a

t h e R ur l t ex tsfi o o h S e ri e s
E DI T E D BY L . H . I
B A LE Y

THE PRINCIPLE S O F AGRO NOMY

 mmmura
l dtcx tB oo k s 5 8 11 85
E DI T ED BY L . H B A ILE Y
.

Ma
nn B E G I NN I N G S m A G R I C U L T U RE
rr e n E L E M EN TS o r A G R I C U L T U RE
,

Wa
.

F AR M MANA G E M EN T
, .

Wa
rr e n

i i ad a PRI N C I P L E S
, .

Lyo n , P pp n n B uc k m n,

So n . MANA G E M ENT
U TH RN
.

J F Du r, O gg a
E L D C RO PS
S E FI
PLAN T PH Y SI OLOG Y with
. .

M D ug g a
.

B r,

spe c i al re fe re n c e to Plan t Prod uc ti on

. .
,

rp er A N I M AL H u smuq n m
.

Ha ,
F O R Se rm o ns
'
.

Mo n tg o mery T H E C o n n Cno rs
a
.

Wh ee ler MAN U RE S AND

,

n u znn s
'

iig F I E L D CRO P PROD U CT ON

,
.

L I
Wid e a g
v n ston,

I RR IG A T I ON P
.

so
t , o n ns or R AC

TI C E

P ip e m PLAN TS AND T E I R C U L T U RE
.

F r, o ru s H
Hi h k A T E T OO GRA SS E S
.

tc c o c X -
B K or

m m w AND PRA CT C E
, .

Ga y T HE c s I or

L I E ST O C
,

J U DG IN G V - K

Wh i e PR I N C I PLE S
.

t, F or L O R I C U LTU B E .
TH E P RI N C I P LE S O F

AG RO N O MY

A T EX T BO O K O F C
— RO P P RO DUC TIO N F O R H IGH

S C H O O LS AN D S H O R T C O U R S E S I N -

A G RIC ULT U R A L C O LLE GE S

F R A N K LIN S . H A RRI S , P H D .

AG C
RO N O MY AN D D IRE T O R O F T H E S HO O L O F C AG IC LT AL
GI G TA AG I C LT AL C LL
P RO FES SO R O F R U UR
EN I
NE ER N , U H R U UR O EG E

AN D

GE O RGE S TE W A RT B S ,
. .

IN STRU CTO R I N AG BO N O I Y , TA AG IC LT AL C LL G
U H R U UR O E E

N a
mfind !
TH E MACMILLAN CO MP AN Y
1 91 5

fill ri g h ts r eser ved

 C O P YRI GT
H ,
1 91 5,

B Y T HE MAC MILL AN C O MPA N Y .

Se t u p a
nd ele
c tro t
yp ed . Pu blish d De e embe
c r, 1 9 1 5
.

”fi n Li b .

AGMC DE" . C 1

N or wh ic
J S Ca
. shi n g C o . Be rwi c k dx Sm i th 00 .

N o rwo o d , Mu m, U S A . . .
 PREFACE

AG R IC U LT U R A L i structio
n n in the hig h school h a
- s
exte n d e d so rapidl y withi n the last f e w y ears that the
deman d fo r suitable tex t b ooks h a - s b ecome i n si ste n t .

Th e v a riatio n i n the teach i n g i n d i ff ere nt schools is

so g reat that seve ral texts a re r e ui re d
q . S o m e hi g h
school s g i v e but o n e y ear i n ag r icultu r e While oth e r s ,

g i v e f o ur .

T his b ook is d e si g n e d f e r sch ools g i v i n g m o re than

o n e cou rse i n ag ri cultu r e ; its stu d y shoul d p robabl y
p rece d e i n st ruction i n h or tic ultu re o r an i m al husban d ry .

A k n owle d g e of b ota n y a n d che m ist ry ,alth oug h n o t

p re sup o se d
p , Will as s i st i n a bette r u n d e r sta n d i n
g of
some pe r hap s a
, ,
ll of the ch a pters .

A lthoug h wr itte n p ri m aril y fo r ate x t b ook the d i s

.
-
,

c uss i o n ou g ht to be useful to the pr a ctical farme r Wh o

Will fin d t reate d i n n o n tech n ical lan g uag e the p ri n
-

c i ple s u n d e r l y i n m a of h i s ractices
g n
y p .

T hose wishi n g more i n fo rma tio n Wil l fin d help i n the

list of supp leme n tary read i n g s at the e n d of each chap
te r. A complete list of r efe re n ces has n o t b ee n g ive n ;
o n ly the most accessible public a tio n s a r e me n tio n ed .

C o n sta n t refe re n ce has bee n m a d e to th e C y clope d ia of

Am e rican Ag ricultu re by L H Bailey to F arme rs
’
.
.
,

B ulleti n s of the U n ite d States Departme n t of Ag r i

cultu re a , n d to a n umb e r of st a nd ar d wo r ks o n eac h

su bject all of W h i c h sh o ul d b e i n the li b ra ry of e v e ry

,

sc hool whe re ag r icultu re is taug ht . Ve ry fe w refe r

V

4 45 09 5
 P ref a
ce

a es
no have bee n made to state ex pe rime n t statio n pu b
li c a ti o n s si n c e m a n y of th e m a
, re n o t a v ai lable .

Th e teac h i n g of ag ricu ltu re is v al ua ble o n ly a s it

is m ad e pr acti c a l It is su g g este d ther e f o r e that stu
.
, ,

de n ts W o rk i n the la boratory a nd fie l d as m uch a s

possible i n ord e r to become di rec tl y familiar W ith soil s ,

c rops a , n d a plica tio n s of

p p r i n c i p le s i n stea d o f rel i n
y g
solel y up o n Wha t the text say s about the m .

T h e autho r s a re i n d eb t ed to a n umbe r of thei r c o l

le a g ue s at the U t ah A g r icu l tu r al C olle g e f o r enc our

a g e m e n t a n d f r ie n d l y c r iticis m d u r i n
g the re a
p p ra tio n

of thi s book Th e y a r e u n de r special obli g a

.
‘

tio n to
P reside n t J A W i d tsoe Di r ecto r E D B a
. .
,
ll P r o . .
,

f e sso r N A P e d e r so n a
. . n d Me ss rs ,
A F B ra ck e n
. . .
,

C L An d e rso n a
. . nd N I B u tt a ,
ll of W h om have
. .
,

r ea d the ma n u sc ri p t a n d o ff e re d valuable su g g e stio n s .

F RA N KLI N
'

S . H A RRI S,
G E OR GE STE WART .

LO G AN U TA H,

Ma
,

y 1 ,
1 9 15 .
 CO N TEN TS

C HAPTE R I

IN T R ODU C TO R Y
Wh a
t is a
g r i c u ltu r e 1 Ag ri c u ltu re ad th e sc i e
n n c e s,

a
2 ; A g ri c ulturen d th e i n d ust i e s 2 ; O ppo rtu i ti e s i
r ,
n n

ag r i c u lta va
u re re r ie d 3 ; Di visi o s o f a
, g ri c u ltur e 4
n ; ,

ses o f a
Ph a g ro no m y 4 S c O p,
e o f th i s b o o k 4 . .

P ART I . TH E P L AN T

C HA PTE R II

TH E P LA N T AN D IT S E N V I RO M E T
N N

F a
c to rs of at g
pl n ro wth ,
10 ;
se so n , 1 2 ;L en g th of a
a a
F ro st, 1 3 ; Te m pe r ture , 1 4 ; W te r, 1 6 ; Su nl i g h t, 1 8 ;
Win d , 1 9 ; So il, 1 9 ; Pests, 20 ; Ad pte d c ro ps, 2 1 a .

C HA PT E R III

P LA N T ST R U C T U RE 23438

C e lls, 23 Ti ssu es, 25 ; Ki nd o f a

p l n t, 26 ro p pl n ts, C a
26 ; Pl a
n t pa
rts ,
2 7 ; Th e ro o t, 2 7 ; Th e ste in , 30 ; T h e

a
le f , 35 ; Th e flo we r , 35 ; T h e see d , 37 ; Bud s ad n

a
b r n c h e s, 37 U n d e rg ro un d ste ms, 37 .

C HA PT ER IV

PL A NT F UN C T I ON S 39-49
Gro w a
th , 39 ; Resp i r ti o n , 41 ; Ph o to sy n th e si s, 42 ;
a a
O smo sis, 44 ; Tr n sp i r ti o n , 46 ; T r nslo c ti o n , 48 a a
a a
T r n sp o rt ti o n , 48 ; Re sp o n se , 49 .

vi i
 Co n t
ent
s

C HA P T E R V

T H E PL A N T AS A F A C TOR Y
ats ad a
In te rd e pe n d e n c e n i mals 51 ; D e p e n d of pl n n ,

e n c e o f ma o n p la ts 51 ; D me sti c a
n ti o 53 ; Plat n , o n, n

c o mpo u d s 54 ; F la
nvo rs 54 Wa , te 55 ; C a rbo h y d ra
tes ,
r, ,

55 P o te i n 56
r Ash 56 F a ts ad o ils 56
, Th e pla nt ,
n ,

fa cto ry 57 ; A im a
, l c o c e n trati o 59 ; Sto ra
n g e 59 ; n n, ,

Harvest 6 1 Co n t o l o f th e h arve st 62
, r , .

P ART I I . TH E SO I L

C H APTE R VI

WHA T T HE So n . Is 6 7 -69
De fin iti o n , 6 7 ; Pe rm n e n c e o f so ils, 68 ; c o n o m ic a E
a
i mp o rt n c e o f th e so i l, 68 C o n se rv ti o n o f th e so il, 68 a
N e ed o f be tte r so i l m n g e me n t, 6 9 aa .

C HAPTE R VII

R
O IG I N AN D ORM A T I O o So s
F N r n 7 0—80
Min e ra ls a n d ro c k s 7 0 So i l f o rmi n g mi n e rals 7 0 ;
,
-

rs 7 1 ; H o rn b le n d e a
,

Qua rtz 71 , T h e f e ld spa n d py ro x ,

e ne 7 1 ,
Mi c a7 1 ; C h lo ri te 7 2 ; ! e o li tes 7 2 ; C a
, lc i te , , ,

7 2 ; Do lo mi te 7 3 ; Gy psum 73 ; Apa , tite 7 3 ; So i l f o rm , ,

-

i n g ro c k s 7 3 Me th o d s o f so il f o rm a
, ti o 7 4 Ac ti o n o f n,

h ea ta n d c o ld 7 4; Ac ti o of w a te r 7 5 ; Ic e 7 6 ; Th e
,
n , ,

a tmo sph e re 7 8 Pla nt sand a

, n i ma ls 7 8 ; C las si fic a ti o n ,

of so i ls, 7 9 .

C HAPT E R VIII
P H Y S I C AL PR O P E RT I ES OF THE So n . 8 1 —8 9

So i l te x ture , 8 1 ; Gro u ps c c o rd i n g to te x tu re , 8 2 Re a
a
l ti o n o f te x tu re to w te r-h o ld i n g c p c i ty , 8 3 ; So i l a aa
stru c ture , 8 3 Ho w to mo d i f y struc ture , 8 4; Spe c i fic
g a
r vi ty o f so i ls, 86 ; Ai r i n th e so i l, 8 6 ; H af e to th e so i l,
8 7 ; Th e a
o rg n i c m tt a
e r o f th e so i l , 8 8 ; Ma
i n ta
ini ng th e
a
o rg n i c m tte r, 88 a .
 Con t
ent
s ix

C HAPTER IX

T a WA TE R
n o n T HE So n .

O ri g i n of so i l wa
te r , 90 ; Vaiai r t o n s i n so i l mo isture ,
91 T he c o nd iti o n of so i l mo istu re , 9 1 F re e wa
te r 91
Hy g
,

a a a
C pi ll ry w te r, 9 2 ; ro sc o pi c wa
te r , 92 O th e r c ri t

a
i c l p o i nts, 93 ; Qu ati ty
n of wa
te r in fie ld so ils, 9 3 ;
Me th o d s o f e x p re ssi n g th e q u a n ti ty o f w te r, 9 4 ; osas L
of so i l mo i stu re , 94 ; N e e d f o r pre ve n ti n g e v po r ti o n , a a
94; T h e te r ta
wa b le -
,
9 5 ; Th e m o ve me n ts o f so i l m o i s
tur e , 96 ; U se o f so i l wa
te r , 96 ; Q a
u n ti ty o f wa
te r use d
by pl ats 96
n ,
.

C HA PT R E X
Tm; C O TRO L
N or S IL O W TE R A 98 - 1 1 7
a
Irr i gti I a si g th s i l m istu e 98
on n c re S u esn e o o r , o rc

of w ate s pply 1 00 ; Me a
r u sure m ,
t f wa te 1 02 M th en o r, e

o ds f a opply i g wa te 1 03 T h a
n m t f wa r,te to use e o un o r ,

1 04 ; Wh to i ig a
en t 1 05 ; O ve i ig a
rr ti 1 06 ; N ed
e, r rr on, e

f or c o o my
e n 1 06 D a ,
i a g R m. v i g e ss i v r n e e o n ex c e

wa t 1 07 R m vi g a
e r, lk ali 1 08
e Bo fits f d a
n i a ge , en e o r n ,

1 08 Ki d s f d a n i a g o 1 09 ; I srtalli g thn d ai se, 1 1 0 n n e r n , .

D y f am i g : S p
r - r n f d y fa m i g 1 1 1 ; Th q ues
co e o r - r n , e

ti on f a oi fa ll 1 1 1
r n D y f am s i ls 1 1 3 D y f a
,
rm r - r o ,
r -

c ps 1 1 5 ; Ti ll a
ro , g e m th d s 1 1 6 e o , .

C HAPTE R X I

PL A N T F OO D
- or TH E So n . 1 1 8 —1 2 4

Wh a
t p la
nts fro m th e so i l 1 1 8 ; Co mpo si tio n o f
use ,

so ils 1 1 9 ; T h e a
,
na ly sis o f so ils 1 20 ; A va ila ble a n d re ,

se rve pla n t fo o d 1 2 1 - Ma k i g plan tf o o d a

, va i lable 1 21 n -
,

Q u an ti ty o f p la t f o o d re m o ve d b y pla
n ts 1 2 1
- Pla nt n ,

fo o d s th a ta re sc arc e 1 22 E x ha
usti o n o f th e s o il 1 2 3 ;
, ,

Losses i n plan tfo o d 1 23 Plan tfoo d i n o g a

- n i c ma
, tte r - r ,

1 24 Re la ti o o f p la n t f o o d to va
n lue o f a so i l 1 24 -
, .
x Con t
en t
s

C HAPTE R XI I

Ma
x n n ss AN D F e n n m z mn s

T y pe s o f f e rti li ze rs, 1 26 Ho wto d e te rmi n e f e rti liz e r

n ee ,
ds 1 26 ;
N i tr o g e n f e rtili ze rs, 1 2 7 ; N i tro g e n fi x t i o n , a
1 28 ; P h o sph o ru s fe rtili ze rs, 1 28 ; P o t ssi um f e rti li ze rs, a
1 29 ; L
i me , 1 29 ; I nd i re c tf e rti li ze rs, 1 30 ; o me -m i x i n g H
of f e rti lize rs, 1 3 0 ; Val ue o f f a
rm m a
n ure ,
13 1 ; Ki n ds
ofam maure
f r n ,
1 32 L osse s i n m a
nu re , 1 33 Had li n ng

rm m a
fa ure 1 34 n ,
Ho wto fe rtilize d i fie re n t c ro ps, 1 36
Gre e n m a
n ure s, 1 36 .

C HAPTE R X III
O RG AN I SMS o n TH E S OIL 1 38 — 1 44

Ki nd s o f an ism s 1 38 ;so il Ba ct e ri a 1 89 ; T h e
o rg , ,

n u mb e r o f b acte ria i th e so il 1 39 ; K i n d s o f b a n ct e r ia ,

o
,

1 39 ; Ho w ba cte ri a g r w 1 40 ; Re la ti o n. to h u m us f o r,

ma ti o n 1 41 Re la
,
ti o n to n i tro g e n 1 41 Th e fix a tio n o f ,

n itro g e n 1 42 ; Nitri fic a
,
ti o n a nd d en it ri fic a
ti o n 1 43 ; ,

B ate i aad
c r n th e f am r e r, 1 44 .

C HAPT E R X IV

T I LL A GE AN D C RO P Ro r u
' '
lo x s 1 45—1 53

I mpro vin g so i l struc ture , 145 ; C o n tro lli n g we e d s, 1 47

a a a
C o ve ri n g m n u re n d p l n t re si d u e s, 1 48 ; C o n se rvi n g
m o isture , 1 49 ; T i lla
g e f vai o r o us c ro ps, 1 50 Re so nsa
fo r ro t a
ti o n o f c ro ps, 1 51 Me th o d so f c ro p ro ta
ti o n ,
1 52 .

C H APTE R XV
S PE C I A L So n . P n o n m ms 1 54 1 63

Alk a
li alk a Ki
li 1 55 E ff t f a lk a
nds o f li plat , ec o on n

g w
ro th 1 56 ; R la
,m ati f alk ali lad s 1 5
ec 6 A c i d i ty on o n , .

In d i a to s o f as i l aid i ty
c r 1 57 ; C e c ti o f so il c , o rr on o

aid i ty 1 57 E si
c ,
M th d s f p ve ti g
. ro si
on e o o re n n e ro o n,

1 58 . B lo wi n g : P re ve n ti o n of blo wi n g ,
1 60 . Me th o d s
of j ud g i n g so i ls a va
In d i c to r
l f a ti v ve g ta
ti ue o n e e on ,

161 To po g r a h
p y f th ola d 1 6 1 D
e p th ad s t t
n u e e n ruc r

n ic a
,

of th e so i l, 1 62 ; C h m i al aa ly sis 1 62 ; M c h a
e c l n ,
e

a
naly sis ,
1 63 Pro d u c ti vi ty , 1 63 .
 Co n t
ent
s

P ART III . F I E LD C RO P S

C H APT E R X VI

WH E A T
a
Re l ti o n sh ips, 1 68 ; B o o ts, 1 6 8 ; Th e pl nt b o ve a a
g ro u n d ,
1 70 T h e k e rn e l, 1 7 0 ; ri e ti e s, 1 7 1 ; B ist Va
ri

b u tio n nd a aa a
d pt to , 1 7 ;
i n 3 P re p r t i o n o f see d -be d
,
aa
a
1 7 5 ; Se e d n d se e d in g , 1 7 5 ; rve sti n g , 1 7 8 D ise se s, Ha a
1 7 9 ; Clo se d sm u t, 1 7 9 ; oos L
e sm ut, 1 8 0 ; Rust, 1 80 ;

I n sec ts, 180 ; We e d s, 1 8 1 ; Qu lity i n wh e t, 1 8 2 ; Use s a a

a a
n d v lue , 1 8 3 ; St o r g e , 1 8 4 ; E le v t a
o rs, 1 8 6 ; M rk e t a a
in g , 1 8 7 ; P ri c e s, 18 8 .

C H APTE R XV II
C o nn on Mu zn 19 1 207

a
Re l tio n sh ips, 1 9 1 B o o ts, 1 92 Th e c a
lm s 1 98 ; Th e
,

le a
ve s 1 9 3
, Th e flo we r, 1 94 Th e e a 1 94
r, T y pe s, 1 95
D e n t c o rn ,
1 9 5 ; F li n t c o m 1 96 ; Swee t c o rn , 196 ; P o p
,

c o rn , 196 ; So ft o r flo ur c o m , 1 97 Po d c o m , 1 9 7 V a
ri e ti e s, 1 9 7 ; D i stri b uti o n , 1 9 7 F a
cto i n p ro d uc ti o n ,
rs

1 98 aa P epa
Ad p t ti o n , 1 98 ra ti r on o f th e se e d -be d , 1 9 9 ;

Se ed ad p la n ti n g
n 200 T e a tme t o f th e g
,
wi g c rop r n ro n ,

201 ; Havesti g 208 ; Si la

r g e 20 3 n; E, e m i e s 204 ; U se s ,
n ,

and va lu e 204 Sto ra g

, e ad m a k e ti g 2 0 5 n r n . .

