
Network Security Violations Anything that breaks the integrity of the

(Insufficient Rights or data on a network is a break of security.
Permissions) You can’t access a resource unless the
administrator of the network has allowed
you to do so.
Reduced Bandwidth Reduced bandwidth is just like a traffic jam.

For some reason, the traffic is not moving,
due to either excessive traffic or a
bottleneck. A bottleneck is any resource that
limits the rate at which network traffic can
be moved. It could be the processor, the
network, or a disk resource.
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Slow Loading of Programs and Fragmentation occurs when the operating

Files system saves, deletes, and moves
information. You must defragment the
drive. If slow loading persists even after
defragmenting, check for memory
bottlenecks.
Traffic Overloads As networks grow, so does the traffic. When

the amount of traffic exceeds the ability of
the network to carry it, the network slows
down. These problems can be addressed by
segmenting the network and scheduling
non-critical work for after hours. For
example, tasks like backing up drives or
moving large amounts of data can be done
at night.
Unauthorized Software You must manage software distribution to

ensure users are not loading non-licensed
software and computer viruses onto the
network drives.
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Troubleshooting Scenarios
The following summarizes some possible scenarios that you may encounter and how to
provide a solution:
Misbehaving Protocols
You have just installed a new workstation and are unable to see any other workstations or
servers on the network. If you are using TCP/IP, you can confirm your hardware and
protocols by using the IPCONFIG, PING, and TRACERT commands to test the network.
These commands work from a command prompt. TRACERT allows you to trace the
“hops’ (routers encountered) that a packet takes to its destination. It also lets you know
the time that it takes. This comes in handy if you need to see where exactly on the
Internet your packet is going.
The first step is to PING the loopback address. This will test the protocol stack in the
computer. The loopback address is 127.0.0.1. Remember this address, because as a
network professional, you will use it often.
PING the Loopback Address
The next step is to use IPCONFIG to get details about your workstation. On a Windows
95/98 computer, you can use the WINIPCFG command from the RUN dialog box in the
START menu. This command will give the same results as IPCONFIG from DOS, but
looks better and includes the MAC address of the network adapter card. On a Macintosh
system, open the TCP/IP Control Panel to use these utilities.
260
Notice that the IP address of this computer is 195.55.48.6.
If you are using Windows, WINIPCFG, your dialog box will look like the following.
This command is only for Windows 9x and ME and will not work on a Windows
NT/2000 system.
WINIPCFG
You can now PING that address to determine if the network card and protocol stack for
the computer are working properly.
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PING 195.55.48.6
Continue the process by PINGing another workstation, the server, and so on. With each
step, you will be testing a larger portion of the network. If at any stage, you receive a
message like the following, you have encountered a problem.
PING Found a Problem
If you are unable to reach a host computer, then there is a problem with the protocol.
Usually this means you have the wrong IP address, or the computer you are PINGing is
not using the TCP/IP protocol. It could simply mean that it is not logged on to the
network.
For the IPX/SPX networks, use the ipxping command.

Cable Problems
Cabling problems are simple: either they work or they don’t. The biggest problem with
them is that we often assume that since they worked yesterday, they must be okay. Poor
connections and loose connectors cause most cable problems. Here are some suggestions
when you suspect cable problems:
262
Any time a computer was moved and it suddenly stops responding to the network,
suspect a loose or disconnected cable.
Replace any suspect drop or patch cables with a known good one.
Check the indicator lights on the adapter card. If present, they will let you know if the
card is working and if it can access the network.
NIC Indicator Lights
Many network cards have from one to three LED lights (green or yellow) next to the
cable connector. These lights can be seen from the back of the computer. The actual
function of each light will depend on the manufacturer and you may have to check the
documentation that came with the card for details. In general, they will indicate whether
or not the card can detect the presence of a network and when data is being transmitted. If
no lights are on, you can be sure that the network is not being detected, while green lights
indicate that all is well.
Name Resolution
You are testing a new workstation and are unable to see the workstation by its domain
name. You know that the IP connection is good because you can PING the IP address.
How do you determine the problem?
One network problem encountered is name resolution. Earlier, we learned that

workstations, or hosts, have two names. One is the IP address number, (which the
computers like) and the other is the IP address name (which we humans like).
Somewhere in the system is a table or database that provides the translations from
number to name and vise versa. That location is the DNS (Domain Name Server). To
resolve this problem, you will need to use a TCP/IP utility called “nslookup.” With
nslookup, you can connect directly to the DNS and access the information stored there.
Another place to look for name resolution problems (on a local LAN) is in the HOSTS
and LMHOSTS files. These are ASCII text files that are used to statically map local and
remote hostnames and NetBIOS names to IP addresses, respectively. If these files are
being used, you can find them on the host in the systemroot\system32\driver directory.
The difference between HOSTS and LMHOSTS is that HOSTS is used in place of DNS
and LMHOSTS is used in place of WINS.
Performance
You think that your network is performing without problems, but are starting to get
complaints that “the network is slow.” What are you going to do?
These problems are often difficult to resolve because there are a vast number of
possibilities as to the cause. If there is a sudden change in performance, the first thing to
do is find out what has changed. Any new hardware or applications (including upgrades)
are always good candidates for the problem. Beyond that, we need to look at four limiting
factors on performance.
263
Bandwidth and Throughput
Bandwidth and throughput are not the same thing, but are interrelated. You can
think of a network as a super highway and the vehicles as being packets of
information. The speed limit, or maximum speed that traffic can move, is the
throughput and is measured in Mbps (Megabits per second). The bandwidth is the
number of packets that can move past a point at any given time (also measured in
Mbps). Think of the bandwidth as the number of lanes on the highway (the more
lanes, the more packets that can be moved). Just like our highway, if the traffic
gets too congested, everything slows down.
The performance of a network will only be as fast as the slowest link in the entire
system. Therefore, if any one component is performing poorly, it will affect the
entire network.
Latency
Small delays in packet movement that is caused by devices is called latency.
Routers and switches that connect any two segments of a network can cause these
delays. Latency delays, for the most part, are negligible, but can be measured and
will affect performance in large networks.
Application Efficiency
Any application that was not designed to work over a network will be unable to
take full advantage of network protocols. This can slow down data transfer. For
example, some network operating systems will allow for burst mode operation.
This means that for a small amount of time, it can send data at a faster than rated
speed. An application will have to be designed to take advantage of burst mode in
order to use it.
Server/Workstation Limits
Nothing will slow down a network more than a sluggish server. A server that is
operating its CPU at 100% will have to delay processing of each request until it
completes its current request. This may require the requestor to continue to resend
its request, adding to the network load. A server with a memory deficiency will
have to write information to a disk cache. Reading and writing from a disk is
much slower than from memory.
Resolving performance problems can be easy, after you identify the problem. The trick is
knowing how the network performed when it was good and how it performs now. The
answer lies in creating a performance baseline. A baseline is simply a record of
performance criteria at a given time. To create a baseline, you will need to run a series of
tests and record the performance. For example, if you are experiencing slow printing, you
can print the same document at different times throughout the day and record the time it
takes to print. From this information, you will know the high, slow, and average time to
print the document. Then, at a later date, you can re-test the printer performance under
the same conditions and determine if things have changed.
264
The key to monitoring network performance is statistics. Network statistics will come
from two sources – the server and the network. To collect these statistics, you will need
to use some software called performance monitor for the server or network statistics
software for the network itself. Windows NT has a built in performance monitor as part
of its administrative tools. With this activated, you can monitor and collect data for a
variety of events. With this tool, you will be able to monitor such events as processor
time, available memory, etc. Similar software packages (usually as part of a network
analyzer) will collect data for packets/sec, percent of network utilization, etc.
Windows Performance Monitor
265
KEYWORDS Exercise
Keyword Definition
Bandwidth
IPCONFIG
Latency
Media Tester
Multimeter
Performance Monitor
PING
Punch Down Tool
TDR
Throughput
Tone Generator
Tone Locator
WINIPCFG
Wire Crimper
266

1. What are the three primary steps to take when troubleshooting?
2. After repairing a problem, are you finished with the troubleshooting process?
3. You are troubleshooting a cable problem. You have found the cabinet with the patch
panel and hub, but need to know which of the 50 cables goes to the accounting office.
What would be the best tool to help you locate the cable in question?
4. You have located the cable in question #3, and think it might be shorted. What tool
would you need to find the short?
5. You are working with a TCP/IP network and want to confirm the protocol stack in a
specific workstation. What utility can you use to confirm that the protocol stack is
good?
6. What is the loopback IP address?
7. You need to know the IP address of a workstation. What TCP/IP utility can you use
to find the IP address of the workstation?
8. You have just connected a workstation to the network. What is the easiest way to tell
if the network card can “see” the network?
9. What is the difference between bandwidth and throughput?
10. You have a Windows NT network and received complaints that the server is running
slowly. What utility can you use to determine the performance of the server?
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Conclusion
This concludes our Network+ Training & Test Preparation guide. We hope that you have
enjoyed your Network+ training journey as much as we have enjoyed providing it to you.
Remember, the best thing about a self-study course is that you are able to review it as
much, and as often, as you like. To measure your retention of these materials, start taking
the practice exams that are on the CD-ROM that was included with this course. After
taking a practice exam, be sure to review any areas that need improvement. When you are
consistently achieving scores in the 90% range, you are ready to sit for your certification
exam.
The following “Appendix A” is an excellent source of review material, and don’t forget
to use the Glossary. When you are ready to schedule your exam, be sure to refer back to
the beginning of this book for tips on what to expect at the exam site.
We love to hear from our students, so if you have any questions, or if you just want to let
us know how you are doing, we’d be happy to hear from you!
Remember, at Specialized Solutions, our success is directly tied to the success that our
students have with our training and certification products.
Thank you for allowing us to be your training partner and please let us know if we can
help with any of your future training needs.
268
Conclusion
269
Appendix A – Tech Summary

The following tables summarize key information found in this course:
5-4-3 Rule
When installing Ethernet cabling, you must conform to the 5-4-3 rule.
• Maximum of 5 segments in a series.
• Maximum of 4 repeaters.
• Only 3 segments can contain nodes.
Coaxial Cable Types

