Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PARTS OF SPEECH
NOUNS are names of persons, places, things, animals, concepts/ideas, qualities and activities. Ex: Alfred,
governor, shoes, deer, education, cowardice, running
1. Collective nouns – name groups of people or animals
2. Gender of Nouns – nouns may be classified into 4 genders, such as common, masculine,
feminine and neuter. The common gender is the gender for both sexes; the masculine gender
refers to the male while the feminine gender refers to the female. The neuter gender can
neither be masculine or feminine.
3. Abstract nouns from which some adjectives have been derived
4. Noun or adjective?
A noun ceases to be classified as a noun when it is followed by another noun
Ex: I love eating rice cakes. (rice here has already become an adjective modifying the
noun cake)
Do you like Italian pizza? (Italian has become a proper adjective because it is
followed by another noun)
5. Noun or verb?
Some words may be similarly spelled but they may function as either a noun or a verb in a
sentence, such as object, conduct, digest, escort, insult, produce, record.
Ex: I do not approve of his cónduct. John Williams will condúct the symphony .
Ex: Take his advice with a grain of salt. (n) Who will advise the king? (v)
He likes a warm bath. (n) They bathe in the river. (v)
It’s cold enough to see our breath. (n) Don’t breathe the chemical fumes. (v)
6. Uses of Nouns
As subject: The really important issue of the conference, stripped of all other
considerations, is the morality of the nation.
As subjective complement: Dr Couchworthy is acting president of the board.
As direct object: The new addition to the faculty donated a new microscope to the
university.
As indirect object: Grandfather left Rosita and Raul all his money.
As object of the preposition: The guests stayed in a five-star hotel.
As objective complement: The convention named Mr. Dogbreath vice chairman to appease
him.
As appositive: Kathleen, an Olympic swimmer, just received a scholarship from Harvard.
As nominative of address: Shut up, Joe!
PRONOUNS
1. Personal pronouns – refer to persons or things (it)
he he him his
she she her hers
it it it its
we we us our, ours
Plural
NOTE: the pronouns are by themselves. As subjects, they are immediately followed by verbs; As predicate
nominatives, they come after linking verbs. To show possession they are found after whatever is owned or
possessed. They are not used immediately before nouns or they will no longer be called pronouns but
pronominal adjectives.
The use of WHO and WHOM; WHOEVER and WHOMEVER:
VERBS
1. Regular verbs are verbs that add –d, or –ed to the base form to create the past form.
Ex: act – acted; walk – walked, create – created, walk – walked
2. Irregular verbs are verbs that change spelling to create their past and past participle forms
Some irregular verbs have the same base, past and past participle forms:
Burst, cast, hurt, set, spread, split, sweat, thrust
3. The linking verbs are used to link or join the subject with its complement (a noun, a pronoun or
an adjective). These are be, am, is, was, were, been, being
Ex: I am exhausted. (adjective)
She is a geologist. (noun)
We are glad to hear that. (adjective)
It was she I saw. (pronoun)
4. Special linking verbs are verbs which may be used as linking verbs or action verbs, such as:
seem, look, appear, sound, feel, taste, stand, remain, grow, become, get, stay and loom.
Ex: You look pretty in that dress. (linking verb)
Do not look at him. (action)
The soup tastes sour. (linking verb)
He often tastes all the food on the table. (action)
5. Auxiliary verbs are used together with action verbs. These are also referred to as ‘helping verbs’.
These are: do, does, did, has, have, had, will, shall, could, may.
Auxiliary verbs may also be used as main verbs. The linking verbs may also function as
auxiliary verbs.
AS MAIN VERB AS AUXILIARY VERB
Ex: I will do his duty. I do need a new dress.
Have they a reason for the rally? We have received your notice.
The hinges are rusty. Some researchers are conducting a study under water.
She has a meeting to attend. Our professor has already dismissed us.
Subj. + had + past participle form Condition completed before another past condition
of verb Ex: She had been an accomplished writer until she fell ill.
I had been very patient before we became friends.
Future action completed before another
Ex: I will have finished writing my book by 2013.
3. Future perfect
She shall have arrived by the time you finish cooking.
Future condition completed before another
Subj. + will/shall + have + past
Ex: The survivors will have been without food for days by the time
participle of verb
help arrives.
The lion will have been tamed by the time it grows old.
The perfect progressive tenses
1. Present perfect progressive
Singular subj. + has + been + Action continuing to the present
-ing form of a verb Ex: They have been listening to music all morning.
Plural subj. + have + been + -ing The kid has been throwing tantrums.
form of verb
The Active Voice: The verb is active if its subject performs the action
Ex: Mike introduced the new professor.
Rossana writes with conviction.
The cops caught the fugitive earlier today.
The Passive Voice: A verb is passive if its action is performed upon the subject
Ex: The new professor was introduced by Mike.
The article was written with conviction.
A bill on anti-smoking will be passed by congress.
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
1. A verb must agree with the subject in person and in number
Ex: Rita listens attentively. (Rita is a singular subject thus it takes the –s form of the verb listen
in the present tense)
They often explain the lessons clearly. (They is a plural subject so it takes the base form of
the verb explain in the present tense)
2. The pronouns, You and I, always take the base form of the verb in the present tense.
Ex: You wash the dishes after you eat.
I read books often.
3. The singular indefinite pronouns take the singular verbs.
Ex: Each of them is responsible.
Everyone is bothered about corrupt politicians.
No one has seen the thief come in.
4. The indefinite pronouns some, all, most, none and any may take either the singular or the plural verbs
depending on the noun after the ‘of phrase’.
Ex: Some of the money was stolen.
Some of their answers were wrong.
5. Intervening phrases introduced by with, together with, in addition to, as well as and including do not
affect the verb.
Ex: The machine with all its parts sells for five hundred pesos.
His property, including two cars, is up for sale.
6. Collective nouns often require a singular verb unless it is thought of as individuals.
Ex: The choir sings well.