C HAPTE R XV III
Ormm
'
CEREAL S 208 —2 23

a
O ts: O ri g i n ad
n re l a
ti o n sh i ps, 208 De sc ri pti o n 2 09 ;
,

D istri b uti o n a
2 10 ; V
ri e ti s 2 1 2 ; Se e d i n g a
e n d c u lti va
Harvestin g an d m ak eting 21 2 ; Use s
, ,

ti o n , 2 1 2 ; r ,
2 1 3; ,

E n e mi e s, 2 14 . a
B r ley D e sc ri p ti o n , 2 15 ; D i stri b utio n
ad an da p tati o n ,
2 16 So wi n g a
n d c u lti v ti o n , 2 16 ; H r a a
ve stin g ad m a k n 2 1 7 ; E n emi e r eting
n use s, 21 8
, s ad
Ha
.

Rye Desc rip tio n n d d i stri b u ti o n , 2 1 9 ; an d li n g th e

o
c r p , 220 ; Use s, 220 Ri c e D e sc rip ti o n n d d i stri b u
. a
ti o n , 22 1 Use s, 22 1 E n emi es: D e sc ripti o n n d use ,
. a
222 . B uc k wh e t a D esc rip ti o n , d istri b uti o n , ad use s
n ,

222 .
 Co n t
ent
s

C HAPTE R X IX

Po m ro ns
'

O rig i n , 2 24 ; a
Re l ti o n sh i ps, 225 ; Desc ripti o n , 225 ;
Va ri e ti e s, 22 7 ad a da p ta
D i stri buti o n
t i o n 22 8 n , Pre p
ara ti o o f lad 230 ; Se e d
n 23 1 ; C utti n g ad pla
n , nti g , n n

th 234 ; H a
,

233 ; T e a tment d uri n g g o w

r rve st ing a nd r ,

mak e ti g 23 5 Sto ra
r ng e 2
, 3 5 ; W e d s a d i n se c s
t 2 8 6,; e n ,

D i se a se s 28 6 U se a n d va
,
lu e 239 , .

C HAPTE R XX
Ro o r C no r s
'
2 41 — 2 55

abeets Hi sto y 241 ; De sc ipti 248 ; Ad a

S ug r— r p , r on ,

ta ti a
on n d d istri b u ti o 248 ; P pa a ti of t h e lad
n, re r on n ,

s d ad se d i n g 245 ; Tre a
ee ,
n e tm td i g g ro w
, th 247 en ur n ,

D ise a se s 248 I se ts 249 ; H av sti g ma

, n k e ti g a
c , nd r e n , r n ,

sto a g r 2 49 U se a
e, n d va lu 250 Ma f a ct u e o f sug a e, nu r r,

2 51 . Mag el wur els D s i pti

n - 2 51 ; U se 252
z e cr on, ,

Cultu 2 52
re , Tur ip s ad R uta . bag a s D e sn ri p ti n c on,

2 53 ; C ulture 253 ; Va lu 2 54
, Carr t s D esc i p ti e, . o r on,

2 54 ; Culture a n d use 2 55 ,
.

C H APTER XXI

A L F AL F A 256 —2 7 0

N me a ad n o ri g i n , a
256 ; Re l ti o nsh i ps, 258 ; B o o t
s,
2 58 ; Ste ms n d le a a ve s, 2 59 ; F lo w a
e rs n d se e d , 260 ;

Va ri e ti e s, 26 1 ; D istri buti o n n d d p t ti o n , 26 1 ; Pre p a aa a

aar ti o n o f th e l n d a a
n d se e d i n g , 263 Tre tm e n t d uri n g a
g ro wth 26 3 ;
,
r ng , Havesti 26 4 ; Sto a
g e 265 ; r ,
U se ad
n

v a
lue ,
266 Mi x tures, 26 7 E n e mie s, 26 8 ; Se e d pro d uc
ti o n , 26 9 .

C HAPTE R XX II
Tu n CLOV ERS AN D OT HE R a n ms 27 1 - 28 5

R ed c lo ver D esc ri pti o n ,

272 Di stribu ti o n ad a
n dap
a
t ti o n , 2 7 2 ; C ulture , 2 7 3 ; U se ad va
lu e
n , 27 3 . Oth er
c lover s: Alsi k e c lo ve r, 27 4 : W hi te c lo ve r, 27 4 ; Swe e t
c lo ve r, 27 4 ; Cri mso n c lo ve r, 2 7 5 . F i e ld P e s a Desc ri p
 Con t
ent
s xiii
P AG ES

ti o n n da
ad a p ta
ti o n, 27 5 ; So wi n g , 2 7 6 ; Cu lture a
nd

h rves a
ti ng , 27 7 ; U se , 2 7 7 B e n s: . a D esc riptio n ,
278 ;

C ul ture , 2 7 8 ; U se , 28 0 Co wp e s . a De sc ripti o n ,
28 0 ;
Culture , 28 2 S o y be as n D e sc ri pti o n , 2 8 2 ; C ul
V
.

tur e , 2 8 3 . Mi sc ella
n e o u s Le g u m es : etc h, 28 4 ; O th e r
le g umes, 28 4 .

C HAPTE R XXIII
Gu ssn s 28 64301

Ti mo thy D esc ri pti o n ,

28 8 ; Ad a a
p t tio n , 28 9 ; C ul
ture , 28 9 U se ad valu e n 29 1 E n e mi e s, 292 R ed top .

Val
,

De sc rip ti o n , 2 92 Ad ap tati o n, 292 Cu ltu re , 293 ; ue

ad use 293 K entu c k y B l ue g a

n , . ss D e sc ri pti o 2 93 ; —
r n,

Ad a pta tio 294 ; C ultu e 294 ; U s ad va

n, lu e 294 r ,
e n ,
.

O rc h ad g a ss D esc i pti o
r — r 2 95 A d a p ta ti r 29 5 ; C u l n, on ,

ture 29 5 ; Va
,
lu e a n d us 296 S mo th B o me g r a ss
e, o r -

V
.

D sc ri ptio 29 7 Ad a
e p
n, tati o 2 9 7 C ultu e 2 9 7 al u e n, r ,

an d use 298 ,O th g r as s s :
. T all m ad o
er w o at g ra s s e e -
,

299 ; B e rmud a g a ss 29 9 ; Jo h s o n-
g r
ra ss 8 00
, ; M is e sl n -
,

lae o us g ra
n sse s 301 , .

C H APTE R XXI V
a
P sr tn u c s,
'
M A DO W S
E , AN D So m m e S YS T MSE 302—3 1 7
De fin i ti o n , 302 ; i n d s o f pa K
sture , 302 ; A g o o d p a s
ture , 303 ; Imp o r ta n c e , 303 ; Na ti ve g ra ss, 304 ; C rO p
a
p l n ts, 3 04 Mi x ture s, 304 F o r d iffe re n t a n i mals, 307 ;
a
C o n d i ti o n o f p sture s, 308 ; I mp ro vi n g p stu re s, 308 ; a
k
O ve r—sto c i n g , 3 09 ; Ma nag e m e n t 3 1 0 ; Me ad o ws, 3 1 1 .

Val
,

a
S i l i ng U se , 3 1 2 ue , 3 1 2 ; So i li n g c ro ps, 3 16 .

C HAPT E R XXV
So n e n n u s AN D MI LLE TS 8 1 8433 2
S o rg h um a
O rig in , 3 1 8 ; Re l ti o nsh i ps, 320 ; De sc ri p
ti o n , 3 20 Va ri e ti e s, 3 22 ; D istri b u ti o n n d d pt ti o n , a aa a
3 23 ; P re p r aa a
ti o n o f se e d -b e d nd s e e d i n g , 32 5 ; T re t a
m e n t d uri ng g ro wth , 325 ; Havesti g r n , 326 ; U se , 32 7
E n e mi es, 8 28 ; Sto r g e nd a a mak e ti r n g , 3 28 S ud n . a
g r a
ss D e sc ri p tio n , 3 2 9 ; C u ltu re , 32 9 . M llets Re la
ti o n sh i p a n d d esc ri p t
.
i o n , 330 C ul ture ad va
n lue , 330
O th e r ty pe s, 33 1 .
XIV

H APTE R XXVI C

FIB ERS AN D M SC ELLANEO U S CRO PS

I

F i bers C His y 333 R lai

o tton . to r , ; e t o nsh ips, 334 ;
D e sc ri ptio n , 33 5 ; A d aa
p t tio n , 3 35 ; C ulture , 336 ; H r a
vesti n g a a
n d m rk e ti n g , 33 7 U se , 3 3 7 Fl x De sc ri p a
ti o n , 338 ; Ad a
pta
ti o n, 338 ; C ulture , 338 °
U se adn

v a
lu e , 340 . O th e r fibe rs H e mp , 340 ; Mi sc e lla
n eo us

fibe rs, 341 . Mi sc e lla C bb g e

n eo us c rop s n d k o hl aa a
ra
bi , 342 R pe , 343 ; a Ka
le , 343 ; E n e m i e s, 843 To .

bac co D istri buti o n , 345 ; C ul ture , 345 ; C urin g n d a

ma rk e ti ng , 345 Sug r c ae
a — n , 346 Swe e t p o t to e s, 847 a
F ru i ts, 849 ; Tr uc k c ro ps, 349 ; Ti mb e r cr op ,
351 O th e r
c ro ps, 351 .

C HAPTE R XXVII
I M P ROV M N T o r CRO P
E E 353—3 65
Wh a t is i mp ro ve m e t 3 54 Id ea l so ug h t 356 C u l
n ,

ti vati o n 357 Se e d te sti n g 357 Re p o d uc ti o n 3 59 ;

-
, r

Va
, ,

ri atio 3 59 Na
n, tu ra l se le c ti o n 360 Arti fic i a l se le c ,

tio n 8 60 T h e b e st p la
,
nt s sh o u ld be c h o se n 36 1 ; V a ,

ri e ty s, 36 2
te st Ste ps i n b re e d i n g , 362 C ro ssi n g 362
of lag
,

Me n d e l s la
w ’
,
36 3 ; Im p rt
o a nc e r e n um b e rs, 364
B e tte r se e d , 364 .

C H APTE R X XV III
Wa
sp s 36 6 — 3 78

De fin iti o n , 3 66 a a
C l ssi fic ti o n , 36 7 O c c u rr e n c e , 368
D isse m in a
ti o n 36 4 ; Lo sse s f r om w e e d s,3 7 0 ; Pre ve n
Eaa
,

ti o n , 37 2 ; r d ic ti o n , 3 7 3 ; Ge n e r al p rin c iple s, 3 7 5 ;
H e rb i c i d e s, 3 7 6 ; Summ ry , 8 7 7 a .

P ART I V . F I E LD MAN AGE MEN T

C HA PT E R XXIX
P LANN I NG u mF AR M 38 1 -3 8 6

Pl a n a
b e st b le , 38 1 ; N u mb e r
sh o ul d e nt e rp rise s, of
a a a
388 Th e f rmste d , 3 8 3 Arr n g e me n t n d n u m b e r o f a
a a of
fie ld s, 38 4 ; Si ze n d sh pe fie ld s, 384 ; F e n c e s n d a
d i tc h e s 38 5 U se o f wa
,
ste pla
c es , 386 .
 Con t
en t
s

Me asuri n g Ru le s
Rule s f o r Me a
su ri ng a t a H y i n h e St c k .

Wh ea t Ha ve st C a
le d a
r r n

P i c es o f Wh e a
r ton a C h ic a
g Mak e t ( 1
o 8 6 3 r

1 9 1 0)
a aU it d Sta
C ro p St tisti c s fo r C o n ti n e n t l ts n e e

sa
P lo wi g a nff t d b y Sh a pe f th e F i ld
ec e o e

Ave a gr De p e i a
e ti o aYe a ad C st t
r c n r n o o

th A e f
e Fa
cr m Ma c h i ery
or r n

Ar m n mx 0 . Glo ssary
THE PRINC IPLE S O F AGRONOMY
 THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRONOMY

C HAPTE R I

IN TRODU 0 TORY

AGRI CU LT URE is so b road in its scope ad

practice that
n ,

it is related to almost every bran ch of huma n learn in g .

All the i n dust ries a n d p rofessio n s of m a n a re in some

way co n n ected With the lan d a nd its products The .

welfare of man ufacturer merchan t rail road m a

, , n lawyer
, ,

a nd doctor is so depe n den t o n agricultural pro sperity

that these m e n a re n ece ssa rily i n te rested in thi s great

subject Sin ce ag riculture embraces such a Wide fie ld

.
,

it is n ecessary to d e fin e a n d subdivide i n o rde r to obtai n

,

a clear idea of its various bran che s .

1 Wh a
. t is ag ri c ultu re A g ricul tu re may be d e fin e d
a s the a rt the scie n ce
, , a n d the busi n e ss of p roduci n g

plan ts a n d a n imals fo r eco n omic purpose s .

As a n a rt it emb races a k n owledge of the way to p e r

,

form the ope ratio n s of the farm in a skillful ma n n er ,

but doe s n o t n ece ssarily i n clude a n u n de rsta n di n g of the

p rin ciples un derlyi n g farm practices The ability to

.

plow we ll to make a good stack of hay a

, n d to han dle
,

live stock in dicates train in g in the han dicrafts of agri

-

culture .

The scie n ce of agriculture deals with the pri n ciples

u n derlyin g the productio n of plan ts a n d a n imal s with ,

o ut rega rd to skill i n the p ractices of fa rmi n g A perso n

.

B 1
2
v 0 O

a meth o ds by which hay is digested

'
zd fid e rs
'
t rld i the :
in the stomach of a cow a n d how milk is sec reted ;
, he
may be familiar with the compositio n of milk a n d the

processe s it un dergoes in the man ufacture of butter o r

cheese ; a n d still he may n o t k n ow how eve n to milk a

c ow . He has trai n in g in the un de rlyin g sc ie n tific p rin

c iple s of ag riculture but n o t i n the a
,
rt o r ha n dic raft .

Agriculture is a busin ess sin ce it is practiced primarily

,

as a mean s of securi n g a livin g Usually a farmer is n o t .

i n terested in the a rt an d scie n ce of ag riculture except as

they con tribute to his maki n g a be tter livelihood Scie n ce .

helps him to un dersta n d why he does ce rtain thi n gs a nd ,

gives him a foun datio n fo r his practic es; he acquires skill

i n the practices i n order to in crease productio n a nd ,

through it to exte n d h is in come

, .

2 Ag ri c ul ture a
. nd t h e sc i e n c e s The assertio n is .

sometimes m a d e that if a pe rso n we re familiar with all

the scie n ce s he would n o t n eed to study agriculture
,
.

Thi s is probably true but n o o n e pe rso n is able to master

,

all the scie n ce s; eve n if he were able to do so he would ,

n eed to lea rn some of the applicatio n s of scie n ce to the

lan d before fin ishin g his studie s of pure scie n ce .

The real co n ditio n howeve r is that those who have

, ,

most to do with the la n d have little time fo r exten sive

study of scien ce although they desire a brief k n owledge
,

of some of the pri n ciples u n derlyi n g the i n dustry in which

they a re e n gaged Thi s j ustifie s the teachi n g of agri
.

culture eve n to tho se who have had little trai n i n g in the

so c a
- lled pure scien ces The better o ne u n dersta n ds the
.

n atural a n d social scie n ce s however the bette r will o n e

, ,

be able to comprehen d the pri n ciples a n d problems of

agriculture .

3 Ag ri c ulture a
. nd t h e in d ustri e s Ag riculture is at .

the very foun datio n of all in dustries Man ufacturin g .

,
 Introd uc t
o ry 3

mi n in g , a n d c o mm erc e a re depe n den t o n the pro d u cts of

th e so il fo r their ex iste n c e ; i n dee d , the very life of ma n

him se lf wo uld be impossible if the soil did n o t dire ctly

o r in dire c tly yield hi m fo o d The dva . n c e of civili za a
tion a nd the developmen t of in dustrial en terprise s a re

limite d by the agricultura l c on dition s of the world Agri .

culture , in stea d of be in g a problem mere ly fo r those e n

ga g ed di rectly i n i ts p ractic e is a wo ,rld p roblem aff ec ti n g
a ll the ac tivities of m a n . It is evide n t therefore , that ,

it merits se rious c onsideration .

The farm i n addition to bei n g a plac e where a g re at

,

in dustry is c o n ducted is a home fo r those en gag ed in

,

this in dustry It sho uld therefore be co n sidere d n o t

.
, ,

e n tirely from the po i n t of view of ec o n omic e ffic ie n c y ,

but of so cial e ffic ie n c y also a s the home of that part

,

of the c om in g gen eratio n which will probably have

most to do wi th the future welfare of the n atio n Agri .

culture as acon sequen ce has social a

, , nd educatio n al
a spe cts qu ite as importa n t as its sc ie n t ific a n d eco n omic

p has e.s
4 O ppo rt
. uni ti e s in a g ri c ul tur e a
r e v ari e d Th e most .

importa n t oppo rtun ities a re those co n n ected with the

work o n the lan d in its various phase s Never in history .

has the lan d called with a louder voice than at prese n t ,

fo r youn g m e n of i n tellige n ce i n du stry a ,n d trai n in g , .

T here a re oppo rtu n ities o n eve ry ha n d fo r him who kn ows

h o w to use the forces of n ature a n d who c a ,n secure joy

a n d satisfactio n i n bei n g a di rect p roduce r .

O ther phases of agriculture such a s teachi n g it i n the

,

schools en gagi n g in demon stratio n a

,
nd experimen tal
work fo r the sta tes a n d the gove rn me n t a n d worki n g as ,

a n expert advise r fo r co rpo ratio n s a re assumi n g greate r

,

im porta n ce eve ry year a

, n d o ffer good oppo rtun ities to

youn g me n of ability a n d train in g .

4 The Pri nc i p le s oA
f g rono my

5 Di vi si o n o f g ri c ul ture
. a
Agriculture may be sub .

divided in man y ways It may be cla ssed as in ten sive

.

or exten sive specialized o r d ive rsified , exploitive o r

,

r esto rative tropical o r temperate ; o r it may be divided

,

acco rdin g to the source of in come Fo r in struction al .

purposes i n agricultural colleges it has often bee n divid ed ,

i n to th ree main parts : agro n omy an imal husban d ry , ,

a n d ho rticultu re .

The subject of ag ro n omy has usually i n cluded a study

of soils fie ld crop s a
, n d fa rm ma n agemen t
, Un der an imal .

husban d ry the various phases of the liv e —stock i n du s

,

try i n cludi n g d ai ryi n g have bee n studied

, , Th e study .

of hortic ul ture has in cluded the p roduc tio n of f ruits ,

vegetables a n d flo we rs
, .

In additio n to these th ree applied divisio n s there a re ,

al so a n umber of sc ie n tific divisio n s such a s e n tomology , ,

che m istry a n d pla n t a

, nd a n imal pathology Each of .

these bears a relatio n to all three of the applied division s .

It is d iffic ult therefo re to fin d a subdivisio n of agriculture

, ,

that is logica l a n d at the same time e n ti rely p ractical ,

si n ce the differen t b ra n ches a re so closely i n te rrelated .

