LiFi – the Path to a New Way of Communication
Monica Leba, Simona Riurean, Andreea Ionica
University of Petrosani
Petrosani, Romania
monicaleba@upet.ro, sriurean@yahoo.com,
andreeaionica@upet.ro
Abstract — Important research efforts have been directed
over the past ten years, towards exploring alternative parts
of the electromagnetic spectrum that could potentially
offload a large portion of the network traffic from the
overcrowded radio frequency (RF) domain. Due to the
latest improvements, the optical wireless communication
(OWC) proves to be a viable alternative solution to the
issues of forthcoming radio frequency RF spectrum crisis,
especially in certain places and situations. Currently, most
mobile data traffic is consumed indoor, where light fidelity
(LiFi) which is related to visible light communication (VLC)
offers lots of specific advantages, and effective solutions to
the many issues of wireless communication. The current
paper summarizes most of the research, developments and
applications achieved so far and looks at the different
aspects of the strengths and weaknesses, implementations,
challenges, VLC IEEE standard and data modulation
techniques of the VLC and specific LiFi’s new coined
optical wireless communication technology.
Keywords - OWC, VLC, LiFi, modulation techniques
I. OVERVIEW OF LIFI
Optical frequency range starts from 300 GHz and reaches
30 PHz (Peta Hertz); this includes infrared, visible and
ultraviolet bands - a spectral range that is huge, comparable to
the 300 GHz that the RF band represents.
Figure 1. Electromagnetic spectrum
Figure 1 shows part of the electromagnetic spectrum with
the optical range pointed out. Significant technical and
operational advantages are offered by optical wireless
communication (OWC) systems, such as low power
requirements, much larger bandwidth capacity, strong security,
robustness to electromagnetic interference and tolerant
spectrum. OWC can be applied on a large domain of
communication applications, beginning with millimeters range
interconnected within integrated circuits through outdoor
kilometers links [1]. Visible light communication (VLC) has
emerged as point–to–point data communication technique,
which lead to early standardization activities as part of IEEE
802.15.7. [2]. This standard is actually still being revised to
include LiFi [3]. LiFi consists of a complete wireless network
system which includes bi-directional multiuser communication,
also involving multiple access points forming the wireless
network of very small optical attocells with seamless handover
[4]. LiFi is meant to replace, in certain places and situations,
the well-known overcrowded and/or forbidden communication
by radio waves. LiFi uses light emitting diodes (LEDs) to
transmit data. As literature reveals, the VLC concept was
launched for the first time in 2003 at Japan’s M. Nakagawa
Laboratories; VLC ID System Development Kit has been
available there since 2012. [5]. Their mainly conducted
research is now underwater VLC. Professor Harald Hass from
the University of Edinburgh coined the “LiFi” VLC
technology, at a 2011 TED Talk, and due to the practical
demonstration conducted, the concept being compared with
Wi-Fi, led to be appreciated and scattered quite fast. His lecture
has today more than 2,45 million views, which proves the
world wide high interest of the issue.
Due to Harald Hass’ talk, many technical and commercial
achievements have been noticed: one of the most interesting,
Velmenni, which is a high-tech hardware startup based out of
Delhi and Tartu, Estonia on January 2014. Currently, Velmenni
creates VLC links that can broadcast data at high speed, up to
20 meters and also work on applications in aviation. Their
project will be applied to the Australian Airbus BizLab. Airbus
considered the weight savings of LiFi over Wi-Fi and wired
equipment like seatback screens to be important. European
scientists from Germany, Greece, France, Italy, Austria,
Slovenia and the UK were part of the OMEGA consortium who
reached to transfer data at a rate of 100 Mbit/s by using 16
LEDs in the ceiling that light up more than 10 square meters’
demo at ORANGE Labs, in February, 2011 [6].