The choir do not agree on the songs for the program.
7. Subjects joined by and take plural verb except when they refer to only one and the same person or
thing.
Ex: The engine and one car were derailed.
Pins and tacks were holding the pieces together.
The proprietor and manager has left for Canada. (the absence of a determiner before the
noun manager denotes that the two nouns refer to only one person.)
Macaroni and cheese is an easy dish to make.
8. Subjects joined by either-or, neither-nor, or, nor take the singular verb when both subjects have the
same number. When the subjects do not have the same number, the verb agrees with the nearer
subject.
Ex: Neither the folk singers nor their agent likes the program.
The management or the unions are making concessions.
9. Nouns plural in form and meaning always take the plural verb or the base form of the verb.
Ex: Where are the green scissors?
Your trousers have a torn crotch.
10. Nouns plural in form but singular in meaning take the singular verb.
Ex: Mathematics is often considered a difficult subject.
Ethics was one of the subjects I disliked.
11. The phrase a number of takes the plural verb, while the phrase the number of takes the singular verb.
Ex: A number of students have been found to be under the influence of liquor during class
hours.
The number of English plus enrollees has increased tremendously.
12. When the sentence is introduced by here or there the verb agrees with the subject.
Ex: Here is the ticket for the game.
There are only two possible answers.
13. In inverted order sentences, the verb still agrees with the subject.
Ex: Around the bend careens a speeding car.
Into the deep and murky well drops the dead bird.
14. A verb in the subordinate clause introduced by a relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent.
Ex: Those are the researchers who are observing the volcanoes eruption.
Kathleen is popular with those classmates who enjoy her vitality and exuberance.
Every book on these shelves that appears on your list should be catalogued.
15. Predicate nominatives do not affect the verb.
Ex: Joe’s first love is sailboats.
The fruit I like best is seedless grapes.
16. Subjects following expressions of amount or measurement require a singular verb.
Ex: Two meters of wire is enough for the fence.
Three dollars seems like a fortune to him.
17. The verb agrees with the noun following an expression of fraction or portion.
Ex: Half of the apple is rotten.
Three-fourths of the bananas were ripe.
18. Titles of books, songs, stories, plays or other works of art and names of countries require a singular
verb.
Ex: The Netherlands has a colorful history.
The Potato-Eaters is a famous painting by Van Gogh.
19. Adjectives used as subjects take the plural form of the verb.
Ex: The rich often have the privilege to travel anywhere.
The rural poor have been ignored by the media.
ADJECTIVES
1. Kinds of adjectives
Determiners: a, an, the, several, that, those
Quality: beautiful, rough, delicious
Size: large, minute, tiny
Shape: long, square, round
Age: old, antique, young
Color: red, blond, raven, lilac
Proper: American, English, Thai
Material: silky, wooden, bronze
Note: The arrangement of the above kinds of adjectives is also the arrangement to be followed when
there is a series of adjectives modifying a noun or pronoun.
Ex: Several delicious large square red Italian pizzas were served for us.
2. Comparison of adjectives
3. Position of adjectives
Before a noun
Ex: Gorgeous ladies often get to join beauty pageants.
Fierce dogs can scare people.
Between noun determiners and nouns
Ex: The clear lake has become murky.
Those marble domes existed even before I was born.
After linking verbs
Ex: The jar is exquisite.
He seems upset.
After intensifiers
Ex. A rather shy girl began the singing of the anthem.
He looks quite scholarly in his get-up.
ADVERBS
1. Types of adverbs
♠ Adverb of manner: answers the question ‘how?’ quietly, roughly, steadily, remorsefully
♠ Adverb of place: answers the question ‘where?’ across, outside, down, upward, there,
here, out
♠ Adverb of frequency: answers the question ‘how often?’ always, seldom, everyday, often, yearly,
daily
♠ Adverb of time: answers the question ‘when?’ today, yesterday, tomorrow, last
night, next week
2. Order of adverbs: the order of adverbs follows the same order as the arrangement of the types of
adverbs shown above
Ex: Beth enthusiastically goes out every morning before dawn.
Dad walks impatiently upstairs every afternoon before supper to get his newspaper.
4. Adverb or Adjective?
Some words may be used as both an adjective and an adverb without a change in form. These are:
fast, half, straight, just, late, low, most, clear and clean
Ex: He drives a fast car. (adjective)
He drives his car fast. (adverb)
They both have half ownership of the property. (adjective)
She was half crying, half laughing with joy. (adverb)
Don’t expect to get a straight answer from her. (adjective)
He shot the arrow straight to the bull’s eye. (adverb)
PREPOSITIONS
Some commonly used prepositions and their functions and meanings:
Across – on the opposite side of; moves or reaches from one side to the other Ex: across the
street across cultures
After – later than; behind; agreeing with; past hour Ex: after her after supper
Against – in opposition to; in contact with by leaning; in sudden contact or collision with
Ex: He banged his head against the wall I leaned against a tree.
Among – belonging to a particular group; in a group of more than two members
Ex: among physicists among us
Around – to the other side of; surrounding Ex: around the corner around his waist
Behind – at back of; following somebody; in the past; Ex: behind the door behind him
behind me
Beneath – underneath; too low for; lower Ex: beneath the bed beneath contempt
Beside – at side of; compared with; Ex: sit beside Noel beside
his brother
Besides – aside from; as well as Ex: Besides handouts, we also give take home tests.
By – along; beside or close to Ex: by the window by
Sunday
In – nonspecific time, address or location Ex: in a few minutes in my bag in time
Into – motion or action Ex: into the air
On – indicates exact date or location; on top of something Ex: on the table on July 7
Onto – making a discovery; in contact Ex: onto the suppliers onto something
Outside – out of doors; beyond the scope of Ex: outside the room outside my abilities
Over – above; across; more than Ex: over the fireplace over your quota
Through – by way of; by means of Ex: through Europe through the fire
through a hole
Toward/towards – in a particular direction; shortly before; regarding; Ex: toward her toward dawn
Within – inside; not beyond Ex: within a country within 24 hours
Preposition or adverb?