6 Ph a
. se s o f a g ro n o m y T h e p rese n t volume
. deals
With that phase of ag riculture sometimes called agro n omy .

The mea n i n g of this wo rd is n o t widely kn own outside

of the schools a n d eve n the re it is used somewhat loosely
, .

It comes from two Gree k words mean in g the use of

”
fie ld s . At presen t it is usually un derstood to mean the
,

man agemen t of the lan d in the productio n of fie ld crops .

It is sometimes divided i n to three disti n ct phases : soils ,

crops a ,n d fa rm ma n ageme n t Th e term agro n omy

.

may be applied to a n y o n e of these b ra n ches .

7 Sc op e o f thi s b ook
. To give the begi n n e r in
.

agricultural study a ge n eral idea of the pri n ciples of suc

c e ssi n l p roductio n of crops a n d to fu rn ish him a basis fo r
,
 PART I

THE PLAN T
 C HAPTER II

THE P LA N T A N D I TS E N VI RO N ME N T

ON every side a re evide n ces that pla n ts bea r mo re o r

less d e fin ite relatio n s to the n ature of their surroun din gs .

An en viro n men t that favo rs o n e crop may p reven t the

culture of an other Tropical plan ts do n o t th rive in
.

temperate o r frigid zo n es ; n either do lilies grow in deserts ,

n o r roses o n barre n cliffs .

Great fo rests Spread fo r hun d reds of miles over c e r

ta in sectio n s ; wide grassy plain s stretched almost e n d
lessly east of the Rockies befo re settlemen t ; valleys in
the West were covere d with sagebru sh except fo r patches
,

of willows o r cotto n wood alon g the streams o r fo r rushes

,

a n d sedges in the sloughs In man y section s scrub oak

.

c ove rs the foothills ; grove s of quaki n g a spe n s li n e the

swales in the moun ta in s; pin es an d sp ruce s cover the

shady side s of higher ridges This gro upin g ha

. s n o t come
’

by chan ce C olo n ies of plan ts grow up on ly where co n di

.

tion s a re so favo rable to the pa rticula r pla n t that others a re

crowded out .

F arme rs plow a n d ha rrow because pla n t s grow bette r

in tilled soils They apply i rrigatio n water a

. n d ma n u re

to aid plan t growth Weeds a . re removed that the c rop

may have mo re room The plan t a . s well as the physical

con ditio n s in which it lives deserves atten tion in this
re spe ct
.
 Th
e P ri nc i p les oA
f g ro no my

8 . F a
ctors of pl at g rowth
gen eral there a
n re .In ,

six facto rs which mu st be favorable in

o rder fo r plan ts to
make the best growth These a re : ( 1 ) a home o r place
.
,

in which to fin d lodgi n g a n d suppo rt (2 ) wate r ( 3) heat , , ,

( )
4 light ( )
5 oxyge,
n an d ( 6 ) pla n t food , Th e ge n e ral - .

e n viro n me n t determin e s the characte r of the vegeta tio n

(F ig s 1 .

F i n e soil is the medium of growth fo r agricultu ral

plan ts though some species flon ti sh in water o r o n rock
,
.

Th e quan tity of available water dete rmin es the kin d of

plan t that may grow in a given spot a n d the deg ree of

developmen t it may attain A proper degree of warmth .

is essen tial to ge rmin atio n a n d to growth Most plan ts .

requi re sun light though a few do bette r in the shade

, All .

livin g cells mu st have oxygen in order to carry o n their

fun ction s Lack of a ir i n ove r wet soils kills some plan ts
.
- .

C ertain soil s lack min eral plan t food in a soluble co n di —

tion a nd therefo re produce poo r yields if n o t fe rtilize d

, ,
.

C arbo n dioxide a gaseou s plan t food come s from the

,
-
,

air .

Of these six facto rs m a n ca n co n t rol but two : ( 1 ) the

,

water supply of soil s a n d ( 2) the pla n t food available

,
- .

As rega rds a given spot m a n ca n do little that will i nflu

,

e n ce heat light oxygen a , n d depth o r textu re of soil

, , .

His me thod of co n trol in respect to these depen ds o n his

power to chan ge his place of abode a nd by so doin g to , ,

select a di strict havin g desi rable climate a n d soil Le n gth .

of seaso n a n d daily temperature together With the ki n d ,

of soil determin e the degree of warmth C lear o r cloudy

, .

weather regulate s the su n shi n e a n d light Rain fall a nd .

wi n ds suppl emen te d by irrigatio n d rain age a n d tillage , ,

a re the facto rs con t rolli n g the water supply The fin e n e ss .

,

depth un iformity a
, n d f ertility of the soil measu re both
,

the plan t food a n d the oppo rtu n ity fo r root developme n t

-
.
12 TM P rin c i p les o A
f g ro n o my

C roppin g systems aid materially in causin g plan ts to

respo n d prope rly while the pla n t is the subject o n which
,

these forces in teract .

I n sects roden ts wee d s a

, n d pla n t disea ses a
, , re pests

to be reckon ed with in crop p roductio n They a re .

n uisa n ces a n d as such a

, re cou n ted n egative o r hi n de rin g

factors .

9 Le n g th o f se a
. so n Of the facto rs con trollin g the
.

distribution of crops in the Un ited States len gth of season ,

is o n e of the most powerful Betwee n the Gulf of Mex ico .

ad C a ada ae seve al well marked belts of production

n n r r - .

O i cou rse n o sin gle facto r alo n e accoun ts fo r this

, Al .

though moisture soil a n d daily ra n ge of temperature

, ,

cou n t fo r much they ca n n ot ove rcome the i n jurious

,

effect of a short growin g sea so n that causes crops from

-

the South to fail when moved i n to the N orth That .

wheat oats a ,
n d ba rley have sho rte r periods of g row
, th
than pota toes a n d co rn is well kn ow n C otton requires .

seve n o r eight mo n ths without a frost while ba rley o r ry e ,

ca n get o n with a seaso n havi n g on ly t wo o r four mo n ths

between frosts O ran ges a . nd ban an as a re n o t grown

save in semi t ropical climates where the growin g-seaso n

-

lasts almost the whole yea r C ocon uts a re produce d

.

o n ly in t ropical region s ; corn exten ds over a rather broad

a rea from the tropics well in to the temperate zon es
, .

This power of adapta bility comes largely from the power

of corn to adjust itself to sho rter growin g season s By - .

the selectio n of early maturin g plan ts corn growin g has

-
,
-

gradually exten ded well up toward the C an adian boun d

a ry . All crops have some power of cha n gi n g the time
of growth to suit the season s of a n e w district in to which
they a re ca rried A c rop that th rives un der certai n c o n di
.

tio n s will usually grow un der others less favorable C o t .

to n a n d cowpeas a re c o n fin ed almost e n tirely to the sec

14 The P ri nc i p les oA
f g rono my

frosts Alfalfa a
. n d pota toes d roop after a slight frost ,

but grass a n d wheat show n o sign of in jury Man y .

o rchardists mai n tain in g that it is n o tthe frost but sudden

,

thawin g that kills fruit buds choose lan d that slopes ,

away from the morn i n g sun in order to avoid immed iate

thawin g ; but this is p robably a n e rro r Large bodies of
.

water hold laten t heat ; b reezes preven t cold a ir from set

tlin g in o n e spot; large run n in g streams seem to carry
away the cold a ir At a n y rate. frosts a re less likely
,

to occur in sectio n s with good a ir d rai n age .

When stems o r buds freeze water is d rawn out of the

,

cells in to the spaces between a n d there frozen Some .

times a sudden d rop in tempe rature will freeze the whole

plan t just as it is Death from freezi n g is th e result of
.

the withd rawa l of water from the plasma memb ra n e to

form ice crystal s When extremely severe frosts may
.
,

ruptu re the ba rk expo sin g wood F rozen plan ts have

, .

a wilted o r blighte d appea ra n ce a s if i n jure d by exce ssive

d routh o r heat A day o r so after a frost the in jured
.
,

leaves look as though they ha d bee n sco rched by a fire

that was too close .

Reco rd s of a district fo r a n umber of years show about

ho w late in the sprin g a n d h o w early i n autum n frosts

may be expecte d These will vary some but as al ready

.
, ,

poin ted out n o t so widely a

, s to p reve n t a n e w settler
from a n ticipatin g what crops will mature ; provided ,

of course that he kn ows ho w lo n g the crop requires

,

a n d how ha rdy it i s Ge n eral fa rm practice in the

.

locality will gradually readjust itself to meet climatic

deman ds F armers in e stablished districts do n o t g o
.

fa r w ro n g i n regard to time of pla n ti n g a n d choice of

crops .

1 1 Te mpe ra
. ture After len gth of seaso n
. daily ,

ran ge of tem e rature is the chief co n sideratio n aff ecti n g

p
16 The P ri nc i p le s oA
f g ro no my

heat supply Days a . re practically as wa rm i n the G reat

Lakes regio n o r in the Great Basi n a s they a re a t N ew

O rlean s but o n ly fo r a few hours Morn i n gs e ve n i n gs
,
.
, ,

a n d n ights a re much coole r whe reas in the South n ights

,

as well as days keep warm Man y plan ts a re se n sitive to

.

a lowerin g of tempe rature eve n though it remain s seve ral

degrees above freezin g O n this accoun t daily fluc tua
.
,

tio n s are of co n side rable impo rta n ce .

Some eviden ce seems to in dicate that total heat foun d

by multiplyin g the temperature by the len gth of the season
determin es the growth of some plan ts Dugga r cites
1
.

o n e ca se in which yields of date palm s i n c rea se d with the

total heat F all a

. n d spri n g wheat seem to us e about

the same quan tity of heat fo r ripen in g Sprin g grain has .

a shorter but wa rmer growin g period .

As elevatio n in crea ses tempe rature decreases , Goin g .

from low to higher la n d is n early equivalen t to movin g

n o rthwa rd o r southwa rd from the equato r H igh moun .

tain s in the tropics show all gradation s of vegeta tion

foun d in pa ssin g from tropical to arctic region s Man y .

peak s n ear the equato r a re cove red with perpetual s n ow .

Aside from the temperature chan ge produced in ,

creased elevatio n s seem to have little in flue n c e o n

plan t growth if soil a n d moistu re relatio n s a re equally

favorable .

1 2 Wa
. te r E very pe rso n at all familiar with plan ts
.

has n oticed the effect of abu n dan t moisture o n them .

Ho wgree n the foothills a re in ea rly sp ri n g a

n d how b row n ,

they become in sum mer after exte n ded periods of d routh .

When lawn s begi n to lose their un iform green color they ,

n eed wate r A ho se is e sse n tial to a good lawn almost

.

everywhere House pla n ts mu st be watered freque n tly ;

.
-

gree n hou se pla n ts a re u sually sp ri n kled i n o rde r to keep

1 Dug g r P la
a ,n tP hy si o lo g y , p . 406 .
 The Pl a
nt a
nd s En vi ron me n t
it 17

the a
ir as well as the soil moi st particularly . O utdoo rs ,
i n arid regio n s plan ts require water , When rain s a re .

i n freque n t irrigation is practiced Wherever wa

, ter is to be
had at reaso n able expe n se .

Hun t cites a
1
n Illi n ois reco rd of the i nflue nc e of water

o n the yield O ne year when the rai n fall durin g the grow
.

in g seaso n was 13 in che s the yield of co rn wa

- s 32 bushel s ,

a n ac re ; t h e n ext seaso n with 22% i n ches gave 94 bushels .

The sa me lan d wa sused in both i n sta n ces a n d othe r co n di

tion s seemed equal Green growth con tin ues in moist .

glades afte r highe r lan ds have become d ry T o o much .

water however fills up the soil spaces a

, ,
n d shuts out the

a ir n ec essary to pl a n t roots Very we t soils a re fatal to .

man y plan ts but others do n o t th rive un less almost

,

im merse d in water C resse s a nd s e aweeds a. re examples

of water lovin g plan ts Some cro ps such a

- s rice ca n e
.
, , ,

c ran berries a n d redtop do best in soa

, ked soils O n the , .

other han d alfalfa a n d the pota

, to suffer quickly fro m
stan din g wate r N either however is a d routh love r
.
, ,
-
,

though lo n g roots e n able alfalfa to be d routh resistan t — .

C acti so me grasse s a
, n d ma n y wee ds a re able to e n dure
,

extremely hot d ry weather fo r lo n g period s All pla n ts

, .
,

then must have water in vary in g quan titie s C ultivated

, .

plan ts in ge n eral requi re moderate amoun ts

, , .

Si n ce either to o little o r too much moisture in jures

ord in ary crops irrigatio n is practiced to suppleme n t the
,

rai n fall wh en it is i n s u ffic ie n t fo r p ro fita ble yields a nd ,

d rain s a re laid to remove excess water from the s o i1 So .

impo rtan t ha s i rrigat i o n become i n d ry section s that ,

immen se reservoirs lon g can als expen sive diversion dams , , ,

a n d t un n els have b ee n built to get water to fa rm in g lan d s .

Throughout arid region s scarcity of water mo re than , ,

a ythi g else limit s crop yield s Dry farmin g is a

n n ,
- n .

C a ls i Ame i ap 2 07 1
er e n r c , . .
18 The Pri nc i p les o A
f n y

un en din g stru ggle again st evaporation a n d heavier rain ,

fall is a theme of con stan t prayer .

N o t all the effects of lo w rain fall a re ha rmf ul Irri .

g a ti o n e n able s the fa rme r to apply wate r to o n e c rop a n d

withhold it from an other thereby hasten i n g maturity o r
,

con trollin g the size a n d quality of the ha rv est Wheat .

lon g accustomed to d ry hot weather loses part of its

,

hardn ess when grown in moist climates Excessive water .

in jures th e cookin g quality of po tatoes a n d causes man y ,

other crops to be too succulen t .

Lan ds we t in late sp rin g do n o t warm up su ffic ie n tly

to pe rmit sowin g to early crops Dryin g the soil cools .

it because of the heat used in evapo ration C on versely .

,

soils that a re d ry a n d ba re especially san dy o n es hea

, t ,

to ab n ormal temperatures which a re ha rmful to o rdin a ry

plan ts In a
. ddition then to in flue n c in g plan ts directly
, , ,

water affects them by chan gin g the temperature a n d len gth

of the growin g season-

.

1 3 Sun li g h t
. . N early every lawn with trees o n it
has weak so d a n d pale g reen g ras s in the shady spots .

This is mo st marked un de r trees with den se foliage suc h ,

as lo w growin g evergreen s Lack of sun light causes this

-
.

i n ju ry Plan ts vary as to their sun light requi remen ts

.
,

however a , s they do in rega rd to hea ta n d moisture Th e .

best quality of celery a n d lettuce a n d the fin e s t tobacc o

,

leaves grow in half shade O rchard grass is n amed from

-
.
-

itsfo n d n e ssfo r shady spots Rhubarb stems c a

. n be made

lon g a n d te n de r a,
n d a sparagus s tems white by blan ch ,

in g wi th boards o r earth F orest trees do n o t have lo w

.

bran ches because lack of light kill s the sh aded limbs .

Th e height b ra n chi n g a
, n d coa rsen ess i n fla
, x a n d other

crops a re co n t rolled by thickn ess of pla n tin g .

C rops that store great quan tities of starch o r sugar ,

such a sugar beets a

s - n d pota toes a re be n e fit ed by clea r
,
 The Pla
nta
nd i ts E n vi ron men t 19

wea th er Sunlight is es se n tial to sta

. rch a n d suga r p ro

duction Therefore in very rain y region s where the sky

.
,

is overca st with clouds much of the time suga b ee ts at r-

, ,

lea st do n o t thrive so well as they do in su n n ier section s

,
.

1 4 Win d
. O n e reason why large trees must have
.

stron g tru nk s is that heavy win ds exert en ormous pressure

on leafy t re e -tops Weak plan ts a .n d even giga n tic fo res t

trees a re bro ke n dow n o r uprooted in to rn adoe s Vin es .

a n d c lin g in g plan ts lie clo s e to the groun d o r clin g to the

bran ches of trees o r to walls T his preven ts a
, ir curre n ts
.

from gettin g un der o r behin d th em .

Sometim es st ro n g wi n d shift s the surface soil so badly

th at roots of youn g pla n ts a re u n cov ered Te n der lea ves .
,

stems o r flo we rs may be rasped by the wi n d bo rn e sa n d

,
-

grain s Plan ts with tough coverin gs such a

. s cacti a nd ,

some grasses suffer less The formation of so d greatly

, .

aids the farmer in preven tin g this in jury a n d in reduci n g

tha t cause d by co n tact with blown soil particles Where .

hot d ry win ds blow fo r several days con tin uously evapora

, ,

tion a n d tra n spiratio n a re in creas e d to such a n ex t en t

tha t plan ts a re burn ed from sudden dryin g C rops .

subjected to such w in ds prese n t a d ry blasted appear ,

anc e n o t fa r diffe re n t from frost o r fire in jury .

Win ds a re temperature regulato rs fo r they m ix the ,

a ir preve n t in g cold o r warm a

, ir from remain in g in o n e
place lon g en ough to do in jury .

1 5 S oil
. C rops do n o t th rive in hard d ry soils
.
,

im pervious to water a ir a n d root s Soils may be loose

, , .

”
en ough to blow readily o r sticky en ough to bake o r , ,

puddle when we t Soils that a

, re shallow o r un derlaid
.

with grave! a re likely to d ry out easily thereby dimin i sh ,

i n g the supply of available moisture Th e pri n cipal .

so il factors that i nflue nc e plan ts a re fertility depth u n i , ,

formity a n d water holdi n g powe r

,
-
Somet imes a plan t .
20 The P ri nc i p les oA
f g ro no my

cann ot get en ough

min eral food to
e n able it to grow ;
abn ormal arran ge
men t o r size of so il
particles may p re
ven t proper root
developme n t As .

al rea dy poin ted out ,

moderate moisture
in the soil is mo re
favora ble than ex
treme wet n ess o r
d ryn ess Decayed
.

leaves stubble a
, nd ,

man ure re n der soils

capable of holdin g
more water thus ,

in surin g a steady ,

reliable supply To .

create these desir

able condition s a nd

to co n t ro l weed s ,

in se cts a nd
, plan t
diseases a re th e
chief virtues of
cul tivation a nd

ma n urin g .

16
. P e st s .

G reat n umbers of
weed s hin der growth
by shadin g by steal ,

in g moisture a nd

plan t food a
- n d by
22 The Pri mi p les o A
f g ro no my

SUPPLEME NTARY REA IN G D

An y tex tbo o k of a
bo t n y .

Plat P y
n h s i o lo g y, .B M u
. D
gg a r , pp 1 -
1 4
.
, 400 35,
—
4 n a —
d 494 507.

(Ec o lo g y o f Pla nt s, E W rm i n g
. a .

Pla n t G eo g ra h
p y , A
. F W. S c
. hi m pe r .

Pla n t Phy s i o lo g y a n d Ec o lo g y , F E C le m e n t
. . s .

Re la ti o n Be twe e n C lim a te s a a a
n d C ro p s, C le v e l n d Abbe , We ther
Bure a u Bulle tin N o 36 . .
 CHAPTER III

P LA N T S TR UC T U RE

JUST as a loc omotive en gin eer n eeds to kn ow the parts

an d a rra n geme n t of his e n gi n e to kee p it w orki n g smoothly ,

so the farmer must un dersta n d the mecha n ism a n d fun c

tion of plan ts in order to remove obsta cles in the wa y of

their best developmen t Pla n t structure determin es
.

in a large measure pla n t fun ctio n s a n d eco n omic produc

,

tion depen ds o n the un obstru cted activity of life processes .

