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Book 4 Module 3

CATEGORY B1 B2 B3
AC & DC MACHINE
THEORY

Licence By Post

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issue number.

Licence By Post © Copyright B EASA 66 3.12 3.17 3.18 ISSUE 09 0314


© Licence By Post
No part of this study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by
any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system in whole or in part without
prior written permission from Licence By Post.

Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated/re-written to keep pace with the changing
technology, changing examination requirements and changing legal requirements.
AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training


purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST


always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the
CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording,
report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/guidelines
as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety
authorities and national governments.
CONTENTS

Page

DC generators 1
Generator theory 1
Components of a dc generator 6
Classification of generators 15
Interference suppression 20
DC motors 20
A practical dc motor 25
Types of dc motors 27
Starter generators 35
Long shunt & short shunt machines 35
AC generators 38
Power in a three-phase system 49
AC motors 50
Induction motors 52
Answers to activities & extra questions 60
Appendix - syllabus 61
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

This book is written for the B1 and B2 licensed aircraft engineer to level 2. It deals
with the theory of operation of dc and ac motors and generators. For the more
practical aspects of these machines the B1 person should refer to EASA Part 66
modules 11A/11B Aeroplanes as appropriate/12 Helicopters and the B2 person
should refer to EASA Part 66 module 13 of the syllabus.

The contents of this book are not a requirement for the A line mechanic. The B3
person need not commit any equations to memory.

Some parts of the book are straight forward, other parts will require a more
concentrated effort with, possibly, a second or third read.

You may need to refer to earlier books in this series when dealing with such subjects
as magnetism and electron flow.

Answers to activities are given at the back of the book.

Symbols used for resistances/coils/windings/inductors in this book (and in other


books in the LBP series) may be as shown below. Where they are used in a drawing
the associated text will indicate their function.

Details of scientists/inventors need not be committed to memory. They are included


for interest only.
DC GENERATORS

GENERATOR THEORY

We have already seen in a previous book in this module that, when a conductor ‘cuts’
a magnetic field an emf is induced into the conductor (Faraday’s Law). Figure 1 shows
a simplified drawing of a single loop ac generator (seems strange to start the subject
of dc generators with an ac generator but it is the simplest of the two and more easily
shows the relationship of the rotating loop and brushes, and the fixed external
circuit).

The single loop of the coil is rotated between the magnetic field of the two permanent
magnets and the ends of the loop are connected to rotating slip-rings. Brushes bear
on the slip-rings and make an electrical connection to the external circuit (load R).

The brush springs are fixed onto an insulated base.

Fig. 1 SIMPLE AC GENERATOR

Fig. 2 PRODUCTION OF AN AC VOLTAGE

Figure 2 shows a cross section of the loop conductor position as it rotates through
360° and a graph of the output waveform.

-1-
The symbol for showing the conventional current in a wire going into the page is a
cross within a circle ⊕ (the flights of a departing arrow) and the symbol for showing it
coming out of the page is a dot in a circle  (the point of the arrow) – these are used
in figure 2 and other drawings in this book.

When the moving conductor is in positions 1 and 5 (figure 2) it is moving along the
flux lines and no flux cutting takes place and no emf is induced in the wire (positions
1 and 5 on the graph).

At positions 3 and 7 maximum flux line cutting takes place and a maximum emf is
induced (positions 3 and 7 on the graph). At the other positions a reduced emf is
induced depending on the angle of cutting the flux lines.

The emf induced at positions 2, 3 and 4 is opposite to that at positions 6, 7 and 8,


and this produces an alternating emf as the wire loop rotates between the poles of the
magnet. This is the basis of the ac generator.

The magnitude of the emf generated in our simple generator depends on:

B = The flux density of the magnetic field in Tesla.


l = The length of the conductor in the magnetic field in metres.
v = The velocity (speed) of the conductor moving through the
magnetic field in metres per second.

If e equals the induced emf in volts then:

e = Blv

The direction of the induced emf can be found using Fleming’s Right Hand Rule. (Sir
John Ambrose Fleming – 1849 to 1945 – English electrical engineer).

Fig. 3 FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE

Figure 3 shows the thumb and first two fingers of the right hand held mutually at
right angles to each other. The First finger is held in the direction of the magnetic
Field (north to south) the seCond finger is held in the direction of the Current
(conventional flow) as a result of the induced emf and the thuMb will show the
direction of the conductor Movement.

-2-
WARNING. In some textbooks, particularly those published in America, the right hand
rule is shown using the current as electron flow. This means that you will not be able
to contort your right hand into the position shown above.

ACTIVITY 1

With reference to figure 2, positions 3 and 7 would give the resultant force on the
conductor as shown:

N ⊗  S

Check, using your right hand, that you are happy with the movement of the
conductor then try the following questions:

(a)
MOVEMENT

N  S What is the direction of the induced current?

(b)

What is the polarity of the magnetic field?


MOVEMENT

If a dc output is required from the basic generator shown above then somehow a
change of polarity would be required each time the coil rotates one revolution. This
change would be required at the zero current points 1 and 5 in figure 2.

The resulting dc emf would vary and would go up and down, but its polarity would
not change. It would always be in the same direction, ie it would be dc (fluctuating dc,
but dc never-the-less).

An automatic switching system is needed and this switching system is known as a


commutator. It is a rotating switch and is basically a cylinder cut in half (for a single
loop coil) with the two halves insulated from each other (figure 4). In figure 4, loop
side A is connected to segment A and loop side B is connected to segment B.

Stationary brushes rest on the commutator surface (kept there by small springs – not
shown in the drawing) to connect to an external circuit (load R).

-3-
Fig. 4 SIMPLIFIED DC GENERATOR

Fig. 5 SEGMENT POSITIONS - 1

Figure 5 shows the principle of operation of a single loop dc generator. (a) shows the
two segments of the commutator approaching the point of maximum induced emf
with current flowing in the load as shown (from positive to negative), with the top
brush in contact with segment A and the bottom brush in contact with segment B.
(b) shows the segments approaching the point of zero emf with the brushes at the
point of changeover from one commutator segment to the next. (c) shows the
changeover has occurred and the lower brush is now in contact with segment A and
not to segment B and the top brush is in contact with segment B and not to segment
A.

At (c) conductor A (connected to segment A) is cutting the field in the opposite


direction (right to left), so its emf is reversed to be the same as previously induced in
conductor B (coming towards the reader). The current through the load remains in
the same direction. The commutator ensures that whichever conductor is passing the
North pole (N), it is always connected to the negative end of the load and the
conductor passing the South pole (S) is connected to the positive end of the load.

-4-
Figure 6 also shows the action of the commutator. Note that the changeover of brush
contact from one segment to another occurs at the instant the induced emf is zero ie
at (a) and (c). Rotation is clockwise from (a) to (b) to (c) to (d) to (a) etc.

Fig. 6 SEGMENT POSITIONS - 2

Figure 7 shows a graph of the output from this single loop generator. It shows that it
is dc – the electrons always flow in one direction, but the current is not constant. It is
zero twice per revolution and at a maximum twice per revolution. This fluctuating
current (and voltage) is called ripple, and is not a practical proposition, so we need to
look at a more realistic machine that gives a constant output for use on aircraft (or for
use in any other situation for that matter).

Fig. 7 GRAPH OF VOLTAGE & CURRENT FOR A TWO


SEGMENT GENERATOR

-5-
To generate a smoother output and enough power to supply aircraft systems, the
practical generator has many coils rotating in a strong magnetic field. Figure 8 shows
a multi coil generator with the coils rotating in a magnetic field. Each coil, of course,
requires two segments on the commutator. So with x coils there are 2x segments.

It should be remembered that the voltage at the brushes is the sum of the emfs
induced in the loops connected in series between the brushes. As the number of loops
increases, the output voltage increases and the ripple effect becomes smaller
(output tends to become more straight). Note, for a machine with a set number of
loops the output voltage is still e = Blv.

Fig. 8 MULTI SEGMENT DC GENERATOR

With reference to figure 8. Note that there are 6 coils in the generator, each coil
connected to 2 segments in the commutator via conductors A1, A2, B1, B2, etc – a
total of 12 segments. Each coil will produce a half sign-wave emf output every 60° of
commutator rotation. The graph – figure 8 (b) shows the individual outputs of all the
coils and graph (c) shows the total output of the generator – with ripple. This output
is the sum of all the output curves in graph (b).

Some systems may cope with generator ripple but others may have smoothing circuits
fitted.

COMPONENTS OF A DC GENERATOR

The stationary part of the generator consists of a housing (yoke), mounting brackets –
usually on the drive end for attachment to the engine gearbox (figure 9 shows a base
mounted generator and figure 14 shows drive end mounted generator), pole pieces,
field coils, brushes, brush holders, wiring and an external connecting box complete
with terminals (figure 9).