CONJUNCTIONS
Coordinators – connect words, phrases and sentence elements that have the same grammatical structure
and but or for so nor yet
Correlative conjunctions – are conjunctions that come in pairs. These too connect sentence elements with
the same grammatical structure both . . . and either. . . or neither. . . nor not only. . . but also
whether. . . or
Ex: Motocross racing requires not only skill but also great daring.
Either basic accounting or finance is required.
Subordinating conjunctions – are used to introduce adverb clauses; it also links a subordinate clause to the
main clause
as although as long as as though because before
as if after provided unless since where
till so that though until whatever when
than whenever wherever while
Conjunctive adverbs – are adverbs used to join main clauses. These are used together with a semicolon
before it.
accordingly furthermore moreover therefore also nevertheless
hence yet consequently however otherwise
B. THE SENTENCE
A sentence is a word or a group of words that express a complete thought, a complete idea or a complete
question.
Avoiding sentence errors
Run-ons: a run-on sentence is two or more complete sentences that are unintentionally capitalized
and punctuated as if they were one. Four ways to correct run-ons:
a. With end marks and capitals.
Run-on: Elizabeth turned at the sudden noise a bird had crashed into the picture
window.
Sentence: Elizabeth turned at the sudden noise. A bird had crashed into the picture
window.
III.THE PHRASE
A phrase is a group of words used within a sentence as a single part of speech. It may be used as a
noun, a verb, an adjective or an adverb. It does not contain a subject and verb.
The topic sentence expresses the main idea of the paragraph and defines the scope of the
paragraph.
The topic sentence may be at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of the paragraph.
A topic sentence at the beginning of a paragraph prepares the reader for the information that
follows throughout the rest of the paragraph.
Ex: One of the great seventeenth-century contributors to science and the use of the lens
was Galileo Galilei (1564-1642). While he was in Venice in 1609, Galileo heard about an instrument,
rumored to have been invented the year before, which made objects in the distance appear larger and
nearer. The principle of this new instrument interested him, so he immediately set to work making such a
device himself. The result was his telescope. Galileo fitted into one end of a metal pipe a convex lens,
called the objective, and at the other end of the tube he fixed a concave lens, called the eyepiece. The
eyepiece intercepted the converging light rays which proceeded from the objective, before they reached
the point of focus. As they passed through the concave eyepiece, the light rays again changed direction.
Hey no longer converged, but diverged, and passed on to the eye of the viewer. Galileo improved the
telescope until his third attempt magnified observed objects thirty-three times. Here was a combination of
lenses – mere bits of ground and polished glass – assembled in such a way that it was possible for he
human eye to see far beyond its natural limitations. The principle of Galileo’s telescope is still used today
in opera glasses. Anne Huether.
In the following paragraph, the topic sentence is in the middle of the paragraph.
Ex: Along island beaches, the water changes color as it becomes deeper. In the shallows it is a milky
green. In deeper waters over the coral heads and reefs, the color is clear greenish-blue. The color line
changes from green-blue to deep blue where the drop-off into the deep water begins. The drop-of
marked by this color change is the best place for a good swimmer to see Hawaii’s underwater
scenery. Here are deep lava-rimmed valleys paved with white sand. Here are lava rock arches and
tunnels and caves where big fish, lobsters, and big eels live. Looking through a face mask into water sixty
feet deep, a diver can see that the coral and sand bottom appears a pale, bleached blue. In the deep
water, big fish hover in schools like herds of cattle browsing by. A great sea turtle paddles along. A manta
ray swims below with the same graceful swoops as a bird in flight. Its big side flaps move like wings. Its
pop eyes watch the diver watching it. – adapted from Ruth M. Tabrah
Example – examples are given in order to show the meaning of a word. Words that signal
example are: such, such as, like, other, especially, particularly, for example, for instance
Ex: Like Manhattan, each of the other boroughs is an administrative unit of New York
City.
Synonyms – the use of more familiar word or words having the same meaning as the
unfamiliar word.
Ex: The staff unanimously agreed that their boss is so gelid, a person so cold and
frigid, you seldom see him smile.
Comparison – the unfamiliar word is compared with a more familiar idea
Ex: Like a modern-day Judas, the actor betrayed his benefactor.
Contrast – the use of dissimilarity between two things
Ex: The actor emerged from the stage with mirth, in contrast to the grim-faced
person he was after he slipped in a dance number.
Explanation – a difficult word is explained, usually in simpler words, but longer sentences
Ex: Plants like cactus are succulent. They have tissues that conserve moisture. This
enables them to survive the dry and hot atmosphere of deserts.
C. Using etymological formation: Etymology is the study of the origin of words or parts of words and
how they have arrived at their current form and meaning.
o Shows the different forms the world has taken in passing from one language to another and
sometimes shows related words in other languages
D. Other processes of word formation
Affixation – use of affixes in changing the form and function of words
Ex: Un + kind = unkind friend + ship = friendship
Fulfill + ment = fulfillment dis + able = disable
Compounding
Ex: air + plane = airplane book + shelf = bookshelf
Ear + rings = earrings
Blending (portmanteau words – formed by merging a portion of one word with a portion
of another)
Ex: motor + hotel = motel Feces + analysis = fecalysis
Clipping Ex: ad – advertisement; TV – television; bio – biology
Coinage – words developed from brand names
Ex: Colgate – toothpaste fridge - refrigerator
Kodak – camera or picture Xerox - photocopy
E. Idiomatic Expressions
Back To Square One - to start again
Air one’s dirty linen in public (verb phrase) – to talk about your private quarrels where
others can hear
Can't see your nose in front of your face: being oblivious to something obvious, in clear
view.
Best thing since sliced bread - A good invention or innovation. A good idea or plan.
Caught between two stools - When someone finds it difficult to choose between two
alternatives.