Therefore a clea
, r un dersta n di n g of the ki n d a n d loca

tion of activity that goes o n within the plan t will en able

the farm er to han dle his crop more satisfactorily This .

is particularly true un der ab n ormal co n ditio n s such as

pla n t disea se s the n ature a
,
n d locatio n of whi ch mu st be

un derstood fo r eff ective co n trol .

1 8 Ce lls (F ig
. . Roo ts stems leaves ba rk a
, , , nd ,

flo we rs a re so readily disti n guished that everybody kn ows

about them Rin gs in wood ri n d of melon s b ran of

.
, ,

whea t a,n d pith of co rn a re like w ise matters of common

ob se rvation N either pores in the ski n of a nim als n o r
.

openi n gs i n the leaves of pla n ts c a n be see n With the u n

a ided eye yet every Wid e awake schoolboy kn ows of them

,
-
.

Un der the microsc ope n o t on ly the stomataof the

,

lea ves c a n be see n but a vast n umber of m 1 n ut

, e pa rts

which se em to be more o r less i n depen de n t of o n e a n other

in that they a re sepa rated by walls of compact substa n ce .

In the outer ba rk of t re es n othi n g remai n s but the walls

,

23
24 The Pri nc i p les o A
f g rono my

which seem to be built of a vast n um be r of small box like ,

-

st ructures When cut across they resemble to some

.
,

exten t the cells of a hon ey comb Because of thi s resem

- .

blan ce the n ame cell was chose n

,
.

O rigi n ally cell was used to design ate o n ly the

,

i n closed space within the box like walls Examin ation of

- .

livi n g plan ts showed

that n either the ope n
in g n o r the wall was
so importa n t in the
make up of the plan t
—

as the mass of livin g

substa n ce occupyin g
the i n closu re It was .

fou n d that this liv

i n g substa n ce in ste a d
of bein g uni form was
composed of several
pa rts diffe ri n g c h ic fly

in com pactn ess .

Moreover it was dis ,

covered that each cell

took in food a nd o x y

g e n i n dep e n de n t ly of
other cells ; that o n e
F G 4
I Plat ll sh wi g n ll wa ll
ce cell migh t live 0 1 die
o n ce - ‘

u l u s ad v au l s
. .
,

( 1
B ig g i ?
e ) n ( Af t
c e
W
n
l t h
c
0 u
o e
t m at e rl ally
er

affectin g others ; that

growth con sisted in a n i n c rease of the s ize a n d n um ber

of i n dividual cells ; a n d that Whe n wo rk is do n e the ,

cells do it .

Si n ce the cell is the p rima ry co n sideratio n in the life

p rocesses of the pla n t the sub stan ce compo sin g it wa , s
na m ed protoplasm from p ro t o mean in g the first a nd, ,
 P la
n t St
ru c t
u re 25

p a
l sma, mea n i n g substa n ce As previously i n dicated .
,

the cell is composed of seve ral u n like pa rt s Beginn i n g .

at the outside the re a re ( 1 ) the compact p rotective wall

,

kn own as the cell wall ; (2) a membran ous coverin g

-

kn own as the plasma membran e Which in closes the plastic

cell con ten ts ; (3) a semi tran sparen t semi fluid substan ce
- -
,
-

somethi n g like the white of a n egg kn own a sthe cytoplasm

4
( ) a mo re co n ce n t rated pa rt of the c yt oplasm called the
n ucleus Which ret racts light a n d i s stai n ed by certain
chemical s; a n d ( 5) a n um be r of smaller bodies kn own

a s p la stid s of which the re a

,
re th ree ki n ds : ( )
1 g ree n ,

( )
2 W hi te an d ,( )
3 othe r co lo rs such as re d yellow , or , ,

brow n Seldom if eve r does the p rotoplasm fill the

.
, ,

en ti re cell Every c ell con tai n s spaces in terspe rsed Within

.

the cytoplasm kn own as vacuoles These som e tim es .

con tain solid substan ces but they a re usually fille d With a
,

solution of water a nd s a lts k n own as cell sa p

- .

1 9 Ti ssu e s
. All pa rt s of the a n im al o r plan t body
.

a re made up of cell s Ski n con si st s of fla

. tte n e d cells
with rather tough walls; muscle is mad e up of fibro us
cells that fit closely ; bon e cells a re heavily laden with

mi n e ral matte r ; a n d the b rai n is composed of layers of

variou sly shaped n e rve cells some white a

- n d othe rs gray
, .

A group of cells much alik e a n d servi n g i n a pa rticula r

wa y i s k n o wn as a tissue .

The epidermis o r pee l of a n apple the flesh the seed , , ,

the seed coats a

- n d the stem a
,
re plan t ti ssues Le aves .
,

stems roots buds flo we rs a

, ,
n d seeds a
, re all compo sed of
,

seve ral tissue s It is by mean s of u n ited cells spe cialized

.

to some e n d that the plan t pe rfo rm s its fun ction s of

takin g in water man ufacturin g sta rch o r sugar a
, n d sto r ,

i n g food T issue s comprise the pla n t structure in much

.

the same wa y that wall s plaste r fl o o rs wi n dow

, s and , , ,

doo rs make up the house .

26 The Pri m i p le s oA
f g rono my

20 Kin d
. of pl a
nt . O n ly
higher plan t s have Well
developed tissues The stru ctu re in o n e class of pla n ts
.
,

the bacteria con sists of o n e cell o r a

, tmost a fe w which
a re n o t groupe d i n to tissues Each cell pe rfo rm s all fu n c
.

tion s fo r itself As the scale of plan t life ascen d s cell s

.
,

group them selves i n to more a n d m ore complex ti ssues

un til in seed plan ts each tissue o r organ is hi ghly spe cializ ed

a n d pe rfo rm s o n ly o n e fu n ctio n .

Pla n ts alike in all essen tial poi n t s a re said to belo n g

to the same specie s; closely related species belon g i n the

same gen us Gen e ra (pl ural of gen us) that resemble
.

each othe r comprise a family Families in turn form .

orders ad these sub c lasses o r classe s A fin a

n ,
-
, l group .

in g of classes gives rise to four great g roups which make

up the pla n t kin gdom Amon g the seed plan ts kn own as
.

sperm a tophytes all the crop plan ts occur Thallophytes

, .
,

b ryophytes a n d pte ridophytes which a

,
re repre se n ted by

seaweeds mosse s a , n d fe rn s re spe ctively

, a
re the other
, ,

great groups Begin n in g with thallophytes a

. n d e n di n g

with spermatophyte s these plan ts show a gradually ,

i n creasin g complexity The re is n o exact place whe re a

.

species o r gen us o r even a group en ds with absolute c e r

, ,

tain ty It is hard to tell whethe r certai n organi sms

.

belon g to the pla n t o r to the an imal ki n gdom .

Though even bo ta n tists sometimes disagree i n regard

to the specie s to which some plan ts belon g these classe s ,

a re s uffic ie n tly d e fin ite a n d the n ame s a re s uffic ie n tly Well

chosen to en able studen ts of pla n ts to iden tify them rather

accurately by the n ames of the gen u s a n d the species .

These La ti n n ames a re n ecessa ry because the same pla n t

is popularly k n own by differe n t n ames i n diffe re n t cou n

tries a
, n d eve n in diff eren t parts of the sa me cou n try .

21 Crop pla
. nt s Pla n ts in the same group o r species
.

a re much like each othe r The tissues of all seed plan ts

.
 Pla
n t St
ruc t
u re 27

( spermatophytes ) rese mble each other e n ough to be de

scribed as a group In method of growth there a
. re t wo ,

ki n d s mon ocotyledo n ous a

, nd dicotyledo n ous Grasses .

a re mon ocotyledo n ous that is th ey have u n divided seeds

, ,
.

They grow la rge ly by i n crea se in size of cells ; dicotyl e don

ous plan ts have split seed s a n d grow by layi n g dow n ri n gs

of n e wtissue Practically all crops save o n ly the grasses

.
,

a
a
n d grai n s grow by addin g tissue in ri n gs
,
Though dif .

terin g in growth habits n d in appear

a n ce they do wo rk by simila r mea n s
, .

22 Pla
. n t pa rts C rop plan ts .

have roots stems leaves flo we rs

, , , ,

seed s a nd
, buds which a re simply

lea ves o r flo we rs in protective cover

in gs The roots an chor the plan t
.

i n the soil a n d take up water a nd

mi e al pla t food in solutio n Stems

n r n - .

hold the leaves a n d flower up i n to

the su nlight tran sport to the leaves

,

the water a nd min eral salts a nd ,

carry elaborated food from the leaves

to the roots Some plan ts use them
.

a s a place in which to store food .

This elaborated pla n t food is ma n u -

fa c tu re d by the leaves in the pre s

en ce of sun light when moisture , ,

carbo n dioxide a nd min eral salts

,

a re available The flo we rs a
. re fo re Fm 5 Ro o t h a
i rs . .
-

h (Afte r
g un firfi
f’
ru n n e rs of the seed by which the
‘ ‘

plan t tran smits life a n d reproduces

its kin d Each crop plan t is composed of a n umber of

.

tissues which en able it to perform its fun ction s .

23 Th e roo t (F igs 5
. A careful examin atio n
.

Wi th amicroscope of a lon gitudi n al sectio n of a livin g

28 The Pri nc i p le s oA
f g ran o my

r oot shows the growin g sectio n to be a sho rt dista n ce

behin d the tip The very tip is the root cap composed of
.
-

agroup of firm cells which push aside the soil particles

a s the root le n gthen s The te n der growi n g cells could
.

n o t make thei r way th rough the ha rd compact soil , .

Ju st behi n d the growin g a

rea a n d still o n the th read

l ike rootlets a re the root hairs These a re extremely

-
.

F IG . 6 .
-
t-
a
Ro o h i r i n th e so il .

small projectio n s that radiate outward from the root to

take in water a n d dis solved plan t food The root hairs - .
-

are cell s exte n di n g out from th e small root s i n to the soil .

They co n tai n withi n a thi n cell wall pla sma memb ra n e -

, ,

cytopla sm n ucleus pla stids a

, nd
, vacuole s A con e en ,
.

trate d solutio n of n umerou s salts kn ow n a s cell sap fills -

th e v a
c ul
o es .

C o n side rable
adjustability as to shape pe rmits root
hairs to force them selve s in to clo se co n ta ct with soil
n d to fiti n to eve ry space a
particles a n d arou n d eve ry a n gle .
30 The Pri n c i p les oA
f g ro no my

Water passes betwe en these c ells reachin g the xylem whi ch ,

lies partly in side a n d pa rtly outside of the p h lo ém i n roots ,

though in stems the phloem is always outside This .

altern atin g arran gemen t permits water to e n ter the tra

cheal tube s without passin g through the phloem which ,

carries the true sa p dow n wa rd from the leaves W ate r .

,

after ascen di n g the roots pa sses in to the stem still goi n g

, ,

upward in the tubes of the xylem .

Al the roots a
l n d root bra n ches of a pla n t fo rm a root
-

system If the cen tral root grows faster than the others
.
,

subordin atin g the side roots the plan t has a ta

, p root
system of which alfalfa carrots a
, , n d re d root pigweeds
,
-

a re examples In other plan t s the side roots kee p pace

.
,

with o r outgrow the ce n tral roots givin g rise to a fibro u s

,

root sy stem such as tho se of grasses a

-
, n d cereals .

24 Th e ste m (F igs 8
. . The xylem of the stem ,

in to which water passes from the root co n n ects with ,

the xylem of roots afford i n g a somewhat con tin uous

passage to the leaves The tracheal tubes by mea n s of
.
,

which this tran sfe r from roots to leaves is effected a re ,

mi n ute tubes with thicke n ed walls In fo rmatio n the .

e nd walls of cell s directly above each other gradually

dis solve out leavin g a con tin uous open in g sometimes
a n i n ch o r mo re in le n gth The walls a
. re thicken ed

spirally o r have pits in woody walls Thi s thicken in g

.

st re n gthe n s the stem while the thi n places pe rmit a more

ready pa ssage of li q u l d i n to a n d out of the tubes At .

the e n d o n e tube does n o t co n n ect directly with the n ext

, ,

but is slightly to o n e side makin g a lateral moveme n t of

water n ecessary In this way a straight lift is avoided
.
,
.

Exami n atio n of a xylem cross sectio n u n der a micro

-

scope shows the e n large d tracheal open in gs arran ge d in a

ro walte rn ati n g with a ro wof more fin e grai n e d wood tissue
-

which suppo rts the weaker tube area These wood c ells .
 Pl at S truc tu r
n e 31

t wo ”
. J: : r 1 0 ”

t d fl ‘l f 0 0 1 N A L Jl “ 7 7 0”

FI G . 8 .
-
Se c ti o n of o a
k b ac h
r n sh o win g aa
lo n g i tu d in l
nd c ro ss-se c ti o n
tissu e s
.
( Af te r O ste rh o u t ) .
32 The Pri nc i p le s oA
f g rono my

die leavi g o ly heavy cell walls Just at the outer edge

n n - .

of the xylem is a layer of thin walled cells that grow a - nd

divide leavin g n e w tube s a n d ne w wood fibe r o n the i n n e r ,

o r xylem side ; while o n the outer side it lays down a

smaller qua ntity of less compact tissue kn own as the
phloem .

Xylem phloem a , n d the growi n g layer cambium fo rm

, , ,

what is kn own as the fibro vascular bu n dles of the plan t

-
.

These a re s mall at first but if the plan t is peren n ial a

, nd

complete s a ri n g of ne w growth each year they in crease ,

in size u n til they form a serie s of wedge shaped bu n dles -

radiati n g from the ce n t ral pith Medullary rays pass .

radially betwee n the se bu n dles dividi n g them from each

othe r Alon g these medullary rays food a

. ir a n d water , , ,

move to deeper tissues When bark is stripped from a

.

willow fo r example it parts from the wood at the cam

, ,

bium expo sin g a smooth moist surface The rin gs of the

, .

woody part ma rk a division between the tubes a n d the

fin e r mo re compact wood cells ; the radial marki n gs a

, re

medullary rays ; a n d the pith i s a regio n of b roken dow n

-

cells that origin ally composed the first stem of the plan t .

Seve ra l disti n ct layers come o ff in the bark O n the .

outside is a memb ra n ous tissue the epide rmis which is

, ,

composed of fla tte n e d cells with tough walls a n d which is

covered with a ubsta ce that e de rs them water p roof

s n r n - .

Ben eath this is a regio n of th icken ed walls a n d still fa rthe r ,

ben ea th is a n a rea of co rky cell s k n ow n a s the co rtex .

‘

Sto n e cell s are scattered th roughout thi s tissue A layer .

of cells rich in starch called the e n dodermi s (en d o in n er

, , ,

a n d d ermi s s ki n ) divides the co rtex from the pericycle

, ,
.

Thi s last ri n g i s composed of thi n walled cells a n d more o r

-

less regular a rea s of stro n g walled fibro us cells kn own as

-
,

bast F in ally comes the phloem which lies n ext the

.
,

cambium a n d just in from the xylem .

 P la
n t St
ru c t
u re 33

Within the phloem is a series of cell passages which a

re ,

kn own as sieve tubes These do n o t lie di rectly above

.

each other but slightly to o n e side Dow n the sieve

,
.

tubes flows the tru e sa p which i s a solutio n of elabo

,
rated
plan t-food ma n ufactured in the leaves from the water ,

gases a n d mi n eral
, This ti ssue exte n d s i n to the roots
.
,

where in stead of lyin g outside the xylem it altern ates

, ,

po sitio n with it thu s pe rmitti n g water to e n ter the xylem

,

FI G . 9 . C o nd uc ti n g c e ll s o f th e fib o v
r -
a
sc u labu
r n d le s ( Ad a
p te d f ro m
a
.

Du g g r )
.

without first passi n g through the phloem In both root .

an d stem this sa
p leave
, s the phlo e m at i n te rvals a n d
diffuses outward in spaces betwe en the cells a n d i n ward

alo n g the m e dullary rays O ld trees a re mostly xylem .

with epide rmis broken o ff expo si n g the corky cortex , .

In most mo n ocotyledo n ous plan ts the e n tire ti ssue is i n

a firm ri n d in the outer rim of the stem which is u sually ,

joi n t e d a
n d hollow save at the joi n ts o r n odes Si n ce , .

n o cambium exists the re c a n be n o ri n gs of growth

, Ou .

D
34 The P ri nc i p les oA
f g ron o my

this acc oun t members of this group

, gra sses a n d palms

a
,

re usually sle n der fo r their height In some such as .

,

co rn the in tern odes a

,
re fille d with pith i n terspersed with

the stran d s of the fibro vascular bun dles The stem is - .

much ha rder at the n odes than at the in tern odes a n d it i s ,

smalle r in each successive in tern ode tha t is farther from

the groun d .

25 Th e le a
. f ( F igs 1 0 Water con ductin g tissue
- .

of the xylem joi n s the leaf vein s which distribute the -

F IG . 10 .
—
Sec ti o n
'

of a
le f sh o wi n g c e llul astru
r c tu re .

water th roughout the leaf fin a lly leavi n g it in the spaces

,

between the cells The cells absorb the water a

. n d al so

carbon dioxide ta ken ln thro ugh the stomataas the small ,

O pen i n gs in the epidermi s of the leaf a re called .

Th e cro ss section of a leaf shows a layer of fla

-
tte n ed
cell s with stomataat i n terval s o n b o th the upper a nd t he
lower epide rmi s With mo st ordin ary plan ts the n umber
.
,

is greate r o n the un der side O u each side of the open in g .

is a small cell so placed that whe n the leaf Wilts it falls ,

across the ope n i n g partly closin g it a n d thus reduces the ,

loss of wate r Ben eath the upper epidermis is a g roup of

.

cells con tain in g man y green pla stids If the chlorophyll .

cell s a re elo n gated ve rtically an d lie side by side as they ,

often do they a
, re k n ow n as palisade cell s Below these .

cell s lie others called spo n ge cells which a re less clos ely

kn it together thereby allowing more space betwee n

, .
 Pl at St u t
n r c u re 35

Ju st above a n ope n i n g the spo n ge cells sp read apart ,

leavin g a larger chamber (Fig .

Le af -vein s may bran ch at the base as in grapes o r from ,

a midrib as in alfalfa In this case the vein s form a sort

.

of n e t work called n etted ven a tion This is ty p ic a

'

- l o f all .

dicotyledon s Gra sse s a nd .grai n s are parallel vein ed

-
,

that i s have the vein s side by side either with o r without

,

a large cen tral o ne kn own as the midrib This kin d of .

ven ation is typical of mon ocotyledon s .

FI G . 11 .
— Sto m taa f c ana
ti o
o r n le f a .
(Af te r Du g g a
r ) .

a
Le ves may be bo e a leaf stem o r petiole o r a
rn t on -
, ,

a
t c he d directly to the plan t They may be compoun d as .

with clover alfalfa a n d the pota

, to o r simple as in the case
, ,

o f bean s T hey may

. be two -ra n ked as i n the case of

grasse s a n d the grai n s A leaf grows from a n ode wraps

.
,

closely about the stem fo r a distan ce a n d spreads out ,

ward The part that clasps about the stem is the leaf
.

sheath a n d the pa rt that grows outwa rd the leaf blade

, .

26 Th e flo we r
. Seed productio n seems to be the
.

prime purpose of all fu n ction s of the plan t which dies o r ,

36 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g rono my

discon tin ues growth as soo n as mature The flower is .

the fore run n er of the see d in that the seed is a product of

-
,

a u n ion of the flo ra l parts These flo ra l parts a re the

.

co rolla calyx stamen s a nd , pistil , , .