-6-
The rotating part of a generator is driven by the aircraft engine via the accessory
gearbox and consists of a support shaft, an iron armature, output windings (rotating
loops or coils), the commutator and support bearings at each end of the shaft (figures
9 and 10).

Fig. 9 DC GENERATOR DETAILS

The Armature (figure 10)

This rotates within the yoke of the generator and has a laminated iron armature cut
into slots into which are laid wires to provide output windings.

Fig. 10 THE ARMATURE

The iron core provides a low reluctance path between the field pole pieces, giving
increased flux density, ensuring that the largest emf possible is induced in the output
windings. The core is laminated to reduce eddy currents (electro-magnetic) which
reduce the generator’s efficiency. The output windings are wound in longitudinal slots
in the iron core, where they are wedged in with insulating material to prevent them
being thrown out due to centrifugal force.

The output voltage and maximum current that may be taken from a generator will
depend to some extent on the method in which the coils of the armature are
connected to one another. There are two types in use Lap and Wave windings.

-7-
In a Wave wound generator there are two paths in parallel irrespective of the number
of poles, each supplying half the total current output. Therefore only two brushes are
required to pick off the output. Wave wound generators produce a high voltage, low
current output (figure 11).

Fig. 11 WAVE WOUND WINDINGS

In a Lap wound generator (figure 12) there are as many paths in parallel as there are
poles. The total current divides equally between them and there are as many sets of
brushes as the machine has poles. Lap wound generators produce high current, low
voltage outputs.

Fig. 12 LAP WOUND WINDINGS

Commutator

This is located at the non-drive end of the armature. It consists of a number of copper
segments mounted on, but insulated from, the shaft. They are also insulated from one
another by strips of mica, which are usually ‘undercut’ to make their top surface
slightly below the level of the commutator segments.

Bushes and Brush Holders

Brushes must be made of a material which has a low contact resistance, low specific
electrical resistance, low coefficient of friction and good self lubricating properties.

-8-
Graphite carbon has all these properties, though lubrication can be a problem. Some
machines may have carbon brushes into which a lubricating ingredient (molybdenum
disulphide) has been added usually in the form of inserts (pegs) in the brushes.

Other machines may have chemicals such as barium fluoride added to form a film
(darkish brown) on the commutator to provide the lubrication between the brush and
commutator.

The brush holders are in effect metal boxes into which the brush is a good sliding fit.
A force is applied to the top of the brush by a spring to maintain good contact
between the brush and the commutator. Each brush holder is secured to a support
ring sometimes called a brush rocker. This allows limited angular movement of the
brush-gear which allows for best possible contact with the commutator. The electrical
connection to the brush holder is via a ‘pigtail’ usually of flexible copper braid
moulded into the brush at manufacture. The brush holder then connects to the main
terminals of the generator.

Fig. 13 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT OF 4 POLE DC MACHINE

Magnetic Field System

Except for very small machines (which usually use permanent magnets in place of
coils) the magnetic field is supplied by electromagnets arranged in such a way that
the output windings (coils) pass under North and South poles alternately. The
number of poles is therefore always an even number. The intense magnetic field
through which the coils pass is achieved by winding the electro magnet coils (field
windings) on cores of high permeability material ensuring the magnetic circuit has
low reluctance.

The YOKE is the cylindrical frame of the machine and is an essential part of the
magnetic circuit and must combine low reluctance with structural strength. It is
normally made of cast or rolled steel. The POLE PIECES form the cores of the magnet
coils (field windings) and are bolted to the inside of the yoke.

-9-
The pole pieces are laminated. The varying magnetic field caused by movement of the
rotor induces emfs into the pole faces which produce electro-magnetic eddy currents.
Magnetic eddy currents cause local heating and is minimised by laminating the pole
pieces or, in some cases, just the pole tips.

The FIELD WINDINGS are pre-formed coils mounted on the pole pieces and, when
current passes through, their polarity is changed with the polarity of the main poles
alternating between North and South.

Bearings

The rotating armature is supported in ball or roller bearings. Normally a ball bearing
(ball-race) is fitted at the drive end with a roller race at the ‘tail’ end. This permits
longitudinal expansion of the shaft (when it gets warm). Bearings are lubricated with
high melting point grease or lubricating oil.

Fig. 14 TYPICAL DC GENERATOR

Further windings used in a dc generator will be discussed later but so far we have
covered the basic construction.

The ability to dissipate heat is one of the most important factors which limits the
output of a generator. Heat is developed in the steel or iron of the magnetic system
due to flux changes and at the commutator and brush gear due to current flow. The
generator is cooled by a forced cold air system.

- 10 -
The cooling air may be ram air from the aircraft forward movement via an external air
duct and ducting to the generator, or by an integral electrically operated fan or a
combination of both methods.

The generator drive system must have some method of disconnecting the generator in
the event of seizure of the generator armature, so between the generator and the
gearbox will be a Quill drive. This drive shaft has a smaller diameter section between
the spline drives of the engine and the generator and will act as a weak link in the
drive system and shear in two should excessive torque be applied, eg if the generator
armature seizes.

If a generator is connected to a load, then a load current IL will flow. This will be equal
to the armature current IA (figure 15). This armature current flows through the
armature windings and brushes which have some resistance (RA), therefore there
must be an internal voltage drop (IARA) within the generator when it is supplying a
load. This voltage drop will cause the terminal voltage to fall.

Fig. 15 TERMINAL VOLTAGE

Fig. 16 GRAPH OF TERMINAL VOLTAGE AGAINST


LOAD CURRENT

- 11 -
As the graph in figure 16 shows, as load is increased the terminal voltage falls
further, due to the internal ‘lost’ voltage. This means that:

V = E - IARA

Where V = generator terminal voltage.


E = generator emf.
IA = armature current.
RA = armature and brush resistance.

In practice, on an aircraft dc generating system, the field current is adjusted to keep


the voltage constant under all load conditions by a voltage regulator, the operation of
which will be discussed in later modules.

We need to look at some other winding systems that may be on a generator, and to
understand the reason for one of them we need to look at the process of commutation
in a little more detail. The simplified drawing below shows the movement of the
commutator segments under a brush during commutation.

Fig. 17 COMMUTATOR DETAILS

With reference to commutation in coil (1) diagram (a) figure 17. Prior to commutation
the coil carries half the total armature current in one direction. At the point of
commutation, ie the brush shorting the coil, the current collapses. This collapsing
current produces a changing field which cuts the coil and induces an emf [diagram
(b)]. As the coil leaves this shorted condition, (the coil cutting the flux in the other
direction), the current should build up to half the total armature current in the
reverse direction.

However, this build-up is opposed by the self induced emf (REACTANCE VOLTAGE) in
the coil and current cannot build up fully, so some of it will go to segment B and jump
across the segment to the brush [diagram (c)]. This REACTIVE SPARKING occurs at
each point of commutation for every coil. This will cause brushwear, commutator
wear and interference to radio systems. One method of overcoming this problem is to
use INTERPOLES.

- 12 -
Interpoles are small poles located midway between the main poles. The interpole
windings are connected in series with the armature and the interpole has the same
polarity as the next main pole ahead in the direction of rotation.

The poles are at the point of commutation and carry exactly the same current as the
armature winding. As the armature coils approach the point of commutation they
come under the influence of the interpole which attempts to induce an emf into them.
This is in opposition to the emf already across the coil. The two opposite fluxes cancel,
leaving no flux to collapse and no reactance voltage and therefore no reactive
sparking.

Fig. 18 INTERPOLES

Fig. 19 ARMATURE & MAIN FIELDS

The main magnetic field of a dc generator is between the pole pieces. Figure 19 (a)
shows a simplified layout. When the generator is supplying load, a magnetic field is
created by current flowing in the armature windings [figure 19 (b)]. The dot indicating
the current coming towards the reader and the cross indicating the current flowing
away from the reader. The interaction of these two fields (a and b) causes a resultant
field which is distorted and weakened to an extent dependent on the load. Figure
19 (c) shows a simplified resultant. This interaction and resultant distortion of the
main field is called ARMATURE REACTION.

A line drawn vertically at a point midway between the poles is termed the Geometric
Neutral Axis (GNA). A line joining the two points at which no emf is induced in a coil
is known as the Magnetic Neutral Axis (MNA).

- 13 -
Ideally the MNA should be at the GNA position. As shown, armature reaction has
caused the MNA to move in front of GNA, and as the load varies so the position of the
MNA will change. Brush position would have to be continually adjusted, or if left as it
is, considerable arcing would occur.

Another problem with armature reaction is that the flux density at pole A tip is
increased and that at pole B tip is reduced. As most machines have a magnetic circuit
working near saturation the overall effect is to reduce the magnetic field strength and
cause a reduction in generated emf.

To overcome this problem COMPENSATING WINDINGS are used. These are windings
let into slots in the pole faces lying parallel with the armature windings.