Cry over spilt milk - When you complain about a loss from the past.
Cut corners - When something is done badly to save money.
Cut the mustard - To succeed; to come up to expectations; adequate enough to compete
or participate
Devil's Advocate - To present a counter argument
Don't count your chickens before the eggs have hatched - This idiom is used to
express "Don't make plans for something that might not happen".
Don't put all your eggs in one basket - Do not put all your resources in one possibility.
Drastic times call for drastic measures – When you are extremely desperate you need
to take drastic actions.
Hear it on the grapevine - 'to hear rumors' about something or someone.
Let sleeping dogs lie - do not disturb a situation as it is - since it would result in trouble or
complications.
Not a spark of decency - No manners
On the ball - When someone understands the situation well.
Put wool over other people's eyes - to deceive someone into thinking well of them.
Speak of the devil! - This expression is used when the person you have just been talking
about arrives.
Steal someone's thunder - To take the credit for something someone else did.
To have one’s hand tied – to be restricted
VII. LITERATURE
Literature is an art form which comes as either oral or written record of man’s thoughts, behavior,
aspirations, emotions and manifold experiences that has withstood the test of time because of its universal
appeal.
Timely and timeless
Transcends age, race, gender, time, religion, geographical borders, philosophy, culture
CLASSIFICATIONS OF LITERATURE:
1. Literature of KNOWLEDGE
Appeals to the mind and intellect
Chief objective is to supply information
Utilitarian
CHARACTERISTICS: FACTUAL – information must be truthful and the evidence must be
measurable; as perceived by the senses. (EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE – measurable and observable);
OBJECTIVE – perceivable by all or a large majority in the same manner; IMPARTIAL – does not
take sides; no biases or prejudices; USES SIMPLE and DIRECT LANGUAGE - must be
understood by all.
2. Literature of POWER
Appeals to the heart and emotion of man
Chief purpose is to entertain
Artistic and creative
CHARACTERISTICS: FICTION / FANCIFUL; SUBJECTIVE – subject to varied interpretations;
PARTIAL AT TIMES (impartiality always sides with the truth); FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE IS
USED to catch the reader’s attention or interest, to allow variety of interpretations, to entertain
Four patterns:
Iamb (iambic foot, x /) – unaccented, accented; An iambic foot is an unstressed
syllable followed by a stressed syllable. We could write the rhythm like this: da DUM
Anapest (anapestic foot, x x /) – two unaccented, accented
Dr. Seuss’ Yertle the Turtle has anapestic tetrameter:
Visual imagery: visual descriptions so vivid they seem to come to life in the reader's
mind's when they are read
Ex: “The look-out man will see some lakes of milk-color light on the sea’s night-purple”
“The Purse-Seine” Robinson Jeffers
Auditory imagery: descriptions of sound so vivid the reader seems almost to hear them
while reading the poem.
Ex: “she quietly rolled
flour tortillas the
‘papas’
cracking in the hot lard
would wake me”
“My Grandmother Would Rock Quietly and Hum” Leonard Adamé
Images of smell (olfactory imagery): descriptions of smells so vivid they seem almost to
stimulate the reader's own sense of smell while reading
Ex: “The morning comes to consciousness
Of faint stale smells of beer
From the sawdust-trampled street
With all its muddy feet that press
To early coffee-stands”
“Preludes” T. S. Eliot
Tactile or "physical" imagery: descriptions conveying a strong, vivid sense of touch or
physical sensation that the reader can almost feel himself or herself while reading
Ex: “The only things moving are swirls of snow.
As I lift the mailbox door, I feel its cold iron.”
“Driving to Town Late to Mail a Letter” Robert Bly
Images of taste (gustatory imagery): descriptions conveying images of taste can which
also help in the reading of a poem.
Ex: “Take out a three-pound leg of lamb,
rub it with salt, pepper and cumin,
then push in two cloves
of garlic splinters”
“How to Eat Alone” Daniel Halpern
Kinesthetic images (movement) – images of motion which can contribute to the setting;
can create metaphors that increase the reader’s understanding of the poem.
FIGURES OF SPEECH – are ways of saying something other than the ordinary way. One does this to make
assertions about an external quality, or to present some insights of realities that cannot be fully expressed
in any logical language. Through the use of figures of speech, the poet communicates not only a state of
mind but also calls to mind the image of some things that interest the reader. It cannot be taken literally.
Figures of speech pertaining to repetition of sounds:
1. Alliteration – the repetition of initial consonant sounds
Ex: The soul selects her own society
2. Anaphora – The repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of several lines
Ex: I needed a drink,
I needed a lot of life insurance,
I needed a vacation,
I needed a home in the country.
What I had was a coat, a hat and a gun.
(Raymond Chandler, Farewell, My Lovely)
3. Assonance – the similarity of medial vowel sounds in a line
Ex: "I must confess that in my quest I felt depressed and restless."
(Thin Lizzy, "With Love")
4. Onomatopoeia – The use of words that imitate the sounds associated with objects or actions they
refer to.
Ex: "I'm getting married in the morning!
Ding dong! the bells are gonna chime."
(Lerner and Loewe, "Get Me to the Church on Time," My Fair Lady)
5. Pun – a play on words sometimes on different senses of the same word and sometimes on the
similar sense or sound of different words.
Ex: When it rains, it pours.
Kings worry about receding heir lines.
On comparison and contrast:
6. Similes - specific comparison by means of the words “like” or “as” between two kinds of ideas or
objects.
Ex: Christianity shone like a beacon in the black night of paganism.
7. Metaphor – use of a word or phrase denoting one kind of idea or object in place of another word or
phrase for the purpose of suggesting a likeness between the two.
Ex: "Between the lower east side tenements
the sky is a snotty handkerchief."
(Marge Piercy, "The Butt of Winter")
"The streets were a furnace, the sun an executioner."
(Cynthia Ozick, "Rosa")
8. Personification – is a portrayal of an idea, object, or animal, as having human traits.
Ex: The wind stood up and gave a shout.