The co rolla the showy part of the ,

flower co n sists of petals sin gle o r

, ,

un ite d regular o r irregular i n shape

,

a n d size a n d usually of delicate tex ,

ture The calyx is compo sed of

.

firm e r ti ssue s si n gle o r u n ited usu , ,

ally regular in size a n d shape and ,

n ea rly always gree n Th e calyx is .

a n e n velope fo r the remai n der of the

flower a n d the petal s attract i n sects

useful in cross pollin atio n - .

Each stamen c o n si st s of a slen de r

stalk a n d a hollow receptacle beari n g

powdery polle n There a re from .

three to twen ty o r mo re stamen s o n

a flower a n d they a re situated i n side

the corolla u sually surroun din g the ,

pistil The pi stil con si sts of a rough

.

en ed o r divided stigma suppo rted o n

a style that reaches upward from the
ovule o r ovary at the base ( Fig .

When pollen grai n s reach the stigma

they germin ate a n d se n d lo n g sle n der ,

F IG . 12 Pi stil
. f tubes dow n the style to the ovule
o .

l g u m sh wi g f
e e
Di ssolvi n g its way to the ovule this
o n er
tili a
,
ti o
z n .

tube comes in co n tact with the egg

cell which it fertilizes causin g a seed to begin developmen t
, .

Flowers a re bo rn e si n gly o r i n clusters If the cluster .

is a clo se compact o n e such as re d o r white clover it is

, , ,

called a head A cluster a rran ged like oats with lo n g

.
,
38 The P ri nc i p les oA
f g ro no my

soil The se co n tain buds Which Will start both stems a

. nd

roots of n e w pla n ts By this mea n s sod is formed a

. nd ,

plan ts spread u n dergrou n d .

Ma n y plan ts such as beets carrots alfalfa a

,
n d da n de
, , ,

lio n s form root—crow n s Which a

,
re closely u n ited stem a
, nd

root Buds n ecessary to se n din g up n e w plan ts c a

. n

develop o n ly i n stem parts Root-c rown s a n d rootstocks

.

a re simply m o d ific a
ti o n s adapted to perfo rm this fu n ctio n .

SUPPLEME NTARY READ IN G

An y te x tbo o k o f bo ta
ny

Plan t An a
.

to m y W C Ste ve n s
, . . .

Plan t Ph y s io lo g y B M
, . ug g a
. D
r, p p 1 5 63
—
. .

Cy c lo pe d i a o f Ame ri c a n Ag ri c u lture , Vo l II, p p 1 1 22

-
. .

J
.

Me tho d s o f Pla n t Hi sto lo g y , C Ch mbe rl in

. a a .
 C HAPTER IV

P LA N T F U N C TI O N S

SP EC ALI I higher plan ts ha

! ATIO N in
sgive n rise to a great
n umbe r a n d va riety of st ru ctural tissues This diffe re n ce .

presupposesdiffere n tfun ction s tha t is each tissue pe rform s , ,

a d efin ite kin d of work Moreover it is hi ghly probable .

,

that tissues slowly develope d o n accou n t of the n ecessity

of the work In the struggle fo r exis ten ce the in di vidual
.
,

pla n t with best adapted mean s of d oin g esse n tial work

-

thrive d best Gradually pla n ts with stru ctures best

.

fitted to carry o n the ac tivities have c rowded o ut others .

Sin ce specializ ed work is more e fle c tiv e plan ts more a

’
nd ,

more differen tiated ha ve gradually bee n evolved This

,
.

see m s to ha ve been much more true o n lan d where con di ,

tion s varied more than they did i n the ocean The greater .

n umber of force s such as light soil textu re varyin g mois

, , ,

ture a
,
n d temperature differe n ces n aturally dema n ded ,

greater complexity i n re spon se This i n turn req uired .

, ,

expression i n a way co n ducive to the best good of the

plan t .

30 Grow
. th Though higher plan ts a
. re complex at

maturity they have but fe wtissues just after germ i n ation

, .

As growth proceeds the ori gi n al sprout develops i n to

,

leaves stem a , n d roots Buds bra n ches flo we rs seed

, .
, , , ,

a n d rootstoc k s o r tube rs come later A rapid differen tia .

tion of tissues accompani es in crease in size a n d i n some ,

ca ses ru n s ahead of it Ma n y pla n ts develop t racheal .

39
40 The P ri nc i p les oA
f g ron o m y

tubes sie ve tubes cambium cortex a

, , n d epide rmis While
, ,

th e pla n t is still small .

G rowth whethe r measured by the i n crease i n size o r

,

by the developme n t of n e w tissues c a n come o n ly from ,

e nlargeme n t o r i n crease in the n umber of cells Each

, .

process is partly respo n sible At first the origin al cells .

,

in crease in size b ut soo n they reach a poin t where little

,

more growth results u n less the cell divides In all crop .

plan ts both p rocesses g o o n at the same t im e

, .

Thin walled cells in growi n g parts of a plan t consta n tly

-

divide a n d redivid e formi n g n e w cell s The first sign of .

cell-d ivision is in the n ucleu s which begin s to cha n ge from ,

a gran ular to a fibro u s mass Shortly it see ms to be .

composed en tirely of stra n d s These split len gthwi se .

a n d the n c ro sswi s e formi n g pairs of small bodie s which

arran ge them selve s in two pa rallel row s ac ross the middle

of the cell Fin e thread like stran ds gra

. d ually pull these
-
,

half to o n e e n d a n d half to the oth er e n d

, He re they .

pa rtly un ite Th e two move farther a

. part a n d become

di stin ct F ollowi n g this the cytoplasm begin s to show

.
,

sign s of separation by developin g a con cen tra ted layer n ear

the middle a n d betwee n the t wo n uclei Whe n this has .

harde n ed i to a cell wall cell division is complete a

n - -
,
n d two

cells have come from the origi n al o n e In a few hours .

,

o r a few days the two n e w cells may d ivide givi n g rise

,

to more n e w cell s each behavi n g a s the first so lo n g as

,

growth con tin ues in that regio n of the pla n t .

Youn g pla nts at first grow throughout but soo n d ic o ty ,

le d o n o us pla n ts develop a cambi um a n d g row t h disco n

tin n es in othe r parts except at the tip of elo n gatin g
bran ches All later thicke n i n g results from ca
. mbial
growth This rin g of cells remai n s thi n walled a
. nd -

active buildi n g first o n e side to the xy lem a

, n d the n o n the

other to the phloem Just what determin es which cell .

 P la io n s
n t F u nc t 41

r emain s active i n the cambium a n d whic h beco mes

p e r

ma n en t tissue in the xy lem o r phloem is n o t un de rstood .

Ea rly growth usually p rod uce s abu n da n t t ra ch eal tubes

i n o rder to get water to the leaves Thi s is followed by .

a ri n g of smaller mo re compact cell s fo r support

, .

Mo n ocotyledo n ous plan ts lack this power of se con dary

thicken i n g because they have n o cambium C e reals
, .

a n d gras s es gai n mo st of their thick n ess i n early growth .

La ter i n crease in size is largely i n crea se in le n gth o r

sto rage of food i n the seed o r stem .

3 1 Re spira
. ti o n O f th e va rious n eeds of plan ts o r
.

an imal s n o n e req uiresmo re i n sta n t g ra

, tific ati o n tha n tha t
of oxygen A person c a. n live day s without food hou rs ,

Without wate r but o n ly a fe w mi n utes without a

, ir So .

it is with the plan t F ru it i n storage n o t well ve n tilated

.

so o n suffe rs from sto rage scald Alfalfa dies i n water .

logged soils largely because a ir ca n n ot pa ss th rough the

water to the roots A la ye r of clayey sedimen t may
.

ca use the same result if it packs tightly .

Al though a n abu n da n ce of a ir is at ha n d it must reach ,

the separate cells to be of serv ice Therefo re the oxy ge n .

,

must n o to nly be in the so il o r be i n co ntact with the plan t ,

but it mus tget i n side the plan t a n d ci rculate with s u ffic ie n t

freed om to ca rry a supp!y to livi n g cells deep withi n the

tissues Some oxy ge n i s taken i n to plan t s i n water some

.
,

through po res o r le n ticels i n the epide rmis but most ,

through the stomata O n ce in side space s betwee n the

.
,

cells a flo rd cha n n els of moveme n t

’

Somet im es these .

i n tercellular spaces occupy more vol ume than the cells .

A plan t-cuttin g thru st through a co rk un til th e cut s e n d ’

is u n der wa te r gives o fl bubbles of a ir if there be a n other

’

hole i n the stoppe r to p reve nt pressure Th is show s that .

a ir passes th rough the pla n t .

Growth also requi res oxygen Seed s i n a i r tight ve ssel s

.
-
42 The P ri nc i p les oA
f g rono my

will cease to grow when the a A c oa

'

i r is used u p . t o f oil
over water con tai ni n g se ed greatly delays germi n atio n ,

because oxygen is u n able to pe n etrate the oil O u the .

other han d seed s germin ate freely in wate r n o t so treated

, .

Ac tual respiratio n takes place i nside the cell which

partly decomposes i n doin g work O xy ge n is n ecessary
.

to the p roper b reaki n g down of cellul ar compou n ds .

Food a n d water a re also n ecessa ry to repa ir the wear .

C ells a re con s t a n tly losin g weight as p rotoplasmic sub

stan ces become gas a nd pass o ff they a re likewise

ga in in g weight as food is made i n to protoplasm This .

excha ge of worn o ut protoplasm fo r food which becomes

n -

n e w body tissue i srespi ratio n . C arbo n dioxide is excreted

a lon g with water a n d othe r products of slow combustio n .

Potatoe s a n d apples soo n wilt i tkept i n a light fairly ,

warm place because of the loss of wate r a

,
n d ca rbon

dioxide due to respiration which i n creases much in ra pidity

as tempe rature a n d light i n c rease Agai n if a plan t be
.
,

made to grow in distilled water in the dark it also loses ,

weight In this case the wate r supplie s n o food a

.
,
nd ,

darkn ess preven ts the plan t from man ufacturi n g a ny .

O n ly respiratio n is active ; it ha s used substan ce Whic h

thro u g h lack of food it is preve n ted from replaci n g .

32 Ph oto syn th e si s
. . O rdin ary plan ts growin g in dark
places do n o t gain in weight ; their leaves lack the char
a c te ris tic gree n color of n orm al crop pla n ts a n d the bu ild

in g of ti ssue c a n g o o n o n ly fo r a short t im e Both sun

.

light a n d the g ree n substa n ce k n ow n as chlo rophyll a re

essen tial to in crease of d ry weight Youn g seed lin gs grow

.

in darkn ess if othe r con dition s a re favo rable yet n o

,

i n crease takes p lace fo r they move food from the seed

,

sto rehouse to growi n g ti ssue The quan tity of food ava

. il
able mu st last u n til the root sc a n supply wate r a nd m in e ral

salts a
, n d u n til leaves have reached i n to light a nd a ir
 Pl a i mw
n tFu ne t

a
nd become gree n . U nde r favorable con dition s the plan t
a the fee d itself
c n n .

Water disso lved salts a

, nd gases a
re take n by the
, in
plan t From the se ra
. w food p roducts it is able to make
g rai n st r
,aw leaves fr u it an d roots co mpo s
, , ed of su g,ar ,

starch cellulo se protei n fats ash a

, , n d various other , , ,

substan ces C a rbo n dioxide

. pre se n t in a very small ,

perce n tage in the a i r e n ters the leaves throu gh the ,

stomata Diff usi n g i n the spac es be twee n the spo n ge a

. nd

pali sade cells it comes i n contactwith water that is maki n g

,

its way i n the opposite directio n C hlorophyll wi th the .

help of su n light u ni tes water a n d ca rbo n dioxi de i n to

suga r C o n siderable oxygen is liberated i n thi s process

.

i nfin ite ly g reate r quan tities tha n the plan t uses in respira
tion In conse quen c e of this oxygen is given o ff by the
.
,

plan t This oxyge n comes n o t from the breathi n g of

.

the plan t but from the ma n ufacture of food i n the leave s

,

which is called photosyn thesis ( from p ho to light a n d from , ,

sy nthesi s to put togethe r)

, C hlo rophyll i n a n u nk n ow n .
,

wa y a
, c compl i shes this ma n uf actu re of pla n t food afte r -

which the plan t n ouri shes itself The followin g chemical .

rea c tio n show s the diff e re n t beg inn in g a n d e n d p roducts

6 C 02 6 H20 Co Oe 6 02 .

Sugar, u n der the action of certai n chemica l fe rme n ts ,

called enzymes , chan ges to starch a n d this to oil o r c e llu

lose , a
nd m s o me pla n ts , to wood But ni trogen c a lcium .
, ,

potassium pho sphoru s sulfu r iron a

,
n d magn esi um a , re , ,

brou ght from the soil N itro gen a n d s ul fur togethe r with
.

a little phospho ru s a re uni ted i n to a n othe r class of c o m

poun ds called pro tei n s a gen era l term fo r a n y o rga n ic

,

pro duct co n taini n g n itrogen .

Such is the way in which plan ts man ufacture the ra w

in org an ic eleme n ts i n to products they c a n us e All these .
44 The Prin c i p les of Ag ron o my

compou n ds fin d use i n various parts of the plan t Th is .

u n ion of ra w elemen t s i n to usable compoun d s is e sse n tial

to the existen ce o f all life .

33 O sm o si s
. F o r a lon g tim e it wa
. s kn ow n that
wate r a n d n ourishme n t a re take n f rom the soil by plan ts ,

yet n o clear u n de rsta n di n g existed a s to h o w they e n te r

o r what part they ta ke i n plant growth Some thought .

the pla nt feeds en tirely o n water a nd ,

others that soil particles as such , ,

e n ter the plan t Je thro Tull about .

,

1 67 4 advocated th at i n te rtillage be
,

practiced to fin e the soil in orde r that

it might e nte r the pla n t Just ho w .

he expected this en tran ce to be made

is n o t clea r Soo n c a me discoveries
.

showi n g that n either water n o r soil

alon e i splan t food but that certai n soil -
,

elemen t s water a n d ca rbo n dioxide a

,
re ,

un ited by photo syn thesis to form the

material s out of whi ch plan ts bui ld
thei r ti ssues The in take of carbon by .

leaves wa s established ; the e n t ran ce

Em 1 3 Ap p aa t s r u

u eg d { d m sm t
o e on
of wate r with
e
mi n e ral salt s i n solutio n

( o m by o smosis was proved

F Kn owled ge
3
0 11 r

133 2
.

of the se basic prin ciples e n abled the

scien ce of plan t productio n to advan ce wi th hi therto
un kn own rapidity .

Kern els of g ra in germi n ated o n wet cloth o r pape r over

,

a box of wet san d o r sa wdust develop root ha , irs fo r the -

absorption of water a n d min e ral food Th e seed li n gs .

will grow a n d use wate r as will a ge ra n ium cutti n g pas s

,
ed
through a stopper with the cut e n d u n der wate r Roots .

will develop the plan t will con ti n ue to grow a

,
n d the ,

q ua n tity of wate r i n the bottle will d im i n ish though ope n

46 The Pri nc i p le s oA
f g ron o my

of wate r O smosi s agriculturally is the process by

.
, ,

Which water from the dilute solutio n flo ws through a

semi pe rmeable memb ran e i n to the more con cen tra
- ted ,

in a n attempt to eq ualize the st re n gth of the sol utio n .

It is by osmo si s a n d due to o s m otic pressure tha t roots

take i n wate r Root hairs co n tain con ce n trated solutio n s
.
-

i n the cell-sap which se t up a diffe re n ce in osmotic pressure

betwee n the cell a nd the water outside Studen ts of .

physical chemi st ry have fou n d that this pressure is en or

mou s amou n ti n g i n man y cases to ton s a
, n d that it i n ,

creases as the d iffe re n ce in solution co n ce n tration s in -

creases a nd a, s the tempe ratu re rises. So lon g as the .

cell sap is more co n ce n trated than the soil solution water

-
,

passes i n ward If st ron g solution s a . re b rought i n co n tact

with the root hairs osmosis ceases o r goes in the opp osite
-
,

directio n a n d the cells become fla bby a n d wilt This .

is o n e in jury cau sed by st ron g alkali .

Pla n ts seem able to exerci se a powe r of selective a bso rp

tio n ; that is if salts a re n o t u s
, ed by the plan t they en ter ,

o n ly in small qua n tities ; while the useful elemen ts g o in

rathe r freely Thi sca reful ad justme nt helps to keep out
.

harmful sub sta n ces a n d to take in the ra wmi n eral pla n t

foods Pla n t cells full of wate r a
. re rigid a n d hold their

shape As o n e loses wate r osmotic pressure causes more

.
,

to en ter Throughout the pla n t there is some move

.

me n t of water due to osmo si s .

34 Tra
. nsp i rati o n N o t o n ly do roots
. take i n wate r

e n ough to main ta i n the pla n t i n a rigid c o n ditio n but ,

they must in additio n main tai n a stream that passes

, ,

en tirely through the pla n t Becau se the water evaporate d .

from the leaves is in the form of vapor it ca n n ot be seen ,

u n der ordin ary co n ditio n s O n cool mo rn i n gs however .

, ,

d roplets of moisture a re ofte n visible o n the su rface of

leaves Water vapor escapi n g by mean s of the stomata

.
, ,
 Pla io m
n tF u n c t 47

p atly
r con den ses when c ooler a ir is reached Eve n o n .

hot days in livi n g o r scho ol ro oms tran spiratio n

, , a s
this givi n g o ff of water is called ca n be demo n st rated

by coverin g a lea fv house pla n t such a

- s a ge ran ium wi th a
clea n glass j a r o r ope n

m outh e d bottle In .

two o r three hours the

t ran spired water will
colle ct o n the glass in
d rops a
, n d u n der favo r

a ble co n ditio n s with a

hea lthy plan t Will drip
dow n the sides .

Pla n ts tra n spire e n or

m ous quan tities Fo r
.

ea ch po u n d of d ry sub
sta n ce they add to thei r

weight by growth over ,

200 pou n ds of wate r

have passed through
the plan t . Measure
men ts of tran spiratio n
show that about 300
pou n ds of wate r a re

requi red fo r o n e pou n d

of growth in co rn a nd

about 500 pou n ds fo r F ro 1 4 C

. m p a i s . f w
—
at ou s d w i t
rh on o er e
Wh a t pmd Aft W d t )
'

d e “ 08 er l 8 08
o n e pou n d of growth 1 n
.

wheat ( Fig . A pi n t of wheat weighs a pou n d but 60 ,

gallo n s of water a re n ecessa ry to p roduce it If the st raw .

weighs as much as the grai n three 40 gallo n ba rrel s full of

,
-

water a re tra n spi red in growi n g the pi n t of wheat This .

quan tity of water u sed in growin g a poun d of d ry substan c e

iscalle d the water cost of d ry matter fo r the pa rticula r plan t
- .
48 The P ri ne ip les '
oA
f g ron o my

C rops growi n g i n hot sun shi n y re gion s tra n spi re more

,

water than in humid regio n s Dry a ir wi n d s poor soil

.
, , ,

weak pla n ts a, nd a n abu n da n ce of water in the soil cause

more water to be used fo r d ry matter produced Desert .

plan ts a n d d routh resista n t crops have the powe r to hold

-

so much water in their ti ssues agai n st the forces of tra n

spiratio n that they do n o t die from wilti n g Some plan ts .

also have the power of developi n g few o r man y stomata

acco rdi n g to whether they have s mall o r l a rge qua n tities

of water at thei r disposal So me plan ts tra n spire much

.

more water than others ; most pla n ts seem to be wasteful

du ri n g the pe riod of bloom ; a n d quick growi n g crops use -

more water than steady growin g o n es Darkn ess also

— .

dimin i shes t ra n spi ratio n co n siderably .