Not all coaxial cables are the same. They are specified based on their impedance.
Impedance is a unit of measurement for resistance to AC voltages. It is expressed in
ohms. In order for the network to operate at peak performance, all electronic components
must operate at the same impedance. Using the wrong cable will cause poor performance
and/or failure of the network.
Uses Type Impedance – Ohms
10Base5 Thicknet RG-8 50
10Base5 Thicknet RG-11 50
10Base2 Thinnet RG-58 50
Cable TV RG-59 75
ARCnet RG-62 93
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Cable Description
RG-58 /U Solid copper core.
RG-58 A/U Stranded wire core.
RG-58 C/U Military specification of RG-58 A/U.
RG-59 Broadband transmission, such as cable television.
RG-6 Larger in diameter and rated for higher frequencies
than RG-59, but also used for broadband
transmissions.
RG-62 ArcNet networks.
Ethernet Cabling
Cable Topology Max. Speed Nodes Max Max. Max

Type Length Mbps Per Segments Repeaters Segments
(meters) Segment with
Nodes
10Base5 Coaxial Bus 500 10 100 5 4 3

Thicknet
10Base2 Coaxial Bus 185 10 30 5 4 3

Thinnet
10BaseT UTP Star 100 10 1024 5 4 hubs 3
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UTP Cable Categories
Category Wire Specs Uses
1&2 Suitable only below 4 Mbps. Voice ONLY
3 Four twisted pairs with three 10 Mbps

twists per inch.
4 Four twisted pairs with 4 Data grade up to 16 Mbps.

twists per inch.
5 Four twisted pairs with 5 Data grade up to 100

twists per inch. Mbps.
IBM Cable Types (Token Ring)

IBM has created its own standards for their Token Ring Networks.
Type Wire Specs Uses
1 Two STP solid core 22 AWG wires – Connect between terminals and distribution
maximum length 101 meters (331 feet). boxes or between different wiring closets.
2 Six twisted pairs, two STP and four Same as type 1, but adds voice capability
UTP – maximum length 100 meters along with data.
(328 feet).
3 Four UTP with two twists per inch – 22 Lower cost alternative to type 1 or 2.
or 24 AWG wire –maximum cable Cannot be used for 16 Mbps Token Ring.
length is 45 meters (148 feet). Voice-grade cable.
4 Not Defined
5 Two 62.5/125-micron multi-mode Fiber Optic

fibers.
6 Two STP – 26 AWG wire. Data patch cables.
7 Not Defined
8 Two STP – 26 AWG. Contains a shield for use under carpets.
9 Two STP –26 AWG wire. Plenum grade.
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IEEE 802.x Standards

The IEEE 802 standards work in the Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI Model.
They also divide the Data Link Layer into two sub-layers: Logical Link Control and
Media Access Controls.
802.x Standard Basis of Standard
802.1 Internetworking
802.2 Logical Link Control Sub Layer
802.3 CSMA/CD Ethernet
802.4 Token Bus LAN
802.5 Token Ring LAN
802.6 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
802.7 Broadband Technologies
802.8 Fiber Optic Technologies
802.9 Hybrid Voice/Data Networks
802.11 Wireless Networks
802.12 High Speed LANs
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IRQ Assignments
IRQ assignments can vary from computer to computer; however, there are some that are
always the same and some that can be changed. The following is a standard configuration
for IRQ settings:
IRQ Function Available for Change
0 System Timer No
1 Keyboard Controller No
2/9 Available Yes
3 COM2, COM4 Usually
4 COM1, COM3 Usually
5 LPT2 Usually-Often used for

NICs.
6 Floppy Controller No
7 LPT1 Usually
8 Real-time Clock No
10 Available Yes
11 SCSI/available Yes
12 Available Yes
13 Math Coprocessor If no math coprocessor
14 Primary IDE No
15 Secondary IDE Usually
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In addition to IRQs you may have to set the Base I/O address. The following are common
address assignments:
200 to 20F – Game Port
210 to 21F
220 to22F
230 to 23F – Bus Mouse
240 to 24F
260 to 26F
270 to 27F - LPT3
280 to 28F
290 to 29F
2A0 to 2AF
2B0 to 2BF
2C0 to 2CF
2D0 to 2DF
2E0 to 2EF – COM2
300 to 30F – Network Adapter Card
310 to 31F – Network Adapter Card
320 to 32F – Hard Disk Controller (For PS/2 Model 30)
330 to 33F
340 to 34F
350 to 35F
360 to 36F
370 to 37F - LPT2
380 to 38F
390 to 39F
3A0 to 3AF
275
3B0 to 3BF – LPT1
3C0 to 3CF – EGA/VGA
3D0 to 3DF – CGA/MCGA (also EGA/VGA in color video Modes)
3E0 to 3EF
3F0 to 3FF – Floppy Disk Controller
OSI Model
276
OSI Model and Connectivity Devices:
Layer Name Devices

Number
7 Application Computers
6 Presentation
Gateways
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network Routers
Brouter
2 Data Link Bridges
Switches
1 Physical NICs, Hubs, Repeaters
Subnet Masking
Subnet masks are used to divide an IP address into its network address and host address.
Subnet masks are assigned according to the following three classes:
Class IP Address Default Subnet Number of Number of

Mask Networks Host
A 001.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x 255.0.0.0 126 16,777,214
B 128.x.x.x to 191. x.x.x 255.255.0.0 16,384 65,534
C 192.x.x.x to 223. x.x.x 255.255.255.0 2,097,152 254
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TCP/IP Ports
A port is a virtual outlet that can be opened on a network device. Common ports are as
follows:
Service Port
FTP 21
TELNET 23
SMTP 25
HTTP 80
POP3 110
TCP/IP Utilities
TCP/IP provides many tools for troubleshooting networks. Here are some command-line
utilities:
IFCONFIG Shows the user’s network interface configuration.
IPCONFIG Displays the basic local host configuration – IP

address, the subnet address, the subnet mask, and
default gateway.
PING Sends a test packet to a specified address. If all is

well, it will return. Use the loopback address
(127.0.0.1) to test the IP architecture and
configuration.
ARP Used to see the entries in the Address Resolution

table (uses IP addresses to find MAC addresses).
RARP Uses a MAC address to find an IP address.
278
ROUTE Used to see the local routing table and to add

entries to it. Use ROUTE PRINT to display
contents, ROUTE ADD to add entries and
ROUTE DELETE to remove entries.
NBSTAT Used to check the resolutions of NetBIOS names

to TCP/IP addresses.
NETSTAT Used to check the status of current IP

connections.
TRACERT Used to verify the route to a remote host.

(Pronounced Trace Route.)
NSLOOKUP Used to verify entries on a DNS server.
Topology Review
In a bus topology, all computers are connected in a series.
In a star topology, all computers are connected to a hub.
279
In a ring topology, all computers are connected in a circle.
In a mesh topology, all computers are connected to each other.
280
Transmission Media
Media Bandwidth Nodes/Segment Maximum Nodes Maximum Cable
(Mbps) per Network Length (meters)
UTP 4-100 1 1024 100
STP 16-155 Varies 260 100
Coaxial 10 100 300 500

Thicknet
Coaxial 10 30 90 185
Thinnet
Fiber Optic 2000 1 1024 2000
Infrared 1-10 NA Varies 32
Troubleshooting Tools
Hardware Uses
Volt/Ohm Meter Used to test voltages, resistance, and continuity of

electronic devices and circuitry.
Cable Tester TDR – checks and locates breaks in cables.
Oscilloscope An electronic device that graphically displays

frequency and magnitude of analog signals. Can
also be used for precise voltage measurements.
Used with TDR to locate cable breaks.
Protocol Analyzer Also called a network analyzer. Used to capture

packets on a network and analyze them.
281
Software Uses
Performance Monitor Use to monitor and graphically display various

performance parameters found on workstations,
servers, and networks. Used to provide information
for network baselines.
Event Viewer Displays or prints a list of events.
SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol – used to

monitor network devices (servers, hubs, interface
cards, routers, and bridges).
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283
Appendix B – Useful Web Sites

Microsoft:
http://www.microsoft.com
Novell
http://www.novell.com
CompuServe
http://www.compuserve.com
Other Helpful Sites

http://www.cnet.com
http://www.warriorsofthe.net
284
Appendix B – Useful Web Sites
285
Appendix C – Network Standards Organizations

The networking industry is full of standards and committees making new standards. This
appendix will summarize several of the important standards used in the network industry.
For additional information, search for these organizations on the Internet.
ANSI
This is one of the most common standards in the computing industry, let alone the
networking industry. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is an
organization of industry and business groups who develop trade and communication
standards. In the computing industry, it is perhaps best known for the development of the
ASCII character set. This is a common code for basic characters and numbers. ANSI also
is the United States representative on several international organizations like ISO and
CCITT (see below).
CCITT
The CCITT (Comité Consultatif Internationale de Télégraphie et Téléphonie) is an
international organization also known as the International Telegraph and Telephone
Consultative Committee. As its name implies, it is responsible for establishing standards
for communication. Perhaps the most famous standards are the “V” standards for
modems and Faxes.
EIA
The Electronics Industries Association (EIA) is a group of American manufacturers of
electronic equipment. It is prominent in developing standards for the interface between
data processing equipment and communication equipment. Perhaps the most well known
standard is the RS-232 standard for serial communication via DB-9 and DB-25
connector.
286
Appendix C – Network Standards Organizations
IEEE
The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc.) publishes many
standards for electrical and electronic equipment. Since they cover a wide variety of
equipment, the IEEE is subdivided into committees. The one that is important to
networking professionals is called the IEEE 802.x committee. These standards are used
for equipment operating in the Physical and Data link layers of the OSI Model. See
Appendix A for a summary of the 802.x sub-committees.
ISO
The International Standards Organization (ISO) is responsible for establishing
international standards for all services and manufactured product. A major ISO
contribution to the network community was the development of the OSI (Open System
Interconnection) model. Be careful to not get ISO and OSI confused.
SAG
SAG or SQL Access Group is working in conjunction with ISO to develop
interoperability standards. As you may guess from its name, its emphasis is on SQL or
the Structured Query Language. This is a common platform for transferring data from
one database application to another. As long as both are SQL compliant, the data can be
smoothly transferred.
287
Appendix D – How to Register for the Exam
To Register for the Network+ Exams