He whistled on his fingers and
Kicked the withered leaves about
And thumped the branches with his hand
And said he'd kill and kill and kill,
And so he will and so he will.
(James Stephens, "The Wind")
9. Antithesis – the juxtaposition of two words, phrases, clauses or sentences contrasted or opposed in
meaning in such as way as to give emphasis to contrasting ideas.
Ex: Love is an ideal thing, marriage is a real thing.
15. Irony – is the use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning.
Three kinds of Irony:
a. Verbal irony is a trope in which the intended meaning of a statement differs from the
meaning that the words appear to express.
b. Structural/situational irony involves an incongruity between what is expected or intended
and what actually occurs.
c. Dramatic irony is an effect produced by a narrative in which the audience knows more about
present or future circumstances than a character in the story.
Ex: Oedipus attempts to find the murderer of Laius, king of Thebes, unaware that he himself
is the culprit.
16. Oxymoron – incongruous or contradictory terms appear side by side.
Ex: How is it possible to have a civil war? (George Carlin)
The best cure for insomnia is to get a lot of sleep.
17. Paradox – a statement that appears to contradict itself.
Ex: The swiftest traveler is he that goes afoot. (Henry David Thoreau, Walden, 1854)
SYMBOLS – images or concrete references that stand for something else in reality and
suggest another level of meaning; for example, the flag is used a symbol for the country; the rose,
for beauty; the serpent, for evil.
SENSE OR MEANING – a poem must say something. It must enlighten, reveal a truth, open
new vistas, gives new perceptions, enable us to understand the world around us more deeply
and see things beyond our physical senses.
LITERARY GENRES
POETRY
Poetry of thought - philosophical, reflective, interpretative and didactic.
- The essay mood in poetry.
Poetry of feeling – highly emotional and personal
3 MAJOR THEMES:
- THE CELEBRATION OF THE FOUNDING OF A GREAT CIVILIZATION OR RACE
- THE CELEBRATION OF THE FOUNDING OF A GREAT RELIGION
- A REVEREND IDEALIZATION OF THE PAST
TWO TYPES:
FOLK EPIC, TRIBAL EPIC, EPIC OF GROWTH – product of the preliterate society (concept
of education has not been conceived of; oral in origin and verbal in transmission; people/generation
involved; many versions or interpretations; no original version only most popular; standard
measurement per line/verses/melody; no known author because authorship is communal.
Epic of Growth – an epic which continues to grow/change/evolve through the years; no
fixed form; always in the process of becoming until it is written down.
LITERARY EPIC – a product of a literate society, educated class; written; has a single known
author.
The Iliad - This, together with the Odyssey, is one of two ancient Greek epic poems attributed to
Homer. The poem is commonly dated to the late 9th or to the 8th century BC and many scholars
believe it is the oldest extant work of literature in the ancient Greek language, making it the first
work of European literature. The poem concerns events during the tenth and final year in the siege
of the city of Ilion or Troy, by the Greeks.
The Odyssey - This is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. The poem
was probably written near the end of the eighth century BC, somewhere along the Greek-controlled
western Turkey seaside Ionia. The poem is, in part, a sequel to Homer’s Iliad and mainly centers on
the Greek hero Odysseus and his long journey home to Ithaca following the fall of Troy. It takes
Odysseus ten years to reach his kingdom of Ithica after the ten-year Trojan War. During this
absence, his son Telemachus and wife Penelope must deal with a group of unruly suitors, called
Proci, to compete for Penelope’s hand in marriage, since most have assumed that Odysseus has
died.
The Divine Comedy – Long narrative poem originally titled Comedia written by Dante. The work
is divided into three major sections – Inferno, Purgatorio and Paradiso – which trace the journey of a
man from darkness and error to the revelation of the divine light, culminating in the beatific vision
of God. It is usually held to be one of the world’s greatest works literature.
The Nibelungenlied – (Song of the Nibelungs) a middle German epic written about 1200 by an
unknown poet from the Danube region in what is now Austria. It is preserved in three main 13 th
century manuscript, A (now in Munich), B ( St. Gall), and C (Donaueshingen); modern scholars
regard B as the most trustworthy. The name Nibelung appears in the first part of the poem as the
name of Siegfried’s lands and peoples and his treasure, but, throughout the second, it is an
alternate name for the Burgundians.
The Shah Nameh – this is a celebrated work completed in 1010 by the Persian epic poet
Ferdowsi. It is the composition in which the Persian national epic found its final and enduring form.
Ferdowsi’s work was based mainly on the Pahlavi (Middle Persia)Khvatay-namak, a history of the
kings of Persia
The Song of Roland - (French: La Chanson de Roland) is the oldest surviving major work
of French literature. It exists in various different manuscript versions which testify to its enormous
and enduring popularity in the 12th to 14th centuries. The oldest of these is the Oxford manuscript
which contains a text of some 4004 lines (the number varies slightly in different modern editions)
and is usually dated to the middle of the twelfth century (between 1140 and 1170). The epic poem
is the first and most outstanding example of the chanson de geste, a literary form that flourished
between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries and celebrated the legendary deeds of a hero.
The story told in the poem is based on a historical incident, the Battle of Roncevaux Pass on
15 August 778, in which the rear guard of Charlemagne's withdrawing Franks, escorting a rich
collection of booty gathered during a campaign in Spain, was attacked by Basques. In this
engagement, recorded by historian and biographer Einhard (Eginhard) in his Life of
Charlemagne (written around 830), the trapped soldiers were slaughtered to a man; among them
was "Hruodland, Prefect of the Marches of Brittany" (Hruodlandus Brittannici limitis praefectus).