3 5 Tra. n slo c a
ti on Sin ce all the starch a
. nd other
pla n t food is elaborated in the leaves this must be moved
-
,

o r the leaves would be the la rgest pa rt of the pla n t En .

zymes chan ge sugar in to starch fo r storage a n d then to ,

sugar aga in when movin g is begun The solubility of .

sugar allows the sap stream to carry it to the fruit stem , ,

o r root fo r u se o r fo r st orage F o r ex a m ple great q uan

.
,

tities of su ga r o r starch a re sto red i n roots of c a rrots to

be moved to the flo we rs a nd s eed when the plan t matures

a nd s
°

e e d is se t .F ruit t rees move food from wood to the

fru it Seed a
. n d fruit ofte n grow so rapidly that sto ra ge
in early summer i s n ecessary This movemen t of elabo
.

rated food from o n e pa rt of the pla n t to an othe r is called

t ran slocation Most c rop plan t s become more o r less

.

porou s in stem o r root s o r in both durin g the seed settin g

, ,
-

period owin g to the t ran sfer of food material .

36 Tra . n spo rtati o n Water is tran sported upward

.

through the t racheal tubes a n d sap do w n ward th ro ugh ,

the sieve tubes o r rad ially alon g medullary rays Sa

, p .

ca n flo w dow n largely by gravity a n d radially by c a p il

 Pla i o ns
n tF u ne t 49

la
ri ty , or wick action Both these forces a . id osmotic
pre ssu re in fo rcin g the water upwa rd Wh ateve r factors .
'

a re at wo rk th e wate r seem s to have little mo re t rouble

,

i n reachi n g leaves o n a t ee top 200 feet a bove groun d

‘

r -

tha n those o n a st rawbe rry pla n t .

A geran ium c utti n g with the cut e n d immersed in

-

re d in k Will soo n show red stai n s movi n g upward They .

will fin a lly exte n d alo n g the leaf vei n s causi n g red blotches
-

in the leaves where the l iquid is released i n to the spaces

betwe e n the cells A plan t stem seve ral in ches in len gth
.

will be t raversed in a few mi n utes The rate of movemen t .

v aries from a fe w i n che s to severa l feet a n hou r .

37 Re spon se .Nearly all plan ts te n d to grow verti

cally even o n a steep hillside where it would seem that
,

g ro w th at right a n gles to the slope would a ff o rd the

firm e st root attachme n t Most plan ts in win dows lean
.

toward the light a n d must be tu rn ed eve ry fe w days

,

to preven t their becomi n g o n e—sided Root s in wet soils .

, ,

ne a rly always grow i n the su rface laye r w h ile o n d ry , ,

l
we l d rai n ed soils they pen etrate deeply
-
, It is coun te d .

agood practice to withhold irrigation water as lon g as

po ssible in o rd er to promote deep rootin g Ox yge n as well .

as water limits the growth i n swamped soil s Man y .

plan ts do n o t thrive save o n soils rich in l ime Alfalfa .

is a n ota ble example .

SU PPLE ME NTARY READ IN G

Any te x tk of bo ta
ny .

Plan t Phy s io lo g y B M
,
. ug g a
r D
J
. .

Pla n t Phy sio lo g y , L os

. t .

Pla n t Phy sio lo g y , G . J

Pe irc e .

a
Cy c lo pe d i o f Ame ri c an Ag ric ulture , Vo l II, pp 1 1 22
—
. . .
 C HAPTER V

THE P LA N T AS A F AC TO R Y

N O TWI T STAN DIN G thei r complexity , plan ts a

H re simple

in their purpose if they c a n be said to have such All thei r .

en ergies a re be n t toward s eed p roduction o r toward some

othe r mean s of con tin ui n g the species, that is , of tran sm it
tin g life a n d cha racteristics to an othe r gen eration Sin .

g le n e ss of a im seems to sho w the o rgan izatio n of the pla n t

a nd t he variety of ways in which it attempts to preserve
itself in the struggle fo r existen ce Power to gather
.

ra w food s ad elaborate them in to tissue buildi n g com

n -

poun d s, storage of these products i n some part of the

pla n t again st the tim e of greater n eeds , a n d adj ustme n t

to su rrou n din gs a re n othi n g mo re tha n ma n ifestatio n s

of the st ruggle to perpetuate the species .

In the prod uct s of the plan t m a n is vitally i n terested

, .

Somet imes it is the roots sometimes the stem the see d

, , ,

o r the fruit co n tai n i n g sto red sta rch suga r oil o r pro
, , ,

tein that draws his en e rg y in p roducin g a n d ha rvesti n g .

O ften it is just the dead cell walls such as wood cork o r

-
, , ,

straw ; but othe r tim es he takes the plan t in the midst

of life to get immature stems fo r forage sap fo r ru bber o r
,

tu rpen tin e o r cell con ten ts fo r sugar Every part of the

,
-
.

pla n t has been put to use ; roots stems leaves flo we rs

, , , ,

seed s a
, n d sap a ll furn i sh useful products
, Fo r example .
,

beets a n d ca rrots a re roots hay

, is both stem a n d lea f ,

grain a n d bea n s a re s e eds ,some perfumery is made of

b lossoms a
,
n d can e-suga r is a sap product Dru gs a nd .

50
 The P l at a
n s aF at c o ry 51

stimulan ts such a , s opium tobacco a ,

n d qui n i n e come , ,

from substa n c es kn own as alkaloids that may be foun d i n

a n y part .

38 In te rd e pe n d e n c e o f pla
. n ts a nd a ni ma ls If o n ly .

plan ts were upon the earth then the p rovision of n ature

,

fo r plan ts to give up ox y gen a n d use carbo n dioxi de a nd

fo r ani mals to reverse these p rocesses would be useles s , .

An imal s fee d upon plan ts di rectly a n d i n d i rectly ; di rectly

,

when they ae pla t eaters a

r n — n d i n di re ctly whe n t hey a
,
re

fle sh-eaters ; fo r the prey of ca rn ivo rous a n im a ls either

ate plan ts o r a n im als that ate plan ts O n the other
,
.

han d decayed bo n es fle sh a
, ,
n d ma n ure resto re to the
,

soil a nd a ir substa n ces upo n w hi ch the pla n t s feed either

directly o r in directly ; directly when plan t food is at o n ce -

taken from the broken -d own tissues a n d i n directly when ,

these deca yin g sub stan ces promote the g rowth of soil ba c

teria whi ch take atmospheric ni trogen a n d make compou n d s

that the plan t absorbs Soil devoid of o rgan ic matter

.

decayin g plan t a n d a ni mal substa n ce i s alm ost useles s

o n accou n t of its bei n g comp a It c a
'

ct n h old wate r
.

fo r o n ly a short time ; a ir an d hea t ca n n ot pass through

it readily .

Man y plan ts req uire limeston e soil s fo r developmen t .

Part of the lime st o n e ledges supplyi n g lime is compos e d

largely of shells of small an imals that extracted l im e from
the water in Which they lived These an imal s probably .

fed o n water plan ts a n d b reath e d oxygen released as

,

by plan t processes In the econ omy of n ature plan ts

.
,

a n d a ni mal s n eed each othe r .

39 De pe n d e n c e o f m a
. n o n pla n ts Si n ce a n im als .

depe n d o n plan t s fo r their food m a n who i n tu rn depe n ds

a
, ,

o n pla n ts a n d a n imals ma y be r
,
eg rded as bei n g ulti
mately depe nden t o n plan ts It is n o t d iffic ult to see .

that almost a ll huma n food save only a few min erals ,

52 The P ri nc i p les oA
f g ro no my
O

such as salt com es e n tirely as a result of life processes

, .

Milk cheese bu tter fle sh a

, ,
n d eggs a re body p roducts
, ,

of an imal s; brea d fruit vegetables a nd , gree n s , ,

a re pla n t co n t ributio n s F u rthermo re they a re p roduced

.
,

almost en tirely by domesticated plan ts a n d a n imals .

C lothi n g likewi se come s la rgely from the same sources

, , .

C loth m ade from wool ha ir cotton o r fla x fibe r is just, , ,

as truly the p roduct of an im al s a n d pla n t s a sa re the ski n

garme n ts of the Eskim o o r the lea f a n d ba rk raime n t of

the t ropica l savage ; furs gloves shoes a n d st raw hats , , ,

a re made di rectly from p roducts of the life process es .

Fo rme rly most dwelli n g pl a

, ces were built of wood a nd

leave s o r of skin s Modern buildin gs con sist largely of

.

brick sto n e co n crete a

, , n d met a l but woo d is use d in , ,

la thi n g fo r flo o rs door a
,
n d wi n dow frames fo r ro o fin g a
,
nd , ,

fo r w a lls in m a n y case s Fu rni tu re a n d useful tool s will .

fo r years to come if n o t a lways be co mpo sed largely of

, ,

wood Atte n tio n to fo rest ry i n dicates that m a

. n realizes

this a n d is m a k ing a n e ffo rt to preserve hi s tim be r re

sources Moreover fa
. r back i n the histo ry of ceme n t
, ,

brick clay some rock a

-
,
nd s ome met a ls life ha s played
, ,

a part Especially is thi s true wherever carbo n ate com

.

pou n d s exist sin ce others as well as lim esto n e have re

'

su lte d from a n o rga n ic proces s somewhe re i n the chai n of

i n teraction of the elemen ts .

Th e ca rbo n dioxide u sed i n ph o to s y n th e sis w a s the

o rigin al source n o t o n ly of all ca rbo n ate products but of ,

all substan ces such as Wood coal petroleum a n d n atu ral , , ,

g a s. C ombu stio n of these mate r ials yields heat e n e rg y

u sed to warm dwellin g a n d o ffic e to furn ish po wer fo r ,

d rivin g the en gin es of factory a n d t ra n spo rtatio n a n d to ,

gen erate elec tricity fo r both power a n d light .

An imal s themselve s a re di rect bea re rs of bu rde n s a nd

d rawers of loads Horses pull tillage implemen ts a

. nd
54 The P ri n c i p les oA
f g ron o my

were less disturbed Ste rn n ecessity d rove m a

. n to do

mesticate plan ts fo r food a n d shelter an d an imal s as ,

assistan ts in h un ti n g an d i n movi n g about O rigin al ly .

,

all tam e c reatures came fro m n ative haun ts If they .

were useful the most sa

, vage brutes were gradually
bro ught un der subjectio n by m a n w ho alo n e could use
fire a n d ma ke machin es to thro w arrows o r sto n es Weaker .

than man y an im als a n d pla n ts he studied their ways ,

an d fou n d ways of subjectin g the useful o n e s Seed was .

plan ted in protected places a n d other pla n ts we re kept

out Then tillage began a

. nd m a n too k up a fi x ed habi

a
t tio n .

Some plan ts a n d an im als have been so lo n g cultivated

that wild relatives have disappeared The earliest .

reco rds tell us that wheat barley a n d alfalfa we re culti

, ,

y ated at the dawn of civilization C on stan tly n e w plan ts

.

a re bei n g u sed fo r crops In the cases of plan ts recen tly

.

domesticated the wild relatives a

,
re still i n the fie ld s .

Wild plum s a n d ro ses n ative g rasses an d vetches may

, ,

still be fou nd but the plan ts from which whea

, ta n d co rn

came have disappeared Plan ts n o t yet k n own could .

doubtless be fou n d th at would serv e m a n a n d as n e w ,

varieties appear man y useful plan ts will be developed

,

41 Pla
.

. n t c o m po un d s Hun d reds of kin ds of sub

.

sta n ces a re fou n d in plan t s Some of the se m a n fin d s use

.

ful a n d app ropriate s fo r h i s o w n u se So closely related .

are these compo un ds that they may be in cluded i n eight

groups: ( 1 ) water (2) carbohyd rates (3) protein s (4)
, , ,

ash (5) fats a

, n d oils ( 6) aromatic substan ces (7 ) med ic
, ,

in al properties a nd ( )
8
, acid s In im po rta n ce the last
.

three rank fa r below the firs t five yet eve n these a re n o t

,

to be n eglected .

42 Fla. vo rs pe rfumes a
, n d other characteristic odors
, ,

such as lemo mi t a ose water have v a

n n , n d r -
, rio us uses , .
 The P l at a
n s aFa
c t ry o 55

Flavors of fruit a nd n uts serve to distin guis h them .

C arbo n , hyd rogen , a nd oxygen in various quan tities

an d arra n geme nt compose these substan ces Th e d rugs
.

an d stimul a n ts , such as mo rphi n e , st rychn i n e , a

n d q ui ni n e ,

usually co n tain n itrogen in a d dition ; while the acids of

fru its , such as malic acid in apples a n d tomatoes , cit ric

acid in citr us fruits a

- n d curr an ts , a n d ta rtaric acid i n

grapes , con sist of carbon , hyd rogen , a n d oxyge n These .

three classes of compoun ds promote palatabili ty give ,

variety in crease healthful n ess o r stim ulate the n ervous

, ,

sy stem rather th a n se rve a s co n structive foods .

43 Wa
. te r composes from 60 to 90 pe r ce n t of the
weight of green plan ts ( 1 ) It form s a p art of the cell
.

con ten t keepin g the cell s full a n d rigid ; ( )

2 it acts as a
solve n t which carries mi n era l salts a n d di stributes elab

o rated plan t food s;-

(3) it regulates the temperature of
pla n ts by main tai n i n g a con stan t stream from root to
leaf where evaporation which uses muc h hea t reduces
, ,

the temperature to n ormal In the a ni mal body water

.
,

performs similar fu n ction s The ext ra succulen ce caused

.

by water in pl a n t tissues i n c rease s palatability Dry .

feed a n d water see m to lack somethi n g that gree n feeds

possess particularly fo r the use of milch cows

, .

44 Ca
. rb o h y d ra te s co n sist of carbo n hyd roge n a, nd ,

oxyge n usually in the ratio C a(H20 )y They comprise .

from 8 0 to 95 pe r ce n t of the d ry weight of plan ts a nd a re

ma d e from wate r a n d ca rbo n dioxide . Starch suga r a nd

, ,

cellulose occu r in the plan t scattered widely throughout

,

the tissues C ellulose makes up all woody tissue a

. n d the

stron g cell walls Starch is the usual form of storage

- .
,

while sugar is ordi n arily the temporary form though in ,

sugar can e a
- n d suga r beets it is o n e of the sto rage com
-

p o u n ds W
. he n ca rbohyd rates a re digested by m an an d
beast they supply work a
, n d heat e n ergy a n d may be
 6 The Pri nc i ples of Ag ron o my

made i nto fat N ever however do they become a part

.
, ,

of the muscle ligame n ts a , n d co n n ective tissue Slow

,
.

combustion in the cells uses t hese foods Starch a nd .

sugars a re easily digested but cellulose ofte n design ated , ,

as crude fibe r is but partly digested However it fur

,
.
,

n ishes bulk wh ich is n ecessa ry

, .

45 Pro te in compoun ds co n tai n n itroge n a

. n d sulfur

a nd s o metimes phosph orus O ut of these foods m u sc u .

,

la r co nn ect ive a
, n d vital tissues of the body a
,
re formed .

F lesh stomach i n testin es lun gs n erves a

, ,
n d b rain use , , ,

these in direct composition Ma n eat s meat to supply .

these n eeds because plan ts a re n o t usually rich i n n itro g

e n o u s substa n ce An imal bodies must first get them

.

from plan ts whi ch c o n tain them in storage Le aves .

,

embryo of seed s a n d a layer of cells j ust ben eath the seed

,

coat a re rich in n it rogen Le gum in ous pla n ts a re much

.

richer in p rotein tha n g rasses o r ce real s; a n d legum e s eed ,

such a s pea s an d bea n s a re c o mposed l a rgely of p rotei n

,

compoun ds Protein s then a

. re both scarc e a
,
n d vital ; ,

they cost about three tim es as much a s carbohyd rates if

o rdin ary prices a re co n sidered .

46 Ash comprise s from a fraction of o n e to seve ral

.
,

but usually less than 2 pe r cen t of the d ry matter It , .

is scattered through the plan t as ston e c ells of the stem

a n d leaf in the cell sap t
,
- o promote osmosi s a n d i n the ,

protoplasm it se lf A small quan tity en ters in to the

.

composition of protei n It is called a sh becau se it te

.

main s so after burni n g An im als con cen t rate t hi s m in

.

eral in the bon es a

, n d teeth a n d use it i n smalle r p ropor ,

tio n s in blood a n d flesh .

47 Fa ts a
. n d o ils a re simply carbo hyd rates rich in

ca rbon a n d poo r i n hyd rogen a n d oxy ge n See d emb ryos .

a n d the fle s h of n uts a re the storage tis sues All grain s .

con tai n some : corn about 5 pe r cen t ; seed of fla x sun ,

 The P l a s aF a
nt a c t ry o 57

flo we rs, cotton mustard rape a ,

n d poppies a re about
, ,

o n e thi rd
- oil ; pean uts palm n uts a nd cocon uts c o n
,
-
,

tain from 45 to 67 pe r cen t F ats a n d oils i n the an imal .

,

body produce fa
, t a nd supply en erg y In computin g .

ratio n s fo r liv e stock they a

- re coun ted , times as valu
abl e fo r en ergy produ ction as sugar a n d sta rch .

48 Th e pla
. n t fa cto ry Si n ce plan ts a n d an imals use
.

the sam e foods a n d si n ce the an im al is n o t able to com

,

poun d its o wn the an imal draws its food from the plan t
‘

, .

True the elemen ts a

, re the same a n d i n the same quan tity

before a n d afte r photosy n the sis but they a re i n en ti rely ,

differen t relation s I ron made in to pig iron a. n d the n -

in to watch sprin gs is the sa me substan ce in differen t

forms ; but just a s the watch maker could make n o use -

of the pig iron so the an ima

-
l ,
a n d the plan t fo r that

matte r ca n make n o use of ca rbo n dioxide potassium , ,

n itrogen phosphorus o r iron un til they have passed

, ,

through the factory of the leaf a n d bee n made over i n to

sugar sta , rch protein o r oil Water alon e is used in

, , .

the compou n d that exists in n ature .

As described i n paragraph 32 carbo n diox ide a n d water ,

a re un ited i n to sugar by the chlorophyll of the leaf This .

green substan ce is foun d throughout the gree n part of

the plan t but it is abu n dan t in the pali sa
, d e cells of the
leaf Sm all green bodies arran ged alon g the side wall s
.

of these cell s in tercept rays of sunlight a n d make u s e of

this en ergy to do the work of combin in g water a n d ca rbo n

diox ide Th e water within the cell touchesth e chlorophy ll

.

bodies o n o n e side while the carbon dioxide comes in to

,

intimate con ta ct with them o n the other as it diffuses ,

agai n st an d through the cell walls from the stomata

- .

Chlorophyll by mean s of en ergy in the sun light causes

, ,

this chemical combin atio n to take place Plan ts make .

no outward demo n stratio n yet in quietn ess they have , , ,

58 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g rono my

caused the most importan t reaction kn own This is .

the begin n i n g of the food which feeds all The whole .

problem of feedin g the world must ultimately be solved

by chlorophyll a n d su n shi n e F igure 1 5 represen ts appa
.

ratus showi n g a é ratio n of the leaf .

F ro . 15
. Ap p a
ratu s sh o wi n g e ra
a ti o n of a
th e le f
.
( Af te r De tm e r )
.