Register for the Network+ Certification Exam by calling 1-888-895-6116 for Prometric
or 1-877-551-7587 for VUE. Tests are given at both Prometric and VUE Authorized
Testing Centers. To register via the Internet, go to www.2test.com for Prometric or
www.vue.com for VUE.
When you call, please have the following available:

Social Security Number or Testing ID
Two forms of ID (one with photo)
Mailing address and telephone number.
Date you wish to take the test.
Method of payment, credit card or voucher.
The test is available to anyone who wants to take the test. Payment is made at the time of
registration, either by credit card, or by requesting an invoice be sent to you or your
employer. Vouchers and coupons are also redeemed at this time. Individuals may retake
the test as often as they like. Payment must be made each time you take the test. Prices
subject to change without notice, and may be obtained by calling Prometric or VUE.
288
Appendix D – How to Register for the Exam
289
Appendix E – Glossary
Access Method A way of accessing the network.
ACK Acknowledgment message confirming receipt of the

data packet.
Active Hub Regenerates or amplifies a signal when it is passed

through.
Analog Signal A continuously variable signal, or a circuit or device

designed to handle such signals; opposite of digital.
AppleShare The file server on an AppleTalk network.
AppleTalk The Apple networking protocol.
Application Software, program; these three terms are often used

interchangeably.
Application Layer The highest layer of the OSI Model, it supplies

functions to applications, or computers on the network
(nodes), so they can communicate with other
applications or nodes.
Application Server A dedicated server for applications.
ARCNet Attached Resource Computer Network
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
Attenuation The signal loss due to the physical properties of copper

wire that happens over distance.
AWG American Wire Gauge AWG is the standard that

describes wire thickness. The AWG wire number
decreases as the wire thickness increases.
Bandwidth The difference between the lowest and highest

transmission channel frequencies, usually expressed in
cycles per second (Hertz or Hz), or bits per second
(bps).
290
Base I/O Port Address The channel through which data flows between a
computer’s hardware (such as a NIC) and the CPU.
Base Memory Address The location in a computer’s RAM of the beginning of

the buffer area that is reserved for use by the NIC.
Baseband Uses the entire capacity of the cable as a single channel.
Beaconing A process used to identify any area on the network that

may be experiencing problems.
BNC Connector British Naval Connector
BOOTP BOOTstrap Protocol
Boot Prom Boot Programmable Read Only Memory is used on

networks that utilize diskless workstations.
Bridge Hardware that connects one network with another.
Broadband Broadband allows two or more channels to share the

bandwidth of the cable or medium. The signal flow is
uni-directional.
Buffer A bus driver. Can also refer to a class of memory

registers and devices that match data transfer speeds
between computers and hardware (peripherals). An area
of memory that holds information for a peripheral
device until it can be processed.
Bus Topology A LAN in which all workstations are connected to a

single cable.
Carrier Companies contracted to carry our data over long

distances.
Cellular Networking A form of mobile computing.
Class A IP Address IP Address used by very large networks, such as IBM,

GM, or DEC.
Class B IP Address IP Address used by medium-sized networks, such as

Microsoft; these are all in use at the present time.
Class C IP Address Class C IP addresses are used for smaller networks that
do not exceed 254 hosts.
Client User computer “being served” by another computer,
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called a server.
Client Software Software used by the client.
Clocking The method used by the NIC to count and pace the
number of signals that it sends and receives.
Coaxial Cable An electrical cable consisting of a solid piece of metal

wire surrounded by insulation, which is, itself,
surrounded by a tubular piece of plastic.
Concentrator Same as a hub.
Cooperative Multitasking A form of multitasking, in which it is the responsibility

of the currently running task to give up the processor, to
allow other tasks to run.
CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check, or Cyclic redundancy Code,

is a number derived from, stored, or transmitted with a
group of data in order to detect data corruption.
Crosstalk The signal bleed that occurs between individual wires in

a cable.
CSMA/CA Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
CSMA/CD Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
CSNW Carrier Sense NetWare
CSU/DSU Changes the frame types between the LAN and WAN
Data Information, as recognized by a computer and

transmitted across a variety media, from computer or
network to another, using a specific protocol, or
language.
Data Encryption Data that is encoded for security reasons, at the sender’s
level and then decoded at the recipient’s level.
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Data Link Layer The Data Link layer is the second lowest layer in the
OSI model. It is the last stop before the data packets are
placed on the media for transmission. The Data Link
layer splits data into frames, which are large areas of
data that are split into smaller non-contiguous blocks,
for sending on the Physical layer. It also receives
acknowledgement frames. It performs error checking
and re-transmits frames that were not received correctly.
Default Gateway When you type the IP address of the gateway routers
you have installed on your network, whichever one
appears first on the list is considered the default
gateway.
Demand Priority This access method is designed for the 100 Mbps
Ethernet standard 100VG-AnyLAN
DHCP Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol - A method for

leasing and maintaining that lease for IP addresses and
related information to clients.
Digital Signal Baseband uses digital signals over a single frequency.

(Simple “on” or “off” signal.)
Disaster Recovery Being able to recover data from a disaster.
Disk Mirroring The use of two or more hard disks that “mirror” the
main one, so that one can take over for the other if it
fails.
Disk Striping Also called data striping, this is the dividing into
segments of logically sequential data, such as an
individual file, so that the segments can be written to
multiple disk drives, in a round-robin fashion. If the
processor is capable of reading or writing data faster
than a single disk can supply or accept it, the second
disk can locate the next segment while data is being
transferred from the first disk.
DMA (Direct Memory A limited form of bus mastering, DMA allows a device
Access) to read and write memory without intervention by the
CPU.
DNS Domain Name System
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DSMN DSMN (Directory Service Manager for NetWare) is

another add-on utility that is used to integrate user and
group account information between the two operating
systems.
DUN Dial-up Networking
EISA Bus Extended Industry Standard Architecture is a PC bus

that converts the PC bus from 16-bits to 32-bits.
Ethernet A local area network (LAN) recognized as the industry

standard.
EtherTalk A way to run AppleTalk on coaxial cable using an

EtherTalk NB NIC.
Event Viewer A Windows NT utility that will allow you to log any
events and errors.
FAT File Allocation Table
Fax Server A server on a network that is configured to provide both

incoming and outgoing fax services to the entire
network.
Fiber-Optic Cable Optical fibers carry digital signals in the form of

modulated pulses of light.
File Server A network’s central computer, with a very large amount

of storage space for shared files.
Firewall A set of programs running on a network’s gateway

server that monitors incoming and outgoing traffic and
allows only authorized packets to be transmitted or
received.
Frame Relay An improved version of X.25 packet switching

technology.
Frames A group of bits containing address information, error

detection, and other control information, sent over a
communications channel.
FTP File Transfer Protocol
Full-Duplex Data can travel in both directions at once.
Gateway A computer that acts as a translator, that enables two
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networks, using different protocols, to communicate
with each other.
GSNW Gateway Service for NetWare
Half-Duplex Half-Duplex can send transmissions both ways (send

and receive), but only one at a time.
Header The portion of a packet that contains source and

destination addresses, and other information. It precedes
the actual data.
HOSTS and LMHOSTS Text files that are used to look up and resolve names to
files IP addresses. HOSTS is used for DNS and LMHOSTS
is used for WINS.
HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol
HTTPS HyperText Transport Protocol Secure
Hub The center of a cabling system or a network with star

topology architecture.
Hybrid Topology A network topology that combines bus, star, or ring

topologies.
ICA Independent Computing Architecture
ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol, defined in STD 5,

RFC 792, is an extension to the Internet Protocol (IP)
that allows for the generation of error messages, test
packets, and informational messages related to IP.
ICS Internet Connection Sharing
IFCONFIG Shows the user’s network interface configuration
IMAP4 Internet Messaging Access Protocol
Interoperability The ability of software and hardware to communicate,

even though there may be multiple machines from
multiple vendors.
IP Internet Protocol
IP Address This 32-bit host address defined by the Internet Protocol

in STD 5, RFC 791, is usually represented in dotted
decimal notation.
IPCONFIG DOS command that tells you the IP address for your
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computer.
IPsec A security protocol that works at network layer
IRQ Interrupt Request causes the processor to temporarily

suspend normal instruction execution and to start
executing an interrupt handler routine.
ISA Bus Industry Standard Architecture refers to the bus

architecture used in the IBM PC.
ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network is a set of

communication standards that allows a single wire or
optical fiber to carry voice, data, and video data sources.
Kerberos A system for user authentication
L2TP Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol
LAN Local Area Network
Laser Transmissions A wireless network standard that uses laser beams for
the transmission of data.
Latency The time it takes for a packet to go from sender to

receiver, across a network connection.
LLC Logical Link Control – a sublayer of the Data Link

Layer
LocalTalk AppleTalk networks are usually called LocalTalk.
MAC Media Access Control – a sublayer of the Data Link

Layer. The MAC address is the address that is hard-
wired onto the NIC by the manufacturer, it’s “hardware
address.”
Mail Server Server used for E-mail.
MAN Metropolitan Area Network
Management Software The primary software package used by the

administrator.
MAU/MSAU Multistation Access Unit in a Token Ring network, a

device to attach multiple network stations in a star
topology, internally wired to connect the stations into a
logical ring.
MCA Bus Micro Channel Architecture, a 32-bit bus, introduced by
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IBM for its PS/2 computer line, totally incompatible
with the original PC bus.
Media A method of data transmission.
Media Tester Tool used for testing the continuity and pin-outs of a
cable
Mesh Topology Every device is connected to every other device by

separate cables and has redundant paths.
MHS Message Handling System – A standard defined by

ITU-T as X.400 and by ISO as Message-Oriented Text
Interchange Standard (MOTIS). MHS provides the
functions for global E-mail transfer among local mail
systems, and is used by CompuServe, among others.
Microwave A wireless network standard that uses microwave