2. METRICAL ROMANCE – a long rambling story which embodies the ideals of medieval times
- Talks about the tales and adventures of the nobility, chivalry and knighthood
Example: King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table by T. Mallory
3. METRICAL TALE – a long narrative poem which tells the lives of ordinary people.
- has an element of realism
Example: Decameron by Boccaccio, Canterbury Tales by Chaucer
4. BALLAD – a narrative about heroic deeds, love episodes or romantic encounters, a supernatural
element but simpler than the epic, metrical romance and the metrical tale. The word ballad means
“dance song” because originally ballad-singing often formed the accompaniment of dancing games
and rhythmic swaying of the body.
Example: Lord Randall, Lochinvar
3 types:
a. Popular or folk ballad – The popular ballad is a folk literature. It reflects the beliefs of
the common folk and may be considered primitive and elemental. The popular ballad
was the common people’s way of expressing their interests and ideals in a poetry that
was cruder and more naïve than the poetry of the nobility; yet it is this simplistic naiveté
that grants the folk ballad a more genuine feeling.
b. Broadside or journalistic ballad – so-called because it is printed on one side of a
printer’s sheet and hawked through the streets and at fairs by professional ballad-
mongers. This type of ballad took the place of the newspaper at a time when newspapers
were unknown.
c. Literary ballad – Like all imitations, literary ballads usually lack the spirit of the original
but boast the finish of an individual art.
5. FABLIAU – a comical and often grotesque verse tale with plot often hinge on the comical
treatment of bodily functions: sex, flatulence or diarrhea. It was written by the unknown writers of
the thirteenth or fourteenth centuries. About 200 of them are in existence today. They are at the
opposite pole from the courtly poetry with pictures of knights and ladies and its elaboration of the
subtleties of love. They describe life and people and ridicule the absurdities and abuses of the
time.
6. SOCIAL POEM – this form is either purely comic or tragic and it pictures the life of today. It may
also aim to bring out changes in the social conditions.
8. CHARACTER SKETCH – this is a particular type, classified by Laurence J. Zillman in the Art and
Craft of Poetry under dramatic poetry. It is a poem in which “the writer is concerned less with
matters of story, complete or implied, than he is with arousing sympathy, antagonism or merely
interest for an individual.” The poet serves as observer and commentator. Ex.: My Last Duchess
by Robert Browning
9. MASQUE – is a form of court pageantry which was popular in England in the 16 th century. The
actors were dressed in lavished costumes against a lavish scenery and music.
C. LYRIC POETRY – a short poem that expresses feelings which may or may not be set to music. It is the
metrical embodiment of the author’s thoughts and feelings, and becomes the direct and immediate
channel of his communication with his reader. Lyric poetry is not confined to emotions alone, it may in
fact, also reflect philosophical, reflective, interpretative and didactic thoughts.
1. ODE – a monodrama where the author is the actor himself who shares an unforgettable
experience in life; a poem addressed to some person or thing; most majestic type of lyric
poetry; exalted in tone and express a lofty praise for some person, object, event or idea.
Example: Annabel Lee by Edgar Allan Poe; Ode on a Grecian Urn and Ode to a Nightingale by
John Keats
2. ELEGY – a poem about death or mourning expressed in lamentation. Example: O Captain, My
Captain by Walt Whitman
3. SONNET – a poem of fourteen rhymed lines in iambic pentameter; was devised in Italy in the
1220’s and was first perfected and popularized by Francesco Petrarch; Sir Thomas Wyatt and
the Earl of Surrey popularized it in England in 16th century.
a) Italian or Petrarchan sonnet – named after the Italian poet Francesco Petrarch who
perfected it. It consists of an octave (eight lines) which develops the theme, followed by
a sestet (six lines) which recapitulates the idea. The octave has a rhyme scheme of abba
abba and the sestet, cde cde or cdcdcd, or some other combinations.
b) English, Elizabethan or Shakespearian sonnet – named after William Shakespeare
and Queen Elizabeth I. it is divided into three quatrains (four lines) plus a couplet (two
lines) with a rhyme scheme of abab cdcd efef gg. The idea is developed in the 3
quatrains and is summarized or reinforced in the closing couplet.
c) Spenserian sonnet – named after the English poet Edmund Spenser. It is divided, like
the Shakespeare sonnet, into three quatrains and a closing couplet with a rhyme scheme
of abab bcbc cdcd ee.
4. SONG – a poem intended to be sung.
a) Secular – have non-religious themes; deals with different themes and emotions,
including present-day protest.
b) Sacred – includes hymns, anthems, oratories, cantatas; basically songs of praise to God.
5. PSALM – a religious song.
6. HYMN – a song of praise or adoration either sacred or secular
7. MODERN BALLAD – based on a narrative which serves as the poet’s inspiration. There is a
story behind the ballad. Example: Puff the Magic Dragon by Paul Simon
8. IDYLL – a poem of rural or pastoral feeling, the author expresses sentiment for his immediate
surroundings. Example: Trees by Joyce Kilmer
9. SIMPLE LYRIC – a short poem with verses that are musical and with a subjective and emotional
tone.
10.HAIKU – a form of poetry that originated in Japan. A Haiku has three lines: the first and third
lines have five syllables each; the second line has seven. It depends on imagery. Each word or
phrase evokes an image. A haiku usually depicts a scene in nature and often implies a strong
feeling.
PROSE
A. SHORT STORY –a narrative told by a known author with characters, setting, plot and time.
B. NOVEL - an extended form of the short story with several settings and more characters, minor and
major themes, main plot and subplots.
a. Bildungsroman – a novel chronicling the intellectual, spiritual, or moral development of a
young protagonist; this is also known as a coming-of-age novel
Ex: James Joyce’s “A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man”
Charles Dicken’s “David Copperfield”
b. Dystopian – A novel set in an imagined future in an imagined society that purports to be
utopian but is revealed and terrifyingly restrictive and inhuman. The intent is usually to warn
contemporary readers that their own society is in danger of turning into this horrifying future
world.