Fig. 20 COMPENSATING WINDINGS

If the current is made to flow through the compensating windings in the opposite
direction, and of the same value as the armature windings, then the two magnetic
fields will neutralise each other and armature reaction will not exist. As the armature
reaction is dependent on the value of the load current then the compensating
windings must vary with load current and are therefore in series with the armature.

To obtain true correction of armature reaction the interpoles may be wound with an
extra number of turns to effectively eliminate the armature reaction in the interpole
region. So the GNA and MNA positions coincide at all times.

When the generator is a wide speed range (2,850rpm to 10,000rpm) generator, the
effects due to armature reaction and reactive sparking become more of a problem.

The solution to counteract these, so far, are fine for narrow speed range generators,
but further changes are required for wide speed range generators as reactance emf
depends on the speed of the generator. Under conditions where a heavy load is being
taken at high speed, the main field is fairly weak (high armature speed ensures high
output). At high speeds, reactance emf is high due to the rapid reversal of current and
collapse of current at the point of commutation.

So, at high speeds, strong interpoles are required to ensure adequate compensation
for the high reactance emf.

- 14 -
When the generator is driven at a lower speed with a heavy load, the main field will be
strong and the reactance emf is fairly small. In this case, as the interpole windings
carry the same current as the armature windings, the interpoles would be strong at
low speeds. This is unnecessary and would impair the efficiency of the generator.

To give the correct interpole strength over all load and speed ranges an AUXILIARY
WINDING is wound on the interpole to oppose the effect of the interpole and
connected in series with the main field. These windings may be called BIAS
WINDINGS.

Fig. 21 MAIN & AUXILIARY INTERPOLE WINDINGS

At high speeds when the field is weak, little opposition to the interpole strength is
provided by the auxiliary windings. At low speeds however, when the main field is
strong (heavy load), the auxiliary windings oppose the interpole windings to reduce
the interpole strength to the correct value so interpole strength is controlled over the
whole range of speed and load.

Losses in a dc Generator

Copper Losses. Any current passing through armature windings, field windings and
through the brushes produce a power loss due to I2R losses as each of these has some
resistance. This varies with load.
Iron Losses. Independent of the load and mainly involve eddy current losses in the
armature and pole pieces and the hysteresis loss in the armature.
Friction Losses. These include brush friction, bearing friction and air resistance
(windage) against moving parts.

CLASSIFICATION OF GENERATORS

DC generators are classified according to the method by which the magnetic circuit
(field winding) is energised. Magnetic circuits may be:

(a) A permanent magnet.


(b) Separately excited.
(c) Self excited.

- 15 -
Characteristics

The relationship between the current flowing in the external circuit connected to a
generator (usually called the load current or load) and the voltage at the generator
terminals is called the external characteristic of the machine. The relationship is
usually shown in the form of a volts/load graph.

Permanent Magnet Generator (figure 22)

The simplest form of dc generator is where the field is provided by high grade
permanent magnets and the armature is an iron core carrying a single coil whose
ends are connected to the two segments of a commutator. Typically used in small
generators and in the older type insulation tester (the Meggar).

The volts/load characteristic graph shows a slight drop-off in voltage as more load is
applied. This is due to armature reaction and resistance losses.

Fig. 22 PERMANENT MAGNET GENERATOR

Separately Excited Generator (figure 23)

The main field winding is connected to an independent source of dc supply. The field
winding is of fairly high resistance and regulation of field current is by a variable
resistor.

Fig. 23 SEPARATELY EXCITED GENERATOR

- 16 -
When connected to a load the field current is unaffected and remains constant. The
characteristic graph (figure 23) shows a slight drop in voltage as the load current
increases due to resistance losses (IR drop). This has no practical application on
aircraft.

Self Excited Generators

As the name implies the field is excited by current obtained from the armature of the
machine itself. These are further classified by the way the field winding is connected
to the armature. Connection can be:

(a) Series
(b) Shunt
(c) Compound

It is important to note that each of these generators has a small amount of residual
magnetism in the pole pieces due to previous magnetisations. This means that there
will be some (very small) electrical generation as soon as the generator starts rotating.

Self Excited Series Wound Generator

The field coils are wound in series with the armature. There are a few turns of heavy
wire or copper strip of large cross sectional area and of low resistance. Figure 24 (a)
shows the wiring diagram, and figure 24 (b) shows a schematic representation. Figure
25 shows the volts/load characteristic graph.

Note that the series coils [figure 24 (a)] maybe shown as one coil in wiring diagrams
on one side of the generator armature. This is to simplify the drawing. Although the
coils are wound on two separate pole pieces [figure 24 (b)] they can be treated as one.

Fig. 24 SERIES WOUND GENERATOR

On no-load, as the armature is rotated it cuts the weak residual magnetic field in the
pole pieces and a small emf is generated. As the load is placed on the generator, load
current (which is also the field current) increases, therefore field strength increases
and the emf rises.

- 17 -
Fig. 25 GRAPH OF VOLTAGE AGAINST LOAD CURRENT

So on initial rotation the residual magnetism causes some voltage output which is
used to increase the field voltage and the output voltage rises.

As the saturation point of the magnetic circuit is approached the rise in terminal
voltage becomes more gradual until at saturation maximum terminal voltage is
attained. Any further increase in load cannot increase the emf, but will cause an
increase in the IR drop in the armature and field windings and the voltage starts to
fall.

This type of generator has no practical use on aircraft.

Self Excited Shunt Wound Generator (figure 26)

Again the armature is the source of supply for the field but in this generator the field
windings are of many turns of fine wire of high resistance connected in parallel
(shunt) with the armature.

Fig. 26 SHUNT WOUND GENERATOR

As before, when the armature is first rotated the conductors cut the weak residual
magnetic flux at the pole pieces. This will induce a small emf in the armature
windings which will supply the field coils, increasing the flux generated by the coils
and increasing the induced emf. Again this is fed to the field coils increasing the flux
and generated emf still further.

- 18 -
Fig. 27 GRAPH OF VOLTAGE AGAINST LOAD CURRENT

This continues until a steady open circuit value is reached. When a load is applied the
terminal voltage tends to fall due to the IR drop in the armature winding and this
reduces field excitation and causes a further fall in terminal voltage. This reduction in
voltage will be small over the working range of the generator, but as the volts/load
characteristic graph shows (figure 27) it becomes greater the heavier the load
demand.

An important point to note is that if the load is increased above the full load condition
then the voltage drops to near zero. The falling voltage has to supply current to the
field (high resistance) and load (low resistance). As more current is diverted to the
load, the field strength falls, voltage falls and the collapsing voltage can no longer
sustain the load current and voltage falls to near zero.

This feature on the volts/load characteristic graph is known as ‘tuck-under’ or ‘turn-


under’ – as shown in the graph.

Shunt generators should be allowed to build up to their correct voltage before any
load is applied otherwise turn-under could occur and the generator will fail to excite.

This type of generator is the one most used on aircraft with dc as its main power
source. It is important that you understand it. The slight drop in generator voltage on
load is overcome in a practical system with the use of a voltage regulator.

Self Excited Compound Wound Generator

As shown in figure 28, this uses a combination of series windings and shunt windings
around the pole pieces. If they are wound to assist one another it is known as a
cumulative compound generator.

If the number of series turns is arranged so that the output voltage at no-load and
full-load is the same the generator is said to be level compounded. If the number of
series turns is increased so that the voltage increases with load, the generator is said
to be over compounded (see the volts/load characteristic graph figure 29).

- 19 -
Fig. 28 SELF EXCITED COMPOUND WOUND GENERATOR

If the two fields are wound to oppose each other then this is a differential compound
generator which has a steeply falling volts/load characteristic curve. Neither of these
have a practical application on aircraft, although a compound machine is used as a
starter generator - to be discussed later.

Fig. 29 GRAPH OF VOLTAGE AGAINST LOAD CURRENT


COMPOUND WOUND GENERATOR

INTERFERENCE SUPPRESSION

There is always some sparking at the brushes of the generator. This results in
electromagnetic radiation which interferes with radio wave transmission and
reception. Typically, suppressors are fitted internally within the generator and consist
of capacitors connected between the generator casing (earth) and the main terminals,
ie across the output.

DC MOTORS

Theory

A current carrying conductor produces a surrounding magnetic field. Considering the


cross section of the conductor and with the conventional current flowing away from
the reader (consider the plus sign as the departing flights of an arrow) the magnetic
field will be clockwise. This is known as the corkscrew rule (figure 30).

- 20 -
With the current flowing towards the reader the field will be anticlockwise and the
plus symbol is replaced by a dot (the point of an arrow coming towards the reader).
When considering the magnetic field between the pole pieces of two bar magnets with
opposite polarity the field moves from north to south as shown in figure 31.