Transmissions signals for data transmission.
Multimeter One of the most basic tools for electronic

troubleshooting.
Multistation Access Unit A type of hub. The actual ring in a Token Ring network
is in the hub.
Multitasking Performing multiple tasks simultaneously.
Narrow-Band Radio Single Frequency Radio. The transmitter and receiver

are tuned to the same frequency. Much like your local
radio station.
NAS Network Attached Storage
NAT Network Address Translation
NBTSTAT NetBIOS Statistics
NDS NetWare Directory Services
NetBIOS Names used with WINS; protocol as well
Network A group of computers linked together for the purpose of

sharing resources.
Network Adapter Card Also known as a network interface card. Provides the
physical connection to the network cable.
Network Administrator The individual who has complete responsibility for

maintaining a network.
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Network Interface Card An adapter circuit board installed in a computer that
(NIC) provides a physical connection to a network.
Network Layer The hardware that is used to construct the network plays
an important role at this layer. The network layer
handles all the routing information as packets travel
from one network to another.
Non-Routable Protocol A protocol that cannot be routed or passed through

routers on a network.
NOS Network Operating System
NTFS NT File System
NTSTAT A TCP/IP utility command that will return information

regarding the status of a network.
NWLink A Windows NT service that allows for interoperability

with the NetWare NOS.
Octet Each part of an IP Address that contains eight bits of

data is called an octet.
OSI Refers to the OSI (Open Systems Interface) Model.
Packets A generic term used to describe a unit of data. A

“packet” may also refer to a frame or datagram,
depending on the protocol. A packet actually refers to
Application layer data units (APDU).
Passive Hub Acts as a connection point only.
Password Security A user has to enter a password to gain access to the

network or to shared resources.
Patch Cable They extend the connection between the computer and
the hub or between two hubs.
PCI Bus A 32-bit architecture bus for PC expansion cards.
PCMCIA Card PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card

International Association) cards are credit card sized
expansion buses that are used in portable computers
(laptops) to provide the same expandability enjoyed by
desktop computers, including network connectivity.
Peer-to-Peer All the computers on the network can act as either a

client or server, depending upon the needs of the user.
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Performance Monitor A software tool that is used to monitor the performance
of a network server. Although included as part of
Windows NT, many third-party applications are
available.
Peripheral A hardware device, such as a printer or scanner.
Physical Layer The Physical layer is the lowest layer in the OSI Model.
This layer determines the interface hardware and the
medium that will be used to transmit the data from the
Data Link layer.
PING A way of testing the server to see if it is alive and

functioning, and running on TCP/IP.
Plenum The space between the ceiling and the floor above; used
to circulate air through a building.
Port Number Defines a channel between a device and the processor.
POP3 Post Office Protocol 3
PPP Point-to-Point Protocol
PPTP Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol
Preemptive Multitasking Introduced in version 3.5 of Windows 3.1, this feature

has a different scheme called cooperative multitasking,
which means that a process can take control of the CPU
and check for other processes. The preemptive feature
allows NT to hand out slices of CPU time, and even if a
process takes full control, other processes will still run.
Presentation Layer The Presentation layer formats data exchange,

converting character sets and encrypting data, allowing
incompatible processes in the Application layer to
communicate with the Session layer.
Print Server Dedicated server for printing.
Protocol Stack A group of protocols that are used to communicate

between computers on a network. The OSI model is the
ideal protocol stack.
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Proxy Server One that serves many clients through only one
connection; For example, the user is connecting to the
Internet via a secondary source, i.e. the proxy server.
Punch Down Tool Used for “punching” down wire to a block
RAID Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks
RARP Uses a MAC address to find an IP address.
RAS A service provided by Windows NT that allows most of

the services provided by a network, including support
for dialup and logon, to be accessed via a modem.
Redirector/Requester Redirects a call from one port to another. For example,

redirects a print job from the local port to the network
printer.
Reflective Infrared The signal is beamed towards a central unit, which then
routes the signal appropriately.
Repeater Used to increase cable distances in network

environments.
Resources The services or peripherals that are shared over the

network.
Ring Speed In Token-Ring networks, the ring speed on the NIC is

set to either 4 Mbps or 16 Mbps.
Ring Topology In a Ring topology, the devices are connected in a

continuous loop.
RJ-11 Connector Connector used with standard telephone wire. Flat cable
with 2 or 4 conductors.
RJ-45 Connector Connector used with UTP and STP network cables. Will
hold up to 4 pairs of conductors.
Routable Protocol A protocol that can be routed over the internet or

through routers on a network.
Router A device that forwards packets between networks.
SAN Storage Area Network
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Satellite Microwave A wireless network that utilizes microwave signals to

transmit data.
Scatter Infrared Transmission rates are slower with this type, as the
signal is designed to bounce off of walls, ceilings, etc.
until it reaches the receiver. The effective distance of the
signal is limited to about 100 feet.
SDH Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
Security The system used to protect data on a network from

unauthorized use.
Server A computer on a network that provides services to other

computers.
Server Software Software that resides on a server.
Session Layer The Session layer handles such things as security

authentication, data transfer, acknowledgments (ACK),
connection establishment and release.
Sharing Allowing files to be shared from one computer to

another.
Shielded Twisted Pair A type of cable in which pairs of conductors are twisted
together to prevent possible cross-talk from nearby
wiring.
Simplex A uni-directional data channel, as opposed to duplex.
Single-Frequency Radio Narrow-Band Radio Transmission
SLIP Serial Line Internet Protocol, defined in RFC 1055, is

software that allows the Internet Protocol (IP), normally
used on Ethernet, to be used over a serial link.
SMAU Smart Multistation Access Unit
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is used to transfer E-mail

between computers, usually over Ethernet.
SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol, the Internet

standard protocol defined in STD 15, RFC 1157, was
developed to manage nodes on an IP network. SNMP is
not limited to TCP/IP.
SONET Synchronous Optical Network
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Spread-Spectrum Radio Spread-spectrum broadcasts over a range of frequencies,
so it is less susceptible to eavesdropping. This type of
transmission is commonly used to connect multiple
LAN segments together.
SSL Secure Sockets Layer
Star Topology A LAN topology in which all workstations are wired

directly to a central workstation called a hub. If the hub
fails, the entire network goes down.
Subnet Mask Using binary addition, a router can determine what

addresses are local and what addresses are for other
subnets within the network.
Subnetting The process of subdividing a network into logical units.
TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol over Internet Protocol,

the official protocol of the Internet.
TDR Time-Domain Reflectometer – A cable tester.
Terminator A connector that has a built-in resistor in order to absorb

signals and eliminate signal bounce.
Terrestrial Microwave A form of microwave communication used for earth-

based communication between two buildings, or across
large flat open areas, such as bodies of water or deserts.
Thicknet An Ethernet cable variant commonly known as 10base5,

that uses a large diameter, rigid coaxial cable with
multiple shielding and an impedance of 50 ohms.
Maximum segment length is 500 meters.
Thinnet A type of coaxial cable whose maximum segment length

is 185 meters.
Throughput The maximum speed that “traffic” can move, measured

in Mbps (Megabits per minute).
Token Passing An access method used in a Token Ring topology.
Token Ring A LAN topology that uses an access method called

token passing.
TokenTalk A way to run AppleTalk in a Token Ring (IEEE 802.5

Standard) environment.
Tone Generator Connected to the wires at the known location (the room
with the outlet), this applies a signal on the wires. The
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“fox.”
Tone Locator A receiver set to the frequency of the generator. When

the receiver is placed in close proximity to the wire that
has the signal applied, it will emit a tone, thus locating
the wires. The “hound.”
TRACERT Trace Route command in NT allows you to specify a

remote host and report back on each subsequent router
and the times it takes to traverse those routers in a
command line interface. Additionally named traceroute
in UNIX environments.
Trailer The part of a data packet that contains the error

corrections information.
Transceiver A device that transmits and receives data.
Transport Layer The Transport layer is responsible for packaging (and

un-packaging) the data for transport, and for the error-
free delivery of the transmitted data.
UDP User Datagram Protocol, defined in STD 6, RFC 768 is

a connectionless protocol, which, like TCP, is layered
on top of IP.
UNIX A major operating system that is primarily used on

minicomputers and has many features that are favored in
the engineering and scientific environments.
Unshielded Twisted Pair Twisted network cables that do not have any shielding.
Vampire Tap Connectors that utilize sharp teeth to pierce the cable
jacket to make the connection. Used on transceivers.
VLAN Virtual LAN
WAN Wide Area Network
WINIPCFG A command used to display the current configuration of

a Windows computer.
Wire Crimper Tool for stripping and cutting wire
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WINS SERVER A way for Microsoft hosts to register themselves,

resolve and also release the mapping of their network
NetBIOS name to an IP address.
Zones A named Subnetwork used for expanding the LocalTalk

network or for relieving traffic on a larger network.
AppleTalk can incorporate other types of networks, such
as Token Ring, using zones
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305
Appendix F – Chapter Review Questions and

Answers
The following are the questions found at the end of each chapter along with the correct
answers.
1. What is the key difference between a local area network and a wide area network?
A LAN is the basic building block (and smallest) of a network. It is confined to a

limited area. A WAN is not geographically limited. A WAN is created by connecting
LANs together.
2. What is the main reason for networking computers?
To share resources, such as data, applications, and peripheral devices.
3. What is a “sneaker net”?
The “old fashioned” way computer users shared resources by taking a file on a floppy
disk to the computer that had the services they needed to use. Dragging a printer from
computer to computer for users to utilize is another form of a sneaker net.
4. Name some advantages of having centralized documents.
Files are easily accessed by all users. Access can be denied to unauthorized users
(security), data backups can be more easily and routinely performed.
5. What does MAN stand for and why is it no longer in use?
Metropolitan Area Networks have been replaced by the Internet.
6. Name some advantages of a Peer-to-Peer network.
Simple to install, configure, and manage (each user manages their own computer) for
a small number of workstations (10 or less), inexpensive to install (no need to buy
expensive server).
7. Name some disadvantages of a Peer-to-Peer network.
No security, loss of performance occurs if expanded over 10 workstations.