Without green plan ts it would be simply a matter

,

of time un til life could n o t exist o n earth F irst plan ts .

would die a n d a n imal s would feed U po n them Grad .

ua lly these would use U p the food a n d then die E qually

’

essen tial i ssun shin e which n o to n ly en ables plan ts to grow

, ,

but vaporizes water liftin g it in to clouds which return

,
 The P la
nt s a aFat ry c o 59

the water as rain lettin g it ru n down hillside a , n d hollow .

In th is journ ey it washes soil a n d gri n d s ro ck it flo o d s

, ,

mea dows a nd t ur s water wheel s it grin ds grain a

n - n d saws ,

lumber it dis solves min eral fo r plan ts a

, nd gen erates
electricity Sun shin e the n is the sourc e of water power
.
, ,

as well as the o rigin al power of warmth a n d food In this .

whole world o n ly chlorophyll is able to make use of it

,

fo r food man ufacture .

Just what this stran ge sub sta n ce is has n o t yet been ,

foun d out Plan ts growin g in the sha

. d e co n ti n uously
have n on e but as soo n as they a
, re expo s ed to su n shin e ,

it develops Su n shi n e a . n d the livi n g cell c a n b ri n g thi s

vital substan ce i n to actio n a n d perhaps i n to bei n g Truly .

the plan t is a factory : sun shin e furn ishes the power to do

work ; chlorophyll se ems to be the machin ery ; a n d wate r ,

dissolved sa lts a n d carbo n dioxide a

, re the ra w products
l c o n c e n tra
.

49 An ima
. ti o n Protein s occur o n ly in .

small perce n ta ges in plan t tissue When the plan t is .

ea ten a n d dige sted carbohyd rates a n d oil s are

, burn ed
in doi n g wo rk a n d the refuse exc reted Water is the .

same in pla n t an imal a n d stream

, Some a sh is used, .
,

but save in youn g an imals it is mostly discarded in the ,

man ure Protein is also partly excreted when fed in

.

abun dan ce but part of it is retain ed a

, nd m a d e in to flesh ,

blood a n d si n ew
, The an imal has gra dually a
. ccum ulated
a bod y co mpo sed largely of the vital tissue When it is .

butchered m a n gets a co n cen t rated food which began in

,

the plan t cell but which was re fin ed in the plan t a

,
n d in

the an imal a n d when cooked i s adapted to h is use

, B rain .

a n d b rawn which have so cha n ged the wo rld must look

, ,

far back to fin d the begi n n i n g of their wo rkin g power a nd

of their tissues .

50 S to ra
.
g e M an an d othe
. r a n im al s must do some
thi n g besides eat ; hen ce they eat a quan tity a n d gai n
60 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g rono my

reserve e n ergy to ca rry them till th e n ext me a l Should .

the followin g meal a n d still others be omitted they live ,

o n stored food F in ally fat a n d muscle waste a

. wa v a nd ,

starvatio n results .

Somethi n g qui te similar to this occurs in the plan t when

storage is m a de Duri n g the fruiting period plan ts use
.
,

food more rapidly than they man ufacture it Perhaps .

it would be more accurate to say that the plan t moves

the food o r part of it to the seed from the stem root
, , , ,

o r leaf In ann u a
. ls a n d bien n ials the see d gets most ,

of the food while i n peren n ial s it gets o n ly part The

, , .

method of stora ge is almost id en tical whether in the

seed root o r stem
, , .

When sugar is first made it ch a n ges in to starch At .

n ight sta rch c a

, n usually be fou n d in healthy leaves but ,

usually n o t early n ext morn in g En zymes have ch an ged .

it to sug ar a n d the pla n t has t ran spo rted it to the place

of sto rage Here it is agai n chan ged by en zymes i n to

.

starch whi ch n o w fills the white plastids of the cell j u st

as c hlo rphy ll did the green A microscope shows thi s .

starch to be in ri n gs with the cen ter of formation o n o n e

side in the potato a n d i n the middle i n bean s
, Plastid .

after plastid may be lad en u n til the whole cell seems to be

composed of starch Here it remain s un til tra . nslo c a
tion to the seed begin s wh en en zymes turn it to sugar a , nd

the pl an t carries it upward th rough the t racheal tube s .

Protei n s are depo sited i n the cytoplasm as c rystals o r

globules o r as both Les s stori n g is don e than in th e

,
.

case of starch but it is han dled i n n early the sam e wa

, y .

F ats an d oils usually e n me s h themselves in the cytoplasm .

Much seed storage is in the form of oil sin c e most en erg y

ca n be so stored in a given space Emb ryos a re rich in .

oil supposedly o n this accoun t

, .

Plan ts that store s ugar deposit it as fa l se crystals in the

62 The Pri nc i p les o A
f g ron o my

ally by a
, ir o r by heat acco rdin g to the produc t exp ec ted .

C on siderable k n owledge of pla n t s a nd eff ects of t reat

me nt a re required He who doe s this work must k n ow

.

his groun d a n d wo rk with p recisio n .

52 Con t
. ro l o f t he ha rve st As civiliza
. tio n has a d
va n c ed ma ,n has gai n ed mo re a n d mo re co n t rol over n a

ture More a
. n d bette r machi n es propelled mo re e ff ec
,

tiv e ly have give n him a

, n e n o rmous power to ha rvest

large fie ld s within a sho rt time O rchard -gra ss must be .

o ut withi n a few days of bloom ; timothy may be mown

a ny time within two o r th ree week s American farmers .

have cho se n to grow timothy This en ables them to ten d.

much larger ha y fie ld s S ome . wheat s shell mo re easil y

than others ; so me potato varieties ripe n earlier than
others ; a n d alfalfa is richer i n protein tha n g ra ss All .

these factors e na ble m a n to co n t rol the harve s t by c ho o sin g

his crop wisely .

Better cultivatio n more thorough man urin g a

,
n d wiser ,

irrigation produce greater yields The Utah Station

.

foun d that the time of applicatio n a n d the qua n tities of

irrigation water affected the proportion of stem leaves a nd , ,

grai n a ,
n d also the chemical compo sitio n o f these parts . .

It was fou n d that mode rate irrigation prod uced better

qualities of gra i n potatoes a
, n d fruit tha n did excessive
,

water which promoted woodin ess a n d stem developme n t .

Thick plan ti n g yield s sle n der st raight fla x stem s bear

,

i n g lo n g fibe r but little seed ; thi n plan ti n g which allows ,

b ran chi n g begets short fibe r but much seed Prun in g

,
.

may direc t food from small useless growth to fruit a nd ,

thi n n in g gives fewer but larger fru its .

If ma n will but lea rn the ways of his crop he may have ,

largely withi n h is grasp the power to get what he desires

from the plan t world He m a .
y set ce rtai n fo rc es i n

a c tio n ; a n d the n at the rig ht mome n t g ather a harvest

, ,
 The Pl nt a
a s aF a
ct
o ry 63

supe rior in yield a n d quality to that of hi s less dilige n t

n eighbo rs The Bible says

.

An d God blessed them a n d God said u n to th em Be ,

fruitful a n d multiply a
,
n d reple n ish the ea rth a
, n d sub ,

due it; a n d have domi n io n over the fis h of the se aa nd ,

over the fowl of the a ir a n d o ve r every liv in g thi n g that

,

moveth upon the earth .

An d God said Behold I have given you every herb

, ,

bearin g seed which is upon the face of the earth a

, n d e v ery ,

tree in which is the fruit of a tree y ieldin g seed ; to you

,

it sha ”
ll be fo r meat (Gen esi s i 28 .
,

RE FEREN CES O N PART I

Any te x tbo o k of a
bo t n y .

Plan t Phy s i o lo g y , B M . ug g a
. D
r , pp 250 27 9
—
. .

Che m istry o f Ag ri c ulture , C W Sto d d a rt, p p 50 1 06

. .
-
. .

Plan t Phy s . J
i o lo g y , L o st, pp 1 02 1 90
—
. .

aa
Che mi stry o f Pl n t n d An i m a l Li fe , Harry Sn y d e r , pp 1 7 5 234
—
. .

a
Prin c iple s o f Irrig ti o n Pra ctic e , J
A Wi d tso e , pp 21 6 230
—
. . .
PART II

T HE SO I L
 C HAPTE R VI

WHA T THE SO IL I S

THE soil is n o t o n ly the foun dation of agriculture ,

but it is also the basis of all hum an prosperity It is .

the most comm o n a ,

n d yet t h e mo st preciou s thi n g in
,

the wo rld The fact that this prod ucti ve blan ket covers
.

p rac t ically the e n ti re la n d a rea of the globe makes it

possible fo r m a n to get a livin g alm ost an ywhe re ; b u t

in places whe re the soil is scan ty the dwelli n gs of m a n a re

fe w.

53 De fin i tion
. . The so il is the loose mate rial of the
earth s cru st in which plan t s fin d a home fo r their roots
’

a n d f rom which they a re able to secu re certain foods n e c e s

sary fo r their g rowth Alm o st the en tire lan d surface

.

of the earth is covered with a layer of soil which varies ,

in thi ckn ess from a fe w in che s to hu n dred s of fee t a nd ,

in n ature from fragmen ts of rock o n which weatherin g

ha s scarcely begu n to muck soil composed alm ost e n
,

tire ly of organ ic matter .

Some soils a re rich i n all the foo d s required by pla n ts ;

some a re rich in certain eleme n ts but d e fic ie n t i n others ;

so me a re lo w in practica lly all of the n ecessary foods ;

while some soils in arid region s co n tain excessive qua n tities
of soluble salt s This great variation m a
. kes clear the
fact th at what is called soil is by n o mean s a d efin ite
thin g but may have almost a
, n y compositio n o r structu re .

The soil may be co n sidered as the waste heap of n a

67
68 The P ri m i p les ‘
oA
f g ron o m y

ture sin ce almo st everythin g even tually fin d s its way

,

i n to the so il where it is mixed a n d remixed with all so rts

of substan ces to make a bla ket coverin g fo r the earth

n - .

Fragme n ts of all ki n ds of min e rals a n d rocks a n d the

remai n s of all the plan ts a n d an imal s a re b rought togethe r

in the soil to make of it a home in which plan ts may thrive .

54 P e rma
. n e n c e o f soi ls The soil can n ot be a
. bso
lute ly de stroyed o r removed from the earth It will .

alway s remain as a heritage to man kin d a n d fu rn i sh him

a mean s of makin g a livin g Floods may rage fire s may .

,

sweep ove r the lan d m a n may be at w

, ar dyn asties may ,

rise a n d fall but the soil will remain a

, n ever prese n t
-

mea n s of producin g food It may be abu sed a

. n d have

its fertility lesse n ed but it can n ot be en tirely destroyed ;

,

a n d if left to the revivi n g actio n of n atu re it will in time

, ,

have part of its lost fertility restored .

55 Ec on omi c i m porta
. nc e o f th e soil Th e soil is at .

the very foun dation n o t on ly of agriculture but of all

, ,

human welfare Th e i n dustries of m a

. n would cease a nd ,

he would be left without food a n d clothi n g if the soil

should fail to produce its boun ties Min e s wo uld close .

,

rail roads would cea se to operate factories would stop ,

their wheel s in fact every human activity wo uld in time

, ,

be discon tin ued if the soil sho uld lo se its producin g power .

The growth of all cultivated pla n ts is depe n den t o n

the soil a n d the yield of crop s is a di rect re fle c tio n of its
,

co n dition Si n ce livestock a
. re mai n tai n ed by crop s the ,

livestock in dustry also depen ds fo r its existen ce o n the

productivity of the soil .

56 C on se rva
. ti on o f th e soil Of all the n atio n al
.

resources the o n e most in n eed of co n servatio n is the soil

, .

Forests may grow in the lifetime of m a n a n d waterfalls ,

will co n tin ue after he is gon e ; but the soil the product

of ages of n ature s work ’
when depleted c a n be re ,
 C HAPTER VII

O RIGI N A N D F O RMA TI O N OF SO ILS

THE material of which the soil is made ha ‘

sbee n derived
largely from the rocks a n d mi n erals compo s i n g the crust
of the earth ; but in some soil s a co n siderable part is made
u p of vegeta ble matter from the bodies of dead plan ts .

All agricultural soils co n tain a certain quan tity of orga n ic

matter which is in timately mix ed with the min eral matter .

It is d iffic ult to tell in all cases j u st the kin d of rock from

which a given soil is derived sin ce the great amoun t of
,

weatheri n g a n d mixi n g ofte n causes it almost to lose its

o rigin al iden tity.

58 Mi n e ra
. ls an d ro c k s
. A min eral may be d e fin e d
as a n y solid sub sta n ce of i n o rga n ic o rigi n occu rrin g in
,

n atu re ,a n d havi n g a practically d e fin it e chemical com

position a n d usually a d e fin ite crystalli n e fo rm A rock.

may be compo sed of a sin gle min eral ; but it is usually

made up of a n aggregate of mi n erals associated with
some impurities Gran ite is a rock which con tain s the
.

min eral s quartz feld spar a

, , nd mica Differen t ki n ds
.

of gran ites vary co n siderably i n their min eral con ten t .

Eleme n ts u n ite to fo rm compoun d s; compou n ds a re

un ited to form min erals ; aggregates of mi n erals compose

rocks ; a n d rock s disi n tegrate to fo rm soil s .

59 Soil formi n g mi n e ra
.
- ls . It is probable that every
kn ow n min eral occurs somewhere in the soil sin ce weathe r
a
,

i n g has bee n goi n g o n fo r ges a n d si n ce every mi n eral

,

that has been exposed to weatherin g actio n has bee n c a r

70
 Ori g i n a
nd Fo rm ti on a f
o S o i ls 71

r ied i n to the soil in great o r small quan tities The main .

soil fo rmi n g mi n erals a

- re the followi n g quartz the feld ,

spars horn blen de a

, n d pyroxe n e mica chlo rite talc a nd , , ,

serpe n tin e the zeolites calcite dolomite gypsum apa

, , , , ,

tite a
, n d the i ro n mi n e ral s .

60 Qua
. rtz is composed of silico n dioxi de o r silica , ,

which makesup about 60 pe r cen t of the crust of the earth

a
.

Both silicon a n d oxygen a re foun d in a g re t ma n y other

min eral s a ,nd a re prese n t in most rocks Qu artzite is .

c ompo sed of fin e grai n s of quartz firm ly held togethe r .

Horn sto n e a nd fli n t sa n dsto n e jasper a , nd opal a re , ,

composed main ly of silica Some soils co n tain more than .

90 pe r cen t of quartz which is almost e n tirely in soluble

, .

61 Th e fe ld spa
. rs a re compou n ds of silicates of potash ,

soda o r lime o n e o r all in combin ation with the silicate

, , ,

of alumin a They a . re promi n e n t i n gredie n ts of most

crysta llin e rocks Potash feldspar (orthoclase ) with

.

quartz a n d mica fo rms g ra n ite g n eiss Soda a n d lime .

feldspars form man y rocks such as basalt diabase diorite , , ,

a nd mo st lava s The feld spars a . re decomposed with

comparative ease by weatherin g agen cies a nd a re the ,

chief sources of clay a n d pota sh in the soil O rthoclase .

co n tai n s n early 1 7 pe r cen t of potash while leucite from ,

lava c on tai n s over 2 1 p e r cen t .

62 H o m b le n d e a
. n d pyrox e n e a re of n ea rly the same

compositio n bein g silicates of lime magn esia alumin a

, , , ,

a n d iro n They appear to be black but a

. re i n reality of ,

a dark green color They a re easily decomposed because

.

of two properties: 1 ) their cleavage a n d (2) the fact ,

that their iron is readily oxidized These min erals a re .

usually d e fic ie n t in potash a n d he n ce g o well with o rtho

clase feldspar .

63 Mi c ais similar i n compo sitio n to horn ble n de a

. nd

py roxen e but its relative in solubility makes its plan t

,
72 The P ri nc i p le s oA
f g rono my

food elemen ts u n available It occurs most abun dan tly .

with quartz i n mica schi st which usually forms soil of a

poor quality The soils derived from gra n ites a
. n d g n ei sses ,

however even when rich in mica a

,
re usually excelle n t ,

o n accou n t of their feldspar a n d associated mi n e rals .

64 C h lori te is a silicate of alumin a a

. nd iron It .

forms part of chlorite schist which is similar but in ferior , ,

to horn ble n de schist Talc a nd s erpe n tin e a

. re hyd rous

silicates of magn esia They form a . n impo rta n t pa rt of the

soils of some region s but a re very i n soluble a

,
nd a re

usually poo r i n pla n t food .

6 5 ! e olite s a
. re hyd ro silicates co n tain in g as bases
-

c h ie fly lime a n d alumi n a usually with small quan tities

,

of potash a n d soda a n d sometimes mag n esia a

, n d ba ryta .

Water is combin ed in the basic form a n d n o t me rely as

water of crystallization Th e zeolites proper a . re n o t

origin al rock in gredie n ts but a re fo rmed i n the cou rse of

,

rock decompositio n by the atmosphe re heated wate r , ,

a nd other agen ts Although zeolites rarely form a

.

large proportio n of the rock formin g min erals they a -

re ,

of in terest because of the co n tin uatio n within the soil

of some of the processes that b rin g about their formatio n
i n rocks . They a re commo n ceme n ti n g materials fo r
holdi n g together san d grain s .

66 C a. lc i te o r lime is a
, n impo rta n t soil fo rmi n g m in
,
-

eral which is but slightly soluble in pure water although

, ,

much more so in the presen ce of carbo n dioxide It is .

dissolved readily by acids Limesto n e comes partly .

from the shells a n d framewo rk of mari n e a n d fresh water

a n imals a n d partly by co n c retio n s of lime directly fro m

water ; hen ce much of it ha s bee n dis solved a n d p re c ip

ita te d ma n y times Th e old sayi n g that

. A limesto n e
coun try is a rich cou n try ha ”
s o n the whole but fe w
, , ,

exceptio n s .
 0ri g i n a
nd a
F o rm ti o n o f S o ils 73

67 . a mixture of ca
Do lo mite lcium carbo n ate a
, nd

magn esium carbo n ate is more easily aff ected by weather ,

in g age n ts than pure limesto n e An excess of mag n esia .

te n ds to im poverish so ils .

68 Gyp sum o r the sulfate of lime although widely

.
, ,

distributed is n o t so abu n da n t as limesto n e Fe w n a

, t .

ura lly gypseo us soils a re very pro d uctive probably ,

because of th e heavy clays which usually accompan y

this compoun d Gypsum favors the action of certa
. in
desirable bacteria a n d it is sometimes used to co rrect
,

black alk ali .

69 Apa . tite the phosphate of lime is fou n d in ma n y

, ,

soils Un less accompa n ied by o rga n ic matter it is rather

.
,

un available .

Th e most impo rta n t iro n mi n erals in the soil a re s ider

ite limo n ite hematite a
, ,
nd magn etite Sin ce iro n is , .

always presen t in suffic ie n t quan tities fo r pla n t growth ,

the iro n compoun ds n eed receive but little atten tion .

7 0 S.o i l-f o rmi n g ro c k s The i n dividual mi n e ral s .

,

n o t usually occu rri n g separately a re combi n ed a n d mixed ,

with the various ign eous a n d sedime n tary rocks Rocks .

rich in feldspar a re said to be feldspathic ; i n clay a rgil ,

la c eo u s; i n silica siliceous ; i n lime calcareous ; a

,
n d in ,

sa n d a rra
, na c e o us acco rdi n g to the mi n erals compo si n g
,

them These various rocks in decomposi n g form soils

.

which differ greatly .

Soils from gra n ite with potash feld spar a re rich i n

pota sh an d usually co n tai n a n ample supply of pho spho ric

acid from small apatite crystals G n eiss soils a re mo re .

siliceous a n d les s st ro n g tha n tho se from t rue g ra n ites .