Fig. 30 MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A CONDUCTOR

Fig. 31 MAGNETIC FIELD BETWEEN TWO OPPOSITE POLES OF TWO MAGNETS

When the current carrying conductor is placed within the magnetic field of the bar
magnets, the two fields cannot exist independently (conductor and poles). They will
interact with each other so that the conductor flux lines above the conductor that
move in the same direction as the magnets’ flux lines will combine and cause a
stronger field above the conductor (increase flux density). The flux lines under the
conductor oppose each other and tend to cancel each other out and thus produce a
weaker field (figure 32).

All magnetic flux lines tend to behave elastically and will try to straighten, and at the
same time try to produce an even flux density.

The magnetic flux lines above the conductor (being in tension) try to straighten and
repel each other sideways so a force is created forcing the conductor out of the
magnetic field, in this case down.

The flux lines below the conductor try to do the same but are weak so the conductor
will move down if it is free to do so. This is the principle of the electric motor.

The force on the conductor is F = BLI Newtons.

Where B = flux density of magnetic field (Tesla)


L = length of conductor in the field (metres)
I = current flowing in the conductor (Amps)

- 21 -
Fig. 32 CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

Using FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE (figure 33) it is possible to determine the
direction of the current, force or field knowing any two of them.

The thumb, first and second finger of the left hand are placed mutually at right angles
to each other. First finger gives the Field direction (north to south), the seCond finger
gives the Current direction and the thuMb gives the direction of Motion of the
conductor as a result of the force.

Again this is based on conventional current flow and in some books, particularly
those published in the US, the current may be electron flow – then Fleming’s Left
Hand Rule does not work.

Fig. 33 FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE

- 22 -
ACTIVITY 2

Try these yourself:


(a)

What is the direction of the field?

(b)

S N
What is the direction of the current?

(c)
N S
What is the direction of the conductor movement?

The Basic Electric Motor

This is not too unlike a basic dc generator. It has a coil rotating within two bar
magnets connected to an external circuit via a commutator.

Figure 34 shows a simplified single loop electric motor powered by a dc supply from a
battery. Current flows as shown by the arrows and the single coil is shown rotating
clockwise. The coil is connected via a commutator and brushes to the battery. Using
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule and applying this to side A of the coil loop shows that it
moves upwards and side B downwards, giving a clockwise rotation of the loop.

Fig. 34 SIMPLE SINGLE LOOP DC MOTOR

- 23 -
Fig. 35 DETAIL OF DC MOTOR PRINCIPLE

Figure 35 shows the rotation of the loop in stages. At position (a) loop side A has a
current moving out of the page towards the reader thus creating its own anti-
clockwise field. The field from the magnets will be from left to right and the resultant
local field around the conductor A will be denser under it trying to push it up. The
reverse will happen at loop side B with the result that the motor will rotate clockwise.

When A and B are at the top and bottom of the cycle (b) there will be no interaction of
the two fields as the supply current is cut-off and there will be no field around the
conductors. At this point the commutator reverses the current through the coils so
that continued rotation occurs. Side A of the coil now comes under the influence of
the S pole and side B comes under the influence of the N pole (c). As the current in
each side of the loop has been reversed at the instant of transfer from one pole to the
other, the force on loop side A is downwards and on loop side B it is upwards.
Rotation continues in the original direction.

Note. In this simple single coil motor the instant the coils are midway, no force is
applied to the coil as it is moving along the magnetic field, however, the momentum
will keep it rotating until this ‘dead spot’ is passed. On a practical machine with
many coils and many commutator segments no ‘dead spot’ occurs.

- 24 -
A PRACTICAL dc MOTOR

The construction of a dc motor is identical to that of a dc generator. However, the


motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy but with a generator it is the
other way round.

When a current flows through the large number of coils on the armature, their fields
interact with the main field system to give a turning motion, with the commutator
switching the supply at the point of commutation.

Back emf

As the armature conductors of the motor rotate in the magnetic field, they cut this
field and by Faraday’s Law an emf is induced. By Lenz’s Law this induced emf
opposes the applied voltage and is called BACK EMF. This back emf (EB) pushes one
way and the applied voltage (V) pushes the other, so it is the difference between these
two which actually drives current through the armature circuit and this difference is
known as the EFFECTIVE VOLTAGE or ARMATURE VOLTAGE.

For example, if the applied voltage is 28V dc and the back emf is 26V dc then the
effective voltage is 2V.

EFFECTIVE VOLTAGE = APPLIED VOLTAGE – BACK EMF VOLTAGE

IARA = V - EB

Assuming a 28V motor has a 1 ohm armature resistance then the initial current flow
is:

V 28
IA = = = 28 amps
R 1

When the motor is running the back emf is 26V, so the voltage available to drive
current through the armature circuit is 2V.

2
IA = = 2 amps
1

It is important to realise how back emf controls the current in a dc motor.


When the motor is running the back emf is close to the value of the applied voltage.
On some earlier aircraft electrical starter systems, a resistance was used in series
with the armature on start, as the initial current would be too high (no back emf), and
as the motor gathered speed the resistance was cut out, because the back emf limited
the current. On most modern motors the starting current is not excessive and
temporary in-line resisters are not required.

- 25 -
Torque

It can be shown that the force on each armature conductor and therefore the total
ARMATURE TORQUE (T) is directly proportional to (∝) the magnetic field strength (φ)
and armature current (IA). Torque is measured in Newton metres (Nm) and the
equation for armature torque is:

T ∝ φ x IA (Nm)

The whole of the armature torque is not available for doing useful work because
friction in the bearings and wind resistance of the armature and or fan (if fitted)
causes some lost torque. So the output torque of a motor is:

OUTPUT TORQUE (SHAFT TORQUE) = ARMATURE TORQUE – LOST TORQUE

Torque losses vary with speed.

Power

The output power (P) of a motor has two variables in its formula, torque (T) and speed
(N) so that P ∝ T x N. Therefore for a given power any increase in speed can only be
attained at the expense of torque and vice versa. A motor developing a given
horsepower thus has alternative values of speed and torque (ie it has a strong torque
at low speed or low torque at high speed). If it is necessary to maintain the same
speed with increased torque, then the motor must develop more power.

When a motor is run on no-load it speeds up until its torque balances the opposing
torque of windage and friction and its speed will be a maximum. When a mechanical
load is placed on the drive shaft the motor will slow down until once again its torque
balances the load torque.

Reactive Sparking and Armature Reaction

Armature reaction takes place in a motor for the same reasons as in a generator ie the
main field is distorted by the armature field. However, with reference to figure 36 note
that the MNA moves backwards against the direction of rotation.

Since back emf reduces armature current to a fairly small value, armature reaction is
usually fairly small and many dc motors do not have any means of counteracting it.

In some motors, where a high standard of commutation is required, compensating


windings are fitted. As we saw with generators, interpoles may be used to help control
armature reaction. Generally only large motors (high armature current) will be
equipped with interpoles.

Reactive sparking also occurs in motors. Collapse of current flowing into the coil at
commutation induces an emf trying to keep it in the original direction and opposing
build-up in the reverse direction.

- 26 -
Again, back emf will keep the reactance emf down so some motors will not be fitted
with interpoles. However, interpoles would be fitted on larger motors to provide
correction for reactive sparking. The polarity being opposite to the next main pole
ahead in the direction of rotation.

Fig. 36 ARMATURE REACTION IN A MOTOR

Motor Speed Control

The effect of the back emf is to make the dc motor a self regulating machine in which
speed and armature current adjust themselves to changing load conditions. When a
motor is running on-load, the effect of altering the load is as follows:

Load reduced. The armature torque is greater than the load torque and the
motor speeds up. The armature conductors are now cutting the field flux faster
and back emf increases. This reduces armature current and as Torque ∝ IA x φ
then armature torque will reduce and this will eventually equal the load torque
and speed is stabilised.

Load increased. The armature torque is less than load torque and the motor
slows down. Less back emf is generated so armature current increases and
torque increases until torque balance is restored and speed is stabilised again.

Speed control may be obtained by controlling the field current or armature current, ie
by inserting variable resistors in the field or armature circuits.

TYPES OF DC MOTORS

Like generators, motors are classified according to the way the field system is
connected to the armature, ie:

* Series wound motor.


* Shunt wound motor.
* Compound wound motor.

Two characteristics are used to show the properties of a motor: the speed/load
characteristic and the torque/load characteristic.

- 27 -
Series Motor

Previously it was shown that torque ∝ φ x IA. In a series motor as the field (φ) is
connected in series with the armature then the φ ∝ IA as armature current is the field
current. So TORQUE ∝ IA x IA and IA x IA = IA2.

Fig. 37 WIRING DIAGRAM SERIES MOTOR

As can be seen from the characteristic graph (figure 38) the motor has a wide speed
range with a large starting torque and high torque at low speed. Ideal characteristics
for starting an aircraft engine.