Ex: Seminal works include Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World and George Orwell’s
“Animal Farm” 1984; also Margaret Atwood’s “The Handmaid’s Tale.
c. Epistolary novels – these are novels told through the medium of letters written by one or
more of the characters. This was one of the earliest forms of novel to be developed, originating
with Samuel Richardson’s Pamela in 1740. It remained one of the most popular up to the 19 th
century. The novel’s reliance on subjective points of view makes it the forerunner of the modern
psychological novel. Pamela is a story of a servant girl’s Victorian struggle against her master’s
attempts to seduce her.
Ex: Bridget Jones Diary; Samuel Richardson’s “Clarissa”; Alice Walker’s “The Color
Purple”
d. Gothic novel – European romantic, pseudomedieval fiction having a prevailing atmosphere of
mystery and terror. Its heyday was the 1790s but it was frequently revived thereafter. It was
called gothic because its imaginative impulse was drawn from the rough and primitive grander
of medieval buildings and ruins. Such novels were expected to be dark and tempestuous and
full of ghosts, madness, outrage, superstition and revenge.
Ex: Mary Shelley’s “Frankenstein”; Charlotte Bronte’s “Jane Eyre”; Edgar Allan
Poe’s “Short Stories”
e. Kunslerroman – a novel portraying the artistic realization or development of a maturing
protagonist. This is one type of bildungsroman. Ex: James Joyce’s “A Portrait of the Artist as a
Young Man” & Marcel Proust’s “Remembrance of Things Past”
f. Historical novel – is a novel that has as its setting a period of history and that attempts to
convey the spirit, manners and social conditions of a past age with realistic detail and fidelity to
historical past.
g. Local Color Novel – A work that incorporates cultural details of a particular region-dialect,
mannerisms, though patterns – to portray a community, often sentimentally. Frequently includes
eccentric characters.
Ex: Kate Chopin’s “The Awakening” & Toni Morrison’s “Beloved”
h. Novel of manners – this is a work of fiction that recreates a social world, conveying with finely
detailed observation of the customs, values and mores of a highly developed and complex
society. The conventions of the society – codified behavior, acceptable forms of speech, and so
on – dominate the story, and characters are differentiated by the degree to which they measure
up to or fall below the uniform standard or ideal, of behavior.
Ex: the works of Jane Austen, which deal with the domestic affairs of English
country gentry families of the early 19th century
i. Picaresque novel - a popular sub-genre of prose fiction which is usually satirical and depicts,
in realistic and often humorous detail, the adventures of a roguish hero of low social class who
lives by his wits in a corrupt society. This style of novel originated in sixteenth century Spain and
flourished throughout Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It continues to
influence modern literature.
Ex: Miguel de Cervantes “Don Quixote” & Mark Twain’s “Huckleberry Finn”
j. Philosophical novel – a novel serving as a vehicle to explore philosophical ideas.
k. Psychological novel – a novel whose primary focus is on the character’s emotions and internal
motivations as they respond to external events.
Ex: Fyodor Dostoyevsky’s “Crime and Punishment” & Henry James’ “Portrait of a
Lady”
l. Roman-a-clef – this a novel that has the extraliterary interest of portraying identifiable,
sometimes real people more or less thinly disguised as fictional characters.
Ex: Ernest Hemingway’s “The Sun also Rises”
m. Social Protest – a novel that aims to illuminate and draw attention to contemporary social
problems with the goal of inciting change for the better.
n. Thesis – (Novel of Ideas) a novel that presents problems and argues in favor or a solution.
Ex: Harriet Beecher Stowe’s “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” & Charles Dikens’ “Hard Times”
C. MYTH – prose narratives considered sacred and true in societies where they are told; embodiment
of dogma or religious doctrines set in the remote past.
D. LEGENDS – prose narratives considered to be true in societies where they originated and thrived;
set in the distant past.
E. FOLKTALES – not an embodiment of dogma, told for entertainment, definitely fiction
F. PARABLES – stories containing morals or religious lessons and allegories
G. FABLES – characters are animals, expresses the follies of men without directly attacking them.
H. NON FICTION – is prose writing that presents and explains ideas or that tells about real people
objects, or events.
a. Biography is a form of non-fiction in which a writer tells the life story of another person
b. Autobiography is a form of nonfiction in which a person tells his or her own life story
c. Essay - a literary exposition expressing the author’s views or ideas about a subject, may be
formal or informal.
I. HISTORICAL PROSE such as chronicle, diary, journal and history
ELEMENTS OF FICTION
A. PLOT – a series of events that give the story its meaning and effect. In most stories, these events
arise out of the conflict experienced by the main character.
ELEMENTS OF A PLOT:
1. EXPOSITION – the introduction which gives the setting, creates the tone, presents the characters
and other facts necessary to understanding the story.
2. FORESHADOWING – the use of hints or clues to suggest what will happen later in the story.
3. INCITING FORCE – the event or character that triggers the conflict
4. CONFLICT – the essence of fiction. The conflict creates the plot. Common conflicts are:
MAN vs MAN – puts one person in rivalry with another
MAN vs NATURE – a run-in with the forces of nature. On one hand, it expresses the
inconsequentiality of one man in the vastness of the universe. On the other, it puts a man’s
strength and will to live to the test.
MAN vs SOCIETY – the values and customs of the society are challenged. The character may
come to an untimely end as a result of his convictions. Or, he may bring others around to a
sympathetic point of view --- or it may be decided that society was right after all.
MAN vs SELF – internal conflict which tests the character’s values. Sometimes, people are their
own worst enemy.
5. RISING ACTION – a series of events that builds from the conflict. This begins with the inciting force
and ends with the climax.
6. CRISIS - the conflict reaches a turning point. At this point, the opposing forces in the story meet and
the conflict becomes most intense. May occur before or at the same time of the climax.
7. CLIMAX – the result of the crisis and the moment of highest interest and greatest emotion. It is the
high point of the story for the reader.
8. FALLING ACTION – events after the climax which close the story.
9. RESOLUTION (DENOUEMENT) – concludes the action.
MAJOR CHARACTERS - almost always round or three-dimensional characters. They have good
and bad qualities. Their goals, ambitions or values change.