The UK consortium EPSRC (Engineering and Physical
Sciences Research Council) funded by UK universities led by
the University of Strathclyde developed tiny, micron-sized
LEDs which offer many major advantages: first, they flicker on
and off 1,000 times quicker than the larger LEDs, being able to
transmit data more quickly and second, 1,000 micron-sized
LEDs fit into the space occupied by a single larger 1mm. Each
of these tiny LEDs act as a separate communication channel
[7]. In 2011, venture-funded startup company ByteLight
launched its project of indoor location services using VLC and
few years later, on 2015, their patent portfolio and other
intellectual property (IP) were acquired by Acuity. During the
same period of time, the USA company, LVX System launched
its commercial product and then, in 2015 entered into a Space
Act Agreement (SAA) with NASA to research and develop for
use on NASA missions including future journeys to deep space.
 The USA’s company, Qualcomm presented in 2016 its
developed Lumicast project, a positioning system based on
VLC. This technology is able to support a broad range of
indoor positioning applications in commercial, office and
industrial settings, and has been adopted by leading players in
the LED lighting ecosystem such as Acuity Brands [8].
The Japanese company Outstanding Technology launched
on 2016 their products realizing high security and
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) and high accuracy
positioning information platform for smartphones/tablets using
LED lighting. The Indians students of Mangalore Institute of
Technology and Engineering in Moodabidri, demonstrated
transmission of data through light sources and won the third
prize at the 7th Annual Edition of UNISYS All India Project
Competition Cloud 20/20, in 2016. They used in their project,
three colors Triplet LiFi, each color carrying different data
streams. The Switzerland team Disney Research presented
VLC applications in clothes for children and toys [9] as well as
an indoor VLC system based on networked light bulbs [10].
OpenVLC project aims to develop open-source, software-
defined technology being focused on developing concepts like
LiFi, built around a credit-card-sized embedded Linux platform
with a LED front-end [11]. The British company pureLiFi,
launch the Li-1st, at the Mobile World Congress in Barcelona
in 2014 and plans to make LiFi commercially available systems
created in partnership with LED maker Lucibel. This system
consists of a modulator that connects to the lighting fixture and
a USB dongle to connect a television display or computer. It
also announced deal with Apple, which would let iPhones use
LiFi via the onboard camera. The Dubai-based operator Du, in
conjunction with company Zero.1, recently demonstrated how
LiFi hotspots can be set up to provide internet access.
Other important developer, the France’s Oledcomm,
deployed LiFi products in the market: they equipped in 2012 a
museum in Europe and deployed in retail (Leclerc) and Paris
Metro. On 21st of May 2015, Carrefour, with the aid of Philips
installed in a hypermarket in Lille a LiFi system, which allow its
customers to locate the products in promotion. In April 2014,
RiT Technologies, a subdivision of the Russian company Stins
Coman developed this optical technology and launched the
BeamCaster project. The main part of the network is a router
that is capable of transmitting a signal using a light beam at a
distance of up to 7-8 meters. Eight devices transmit at once the
signal in other parts of an office on a speed of 1.25 GBps. The
Mexico software development company Sisoft reached 10
Gbps data transfer ration across a light spectrum emitted by
LED lamps [12] and caught up with Scottish research team
headed by Harald Haas in achieving 10Gbps Internet data
transmission being able to transmit audio, video and Internet
data using light emitted by LED lamps. There is even an
Arduino code on GitHub for makers to build VLC systems at
home. Global corporations like Philips, Toshiba, Samsung, GE,
LG, Innotek, Panasonic, Sharp, Cisco, Rolls Royce, Airbus and
Acuity Brands subsidiary eldoLED are working on “internet of
lights” (IoL) technology and applications, as well.
II. LIFI’S STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
LiFi, as a potential substitute of Wi-Fi radio waves looming
congestion and wireless dead zones, has strengths and
weaknesses that put it in competition with other industry
specific technologies like RFID and iBeacons. First of all, we
consider this new technology’s speed as the most important
strength. Then, security, low cost, lack of electromagnetic smog
and therefore safe for human use, more energy friendly are some
other strengths that worth being considered.