Workstations need to be close together (in a relatively small area, like one office).
8. Name some advantages of a Server-based network.
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Appendix F – Chapter Review Questions and Answers
Centralized location of resources (server). File and resource security available to limit
unauthorized access. Ease of data backups. Can be expanded as network grows.
Centralized administration. Increased performance on large networks.
9. Name some disadvantages of a Server-based network.
Expensive to install (will need to purchase expensive server). More difficult to install
and configure, more difficult to manage (needs an administrator).
10. Name the three basic topologies.
The three basic topologies are: Bus, Star, and Ring.
11. What is the difference between a physical and logical topology?
Physical topologies are the actual wires and hardware that we can see. They represent
what the topology looks like. Logical topologies represent the way that a networks
functions.
12. Name two media access methods
The access methods are CSMA/CD CSMA/CA, Token Passing, and Demand Priority.
1. What is the difference between an operating system and a network operating system?
Network operating systems are specialized operating systems designed to function in

a network environment. Some NOS function as the operating system that runs a
computer’s stand-alone functions as well as its network interfaces.
2. What is the difference between preemptive and non-preemptive multitasking?
Multitasking means that a computer has the ability to perform more than one task at a
time. Preemptive multitasking means that the operating system can take control of the
processor without a task’s permission. Non-preemptive multitasking is when the task
decides when it is done with the CPU. In non-preemptive multitasking the CPU is
never taken from a task.
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3. What is the purpose of the redirector?
The redirector (in Novell NetWare it is called the requester) forwards requests away
from the local bus, redirecting them to the server. The purpose of the redirector is to
make network resources look like local resources to the application.
4. NetWare is designed as an operating system that will overlay _____________

environments.
NetWare is a reliable operating system that provides excellent performance and

security. It is designed as an operating system that will overlay multi-operating
system environments.
5. Purchasing NetWare requires a type of licensing. What happens when the number of
users exceeds the number of licenses?
The number of users on a NetWare network may exceed the number of licenses, but
only the licensed number of users will be allowed to log on at any one time.
6. What is NDS?
NDS (NetWare Directory Services) is the core of the NetWare operating system. It is
a hierarchically organized database that provides security, name service, messaging,
routing, web-publishing, management, and file and print services. Organization of
network resources such as users, groups, servers, and volumes is also handled with
NDS.
7. What are the minimum hardware requirements for installing Novell NetWare version
5?
Pentium Class or Higher CPU, 64 MB RAM, 550 MB of free hard drive space.
8. Define interoperability.
Interoperability describes the ability of an operating system to interact with other

operating systems.
9. Unlike NetWare, Windows NT combines the _____________ and the

___________________ into one.
Windows NT combines the operating system and the network operating system into
one.
10. What is NTFS?
NTFS is the file system in Windows NT and it must be utilized in order to take full
advantage of NT’s security features.
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NT uses domains in order to accomplish its security goals. A domain is simply a

group of workstations with a shared security database.
12. What are the minimum hardware requirements for a Windows NT Workstation?
486DX-33 CPU, 12 MB RAM, 110 MB free hard drive space.
13. What are the minimum hardware requirements for Windows NT Server?
476DX-3 CPU, 16 MB RAM, 125 MB free hard drive space.
14. Name some of the services and protocols that Microsoft included with Windows NT
to ensure interoperability with NetWare.
NWLink is a protocol based on Novell’s IPX/SPX and is used for communication

between the two systems. GSNW (Gateway Services for NetWare) provides the
gateway between an NT domain and the NetWare server. CSNW (Client Services for
NetWare) allows NT workstations to use file and print services on a NetWare server.
FPNW (File and Print Services for NetWare) allows NetWare clients to access NT
file and print services. DSMN (Directory Service Manager for NetWare) is used to
integrate user and group account information between NT and NetWare. Migration
Tool for NetWare is used to convert NetWare accounts to NT.
15. Describe a UNIX system.
UNIX is a multi-tasking, multi-user, general-purpose operating system. Because all of

its functions are file based, it is a very bulky operating system. A UNIX system
consists of a Host (or central computer) with terminals for the users. These terminals
rely solely on the Host for services and are not stand-alone systems. It is possible to
convert a UNIX host into a file server using software. The UNIX host will run this
software as just another application.
16. What OS is similar to UNIX and is a publicly open system?
Linux
17. What type of computer was developed by Apple computer in 1984?
The Macintosh
18.What type of network would utilize Windows for Workgroups as an operating system?
Windows for Workgroups is a version of Windows 3.1 that includes the ability to run
a peer-to-peer network.
309
1. Who developed the OSI model?
The OSI model was developed by ISO (International Organization for

Standardization).
2. Name the seven layers of the OSI model.
Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data Link, and Physical
3. A network adapter card operates at the _______ layer of the OSI model
Network layer
4. A bridge operates at the ________ layer of the OSI model.
Data Link layer
5. A router operates at the _________layer of the OSI model.
Network Layer
6. Data compression takes place at the __________ layer of the OSI.
Presentation layer
7. Which OSI layer is responsible for NIC to NIC communication?
The Data Link layer
8. What is the function of the Application Layer?
The Application layer is responsible for communication between a user’s application

and the network. This is not the actual application or program, simply a support layer
that allows an application to use the network by acting as a translator.
9. The ____________ layer is responsible for the mechanical and electrical functions of
transmitting data over a network.
Physical
10. What is the function of the Presentation Layer?
The Presentation layer is the translator for the network. It translates data into a format
that is compatible with the network and back into a format that is compatible with the
computer.
11. Which OSI layer is responsible for establishing, managing, and ending connections?
The Session layer
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12. What is a MAC address?
The MAC address is another name for the 12-digit (6-byte) hexadecimal address that
is hardwired on the NIC by the manufacturer. It is a computer’s physical address.
13. Which OSI layer makes routing decisions?
The Network layer
14. Which OSI layer is responsible for delivering data in sequence, without duplication
and error free?
The Transport layer
15. The Data Link layer has been split into two sub-layers. What are they?
The Logical Link (LLC) layer and the Media Access Control (MAC) layer
16. What is the function of a Gateway?
A gateway translates between two networks that use different protocols. A computer
with special software serves as a gateway and allows for communication between
completely dissimilar networks.
17. Which IEEE standard defines the Logical Link Control (LLC) sub-layer?
802.2
18. What are NDIS and ODI?
They are Network Adapter Card interface specifications. They are incompatible with
each other. NDIS (Network Driver Interface Specification) was co-developed by
Microsoft and 3Com, while ODI (Open Data Link Interface) was co-developed by
Novell and Apple. The purpose of these standards is to allow operating system
vendors to write multiple drivers for the same NIC. This way more than one protocol
can be bound to a single NIC.
19. Describe protocol binding.
In order to function, a protocol must be bound to the NIC. This binding process is
what links the protocol stacks to the NIC driver. It is possible to bind two protocols
the one NIC (such as TCP/IP and IPX/IPX) or to have two NICs with one protocol
bound to each one. The order in which these protocols are bound to the NIC
determines which one the network operating system will attempt to use first.
20. Which is faster, connection-oriented communication or connectionless

communication?
Connectionless communication is faster, but connection-oriented communication is

more reliable.
311
21. Name as many routable protocols as you can remember.
AppleTalk, DECnet, IPX/SPX, PPP, PPTP, SLIP, SMB, SNA, TCP/IP, UDP, X.25,
XNS
22. You have expanded your NetBEUI network into two segments and are using an
intelligent router to optimize network traffic. Will this work? Why or Why not?
No, NetBEUI is a non-routable protocol.
1. What is the maximum segment length of Thinnet?
185 meters
2. What is the maximum segment length of Thicknet?
500 meters
3. What type of connectors are used with Coaxial cable?
BNC connectors
4. What is the purpose of a transceiver?
A transceiver is a device that both transmits and receives data on a network.
5. How is a vampire tap connected?
They utilize sharp teeth that puncture the cable to make the connection.
6. What is the purpose of plenum cabling?
Plenum grade cabling is used in the plenum (the space between the ceiling and the
floor above, which is used to circulate air in a building). Fire codes usually call for
special cable in this area because PVC cable gives off poisonous gas and fumes when
burned, which would end up being circulated throughout the building.
7. What is the maximum segment length of UTP?
100 meters
8. What is the transmission speed of category 5 cabling?
Up to 100 Mbps
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9. What is the most popular of the cable types?
UTP is the less expensive of the twisted pair cable types. It is also flexible and easy to
install, making it the most popular cable type.
10. Which twisted pair cabling is less sensitive to EMI?
STP is insulated with a foil mesh between the wire pairs, which results in less
sensitivity to EMI and crosstalk.
11. What type of connector is used with twisted pair cable?
RJ-45 connectors
12. What is the most expensive cable type?
Fiber-Optic cable is the ideal cable type for networking. However, it is the most
expensive and most difficult to install.
13. What is the least expensive of the cable types?
UTP is the least expensive of the cable types. It is also flexible and easy to install,
making it the most popular cable type.
14. List some advantages of fiber-optic cable.
Fiber-optic supports extremely high bandwidths, segment lengths of up to several

miles, and it is not subject to EMI or eavesdropping.
15. What does AWG stand for and what is it?
American Wire Gauge (AWG) is the standard that describes wire thickness. The
AWG wire number decreases as the wire thickness increases.
16. Describe baseband.
Baseband uses the entire capacity of the cable as a single channel.
17. Describe broadband.
Broadband allows two or more channels to share the bandwidth of the cable, making
the signal flow unidirectional.
18. What is the difference between simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex communication?
Simplex communication is one way, can receive but not send. For example, a pager.
Half-duplex communication can send or receive, but not at the same time. For
example, a CB radio. Full-duplex can send and receive signals at the same time. For
example, the telephone.
19. What is the function of a network adapter card?
313
Network Adapter Cards or Network Interface Cards (NICs) are used to connect the
computer to the network. (They make the physical connection to the network.) NICs
translate the data that computers can understand into signals that can be transmitted
over the network medium and back again.
20. In what type of network would you expect to find boot PROM capabilities?
Remote Boot PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) is used on networks that
utilize diskless workstations. High-security networks sometimes use diskless
workstations to make it impossible for data to be downloaded and stolen. Computers
usually use information located on a floppy or hard drive to boot up, remote boot
PROM allows the computer to boot using information located on a remote computer.
21. In Token Ring networks, what are the two ring speeds available?
In a Token Ring network if the correct ring speed is not selected a computer will not
be able to connect to the network. The two choices available are 4 Mbps and 16
Mbps.
22. Where would you expect to find a PCMCIA card?
PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association) cards are

credit card sized expansion buses that are used in portable computers (laptops) to
provide the same expandability enjoyed by desktop computers, including network
connectivity.
23. What are some of the reasons you would need to install a wireless network?
To create a temporary network, to backup a cable-based network, to provide a mobile

network environment, for areas where running cable would be impossible or
unsightly, outdoor installations and to connect to remote sites such as a ship or oil
platform.
24. What are the four basic wireless transmission types?
Infrared, Laser, Radio, and Microwave
25. Which is the most secure type of radio wireless network?
Spread-Spectrum Radio is more secure than Single-Frequency Radio (Narrow-Band