ROUND CHARACTERS are convincing and true-to-life and changes as a result of what
happens to him. They have many different and sometimes even contradictory traits.
DYNAMIC CHARACTERS undergo some type of change or development in the story
often because of what happens to him. A dynamic character progresses to a higher level
of understanding in the course of the story.
MINOR CHARACTERS - almost always flat or two-dimensional figures. They have only one or
two striking qualities. The predominant quality is not balanced by an opposite quality.
FLAT CHARACTERS are stereotyped, shallow and often symbolic.
STATIC CHARACTERS do not change throughout the course of the story.
PHILIPPINE LITERATURE
The Literary Periods
1. Pre-colonial (-- to 1564)
Characteristics
a. Based on oral traditions
b. Crude on ideology and phraseology
Literary Forms
Oral Literature
a. Riddles (bugtong) battle of wits among participants
Tigmo – Cebu; Paktakon – Ilonggo; Patotdon – Bicol
b. Proverbs or aphorisms (salawikain) – express norms or codes of behavior, community
beliefs or they instill values by offering nuggets of wisdom in short, rhyming verse
c. Tanaga - a mono-riming heptasyllabic quatrain expressing insights and lessons on life is
"more emotionally charged than the terse proverb and thus has affinities with the
folk lyric."
Basahanon (Bukidnon) or extended didactic sayings
Daraida and daragilon (Panay)
Folk Songs is a form of folk lyric which expresses the hopes and aspirations, the people's lifestyles
as well as their loves. These are often repetitive and sonorous, didactic and naïve
Ida-ida (Maguindanao); tulang pambata (Tagalog) or cansiones para
abbing (Ibanag).
Epics. These epics revolve around supernatural events or heroic deeds and they embody or
validate the beliefs and customs and ideals of a community. These are sung or chanted to the
accompaniment of indigenous musical instruments and dancing performed during harvests,
weddings or funerals by chanters. The chanters who were taught by their ancestors are considered
"treasures" and/or repositories of wisdom in their communities.
“narratives of sustained length based on oral tradition revolving around supernatural events
or heroic deeds” (Arsenio Manuel)
The Philippine epic is also called Guman (Subanon); Darangen (Maranao); Hudhud (Ifugao);
and Ulahingan (Manobo)
Ex: Lam-ang (Ilocano); Hinilawod (Sulod); Kudaman (Palawan); Darangen (Maranao);
Ulahingan (Livunganen-Arumanen Manobo); Mangovayt Buhong na Langit (The Maiden of the
Buhong Sky from Tuwaang--Manobo); Ag Tobig neg Keboklagan (Subanon);
and Tudbulol (T'boli).
N. V. M. Gonzales Nestor Vicente Madali Gonzales was the first recipient of the Commonwealth
Literary Contest in 1940. He received the National Artist Award in 1990.
The Happiest Boy in the World [From the book Seven Hills Away] - Situated in the island
of Mindoro, it is a short story that talks about provincial life.
Nick Joaquin Also known under his pseudonym "Quijano de Manila," Nick Joaquin is
so far the most distinguished Filipino writer in English Writing. He was awarded as the National Artist for
Literature in 1973.
Culture and History [Excerpt] In the last chapter of this book, Nick Joaquin tries to attest that
there is a Filipino identity.
BUSINESSWORLD (PHILIPPINES): WEEKENDER: Portrait of Vivian Velez as stage
actress
The article features the play, Larawan, and an interview with Vivian Velez
May Day Eve [Excerpt]
One of the best short narratives that believed to pioneer the literary style called "magic
realism".
Bienvenido Lumbera. A critic, librettist and poet, Beny created famous musical plays such as the
"Tales of the Manuvu and Rama Hari" at "Hibik at Himagsik Nina Victoria Laktaw."
A Eulogy of Roaches The analogous poem depicts the roaches of the general public.
Agunyas sa Hacienda Luisita A poem that commemorates the massacre of farmers in Tarlac.
Ang Ating Bagong Panatang Makabayan Pledged by the protestors in 2008, it sardonically
condones corruption.
Paggunita sa Pamamaslang A poem about the massacre executed by the Ampatuan Family
in 2009.
Toward a National Literature Originally a speech, it was delivered by Lumbera himself to an
assembly of writers.
Tribute to Alex Remollino A poetry dedicated by Bienvenido Lumbera to his friend.
Alejandro Roces. Anding won the Best Short Story award for "We Filipinos are Mild Drinkers" in the
United States. He received the Rizal Pro Patria, one of the highest recognitions given by the Republic of the
Philippines. As a nationalist, he was known for promoting Ati-atihan, Moriones and Penafrancia Festivals, to
name a few.
I wrote as I wrote Roces bids farewell in this last article published in Philippine Star.
My Brother's Peculiar Chicken The humorous short tale was featured in Martha Foley's Best
American Stories.
We Filipinos are Mild Drinkers A funny short story set during World War II.
Edith Tiempo. She is the only female among the receivers of the National Artist Award in Literature.
Bonsai A poem, surreally written about love.
The Black Monkey Though typically short for a short story, the baffling plot and intricate
details contribute well.
References:
College English for Today, Book I, Revised Edition, Jovita N. Fernando, Pacita L. Habana, and Alicia L. Cinco
Developmental Reading 1, Alejandro S. Bernardo
Grammar in Context 3, Sandra N. Elbaum
Grammar Practice (for Upper Intermediate Studets), New Edition, Elaine Walker and Steve Elseworth
Introduction to Literature, 4th Edition, Arsenia B. Tan
Merriam-Webster Encyclopedia of Literature, (Springfield, Massachusetts)
New Webster’s Dictionary and Roget’s Thesaurus, (Book Essentials, Inc., New York,1992),
Philippine Literature: A History and Anthology, Revised Edition, Bienvenido Lumbera & Cynthia Nograles
Lumbera