The motor must be connected to a load permanently as the off-load speed would get
too high. As the field and armature interactions increase when speed increases, the
back emf rises and opposes armature current. This causes the field to be weakened
which reduces the back emf disproportionately and it cannot build up sufficiently to
control the rise in speed. Therefore speed increases and the sequence continues
causing excessive speed of the armature.

Note that on engine starter motors a small shunt winding is incorporated to limit this
off-load speed when the starter is disconnected from the engine.

Small series motors are used in dc actuators on aircraft which are permanently on-
load.

Fig. 38 GRAPH OF SERIES MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS

- 28 -
ACTIVITY 3

What will happen to the speed in the following cases for a given load torque?

(a) Decrease in resistance of diverter resistance.

(b) Reduced diverter resistance.

(d) Decrease diverter resistance.

- 29 -
The Shunt Motor (figure 39)

The field winding of a shunt motor is connected in parallel with the armature and is of
reasonably high resistance. This connection, as can be seen by the characteristics
graph shown in figure 40, produces different properties. The speed characteristic
shows that from no-load to full-load the speed reduction is small and so it can be
considered to be a constant speed machine.

Fig. 39 SHUNT WOUND MOTOR

Fig. 40 GRAPH OF SHUNT MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS

It is a self regulating machine in that when a new load is placed on the motor the
motor automatically adjusts its own effective voltage.

The following shows what happens when the load is increased:

1. The motor initially slows down.


2. The back emf falls.
3. The armature or ‘effective’ voltage increases (VSUPPLY – Vb emf).
4. The armature current increases.
5. Torque increases (T ∝ φ x IA).
6. The torque increases to match the new load torque and increases
the speed to its original value.

Go through the sequence yourself checking that it is correct, but this time with a
reduced load.

- 30 -
As the field is directly across the supply the field strength is practically constant. This
means that the torque of a shunt wound motor is proportional to armature current
until approaching full load condition. The starting torque is small, due to slow build
up of the field strength and the restricted armature current.

Shunt motors should therefore be started on light-load or under no-load conditions.


These motors would be used on applications that require constant speed, eg early 28V
dc aircraft, inverter drives, windscreen wipers and fuel pumps.

ACTIVITY 4

What will happen to the speed of the motor in the following cases for a given load
torque?

(a) Decreased resistance?

(b) Decreased resistance?

Compound Wound Motor

This motor has two windings wound on the pole pieces and the characteristics depend
on whether the shunt or series predominates and whether they are wound to assist
one another (cumulative) or to oppose one another (differential).

Cumulative Compound Motor

The most common application of the compound motor on aircraft is the cumulative
compound machine with a predominant shunt field winding. The series winding
enables a fairly high starting torque to be developed, allowing the motor to be started
on a reasonable load. The characteristic graph (figure 42) shows that the motor speed
drops on load and this is due to the series field increasing with increasing armature
current.

- 31 -
Fig. 41 COMPOUND MOTOR CIRCUIT

This is an ideal characteristic for a motor supplying a load where the load torque is
proportional to speed, since the motor is virtually a constant torque machine.

This form of cumulative compound motor may be called a normal compound motor,
and would be used on dc systems for inverter drives, and on dc aircraft for fuel
pumps as well as heavy duty actuators.

Another form of cumulative compound motor is the ‘shunt limited’ type. This has all
the characteristics of the series motor and therefore has the main winding of the
series motor with a minor shunt field connected across the armature. When used to
start aircraft engines, high torque at low speed is required, but when the motor is
disconnected from the engine, ie on no-load, a pure series motor would race away.
The minor shunt winding limits this ‘off- load’ speed while leaving the torque/speed
characteristics essentially that of a series motor.

Fig. 42 GRAPH OF COMPOUND MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS

- 32 -
Differential Compound Motor

This is where the shunt and series field windings are wound to oppose each other.
These motors are mainly shunt wound machines with a minor series winding. This
gives a speed/load characteristic graph which is fairly constant but speed increases
when the load becomes too great. The torque on light loads is similar to a shunt
wound motor as the characteristic graph shows but, if overloaded, the series winding
field strength will at some point cancel the shunt winding. There will be no torque and
the motor will stop, even though taking a high current.

So it is important this motor is not overloaded. It also has a problem on starting. The
series field (low inductance) builds up before the shunt field and the motor starts in
the reverse direction, this is usually avoided by short circuiting the series winding on
start.

ACTIVITY 5

What would happen in the motor shown in the drawing to the speed if the shunt
resistance was increased?

Reversal of Rotation of a Motor

To reverse the direction of a motor the direction of current through the armature or
through the field must be reversed. If the current through armature and field are both
reversed the motor continues in the same direction.

Reverse armature & field.


N ⊗ S The direction remains S  N
the same.

Reverse field only.

N ⊗
S Direction reverses. S ⊗ N

Reverse armature only.


N ⊗ S Direction reverses. N  S

- 33 -
To reverse the direction of rotation in a compound motor the same principle applies.
That is, reverse the direction of current through the armature or the field. On aircraft
it is normal to reverse the direction of current through the armature by means of
reversing relays.

An alternative method used to reverse the direction of a motor is to use two fields
both wound on the same pole piece but with one giving opposite polarity to the other.
Direction of rotation being determined by which field is selected.

Fig. 43 SPLIT FIELD SERIES ACTUATOR

The split field series actuator is a special adaptation of the series motor and is used
extensively on aircraft. Figure 43 shows the actuator being supplied from the dc bus
bar via a circuit breaker (CB) which acts as a safety device. Should there be a short
circuit in the actuator or the supply circuit down-stream of the C/B, it will trip
preventing further current flow.

The actuator can be selected open or closed, but depending on the system it could be
selected up or down or in or out. The limit switches are operated by the actuator itself
and the motor rotation direction depends on which field coil is activated.

As the motor starts to move so it makes the limit switch it is leaving and when it gets
to the end of its travel it will break the limit switch that it is ‘arriving’ at. This will de-
energise the field coil, motor and brake solenoid. The brake solenoid will come on, by
spring action, to prevent motor overrun.

Example. Using figure 43 and assuming the actuator to be in the open position and
the actuator is selected to close. The open limit switch will be open and the closed
limit switch will be closed. On selecting close, current flows through the close field coil
through the motor to the brake solenoid pulling the brake off and the motor starts to
run.

When it gets to the end of its travel the close limit switch is opened and the circuit
broken. Current stops going through the field coil, motor and brake. The brake comes
on automatically and the motor stops.

Losses in a dc Motor

These are the same as those in a generator ie copper losses, iron losses and friction
losses.

- 34 -
STARTER GENERATORS

These are used on aircraft and offer a weight saving over the system which has a
starter motor and a generator. For starting purposes the starter generator is supplied
with a dc current and it performs as a motor. Once the engine has started the motor
becomes a generator and supplies current to the operating systems, battery charging
systems etc via bus bars.

Typically it is a self excited compound wound machine (low resistance series field,
high resistance shunt field) which has compensating windings and interpole windings
with an integral cooling fan on the drive shaft. It is also cooled by ram air when the
aircraft is airborne.

Located on the stator is a speed sensor used to signal starter cut-off. It generally
starts as a compound motor and then the shunt field is weakened to allow it to
become more of a series wound motor and therefore give the necessary torque and
acceleration to the engine. Nearing engine self sustaining speed the shunt field is
brought fully back in.

At changeover the starter drive to the engine is disconnected and the driven machine
now becomes a generator self exciting its own shunt field and when the voltage is
sufficient it will be automatically connected to the bus-bar.

Fig. 44 STARTER GENERATOR CIRCUIT

LONG SHUNT & SHORT SHUNT MACHINES

For compound machines, generators or motors, there are two possible methods of
connection, ie short shunt and long shunt. The reasons for the arrangements is to
obtain specific operating characteristics.

Figure 45 shows a short shunt self excited compound wound (cumulative/differential)


motor and figure 46 shows a long shunt compound wound (cumulative/differential)
motor.

- 35 -
Fig. 45 SHORT SHUNT MOTOR

Fig. 46 LONG SHUNT MOTOR

The series and shunt windings can be connected together in two ways. If the shunt
winding is connected between the motor and the series winding then this is called a
short shunt motor (figure 45). If it is connected above the series winding then it is
called a long shunt motor (figure 46).

This arrangement is also used on dc generators. In figures 47 and 48 note the


direction of the current flows and the symbols for the windings.

Fig. 47 SHORT SHUNT GENERATOR

- 36 -
Fig. 48 LONG SHUNT GENERATOR

In a practical dc generator system the voltage output is controlled by a voltage


regulator and this is adjusted so as to regulate the voltage to, normally, 28V. The
current will vary depending on demand. If there is a high demand (many services
switched on) then the current will be high. If there are no services switched on then
the current will effectively be zero.