Radio) because it broadcasts over a range of frequencies instead of just one.
26. Which microwave transmission type is used to transmit globally?
Satellite microwave is used to transmit globally; Terrestrial microwave is used to

transmit over shorter distances.
314
1. What are the three primary access methods?
CSMA/CD & CSMA/CA, Token Passing, and Demand Priority
2. Describe the difference between the two different contention methods CSMA/CD and
CSMA/CA.
CSMA/CD stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection and
CSMA/CA stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance. Both
CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA listen to the network cable to determine if it is free
(Carrier Sense), if no data is traveling, a CSMA/CD computer will transmit. If there is
another computer on the network that transmitted at exactly the same time, a data
collision will occur, and both sets of data will be destroyed. CSMA/CD detects that a
collision has occurred and waits a specified amount of time before re-transmitting.
With CSMA/CA the process is much the same except that instead of just transmitting
when it senses that the cable is free, it will send a signal that it is about to transmit.
This will cause any other computer that was about to transmit to wait and so data
collisions are avoided. This extra step can slow down network traffic, so CSMA/CA
is not the most popular of the two contention methods.
3. Why isn’t token passing considered a contention method?
A computer on a token passing access method network must possess the token in
order to transmit data. Therefore, only one computer at a time will transmit in this
kind of architecture, and so, no contention.
4. Describe how data is transmitted in Token Ring architecture
A token, which is a special kind of packet, is circulated around the ring from
computer to computer in a Token Ring network. A computer that wants to send data
onto the network waits until the token is passed to it and takes possession of it. The
transmitting computer encodes the token with the data that it wants to transmit, as
well as header and trailer information that contain the destination and source
addresses, as well as error control information. It then passes the token back out onto
the ring where it travels on until it reaches the destination computer. The destination
computer copies the data into its buffer and adds some acknowledgment information
(or re-transmittal information if it detected errors) and releases the frame back out
onto the network where it travels back to the source computer. Assuming that the data
was transmitted error-free, the source computer removes the “used” frame from the
network and creates a new “free” token to release back out onto the network.
315
5. What happens if two computers using the demand priority access method transmit at
exactly the same time?
If the hub receives two transmissions at exactly the same time the one with the
highest priority is processed first. If the two transmissions have the same priority
level, they are processed at the same time by alternating between the transmissions.
6. How is data transmitted over the network cable?
In packets or frames. (Small chunks of data at a time.)
7. What is CRC and what part of the packet is it usually located in?
CRC (Cyclical Redundancy Check) is a mathematical calculation that is calculated at

the source computer and included in the trailer of the packet. When data arrives at the
destination computer, the calculation is redone and if it calculates as it did at the
source computer it is assumed that the data arrived intact.
8. What sort of information do packet headers contain?
The header contains information such as an alert signal that announces that data is
being transmitted, the source and destination addresses and clocking information.
9. What does the “T” in 10BaseT indicate?
The first part indicates transmission speed (10 means it transmits at 10 Mbps), the
second part “Base” indicates that it uses baseband (single channel) technology and the
last part indicates the cabling type, or maximum segment length in the case of coaxial
cable. (“T” indicates Twisted-pair).
10. What is the maximum segment length in 10Base2?
185 Meters. The “2” in this case means 2 times 100 meters, but in the case of Thinnet
coaxial cable the maximum segment length is 185 meters.
11. What type of connectors are used in 10Base5?
BNC connectors
12. What type of cable is used in 10BaseFL?
Fiber-Optic
13. Name the two main 100 Mbps Ethernet Standards.
100VG-AnyLAN, also called 100BaseVG, VG, and AnyLAN. The VG stands for
Voice Grade. 100BaseX is sometimes called Fast Ethernet. It has different
specifications depending upon the type of cabling used (hence the “X” in the area that
indicates cable type).
14. Which IEEE Specification defines Ethernet?
316
The IEEE 802.3 standard
15. Which IEEE Specification defines Token Ring?
The IEEE 802.5 standard
16. What are the two transmission speeds of Token Ring?
4 Mbps and 16 Mbps
17. How are data collisions avoided in the Token Ring architecture?
A computer must posses the token in order to transmit data. Since no other computer
can transmit while one computer has the token, data collisions are avoided.
18. Describe beaconing as it applies to Token Ring architecture.
The active monitor (which is the first computer to go online) is responsible for
monitoring network activity to make sure that frames are being sent and received
accurately. It also ensures that only one token is traveling the ring at a time and
investigates any frames that have traveled around the ring more than once. It does this
by transmitting a signal every seven seconds. This signal is called beaconing and it
travels from computer to computer. If a computer doesn’t receive an expected signal
from its upstream neighbor it will notify the monitor that a problem may exist.
19. Which way does data travel in a Token Ring network?
Which way data travels in a Token Ring network is a matter of convention. IEEE
802.5 says it travels clockwise, while IBM says that it travels counter-clockwise. It
can be either depending upon how it is set up. The main thing is that data only travels
in one direction on a Token Ring network. It is more commonly set up to travel
clockwise, however.
20. What is a SMAU?
SMAU stands for Smart Multistation Access Unit. This is a hub that has all of the
features of an active hub (regenerates or amplifies the signal) with additional
capabilities such as certain network management functions. A SMAU may have the
capability to shut down a connection that is producing errors thereby allowing the rest
of the network to function.
21. Describe a MIC connector.
MIC (Media Interface Connectors) are connectors that have neither male nor female
ends. Any connector can be connected to another MIC connector. They are also
called hermaphrodite connectors.
317
22. How does a computer on a LocalTalk network obtain its address?
When a computer first comes online in a LocalTalk network it randomly selects an

address from a range of allowable addresses. It then broadcasts the address to
determine if any other computer on the network is using it. If no other computer is
using the address, it stores it to use each time it connects to the network.
23. What is the purpose of AppleShare?
AppleShare is the name of the file server on an AppleTalk network. It also provides a
print server.
24. What type of access method is utilized by an ARCNet network?
Token-passing.
25. How does data flow in an ARCNet network?
The token is passed around the network in numerical order. It first goes to computer
#1 and then #2, etc. It does this even if computer #1 is at the opposite end of the
network from computer #2.
1. What are the two tools required to initiate a network design?
All you need to start a network project is a pencil and some paper.
2. What are the two areas of concern when starting a network project?
You will need to consider the customer and the network goals.
3. What are the two most prominent reasons to choose a peer-to-peer network?
The best reasons for using peer-to-peer are its simplicity and low cost.
4. What is the number one reason for choosing a client/server network?
The number one reason for using a client/server network is security.
5. Is NetBEUI a good protocol to use with a large WAN?
No, NetBEUI is a non-routable protocol and will not interface with routers.
318
6. Your client is installing a small Ethernet network and trying to save money at the same
time. However, he intends to expand the network in the future. Give one reason why you
should recommend that he spend a little more now and install CAT 5 cabling instead of
CAT 3.
It will be less costly to install CAT 5 now than to replace the CAT 3 later when the
network needs to be upgraded from 10 MHz to 100 MHz to handle the higher traffic.
7. You are expanding your network and will need to invest in 50 to 100 new network
cards. Your accounting office found a really good deal on network cards, but they are
not all the same. Why should you refuse this offer?
First, you cannot be sure that they will meet the specifications of your network. Also,
having to maintain a variety of network cards will increase the workload of your IS
department – it is better to standardize network cards in a large network.
8. Your company just bought ten new computers and all are guaranteed to meet the
minimum requirements of Windows NT. Was this a good purchase?
No – the minimum requirements are just enough to run the NOS, but not enough to
run it efficiently.
9. How do you know if a new piece of hardware will work with Windows NT?
Check the hardware compatibility list (HCL).
1. What is the difference between a hub and a MAU?
Hubs are used with Ethernet networks and MAUs are used with Token Ring
networks.
2. What is the difference between an active hub and a passive hub?
Active hubs are used to connect nodes and boost the signal strengths. An active hub
requires some input power. Passive hubs are used only to make connections.
319
3. Define a repeater, a bridge, a router, and a gateway.
Repeater - A repeater is a device that is used to extend the cable lengths of a network
segment. They do not translate or filter any information. They do however, amplify
the signal thereby compensating for signal loss due to long cables. Repeaters work in
the Physical layer of the OSI model.
Bridge - A bridge does the same things as a repeater but has one additional feature. A
bridge can be used to isolate segments on a LAN, thus reducing the traffic for each
segment. Bridges work in the Data Link layer of the OSI model.
Router - A router has all the features of a bridge, but it can switch packets across
multiple networks. They can also determine the best path for “routing” traffic and
filter broadcast traffic to the local segment. Not all network protocols will work with
a router. For example, NetBEUI is not routable.
Gateway - Gateways make it possible to connect different network architectures.