High Speed - Data rates of 1 Gbps has been reported using
single phosphor-coated white LEDs [13]; later 3.4 Gbps has
been demonstrated with an off-the-shelf red-green-blue
(RGB) LED [14]. Researchers of the University of Edinburgh
reported 3.5 Gbps from a single color incoherent LED [15].
Haas’s team planned commercial speeds of up to 100 Gbps,
this speed being achievable for LiFi when the whole visible
spectrum is utilized [16]. The University of Oxford LiFi
researchers hit 224 Gbps in lab conditions (at this speed, one
minute is enough to download five high definition movies)
[17]. Recent studies have demonstrated data rates of 14 Gbps
for LiFi using three off⁃the⁃shelf RGB laser diodes [18]. 42.8
Gbit/s has been achieved for indoor OWC with 2-dimensional
optical beam-steering, on 2015 [19].
Figure 2. LIFI’s strengths and weaknesses
Security - LiFi optical signals are not able to penetrate walls,
this being an advantage in relation to security issues. The same
feature can be exploited to eliminate interferences between
neighboring cells. During the last ten years, there have been
continuous reports of improved point-to-point link data rates
using off-the-shelf white LEDs under experimental lab
conditions [14].
Low cost - In certain cases, LiFi’s implementation can be
cheaper than other communication technologies [20].
Low energy consumption - Taking into account that, usually,
indoors lights are ON most of the time, the energy used for
communication would practically be zero as a result of the
piggybacking of data on illumination. Energy efficient intensity
modulation (IM) techniques allow data communication even if
the lights are visually off [18], [21].
No electromagnetic smog - Since LiFi uses visible light
spectrum (VLS) that it is unimpeded by RF interference and
therefore generates no electromagnetic smog. This makes it an
increasingly attractive option where electromagnetic
interference become dangerous for intrinsically hazardous
environments, such as refineries, oil platforms and petrol
stations, near MRI medical equipment, airplanes or electrical
transformer stations.
Safe for health - The technology could even find a niche with
consumers who are aware and affected by the adverse effects of
electromagnetic radiation.
License free bandwidth - The visible light spectrum includes
hundreds of THz of license free bandwidth, 10,000 times more
than the entire RF spectrum. On the other side of the balance,
there are still some weaknesses of the LiFi’s technology
developed so far.
Distance and interferences – One of the limitations is
distance, usually no more than 10 meters away without
interference by artificial light or bright sunlight. LiFi cannot be
used in direct sunlight (or other odd conditions with harsh
lighting) since the photodetectors won’t be able to detect the
modulating light waves. However, Velmenni’s and Haas’s
demos have shown that LiFi works with some amount of
ambient lighting.
No standard yet. LiFi has no standard yet, so equipment from
one vendor won’t work with another`s.
III. APPLICATIONS OF LIFI
Many areas where LiFi system provide a reliable, secure,
cheaper and ultra-high-speed communication infrastructure
have already been launched worldwide, so we can summarize
some of them as follows:
Figure 3. Some of viable applications for LiFi
Airplanes: Since Wi-Fi during flights with most of airlines is
forbidden, and therefore limited, LiFi can be a suitable
replacement for wireless communication. The use of this
technology within aircraft cabin has more advantages since
significant amounts of cabling can be saved resulting in cost
saving, reduced weights and flexible layout design.
Hospitals: LiFi can be enhanced in hospitals also where the
Wi-Fi is forbidden. They can be used in different advanced
medical equipment to communicate with each other for fast
data interpretation, for example [22].
Petrochemical industry: Since various radioactive chemicals
are used for processing, the industry does not allow RF.
Nuclear power plants: LiFi can be a useful replacement of
Wi-Fi in electromagnetic sensitive areas such as nuclear power
plants as it does not cause any electromagnetic interference.
In home and office appliances: LiFi system can be integrated
in home appliances such as: secure systems, freeze, central
heating systems, TV’s, clocks and so on to reduce energy
consumptions for an intelligent energy management.
Smart lighting: Public lighting can be used to provide LiFi
hotspots and monitoring lighting and data can be used to the
same communications and sensor infrastructure [23].