From a theoretical viewpoint currents and voltages in the generator can be worked
out using Ohm’s Law (V = I x R) and Kirchhoff’s law (the sum of the currents leaving a
point in a circuit must equal the total currents going to the point). Provided at least 2
values are known then the other values can be worked out.

For example, in figure 49, certain values are stated and the other values can be
worked out. For example, find the value of the voltage across the shunt winding and
the current flowing at ‘x’.

Note that there is an extra resistor shown (R1). This is often put in drawings to show
the generator armature resistance. Note also that the circuit is drawn with the shunt
to the right of the generator armature – this works the same as if it is to the left – it is
still in parallel with the generator armature.

Fig. 49 CALCULATIONS - EXAMPLE

- 37 -
Calculations (figure 49)

Shunt Winding Voltage. Start by finding the circuit current for the load. Load current
= I = V/R = 28/5 = 5.6 amps. This means that 5.6 amps flows through R3. The
voltage drop across R3 = V = I x R = 5.6 x 0.5 = 2.8V, so the voltage to the left of R3
must be 28V + 2.8V = 30.8V.

Current at x. Current flowing to R3 = 5.6 amps (to the right). Current flowing through
R2 (downwards) = I = V/R = 30.8/4 = 7.7 amps. Total current flowing past x towards
resistors R2 and R3 = 7.7 + 5.6 = 13.3 amps.

AC GENERATORS

As discussed earlier, rotating a coil, connected to slip rings and a circuit, in a


magnetic field, produces an ac output (converted to dc, for a dc generator by the use
of a multi segment commutator).

In ac generators, the rotating part of the generator is called the rotor and the
stationary part is called the stator. There are three basic types of ac generator:

* Permanent Magnet Generator.


* Rotating Armature Generator.
* Rotating Field Generator.

Permanent Magnet Type

The rotor of this machine is a permanent magnet and as the magnet is rotated its
magnetic field cuts the stationary output windings producing an alternating voltage
output (figure 50). This principle (or variations of it) is used in most brushless ac
generators. Common to many large aircraft (see later text).

Fig. 50 SIMPLIFIED PERMANENT MAGNET AC GENERATOR

- 38 -
Rotating Armature Type

This type of ac generator is similar in construction to a dc generator in that the rotor


rotates in a fixed field with the emf picked off via slip rings. The rotor windings are
laid in slots along the rotor periphery with the armature being laminated to reduce
eddy current losses. The stator carries the dc excitation windings wound on the pole
pieces to create alternate North and South poles around the stator. Figure 51 shows a
single phase 2 pole machine with the output as shown in figure 52.

Fig. 51 SINGLE PHASE TWO POLE AC GENERATOR

Fig. 52 GRAPH OF INDUCED EMF – SINGLE PHASE

One voltage cycle is induced into the external circuit when the armature windings
move through 360° past one pair of poles. If there are two pairs of poles then two
cycles of ac will be produced per revolution. The number of cycles of induced voltage
per revolution of an actual generator will correspond to the number of pairs of poles
in the generator and is called the frequency (f).

- 39 -
Np
f= Hertz
60

Where f = frequency
N = speed in rpm of the generator at which the generator must be
driven in order to generate the required frequency.
p = number of pairs of poles.

QUESTION To provide an output of 400Hz a 2 pole (1 pair) machine needs to be


driven at what speed?

ANSWER Transposing the formula to make N the subject gives:

60f
N=
p

60x 400
=
1

= 24 000 rpm

An ac generator in which the whole of the output consists of a single winding with the
outer ends connected to a pair of slip rings is termed a ‘single phase’ generator, if
there were two windings at different angles connected to slip rings then this would
give two outputs and would be known as a ‘two-phase’ generator.

Fig. 53 THREE-PHASE TWO POLE AC GENERATOR

Figure 53 shows a three-phase generator with windings 120° apart from each other
and the three-phase output is shown graphically in figure 54. It is really 3 generators
in one with 3 separate outputs each one 120° out-of-phase with the next.

- 40 -
Three-phase supplies are used extensively on large aircraft – also with most national
electrical grid systems. This type of ac generator (the rotating armature type),
however, is not used as a main generating source on its own as it has the following
disadvantages:

(a) As all the power is taken from the rotor, a high standard of insulation is
required and also good ventilation to keep it cool.
(b) All the (heavy) output is taken via slip rings and brushes causing heavy
sparking.
(c) Centrifugal forces are considerable on the rotor windings.

Fig. 54 GRAPH OF INDUCED EMF – THREE-PHASE GENERATOR

Rotating Field Type (figure 55)

In this type of generator the dc field rotates and its’ field cuts the stationary output
windings on the stator. The output windings consist of a number of coils connected in
series and inserted in slots in the laminated stator to give a single phase output. The
field windings are fed a dc supply via two slip-rings and brushes to provide two
rotating electro magnets. As each electro magnet passes an output winding so an ac
current is generated in the winding.

Fig. 55 TWO POLE SINGLE-PHASE AC GENERATOR

- 41 -
Fig. 56 ROTATING-FIELD SINGLE PHASE AC GENERATOR

The principle of a two pole single phase ac generator is shown in figure 55.

The general arrangement of a single phase rotating field ac generator is shown in


figure 56. Note the support races, splined drive shaft, stator windings with their ac
output and the rotating field windings with their dc control supply via slip rings and
brushes.

If another set of single phase windings at 90° to the first are added, then a two phase
output is produced (phase A and B) one being 90° out-of-phase with the other. Figure
57 shows the principle with figure 58 showing the graph of the output (voltage against
time).

Fig. 57 ROTATING FIELD TWO PHASE AC GENERATOR

- 42 -
Fig. 58 GRAPH OF TWO PHASE OUTPUT

If another set of two coils is added and each coil in the system is spaced at 60° to
each other then a three-phase system is created (figure 59). Each pair of coils is
spaced at 120° to one another so there are 3 phases where the 3 outputs are 120°
out-of-phase with each other.

Fig. 59 TWO-POLE THREE-PHASE AC GENERATOR

The advantages of the rotating field generator over the rotating armature type are:

(a) Only two slip rings and brushes taking less current are needed, ie field
winding current only.
(b) Less problems with centrifugal force effects on rotor windings.
(c) The output is taken from the stator, where ventilation and insulation of
windings is less of a problem.

- 43 -
The first ac generating systems on aircraft used rotating field ac generators in what
was called a ‘frequency wild’ system. The 3 phase output was controlled and
converted to dc and fed to the aircraft busbar (from which all dc services take their
supplies). The generator output voltage was controlled to 200V but the frequency
varied with engine speed. Low engine rpm produced low frequency ac and high engine
rpm produced a higher frequency. This frequency wild ac was fed to resistive loads
only, such as heater mats, where the variable frequency has no effect. (With inductive
and capacitive loads the total resistance of the circuit would vary with frequency).

Most ac generators are now driven at constant speed irrespective of engine rpm
(within reason). This means that they produce constant frequency ac. For most
aircraft constant rpm is achieved using a hydro-mechanical unit (CSDU – Constant
Speed Drive Unit) connected between the engine drive and the generator which
converts the varying engine rpm to a constant output rpm for the generator.

On some aircraft the ac generator is driven at a varying rpm which produces a


frequency wild ac within the generator which is converted electronically within the
unit to a constant frequency to be supplied to the aircraft system.

A more recent development is the variable frequency system as fitted to the Airbus
A380. It is a form of frequency wild ac and modifications are made to the electricity
supply to make it suitable for each component is carried out at the component end of
the system.

The output of ac generators on most large aircraft today is 3 phase 200/115V 400Hz
(400 cycles). The 200V or 115V supply will depend on how the load is connected to
the generator.

Fig. 60 FREQUENCY WILD THREE-PHASE ROTATING FIELD GENERATOR

- 44 -
Connection of Phases

Each phase of a three-phase generator can be brought out to separate terminals and
used to supply separate loads independently, which will require six leads. However,
considerable saving in cable (weight) and other advantages can be obtained by
connecting a lead from one end of each of the three-phase windings as shown in
figure 61.

This shows that one end of each of the three windings is connected to one point and a
cable is taken from that point to a bus bar on the aircraft. This configuration is called
STAR CONNECTION and the point where they meet is called the star point, and the
cable taken from the star point is called the neutral.

Figure 61 shows that line current = the phase current.

Il = Iph

Fig. 61 STAR CONNECTED GENERATOR

The phase voltage (Vphase) on an aircraft generator would be 115V and the line voltage
(Vline) which is the sum of the two phase voltages across that line ie two 115V phases
at 120° phase angle is 200V and mathematically is the same as multiplying the phase
voltage by √3.

Vl = √3Vph

The main advantage of the star connection is that with the neutral line we are able to
provide two voltages, 200V and 115V. Most aircraft ac generators are connected in
star.

Another advantage of ac supplies on aircraft (or any other electrical supply system for
that matter) is that voltages are easily transformed up or down using transformers -
which have a high efficiency and no moving parts.