Think of a gateway as a computer that acts as a translator between two networks that
don’t speak the same language.
4. What is analog communication?
Analog communication is based on PSTN or public switched telephone network.
5. A form of digital line that is capable of 1.544 Mbps transmissions is called?
T1
6. Name three advanced WAN environments.
Frame Relay, ISDN, and SONET
7. What are the two components of remote network accessing?
RAS (remote access server) and DUN (dial up networking).
8. Name three RAS protocols.
SLIP, PPP, PPTP and L2TP
9. Name four forms of RAS security.
Auditing, Callback Security, Security host, and PPTP filtering.
10. Describe the difference between BAUD and bps.
BAUD rate is the number in cycles per second of the carrier signal of a modem.
BAUD is limited to 2400 bps. A bps or bit per second is the actual data transmission
rate of a modem. In older modems, BAUD and bps were the same thing.
320
1. What are the four layers that make up the TCP/IP protocol suite?
The four layers of TCP/IP are: Application, Transport, Internet and Network
Interface.
2. How many primary protocols are used to make the TCP/IP Suite?
There are five primary protocols: they are – TCP, UDP, IP, ICMP, and ARP.
3. Name three of the five other protocols used within TCP/IP
Additional protocols are: POP3, SMTP, FTP, SNMP, and HTTP.
4. What is the purpose of DNS?
The Domain Name System is used to resolve host names into IP addresses.
5. What is an FQDN and give an example?
FQDN is a Fully Qualified Domain Name. An example is http://www.microsoft.com.
A domain is a group of computers that share a common general purpose.
7. Who is responsible for maintaining top-level domains?
The InterNIC (Internet Network Information Center) is responsible for top-level

domain names.
8. Which of the name resolution services will work only in Windows?
WINS
9. IPv4 addresses consist of a ______ bit number.
32
10. What is the value of the leading bit (one on the far left) for a Class A IP address?
Class B? Class C?
Class A 01-126 (leading bit is 0)
Class B 128-191 (leading bit is 1)
Class C 192-223 (leading bits 11)
321
11. Subnetting is the process of breaking an IP address into _________ and ________
groups
Subnetting is the process of breaking an IP address into meaningful and manageable

groups.
12. What are five reasons to use subnetting?
Connect physically remote local networks
Connect a mix of network technologies (Ethernet and Token Ring)
Allow an unlimited number of hosts to communicate
Reduce network traffic by limiting broadcast and local traffic to a single segment
1. You are the manager of a large network and have been getting complaints about the
system being slow. What kind of software package can you purchase to help analyze your
network?
Network Management Software is used to analyze network traffic and network status.
2. In order for your new network management software to monitor the activities of the
entire network, each device will need to be _________ compliant.
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
3. TCP/IP provides several tools that you can use to validate the statistics of your
network. List as many as you can.
Event Viewer, ROUTE, NBTSTAT, NETSTAT and TRACERT.
322
1. What are the two requirements of user level logon?
The user must type in a Username and a Password.
2. In a share level model, passwords are assigned to __________.
Resources
3. What is the function of a firewall?
A firewall is used to prevent unauthorized access to your network from outside via
the Internet. It can also be configured to prevent unauthorized transmissions from
leaving your network.
4. What does the acronym RAID stand for?
Redundant Array of Independent Disks or Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks.
5. What are the six levels of RAID?
RAID 0 Non-redundant striped array
RAID 1 Mirrored arrays
RAID 2 Parallel array with ECC
RAID 3 Parallel array with parity
RAID 4 Striped array with parity
RAID 5 Striped array with rotating parity
6. What purpose does encryption play in your security model?
Encryption encodes a message so that it cannot be read if it is intercepted during