Vehicle and traffic lights: LED devices can be installed as
headlights and tail-lights developing an intelligent transport
system. Traffic lights can also move to LED with the benefit of
road safety and traffic control.
Underwater: Light propagate underwater where radio
frequencies cannot be used because of salty, high conductivity
and high attenuation environment. Since cables creates threads
in communication undersea water, can be replaced with LiFi
transmitters. Also they can send data to submarines, to surface
as well as to divers with their head lights.
In health surveillance: The wearable LiFi transmitter like
LED bracelets, ear rings, wrist watches and so on, allow
continuously monitoring individual state of health providing
instant notice to family’ doctor of any significant changes
occurred in health condition by connecting to the internet and
updating the information online in real time.
Figure 4. Three main domains of application
Indoor navigation: Where the LED lights sources are used, like
shopping malls, cinema, theatres, government offices, work
offices or any indoor locations, the LiFi technology allows an
indoor navigation (pinpointing an object to within about 10 cm)
and offers orientation information (useful for knowing, for
example, which direction a customer is looking) [24], [25].
IV. COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS
Figure 5. LiFi’s technology common misconceptions
The common misconceptions occurred regarding LiFi
technology are as follows:
Lights cannot be dimmed: The experimental projects based on
a various dimmed intensities conducted to the conclusion that
data communication works even with dimmed light [26].
The flickering light is disturbing for human eye: The LiFi
light flickers at higher rates which are not recognizable and
hazardous to the human eye. The human eye can sense
flickering of lower rates that is below 120-150Hz. LED flicker
has been already tested according to EN 61000-4-15 standard
and the conclusion is that is not harmful for human eye [27].
VLC is unidirectional downlink: The LiFi networks can use
for uplink, other wireless technologies to complete the full
duplex communication [3].
Existing lights have to be replaced: The LiFi system will be
using the existing infrastructure of light distribution; the LiFi
equipment has to be attached only [28].
This is exclusively a LoS line-of-sight technology: As the
demonstration of LiFi at Edinburgh University Haas had shown
the system can work beyond LoS as photo detectors are able to
sense the light [4].
V. CHALLENGES FOR A SUITABLE LIFI
COMMUNICATION IMPLEMENTATION
Basically there are three main modules related to challenges
affecting all components of a LiFi network: first is lighting
device and modulation technique applied on it (Tx), second, the
indoor communication channel (ICC) and last but not least,
reception device and its properties, control and synchronization
(Rx). Each of these three main modules (Tx, ICC, Rx) has its
own constraints, as is shown in the figure 6.
Figure 6. Constraints related to LiFi communication
a) Tx - lighting device and modulation technique applied on it.
LEDs are the safest and suitable optical sources for a dual-
use lighting and communication application, and therefore is
the main component of the LiFi network transmitter, since they
support a fast modulation and high data rates.
There are two different kind of LEDs that use different
technologies to create white light by merging some colors. In
the first technique, a LED emitting blue light is embedded in a
layer of yellow phosphor that translates some of the light to
longer wavelengths, yellow and red; the result is seen as white
light to the human eye. The second type is a LED with three
colors: green, blue and red LEDs that are merged into a distinct
device to emit white light. This kind of LED enables easy color
interpretation by adjusting each color individually. Although
the phosphorescent LEDs are cheaper than trichromatic LEDs,
these are preferred for dual-use because they have a faster rise-
time and each color can be modulated autonomously, tripling
the total throughput. High-speed communications require either
high bandwidths (fast rise-times) and/or the use of spectrally-
efficient modulation schemes [29]. In the standard IEEE
802.15.7 introduced by the Visible Light Communications
Consortium (VLCC), the highest data-rate foreseen is 96 Mbps
for on-off keying (OOK) and color-shift keying (CSK), or 24
Mbps for variable pulse-position modulation (VPPM). In order
to support dimming, a LiFi system should operate at different
optical peak to average power ratios (PAPR) so that, for a fixed
peak power LED, the average power, which is proportional to
the light intensity, can be controlled. Two techniques proposed
for dimming in indoor LiFi systems are continuous current
reduction (CCR) and pulse width modulation (PWM) [30].