- 45 -
Fig. 62 DELTA CONNECTION

Another form of connection of the three coils would be to connect them as shown in
figure 62, known as DELTA CONNECTION. In this case the three windings are
connected in series to form a closed mesh, with the three output lines at the junction
points.

As can be seen from figure 62:

Vph = Vl

In this connection the line current is composed of two components and


mathematically it can be shown that:

Il = √3Ip

The delta connection does not have a neutral and cannot provide two outputs and
must be connected to a balanced load, but does give a higher current output than a
star connected system.

Star and delta connections have been covered in book 2 so this should be good
revision.

NOTE. The reason why these interconnections can be used is that in a three-phase
system the instantaneous sum of the emf’s or currents in a balanced three-
phase system is zero. With reference to figure 63. Two vertical lines are drawn –
these can be at any position. When the three voltages are added together (the
plus voltages and the minus voltages) on the line the sum is zero. The same
applies to the current waveforms.

blank

- 46 -
Fig. 63 THREE-PHASE WAVEFORMS

So far we have looked at the three basic types of ac generator. On many aircraft
brushless generators are used, and this generator uses a combination of the features
found on the generators discussed so far.

The Brushless Generator (Figures 64 and 65)

In general, this generator unit consists of a permanent magnet generator, a rotating


armature and rotating field generators.

Take a moment to study the drawings. There is no need to concern yourself too much
at this point in time with the Generator Control Unit (GCU), its inputs and outputs
but concentrate on the generator itself.

When the generator drive shaft (rotor) is turned (by the engine) the permanent magnet
in the permanent magnet generator end rotates and its’ field cuts the windings on the
stator (3 stationary coils) and induces an ac current into them. This is fed externally
to the Voltage Regulator in the GCU which rectifies it to a dc supply for the stationary
field winding in the generator.

The GCU is the ‘brains’ of the system. It controls the generator output and looks after
it’s well-being (bearing condition, temperature, output etc). It also monitors its
relationship with the other generators in the electrical supply system.

The ac from the permanent magnet generator is rectified to dc and adjusted to the
correct voltage and returned to the main exciter stator field (stationary dc field
winding).

As the magnetic field of this winding is cut by the 3 rotating coils of the rotating
assembly, a 3 phase ac output is generated. This ac is fed through the 3 phase full
wave rectifier bridge (also rotating) to provide dc to the main generator field coil.

This rotating field cuts the star connected stator windings to produce a 3 phase
200/115V 400Hz output to the aircraft system bus bars.

- 47 -
Fig. 64 BRUSHLESS AC GENERATOR & CONTROL UNIT

Fig. 65 DATA FED TO THE GENERATOR CONTROL UNIT

- 48 -
QUESTION The brushless generator is popular but expensive. What is its
main advantage over the other types of generators?

ANSWER It does not have any brushes. This means no brush and slip ring wear,
no brush springs and no commutators. There is no sparking with no fire
risk and there is less radio interference.

Figure 66 shows more details of the control functions of the Generator Control Unit
(GCU).

Note:

* The supply of the three phases to the GCU so it ‘knows’ the generator
output. It also monitors differential current in the phases.
* Indicators for load, frequency and voltage.
* Control of the relay.
* Inputs from the flight-deck for on/off, fire etc
* Failure warnings to the flight-deck.
* Load shedding control – if the load gets greater than the generator can
supply.
* Data to all other GCUs.

POWER IN A THREE-PHASE SYSTEM

From Book 2 we saw that the power in a single phase system was:

True Power = V x I x cos φ Watts (W)

True Power in a balanced three-phase Star or Delta system is three times that in a
single phase system, so:

True Power = 3 Vph Iph cos φ W

In a star connected system Il = Iph. So the formula can be written:

True Power = 3 Vph Il cos φ W

Vl
and as Vl = √3Vph so Vph =
3

Vl
Then true power = 3 x Il cos φ W = √3 Vl Il cos φ W
3

For a delta connected system Vl = Vph. So the formula can be re-written:

True Power = √3 Vl Iph cos φ W

Il
and as Il = √3Ip so Ip =
3

- 49 -
Il
True Power = 3 Vl cos φ W
3

= √3 Vl Il cos φ W

So for Star or Delta connected systems there are two formulas for power.

1. True Power = 3 Vph Iph cos φ W


2. True Power = √3 Vl Il cos φ W

AC MOTORS

The main types of ac motor are:

* Induction (single-phase, two-phase and three-phase).


* Synchronous.
* Hysteresis.
* Shaded Pole.

All of the motors work on the principle that ac applied to the stator produces a
rotating magnetic field which causes the rotor to rotate. Before we look at the motors
we need to look at the production of the rotating field.

Production of a Rotating Field from a Three-Phase ac Supply

Figure 66 shows a schematic drawing of a typical three-phase stator. The two


windings in each phase (A and A1, B and B1, C and C1) are connected in series and are
so wound that the current flowing through the two windings produces a North pole at
one of them and a South pole at the other. Thus, if a current is flowing in the A phase
in the direction from the A to A1 terminals, the pole piece A becomes a North pole and
A1 a South pole. Figure 66 also shows the three-phase stator connected in delta so
that only three terminals, each common to two windings, are provided for the three-
phase ac input.

Fig. 66 THREE-PHASE STATOR & CONNECTIONS

- 50 -
At any instant the three magnetic fields will be 120° out-of-phase with each other and
the resultant magnetic field will be the vector sum of the three.

Figure 67 shows how the magnetic fields are summed to give a resultant magnetic
field which shifts through 360° for one complete cycle of the ac input. Remember the
coils are stationary and the application of the three-phase ac supply produces a
magnetic field that rotates at a speed determined by the input frequency (f), and
number of pairs of poles per phase (p). This speed (N) is known as the synchronous
speed.

Referring to figure 67. At the beginning of the graph the current in phase A is zero,
the current in phase C is positive flowing C to C1 which makes C a North pole and C1
a South pole. The current in phase B is negative and flows in the direction B1 to B
which makes B a South pole and B1 a North pole, the two fields therefore combine to
produce the resultant field which lies in the direction shown by the dotted lines in the
first small drawing below the graph.

If we now look at the input supply 60° later, the current in phase C is zero, the
current in phase A is positive, making A a North pole and A1 a South pole.
Phase B current is still negative so B remains a South pole and B1 a North pole.

Fig. 67 PRODUCTION OF A ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD


(THREE-PHASE)

- 51 -
The resultant field has now rotated. If this procedure is followed through at all the
other positions, you can see the field rotates one complete revolution for one complete
cycle of the three-phase supply.

It is therefore synchronous with the ac input. If the input frequency was 400Hz then
the speed of the rotating field would be synchronous speed which is:

60 × 400
N =
3

= 8 000rpm

INDUCTION MOTORS

The Three-Phase Motor

This is the most common type of ac motor used on aircraft.

Figure 68 shows the construction of the stator and rotor of the machine. The stator is
as previously described in the production of a rotating magnetic field. The rotor
consists of a series of copper or aluminium bars connected at each end by a copper or
brass ring. No insulation is required between the bars and the core on which they are
mounted because of the very low voltages generated into the rotor bars.

Note that no brushes or slip rings are involved and there are no external connections
made to it. This type of rotor is sometimes called a ‘squirrel cage’ rotor.

Fig. 68 SQUIRREL-CAGE INDUCTION MOTOR

When a three-phase ac supply is applied to the stator windings it creates a rotating


magnetic field whose speed is directly proportional to the input frequency.

This rotating magnetic field cuts the copper or aluminium bars and induces an emf
into them, this emf produces a current in the bars which sets up a magnetic field.

- 52 -
The rotor field and rotating stator field interact causing the rotor to turn in an
attempt to line up the two magnetic fields. As the stator field rotates so the rotor field
(and the rotor) rotate with it. As the stator field is rotating the rotor never quite
catches up but follows a few degrees behind.

Assume the rotating field to be stopped for a moment as shown in figure 69.

Fig. 69 PRINCIPLE OF THE INDUCTION MOTOR

The conductor in the drawing is one of the bars on the rotor showing an induced
current into the page. The motor principle applies and by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
the bar experiences a force acting on it in the direction shown.

As the bar follows the field, the relative motion between the two fields is reduced and
therefore the voltage induced into the bar is also reduced as is the current. The same
thing happens in the bars of the rotor – as it starts to turn the voltage reduces, the
current reduces and the turning force on the rotor reduces. The rotor speed is
automatically adjusted to something less than that of the rotating field, otherwise
there would be no relative motion, no current and no movement of the rotor.