transmission.
323
1. What are the three primary steps to take when troubleshooting?
The three steps to troubleshooting are: Define the Problem, Isolate the Problem, and
Repair the Problem.
2. After repairing a problem, are you finished with the troubleshooting process?
NO – You still need to confirm the repair and document the problem and solution.
3. You are troubleshooting a cable problem. You have found the cabinet with the patch
panel and hub, but need to know which of the 50 cables goes to the accounting office.
What would be the best tool to help you locate the cable in question?
The best tool for isolating a single cable from many is the tone generator or tone
locator. The fox and hound.
4. You have located the cable in question #3, and think it might be shorted. What tool
would you need to find the short?
TDRs (Time-Domain Reflectometers) are used to locate shorts in cables.
5. You are working with a TCP/IP network and want to confirm the protocol stack in a
specific workstation. What utility can you use to confirm the protocol stack is good?
PING the loopback IP.
6. What is the loopback IP address?
127.0.0.1
7. You need to know the IP address of a workstation. What TCP/IP utility can you use to
find the IP address of the workstation?
You can use IPCONFIG from a DOS prompt or if using Windows, WINIPCFG from
the RUN command.
8. You have just connected a workstation to the network. What is the easiest way to tell if
the network card can “see” the network?
If the network card has indicator lights, you should see the green light that indicates
that the network card has detected the presence of a network.
324
9. What is the difference between bandwidth and throughput?
Bandwidth is the amount of traffic that a network can handle at a given time.
Throughput is the maximum speed that a message can be transmitted.
10. You have a Windows NT network and received complaints that the server is running
slow. What utility can you use to determine the performance of the server?
Performance Monitor
325
Index
1
100BaseX.........................................................................................................................123
100VG-AnyLAN.............................................................................................................123
10Base2......................................................................................................................87, 121
10Base5......................................................................................................................87, 121
10BaseFL.........................................................................................................................121
10BaseT...........................................................................................................................121
A
access method..................................................................................................................115
Active Directory.................................................................................................................51
active hubs.........................................................................................................................36
Address Resolution Protocol............................................................................................191
Analog................................................................................................................................98
AppleShare.......................................................................................................................129
AppleTalk..................................................................................................................75, 128
Application Layer..............................................................................................................58
application server...............................................................................................................26
ARCNet............................................................................................................................130
ARP............................................................................................................................77, 220
ATM.................................................................................................................................171
attenuation..........................................................................................................................68
attributes.............................................................................................................................49
AUI connector....................................................................................................................88
AWG..................................................................................................................................95
B
backbone......................................................................................................................28, 88
backup utility...................................................................................................................230
Bandwidth........................................................................................................................257
Banyan VINES...................................................................................................................51
base memory address.......................................................................................................100
Baseband............................................................................................................................95
Beaconing........................................................................................................................126
binding...............................................................................................................................73
BNC...................................................................................................................................87
Boot Prom’s.....................................................................................................................100
Boot Sector.......................................................................................................................235
BOOTP............................................................................................................................196
BRI...................................................................................................................................172
bridge.................................................................................................................................68
Broadband..........................................................................................................................95
Broadband Optical Telepoint...........................................................................................105
brouter................................................................................................................................69
C
326
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD..............................33
Carriers.............................................................................................................................166
Category 3..........................................................................................................................90
Category 5..........................................................................................................................90
Cellular Networking.........................................................................................................107
Change...............................................................................................................................49
Circuit-switched...............................................................................................................169
Class A.............................................................................................................................200
Class B.............................................................................................................................200
Class C.............................................................................................................................200
Client Software..................................................................................................................45
clients.................................................................................................................................26
Clocking.............................................................................................................................98
cloud...................................................................................................................................78
coaxial cable.......................................................................................................................86
Computer compatibility...................................................................................................158
connection-oriented............................................................................................................73
continuity.........................................................................................................................247
CSMA/CD................................................................................................................115, 116
CSNW................................................................................................................................50
CSU/DSU.........................................................................................................................167
Cyclical Redundancy Check (CRC)................................................................................118
D
Data Link Layer.................................................................................................................60
Data Protection...................................................................................................................45
DECnet...............................................................................................................................75
demand priority................................................................................................................116
DES (Data Encryption Standard).....................................................................................234
Differential backup..........................................................................................................230
Digital................................................................................................................................98
Direct Memory Access (DMA).........................................................................................99
DLC....................................................................................................................................78
DMA................................................................................................................................100
domain........................................................................................................................49, 194
domain controller...............................................................................................................49
Domain Name Service (DNS).........................................................................................194
Domain Reflectometer (TDR).........................................................................................249
DSMN................................................................................................................................50
Dynamic Host Control Protocol (DHCP)........................................................................196
dynamic routers..................................................................................................................68
E
EES..................................................................................................................................235
EISA.................................................................................................................................102
EMI....................................................................................................................................90
environment.....................................................................................................................151
Ethernet......................................................................................................................33, 121
EtherTalk..........................................................................................................................129
327
Event Viewer...................................................................................................................218
F
Fast Ethernet......................................................................................................................34
FAT....................................................................................................................................49
fault tolerance...................................................................................................................230
FDDI - Fiber Distributed Data.........................................................................................171
fiber-optic...........................................................................................................................91
File Infectors....................................................................................................................235
fire codes............................................................................................................................95
firewall.............................................................................................................................228
FPNW................................................................................................................................50
Frame Relay.....................................................................................................................172
FTP.............................................................................................................................76, 192
Full backup.......................................................................................................................230
Full Control........................................................................................................................49
Full-Duplex........................................................................................................................95
G
gateway............................................................................................................................195
gateways.............................................................................................................................69
Gateways..........................................................................................................................165
Gigabit Ethernet...............................................................................................................123
ground probe....................................................................................................................247
Group policies....................................................................................................................51
GSNW................................................................................................................................50
H
Half-Duplex.......................................................................................................................95
headers...............................................................................................................................64
Headers............................................................................................................................118
HOSTS file.......................................................................................................................195
HTTP................................................................................................................................192
HTTPS.............................................................................................................................192
hubs..................................................................................................................................163
hybrid topologies...............................................................................................................30
I
I/O port number................................................................................................................100
IBM cabling.......................................................................................................................92
IBM Type 3 UTP.............................................................................................................127
ICA...................................................................................................................................178
ICMP..................................................................................................................................79
ICS...................................................................................................................................197
IFCONFIG.......................................................................................................................220
IMAP4..............................................................................................................................191
Incremental backup..........................................................................................................230
Infrared.............................................................................................................................105
Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc. (IEEE)...........................................70
Internet Control Message Protocol..................................................................................191
328
Internet Protocol (IP).......................................................................................................190
interoperability...................................................................................................................48
IP 76, 190
IP address.........................................................................................................................198
IPCONFIG...............................................................................................................220, 253
IPsec.................................................................................................................................177
IPv6..................................................................................................................................200
IPX.....................................................................................................................................75
IRQ...................................................................................................................................100
ISA...................................................................................................................................102
ISDN................................................................................................................................172
ISDN adapters..................................................................................................................167
K
Kerberos...........................................................................................................................178
L
L2TP................................................................................................................................178
LAN...................................................................................................................................25
Laser.................................................................................................................................105
LAT....................................................................................................................................78
Layer Two Tunneling Protocol........................................................................................178
Line-of-Sight Infrared......................................................................................................105
Linux..................................................................................................................................51
LLC..................................................................................................................................121
LMHOSTS.......................................................................................................................195
LocalTalk.........................................................................................................................129
logical topology.................................................................................................................30
LSL....................................................................................................................................75
M
Macintosh...........................................................................................................................52
Macro Virus.....................................................................................................................236
Managing User Accounts...................................................................................................45
MAU........................................................................................................................127, 163
MAUs - Multiple Access Units..........................................................................................35
media access methods........................................................................................................33
Media Compatibility........................................................................................................157
Media Tester....................................................................................................................247
mesh topology....................................................................................................................30
MHS...................................................................................................................................48
MIB (Management Information Base).............................................................................216
MIC (Media Interface Connectors)..................................................................................127
Microwave.......................................................................................................................105
MLID.................................................................................................................................75
modem..............................................................................................................................173
MSAU..............................................................................................................................127
Multimeter........................................................................................................................247
multitasking........................................................................................................................41
329
N
NAT.................................................................................................................................196
NBTSTAT........................................................................................................................218
NCP....................................................................................................................................75
NDIS..................................................................................................................................72
NDS (NetWare Directory Services)...................................................................................47
NetBEUI............................................................................................................................78
NETBIOS.........................................................................................................................195
NETSTAT........................................................................................................................218
NetWare.............................................................................................................................47
NetWare Client32 for DOS................................................................................................47
NetWare Client32 for Macintosh.......................................................................................47
NetWare Client32 for OS/2...............................................................................................47
NetWare Client32 for Windows 95...................................................................................47
NetWare file server............................................................................................................48
NetWare Print Services......................................................................................................48
NetWare security...............................................................................................................48
Network Adapter Cards.....................................................................................................98
Network Layer...................................................................................................................60
Network Neighborhood.....................................................................................................42
Network standards...........................................................................................................121
Network Time Protocol (NTP)..........................................................................................77
Network-attached storage (NAS).....................................................................................232
NFS....................................................................................................................................77
NLSP..................................................................................................................................75
No Access..........................................................................................................................49
NOS – Network Operating System....................................................................................40
NSLOOKUP....................................................................................................................220
NTFS..................................................................................................................................49
Null-Modem.....................................................................................................................175
NWLink.......................................................................................................................50, 76
O
ODI....................................................................................................................................72
Open Systems Interface (OSI)...........................................................................................57
operating system................................................................................................................40
OS/2...................................................................................................................................44
P
Packet switching..............................................................................................................169
Packet-Radio Networking................................................................................................107
packets..............................................................................................................................118
parallel communication......................................................................................................98
passive hub.........................................................................................................................35
Passwords.........................................................................................................................233
Patch Panel.......................................................................................................................163
PCI...................................................................................................................................102
PCMCIA..........................................................................................................................102
PDC - Primary Domain Controller....................................................................................26
330
peer-to-peer........................................................................................................................27
Peer-to-peer LANs.............................................................................................................42
PGP..................................................................................................................................235
physical topologies.............................................................................................................30
Ping..................................................................................................................................220
PING................................................................................................................................253
plenum................................................................................................................................95
PPP.............................................................................................................................79, 176
PPTP..........................................................................................................................79, 176
Preemptive multitasking....................................................................................................41
PRI...................................................................................................................................172
protocol............................................................................................................................114
protocols.......................................................................................................................57, 72
proxy server.....................................................................................................................196
Punch Down Tool............................................................................................................246
R
Radio................................................................................................................................105
RAID................................................................................................................................231
RARP...............................................................................................................................220
Read...................................................................................................................................49
redirector............................................................................................................................46
Reflective Infrared...........................................................................................................105
relative humidity..............................................................................................................151
Remote Access Server or RAS........................................................................................175
removable disks...............................................................................................................229
removable optical disk.....................................................................................................229
repeater.......................................................................................................................68, 164
requester.............................................................................................................................46
ring topology......................................................................................................................29
RIP...............................................................................................................................75, 77
ROUTE............................................................................................................................218
router................................................................................................................................165
routers..........................................................................................................................68, 73
RPC....................................................................................................................................79
RSA..................................................................................................................................234
S
SAP....................................................................................................................................76
Satellite Station Networking............................................................................................107
Scatter Infrared.................................................................................................................105
SDH..................................................................................................................................172
security.............................................................................................................................178
Security......................................................................................................................45, 225
segment..............................................................................................................................28
serial communication.........................................................................................................98
Server room......................................................................................................................151
Server Software..................................................................................................................45
server-based network.........................................................................................................26
331
Server-based network.........................................................................................................44
servers................................................................................................................................26
sharing applications...........................................................................................................24
signal bounce...............................................................................................................28, 88
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)............................................................216
Simplex..............................................................................................................................95
SLIP...........................................................................................................................79, 176
SMAU..............................................................................................................................127
SMB...................................................................................................................................76
SMDS...............................................................................................................................172
SMTP.........................................................................................................................77, 192
SNA....................................................................................................................................76
sneaker net.........................................................................................................................24
SNMP.........................................................................................................................79, 192
Software analyzers...........................................................................................................249
SONET.............................................................................................................................172
SPX....................................................................................................................................75
SSL...................................................................................................................................178
Standards..........................................................................................................................159
star topology.......................................................................................................................29
static routers.......................................................................................................................68
Storage Area Network (SAN)..........................................................................................232
STP.....................................................................................................................................90
Subnetting........................................................................................................................203
T
tape backup......................................................................................................................229
TCP............................................................................................................................76, 189
Telnet.................................................................................................................................77
terminator.....................................................................................................................28, 88
thicknet...............................................................................................................................86
Thinnet...............................................................................................................................86
throughput........................................................................................................................257
TLS..................................................................................................................................178
token passing..............................................................................................................33, 116
token ring.........................................................................................................................125
topology.............................................................................................................................28
TRACERT...............................................................................................................218, 253
Trailer...............................................................................................................................119
transceiver..........................................................................................................................88
Transport Layer..................................................................................................................59
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)...............................................................................76
Trojan Horses...................................................................................................................236
troubleshooting................................................................................................................241
trunk...................................................................................................................................28
twisted-pair........................................................................................................................89
U
UDP............................................................................................................................76, 187
332
UNIX..................................................................................................................................51
User Datagram Protocol (UDP).......................................................................................190
UTP....................................................................................................................................89
V
vampire taps.......................................................................................................................89
virtual connections.............................................................................................................66
Viruses.............................................................................................................................235
VLAN..............................................................................................................................170
VPN’s (Virtual Private Networks)...................................................................................234
W
WAN..................................................................................................................................25
Warp Connect....................................................................................................................44
Windows 2000.................................................................................................................161
Windows 95/98..................................................................................................................42
Windows for Workgroups..................................................................................................42
Windows NT Print Servers................................................................................................50
WINS...............................................................................................................................195
Wire Crimper...................................................................................................................246
Wireless......................................................................................................................31, 131
wireless network..............................................................................................................104
Wireless NICs..................................................................................................................101
workstation.........................................................................................................................26
X
X.25............................................................................................................................77, 171
XDR...................................................................................................................................79
XNS....................................................................................................................................78
333

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Copyright 2009 by KeenSkills, Inc.

APPENDIX A – TECH SUMMARY.............................................................................263

APPENDIX F – CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS...................302

Our staff consists of Microsoft Certified Professionals, Technical Writers, Technical

CompTIA Test Objectives for Network+

The following excerpt is from http://certification.comptia.org/resources/objectives.aspx

NETWORK+ CERTIFICATION % OF EXAMINATION

1.0 Network Technologies 20%

2.0 Network Media and Topologies 20%

3.0 Network Devices 17%

4.0 Network Management 20%

5.0 Network Tools 12%

6.0 Network Security 11%

1.0 Network Technologies

1.2 Identify commonly used TCP and UDP default ports

1.3 Identify the following address formats

technologies and addressing schemes

Classful vs. classless (e.g. CIDR, Supernetting)

Public vs. private

1.5 Identify common IPv4 and IPv6 routing protocols

1.6 Explain the purpose and properties of routing

IGP vs. EGP

Static vs. dynamic

Understanding routing tables and how they pertain to path selection

Explain convergence (steady state)

1.7 Compare the characteristics of wireless communication standards

Authentication and encryption

2.0 Network Media and Topologies

CAT3, CAT5, CAT5e, CAT6

Multimode fiber, single-mode fiber

Plenum vs. Non-plenum

Noise immunity (security, EMI)

2.2 Identify common connector types

2.3 Identify common physical network topologies

2.4 Given a scenario, differentiate and implement appropriate wiring standards

Straight vs. cross-over

2.5 Categorize WAN technology types and properties

2.6 Categorize LAN technology types and properties

2.7 Explain common logical network topologies and their characteristics

2.8 Install components of wiring distribution

Vertical and horizontal cross connects

Verify wiring installation

Verify wiring termination

3.0 Network Devices

Wireless access point

Basic DHCP server

3.2 Identify the functions of specialized network devices

Multifunction network devices

3.3 Explain the advanced features of a switch

3.4 Implement a basic wireless network

Access point placement

Install access point

o Configure appropriate encryption

o Configure channels and frequencies

o Set ESSID and beacon

4.0 Network Management

Layer 2 – data link

4.2 Identify types of configuration management documentation

Physical and logical network diagrams

Policies, procedures and configurations

4.3 Given a scenario, evaluate the network based on configuration management

Compare wiring schematics, physical and logical network diagrams,

baselines, policies and procedures and configurations to network devices