b) ICC - indoor communication channel
The two different possibilities of communication between
Tx and Rx: line-of-sight (LOS) and non-line-of-sight (NLOS)
refers to the response received from the direct path to the
closest LED, and respectively the NLOS is the response
received after reflection from walls and other environmental
objects. The shadowing effect refers to the blocking of the
direct path from LED to the photodetector (PD) and in this
situation, the impulse response of the channel has only the
NLOS part, and data is recovered using this part. Possible
strong background light, especially if direct sunlight is in the
field of view (FOV) of the PD, results in massive loss of data or
even shuts down of the communication process. Because of
fading, the optical system may suffer losses.
c) Rx – reception device and its properties
In the LiFi reception system, the light is detected using a
photodiode and then converted to photo current. The silicon
photodiode, PIN diode and avalanche photodiode are used for
LiFi systems [31]. The avalanche photodiode has a higher
improvement than a PIN photodiode but is more expensive. The
LiFi is vulnerable to interference from other sources such as
sunlight and other lights indoor; hence, optical filters should be
designed to diminish the DC noise components present in the
received signal. It is better to use a photodiode in the case of a
stationary receiver; still, the imaging sensor is involved instead
of a photodiode because of the larger FOV in the case of
mobility. Operating imaging sensors is slow and has a high
energy intake. For that reason, a suitable balance between the
cost, speed and complexity, should be done while considering
photodiode and imaging sensors [32].
VI. IEEE STANDARD FOR VLC
IEEE approved and published the standard for VLC, IEEE
802.15.7 in 2011. The standard stands for short-range OWC
using visible light and supports high-data-rate up to 96 Mbps
by fast modulation of optical light sources which may be
dimmed during their operation. It provides dimming adaptable
mechanisms for flicker-free high-data-rate visible light
communication [33]. The standard defines the physical layer
(PHY) divided into three types: PHY I, II and III, each of them
describing a combination of different modulation schemes and
media access control (MAC) layer. The PHY I relates to
outdoor application and works from 11.67 Kbps to 267.6 Kbps;
the PHY II reaches data rates from 1.25 Mbps to 96 Mbps and
the PHY III is used for many emissions sources with a
particular modulation method called color shift keying (CSK)
delivering rates from 12 Mbps to 96 Mbps. CSK was proposed
in IEEE 802.15.7 to improve the data rate which was low in
other modulation schemes. The switching capacity slows down
by generating white light using yellow phosphor and blue
LEDs. As a result, an alternate way to produce the white light is
the utilization of three separate LEDs green, blue and red.
Modulation in CSK is performed using the intensity of the three
colors in a RGB LED source. The modulation formats
recognized for PHY I and PHY II are on-off keying (OOK) and
variable pulse position modulation (VPPM). The Manchester
coding used for the PHY I and PHY II layers includes the clock
inside with a DC component. The MAC layer handles issues
such as addressing, collision avoidance and data
acknowledgement protocols and supports three multiple access
topologies: peer-to-peer, star configuration and broadcast
mode. The MAC layer links with the other layers like the
TCP/IP protocol [34]. Figure number 7 shows a typical
physical layer system model of VLC. The tasks performed by
MAC layer include mobility, dimming, visibility and security
support, schemes for mitigation of flickering, color function
support, network beacons generation if the device is a
coordinator, variable pulse amplitude modulation VPAN
disassociation and association support, providing a reliable link
between peer MAC entities [35].
Figure 7. Typical physical layer model of VLC
VII. MODULATION TECHNIQUES USED IN LI FI
For the last 10 years, researchers have developed new
digital modulation technique which can be used in OWC using
LEDs. The basic principle which is used in this technique is
intensity modulation direct detection (IM/DD). The information
is varied depending on the variation in the intensity of light.