The difference between the rotor speed and the rotating magnetic field speed is called
the SLIP SPEED. For example. If the synchronous speed (speed of the rotating
magnetic field) is 1000rpm and the rotor speed is 960rpm then:

slip speed = 1000 – 960 = 40rpm

The ratio of the slip speed to the rotating magnetic field speed is known as SLIP and is
normally given as a percentage. In the example above:

40
slip = x 100 = 4%
100

The starting torque of induction motors is low. On start, the frequency is at its
maximum in the rotor and the rotor has low resistance but high inductance.

- 53 -
This causes the rotor current to lag the induced emf by almost 90° so interaction
between the rotor field and the rotating field is poor. To improve the starting torque it
is necessary to bring rotor current and the emf more into phase. This can be achieved
by using aluminium bars on the rotor instead of copper bars. This increases the
resistance of the rotor bringing voltage and current more into phase and there is
greater interaction between the two fields and a higher starting torque results.

To reverse the rotation of this machine, change over any two connections of the three-
phase input and this will cause the rotating field to reverse direction and
consequently the rotor will reverse its rotation.

The speed of the motor for a set number of poles per phase is dependent on input
frequency, which on an aircraft with constant frequency supply is set at 400Hz. These
motors are used on aircraft for services such as hydraulic pumps, fuel pumps and
flap motors.

Two-Phase Type

Note that in this case the windings are 90° displaced from one another. The rotor is of
the normal induction motor type. A rotating field can be produced if the supply to the
two phases are 90° out-of-phase with each other.

Fig. 70 TWO-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The production of a two-phase rotating magnetic field is similar in principle to the


production of a rotating field from a three-phase supply. In the first position (at the
start of the graph figure 71), current in phase A is zero, the current in phase B is
negative which makes B1 a North pole and B a South pole (figure 70), the field is
therefore North to South. If you now follow through the other positions you will see
that a rotating field is produced.

- 54 -
Fig. 71 PRODUCTION OF A ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD
(TWO-PHASE)

Note the inputs to the 2 phases are 90° out-of-phase with each other. One of these
phases is normally called the ‘reference phase’ and has a fixed supply. The other
phase is called the ‘control phase’ which is 90° ahead or 90° behind the reference
phase, ie has a variable phase supply to allow for reversal of rotation of the motor. 90°
ahead of the reference will produce the opposite direction of rotation of the magnetic
field and thus of the motor; so the input to the control phase must be able to produce
180° phase reversal (90° ahead of reference to 90° behind the reference).

The speed of the motor depends on the input frequency. These motors are used
extensively as servo-motors in instruments systems and other systems on aircraft.

The Split-Phase Motor

To create a rotating field from a single phase supply is not possible unless we modify
the supply somehow. If two windings (as shown in figure 72) are used and one
produces a field out-of-phase from the other then a rotating field can be produced. To
achieve this we have to ‘split the phase’, ie split the single phase supply into two
currents which are out-of-phase with each other.

- 55 -
Fig. 72 SINGLE SPLIT-PHASE REVERSIBLE MOTOR

Fig. 73 GRAPHS - SPLITTING THE FIELD

Splitting can be achieved by putting a resistance in series with one winding (not
shown in the drawing), which would make it less inductive than the other winding. It
could also be achieved by putting more inductance in one winding than the other to
create an out-of-phase current. Usually a capacitor is put across the coils as shown in
the figure 72. The rotor is of the normal induction motor type.

When the switch is set to the clockwise direction (as shown) the current will flow to
point X and directly through windings B (inductive) and via the capacitor to windings
A (making this circuit capacitive). So the current in windings A leads the current in
windings B. A rotating field is created as shown in the graphs (figure 73) causing the
motor to rotate clockwise, with normal induction motor action.

- 56 -
If the switch is placed to the anticlockwise position, the current would flow to point Y
and then to windings A (inductive) and via the capacitor to windings B (making the
circuit capacitive). A rotating field is created, this time with the current in B leading
the current in A and causing anticlockwise rotation of the field and the motor as
shown in figure 73.

Again the rpm is dependent on supply frequency.

These motors are used extensively as ac actuators on aircraft.

The Synchronous Motor

This has the normal three-phase stator but the rotor is basically an electromagnet
with the field windings being fed with dc via bushes and slip-rings. When the three-
phase ac is applied to the stator a rotating field is created and the rotor will follow the
field as shown in figure 74.

However the motor does have a problem in that it will not start of its own accord
(there is 100% slip on start). This is because the rotating field moves so quickly that
the rotor cannot ‘lock on’ to the field.

Fig. 74 ACTION OF A SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

- 57 -
A few copper bars may be built into the rotor, so that it starts as an induction motor
and then will eventually lock onto the rotating field. As the name implies the motor
runs at the same speed as the rotating field (synchronous speed) and this speed is
dependent on the supply frequency. Reversal of rotation is achieved by changing over
any two of the three-phase inputs.

The machine runs at a speed proportional to input frequency and is used as the
motor in engine speed indicator systems for flight-deck instruments.

With an input of 400Hz from an aircraft system it is a constant speed machine and so
was used to drive the earlier flight data recorders (FDRs).

The Hysteresis Motor

This motor has two windings at 90° to each other and, as shown in figure 75, has a
‘reference phase’ and a ‘control phase’ and is a two-phase motor. The rotor of the
machine is made of cobalt steel which has high magnetic retentivity and therefore a
large hysteresis loop, hence the motor’s name.

With reference to figure 75 - the reference phase and control phase supplies are 90°
out-of-phase with each other. Assuming the reference phase is maximum such that
current flows (A1) to (A) then (A1) becomes a North pole and (A) a South pole, the rotor
will have an induced South pole at Y and a North pole at X, with no current in the
control phase at this time. Due to its large hysteresis loop the rotor retains the flux
polarity induced when the reference phase reduces. The control phase now builds up
such that (B) is a South pole and (B1) a North pole, ie a rotating field is created from
(A)–(A1) to (B)–(B1).

Fig. 75 HYSTERESIS MOTOR

- 58 -
The retention of the flux in the rotor will cause the North pole at X to be attracted to
(B) (South pole) and the South pole at Y to be attracted to (B1) (North pole). As the
control phase current dies away the current builds up in the opposite sense in (A)-(A1)
and due to the retention of the flux the rotor continues to turn as the field rotates.

The speed of the motor is dependent on the supply frequency. Reversal of rotation is
by changing the phase relationship of the control phase by 180°.

These motors are used as servo motors and also as the motors in miniature Rate
Gyros.

The Shaded Pole Motor

With reference to figure 76. Each of the poles is split into two with one half fitted with
a copper or aluminium ring (shading). The rotor is of the normal induction motor
design.

As the single phase supply starts to rise, flux builds up in the pole pieces and there is
a flux path (φ 1) across the pole pieces. The build up of flux in the other half pole
pieces cuts the copper ring, and an emf is induced whose field opposes the build up of
flux (Lenz’s Law) in the shaded portion of the pole pieces.

As the supply falls to zero the field collapses and φ1 dies away. However, this change
of flux in the shaded portion induces an emf in the shading ring and this time the
induced emf tries to keep the original flux from decaying in the shaded portion of the
pole pieces and a field φ2 is formed. The next half cycle is repeated, creating, not a
rotating field, but more of a rocking field between φ1 and φ2.

Fig. 76 SHADED POLE MOTOR

As the field is not fully rotating, the starting torque of this motor is poor and is used
for light loads only. Again, speed is determined by input frequency. Reversal of
rotation cannot be achieved unless the shading rings are transferred to the other half
of the pole pieces which is not a practical proposition. They are used in some engine
pressure indication instruments.

””””””””

- 59 -
ANSWERS TO ACTIVITIES & EXTRA QUESTIONS (EQs)

Activity 1

(a) Away from the reader.


(b) From right to left.

Activity 2

(a) From right to left.


(b) Into the page.
(c) Upwards.

Activity 3

(a) The speed increases. A greater proportion of field current is diverted


away from the field winding, reducing the field strength and reducing
the bemf. This increases the armature current and increases the torque.
As the torque load is constant the extra torque produces extra speed.
(b) Speed decreases. More armature current is diverted away from the
armature – torque decreases but load remains the same, so loss of
torque means loss of speed.
(c) Speed increases. More field and armature current means more torque.
As load torque is constant extra torque means extra speed.

Activity 4

(a) Speed decreases. Less armature current means less torque as load
torque is constant. Speed falls.
(b) Speed decreases. More field current means more bemf and less effective
voltage across the armature. This means less current through the
armature with less torque and as load torque is constant the speed falls.

Activity 5

Speed increases. With less shunt field strength there is less bemf, more series
and armature current and more speed.

EQ 1 Generators. A generator giving a frequency output of 400Hz is driven at


12000rpm. How many poles does the machine have?

Pairs of poles = f
rpm

= 400 x 60 = 2 pairs = 4 poles


12000
Answer = 4

”””””””””””

- 60 -
APPENDIX

SYLLABUS

- 61 -
- 62 -
- 63 -
- 64 -
”””””

- 65 -
”””””””””

- 66 -

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