Hence, the signal that modulates the LED signal strictly has to
be positive and real valued. We know that power cannot be
negative or complex. The modulation techniques used in RF
systems require bi-polar and complex signals. The use of higher
order modulation techniques such as M-level quadrature
amplitude modulation (MQAM) is essential to achieve data
rates that are close to the Shannon capacity limit. Therefore, the
key question in OWC is how to map bi-polar and complex
valued signals into uni-polar (positive) and real valued signals
without offsetting the bit-error performance [20]. For a while
already, has been established the theoretical solution for the
feasible capacity of an IM/DD system using orthogonal
frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) and suitable solution
regarding the impact of non-linearity on the achievable signal-
to-noise ratio in practical OFDM related to VLC systems.
OFDM as a method of encoding digital data on multiple carrier
frequencies, is a frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
scheme used as a digital multi-carrier modulation method. Each
sub-carrier is modulated with conventional modulation scheme
such as quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) or phase shift
keying (PSK) at a low symbol rate, maintaining total data rates
similar to conventional single-carrier modulation schemes in
the same bandwidth.
In order to achieve high bandwidth, the signal from the LiFi
source needs a proper modulation scheme. Since the actual
commercial phosphors used in general lighting have relatively
long fluorescence lifetimes of the order of milliseconds, both
the rate of switching and bit rate are limited. On the other hand,
Colloidal Quantum Dots QDs [36], having much shorter
fluorescence lifetimes, of the order of nanoseconds, much faster
switching rates for the LED device are enabled. The single
carrier pulse modulation is the appropriate solution for data
transmission in OWC. Information can be encoded in the pulse
duration, as pulse width modulation (PWM) or pulse interval
modulation (PIM). Moreover, information can be encoded in
Figure 8. Block diagram of a single carrier modulation
communication with pulse modulation
the position of the pulse like multi-level M-PPM or in the
multi-level amplitude of the pulse M-PAM [20]. A block
diagram of a single carrier modulation communication with
pulse modulation is shown in figure 8.
The spectral efficiency (SE) of a modulation scheme is subject
to the number of bits that can be transmitted both on symbol
duration and bandwidth. Multiple pulse position modulation
(MPPM) technique offers both functions of modulating data-
stream and controlling the brightness. M-PAM (as well as M-
PPM) can fit the minimum, average and maximum optical
power constrains of the transmitter without effective non–linear
clipping distortion. The researchers have developed the
Hadamard Coded Modulation (HCM) to achieve low error
probabilities in LED based VLC systems needing high average
optical powers. This technique uses a fast Walsh-Hadamard
transform (FWHT) to modulate the data as an alternative
modulation technique to OFDM. HCM achieves a better
performance for high illumination levels because of its small
peak to average power ratio (PAPR). The power efficiency of
HCM can be improved by reducing the DC part of the
transmitted signals without losing any information. The
resulting so-called DC-reduced HCM is well suited to
environments requiring dimmer lighting as it transmits signals
with lower peak amplitudes compared to HCM, which are thus
subject to less nonlinear distortion. Interleaving can be applied
to HCM to make the resulting signals more resistant against
inter-symbol interference (ISI) in dispersive VLC links [37].
CONCLUSIONS
As the electromagnetic spectrum becomes continuously
overcrowded, the LiFi technology promises to provide a faster,
safer, greener, better and healthier future for wireless
communication system. When this system will be fully
developed, each light source can be used as a LiFi access point,
meaning where will be a LED light bulb we can expect to have
data communication facility, too. Within a few years, we expect
to see LiFi in addition with other wireless complementary
technologies to create a new ubiquitous computing platform.
Under this forthcoming integration, every device large enough
to mount a LED and a light sensor can be connected and
powered by LiFi. This paper points out the LiFi’s state-of-the art
development, strengths and weaknesses of the technology as
well as the challenges still in front of the fully developed LiFi
network. So far, the VLC standard needs to be enhanced to
cover the latest improvements of LiFi taking into account the
wide spread interest for this technology as a feasible substitute
of Wi-Fi in certain places and situations. Since the main
research nowadays is focused on development of proper
modulation techniques applied in LiFi system, we considered
important to underline in this paper few of the most competitive
ones developed so far.
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