Eruptive rocks a s a cla ss u sually fo rm ve ry p roductive

soil s but decompose slowly Hard limeston e dissolves
, .

slowly but the softer varieties g o i n to solutio n readily

,
.

Limesto n e soils from which much of the lime has bee n

74 The Pri n c i p les oA
f g rom my

leached form some of the very richest soils Th e Ke n .

tucky blue grass regio n is a

- n example of soil fo rmed in

this way San dsto n e soils a

. re ofte n poo r but this de ,

pe n ds o n the material cemen tin g the grai n s together .

C laysto n e soils a re u sually rich in plan t food material

-
,

but a re too heavy fo r the best g rowth of c rops Ha rd .

pa n s a re fo rmed where a n exc ess of alkali accompan ies

the clay .

7 1 Me th od s o f soi l fo rma
. ti o n Soils a re formed
.

from the min erals a n d rocks al ready discussed by the

, ,

various chemical a n d physical age n cies of rock decay

k n ow n as weatherin g The most importan t of these

.

agen cies a re : ( )
1 heat an d cold ( )
2 wate r ( 3) ice (4)
, , ,

the atmosphere a n d (5) pla n ts a

, n d a n imals Their a c .

tion is both mecha n ical a n d chemical the mecha n ical ,

causin g a breakin g up of the rock i n to fin e r fragmen ts ,

a n d the chemical causi n g a cha n ge i n the actual composi

tion of the materials .

7 2 Ac ti on o f h e a
. ta n d c old All of the weatheri n g
.

agen ts may be ultimately traced back to the heat of the

su n the source of e n e rgy fo r the earth
, Win d rai n .
, ,

a n d o rga n isms a re all di rectly depe n den t o n this source

of h ea t In additio n to this gen eral work heat a

. n d cold ,

a re stro n g facto rs wo rki n g di rectly i n b reaki n g dow n rock

masses This is very appare n t in the gran ites gn eisses

.
, ,

a n d mica schists each composed of a n umber of mi n e rals

-
,

which expan d u n even ly when heated causin g a break ,

i n the rock This allows water to e n ter

. When cold .

weather comes the water freezes a ' n d i n freezi n g expa n ds

, , ,

about 9 pe r cen t of its volume This widen s the crevice

.

a n d shatters the rock Thu s n ature uses heat a

.
, n d cold

a s cha rges of powder which a re co n sta n tly bei n g dis

charged to assist in the co n stan t effort to crumble the

rock masses i n to soil
-
.
 Ori g i n a
nd Fo rma
ti on of Soi ls 75

73 . wa
Ac tio n
te r Water through its physica
of . l
a
n d chemical actio n is pe rhap s the mo st importa n t of

F IG . 16 . a
S tre m s we a
r g o rg e s , g ri n d i n g ro c k
s i n to fin e p a
rti c le s
.

the wea therin g age n ts In moun tain torren ts bowlde rs

.
,

are rolled alo n g k n ocki n g a

, n d raspi n g in thei r ceaseless
76 The Pri nc i p le s o A
f g ro no my

effort to loosen the ban ks a n d gouge out the bottom of

the stream In the mea n time the rollin g bowlder is

.
,

groun d in to coun tless particles which in the course of ,

time a re scatte red over as ma n y acre s of la n d The .

gorges of the C olumbia a n d C olo rado rivers which in , ,

places a re thousan ds of feet deep

, are g ood examples ,

of abrasive action All this earthy material is carried .

dow n stream Th e Mississippi River an n ually carries

.

in to the Gulf of Mexico en ough earth to cover a 640 acre

fie ld 28 6 feet deep In additio n to this it deposits im
.
,

men se quan titie s of silt alon g the lowlan ds above its

mouth Effects of water actio n a
. re show n i n F igs 16 .

ad
n 17 .

The ability of water to carry suspe n ded material varies

as the sixth power of its velocity ; he n ce as the grade of ,

a stream cha n ges a n d the qua n tity of water varies the re ,

is a co n stan t un loadin g a nd reloadi n g of tran spo rted

materials Rain s by their co n sta n t poun din g al so

.
, ,

exert con siderable ac tion o n rock s especially in loosen in g ,

a n d shifti n g small fragme n t s .

Water is called n ature s un iversa l solven t Its power ’

.

to dissolve is greatly i n creased by the p resen ce of carbo n

dioxide which it takes from decayin g organ ic matter while
percolatin g through the soil Waves a nd tides alon g .

the sea shore move san d a

- n d othe r mate rials i n a n d out ,

up a n d dow n an d by thei r co n ti n uous pou n di n g ofte n

,

wash out great cavern s .

7 4 Ic e
. In moun tai n ous cou n tries where there is
.
,

co n siderable sn owfall s n ow slides a re of commo n occur ,

re n ce . O n e of the se slides often co n tai n s thousan d s of

ton s of slidin g a n d rolli n g s n ow a n d moves everythi n g

i n its way Tree s rock s a n d all ki n ds of d éb ris a

.
,
re ,

jammed in to the c a fio n sbelow to be take n out by swolle n

streams .
 78 The Pri nc i p les o A
f g rono my

of 8 20 square miles discharges o n a summ er s day 1 968 ’

,

ton s of sed im en t besides the material in solutio n The .

Va tn a j ii k ull glacie r i n Icela n d discha rges a n n ually about

ton s of earth .

These glaciers of to-d a y are me re babies whe n compa red

with those that existed duri n g the great ice age when ,

the ice sheet covered square miles The effec ts .

of this ice shee t a re appa ren t all ove r the n o rthern part

of America Europe a ,
n d Asia
, The so ils of th ese regio n s
.

a re of glacial o rigi n a ,nd a re very fe rtile in pote n tial pla n t

foo d but often lack in oxidatio n a

, n d ti lth Glacial soils .

a re ve ry diffe re n t in structure from tho s e formed by the

slower p rocess of disin tegration They a re u sually un i
.

form to con siderable depth In the n orthern part of the

.

Un ited States a n d over a large pa rt of C a n ada there is ,

a layer of this well mixed soil resultin g from the N orth

-

American ice sheet .

7 5 Th e a
. tmo sph e re Th e atmosphere exerts both
.

physical a n d chemical actio n Its physical work is don e

.

main ly through win ds which a ,re most effec tive i n regio n s

of little vegeta tion In parts of C hin a the wi n d formed

.
-
,

soils o r loess a
, , re from 1 500 to 2000 feet deep Th e .

chemical action of the atmosphere is due almost en tirely

to oxygen a n d carbo n dioxide The action of the latter
.

i n i n creasi n g the solve n t po wer of water has already bee n

explain ed O xygen workin g a
.
, sa n oxidizin g age n t affects ,

most of the min erals composin g th e soil The min erals .

co n ta in i n g i ron a re oxidized whe n b rought i n co n tact with

a ir with the result that their rocks a

, re softe n ed F eldspar .
,

in the prese n ce of a ir oxidizes to kaolin ; a

, n d certa i n ro cks
co n tain in g large quan tities of feldspar often crumble to a
depth of forty o r fifty feet by the actio n of the atmosphere .

7 6 Pla . nt s a nd a n i ma l s join with other agen cies in

r n up rocks a n d mellowi n g soils S ome of the
o b eaki g .
 Ori g i n a
nd F o rma
ti on f
o Soi ls 79

lower fo rms of plan ts a re able to begi n their g ro w th o n

a lmost smooth rock surfaces a n d by the dissolvi n g a
, c

tion of their juices soon make suffic ie n t impres sio n to

,

e n able other plan ts to start a n d to pe rmit the e n tra n ce of

water Thi s by its dissolvin g a

.
, n d freezi n g actio n ha s ,

ten s deca y Roots of higher plan ts readily pen etrate

.

a n y small crevice a n d by thei r giga n tic stre n gth a re able

to break even large bowlders The smaller roots of plan ts .

pen etrate every particle of earthy material a n d by their

physica l an d chemical activitie s promote the formation

of a good agricultural soil .

Burrowin g an imals a n d ea rthwo rms a re co n sta n tly at

work mixi n g the various soil s in corporatin g o rgan ic mat ,

te r a
, n d assi sti n g in t h e free moveme n t of a ir Plan ts .

a n d an imals a re co n sta n tly dyi n g a n d their bodies c o n ,

tribute to the o rgan ic matter of the soil which ceases to ,

be just a mass of dead matter Th e decay of these orga n ic .

bodies as sists n o t on ly in mellowin g the soil a

, n d placi n g

it in a better physical con dition but al so in the makin g ,

available various plan t foods - .

7 7 C la
. ssi fic a ti o n o f so ils Soils may be c la . ssifie d
acco rdin g to their origin as either sede n tary o r tran sported .

Sed en ta ry soils a re of two ki n ds : those which over lie -

the rock from which they were fo rmed a n d those fo rmed ,

in pl a ce largely by the accum ulatio n of organ ic matter ,

a s in swamps Tra n spo rted soils vary with the age n t

.

use d in carryin g the materials of which they a re composed .

Those tra n spo rted by run n i n g water a re called alluvial ;

by ice glacial ; by win d a

, eolia n ; a nd
, by the ocean ,

marin e E ach of these ki n ds of soils has its o wn peculiar

.

prope rties although the compo sition is depe n den t largely

,

o n the ki n d of rock from which it was fo rmed .

In additio n to c la ssific a tio n acco rdi n g to origi n soils ,

a re so metimes c la ssified by their chemica l compositio n ,

80 The Princ i p les of Ag ro na
my

the n ative vegetatio n growi n g o n them the crops to ,

which they a re suited the size of particles composin g

,

them a , n d a n umbe r of othe r prope rties An y adequate .

method of classifyin g soils however should ta ke accou n t, ,

of all the factors which affect their value .

U
S PPLE ME NTARY READ IN G

So ils, Ly o n , Pippin , a n d Buc km a

‘

n , pp 1 8 2 .
-
.

So ils, E W Hilg a
. . rd , pp 1 6 2
.
—
.

An y te x tbo o k o f phy sio g ra h

p y o r g eo lo gy .

Ag ric ultura l An a ly si s, H W Wile y , pp 1 60

. .
—
. .

The So il F H Ki n g , pp 1 6 9
, . .
—
. .

The So il A D H a
, . . ll, pp 6 3 1
.
-
.

Cy c lo pe d ia o f Am e ric a n Ag ric ulture , Vo l I , pp 3 24 342

—
. . .

Phy sic s o f Ag ric ulture , F H Ki n g , pp 49 6 8

. .
-
. .
82 The Pri nc i p les hf Ag ro no my

the wate holdin g capacity the circulation of a

r-
, ir a nd ,

the availability of plan t foo d These all help in d e te rm in

- .

in g the kin d of crop that should be grown Fo r example .

,

peaches a n d cherries do best o n soils havi n g a coa rse

texture ; the small grain s prefer a heavier soil Soils .

havin g a n i n te rmediate texture such as the loams a re, ,

fairly well adapted to the raisin g of a n y o rdi n a ry c rop .

Hen ce in selectin g lan d the farmer who kn ows what

, ,

crops he wishes to grow should give con siderable atte n

tion to soil texture .

7 9 Gro ups a
. c c o rd in g to tex t
ure Th e soil may by .
,

mechan ical an alysi s have its particles separated in such

,

a way that all gra in s of approximate the same size a re

gathered together Where this is don e arbitrary groups

.
,

a re arran ged fo r con ve ni en ce in exp ressin g the sizes A .

n umber of di fferen t method s of g roupi n g have been em

ployed but probably the o n e find in g wi dest use in this

,

coun try is that of the Bureau of Soils of the Un ited States

Departmen t of Agriculture In this groupin g the various
.

sizes a re given the fo llowin g n ames

DI AM R N U M ER
B or
N AME
ETE
MI LLI ME TE R8
IN
PAR TI C LE S
R
G A M or So n
IN
.

1 . Fin eg a r ve l 2 000 . 252

2 . Co a
rse sa
nd

3 . Med ium sad n 05 00 0 2 50 -

4 . Fin sad
e n

5 . V ry fi e sad
e n n

6 . Silt 0 050 0 005 -

7 . Cla y le ssth a
n

It is impossible to get a soil composed en tirely of

particles of a
n y o n e size ; hen ce the n a
m e given to a ,
 a
P hysi c l Propertie s o f he Soil
t 83

soil type m ust depe n d o n the relative mixture of these

various sizes The terms most common ly use d fo r these
.

mixtures a re : ( l ) coarse sand ( )

2 medium sa n d fi
( ) ne
3 , ,

san d (4) sa n dy loam (5) loam (6 ) silt l o a

,
m (7 ) clay
, , ,

loam a n d (8 ) clay
,
F armers speakin g in a gen e ral way
.
, ,

usually c all their soil sa n d loam o r clay , , .

80 . a
Re l ti on of te x t
ure to wa
t er - h o ld in g c a
pac i ty .

Of the prope rties of soils affected by texture probably ,

n on e is of greate r pra c ti c al importa n c e than the wate r

holdin g c apacity Moisture is h eld in thin film s aroun d

.

the soil particles a n d the q ua n ity that c a

n be retain ed
depen d s la rgely o n the surface which in turn is depen den t ,

o n the siz e of pa rticle s Ki n g gives the sur face of so ils

.

of d ifferen t sizes as follows :

DI AM E TE R or G RA I N S SQ C M Su m mo n TO S Q F T Su m mo n
RA M
. . . .

m Mmmmn m n s A G o r So n . TO A LB o r So n . .

With such a great variation it is easy to see in surface ,

why a clay soil may hold 45 p e r cen t of water when a
coarse san d will scarcely hold 1 5 p e r cen t The un de r .

stan d in g of thi s fa c t is im po rtan t in such bran ches of

ag iculture as d y fa rmin g Where succe ss depen ds o n the
r r -
,

storage in the soil of large quan tities of water .

8 1 S o il struc ture
. Structure refers to the arran ge
.

men ts of soil particles Just as sticks may be piled in a .

box in various ways so the soil grain s may be grouped in

,

n um erous diffe ren t a rran gemen ts Sticks may be p iled .

84 The Pri nc i ples oA
f g rono my

even ly all o n e wa y a n d fitte d togethe r i n such a ma nn e r

that there is little a ir space betwee n ; they may be a r

ran ged wi th o n e laye r crosswi s e the n ext len gthwise , ,

o r in other desig n s each a rran gemen t havin g a diffe ren t

,

volume of a ir spac e betwee n the sticks The same so il .

particles may in a similar man n er have man y differen t

, ,

groupin gs The n umerous sizes of particles presen t in

.

every soil make a n even more complex arran gemen t

possible The grain s may be wedged tightly together so
.

that a ir is almost excluded o r they may be flo c c ula

, te d
in to loose fittin g groups with con siderable a
- ir space
between .

The tilth of a soil kn own by farmers to be of such great

,

practical importa n ce is determin ed by its stru c ture o r

, , .

the groupin g of its particles So il grain s packed tightly.

together form a soil of poor tilth When plo wed such a .

,

soil breaks up in to clods in stea d of falli n g apa rtin gran ules

o r flo c c u le s A loose structure gives lin es of weakn ess
.

exten din g in every direction through the soil Wh ere .

such a con dition exist s it can n ot be made to hold together ;

,

but where the opposite con dition exists the soil crumbles ,

on ly when con siderable force is applied A hard pan .

structure i n arid soil is show n in Fig 1 8 . .

8 2 Ho w to mo d ify struc ture

. The stru c ture of a
.

coarse grain ed soil can n ot be greatly affecte d sin ce it is

-
,

always fairly good ; but wi th a clay con stan t c are is ,

n ecessa ry to p reven t its becomin g puddled Man y a .

farmer ha s lea rn ed th rough sa d exp erien ce that he c a n ,

by cultivatin g a clay soil when too wet so in ju re the tilth ,

that several years a re requi red to get the soil back i n to

good con dition .

The structure of a soil is affec ted by almost everythin g

that cau ses a movemen t of soil particles Amon g the .

most c ommon factors a re the followin g : ( )

1 tillage ( )
2 ,
86 The Pri nc i ples of Ag rono my

the growth of roots (3) freezin g a , n d thawi n g ( )

4 alte r ,

n ate wettin g a n d d ryin g organ ic matter (6) soluble

, ,

salts (7 ) an im al life a
,
n d (8 ) sto rms , Th e tilth i s the .

re sult of the combin ed action of a n umbe r of these factors ,

all of which improve it except ce rtain kin ds of storms lik e

hail a
,
n d ce rtain soluble salts like sodium ca rbon ate .

8 3 Spe c ific g ra
. vi ty o f s o ils T h e weight of a soil
.

may be exp ressed as the real o r the apparen t spe c ific

gravity Th e real sp e c ific gravity referrin g to the weight
.
,

of the in dividual particles in comparison with water is ,

n o t affected by the po re s - pace The apparen t spe c ific .

gravity o n the other han d refers to the relative Weight

, ,

of a given volume of soil a n d the weight of the same

volume of water Thi s is greatly affected by pore

.

Space s .

C lay is often spoke n of as a heavy soil ; san d is sa id

”
to be light Thi s does n o t refer to weight but mean s
.
,

that clay is d iffic ult a n d sa n d easy to till

, An average , .

san d weighs about 1 1 0 poun ds to the cubic foot but clay ,

weighs on ly about 8 0 pou n ds .

84 Ai r in th e so il
. Sin ce a ir is n ecessary to the
.

growth of all pla n ts it is impossible to have a fe rtile soil

,

without spaces through whi ch a ir c a n ci rculate Seeds .

in germin atin g a n d pla n t roots in growi n g require oxyge n

, ,

which is absorbed whi le carbon dioxide is given o ff .

Th e decay of orga n ic matter requires oxygen a n d fo rms

carbon dioxide which accumulates in the soil a

,
i r with -

the depletion of oxygen If the con dition of the soil .

does n o tfavor the free movemen t of a ir the oxy gen supply ,

soon bec o mes redu c ed to the poin t where plan t growth is

reta rded The a é ration of the soil is depen de n t o n its
.

texture structure d rain age a

, ,
nd a n umber of other ,

factors In a coarse sa n d a
. ir moves readily but in a clay , ,

especially if compact the movemen t is slow Puddlin g

, .
 a
P hysi c l Properties o f the So i l 87

a soil grea tly reduces its aeration Wh ile flo c c ula ti n g its

,

particles i n to groups promotes the ready movemen t of

a ir
. The size of particles c ann ot be chan ged but their ,

arran gemen t is affected by plowi n g a nd h a rrowin g whi ch ,

thereby i n directly i nflue n c e aé ration .

A water logged so il usually has its producin g power

-

reduce d by lack of oxy ge n ; a n d the free circulatio n of

a ir resultin g from placi n g tile d rain s u n der su c h a soil

, ,

is in part respon sible fo r the i n crea sed yields followi n g

d rai n age The be n e fic ia
. it
l n r ifyi n g an d n i t roge n -fix in g
ba c te ria of the soil requi re a n abu n da n t supply of oxygen

fo r their best grow th a n d their action is pra c tically

,

discon tin ued when the a ir supply is reduced below a

c e rta in poin t In some soils the aé ration may be so
.

great as to result in the loss of excessive quan tities of

water Thi s con ditio n however is rarely met a
.
, ,
n d may ,

be remedied in most case s by packin g .

85 H e a .t o f th e so il The tempe rature of the soil

.

is importa n t because of its i n flu e n c e o n the ge rmi n atio n

of see ds a n d o n the growth of plan ts ; al s o because of its

effect o n chemical chan ges a n d bacte rial actio n in the

Wh en the soil is cold its life is dorman t a

.

soil .
,
n d all

chemica l action is reduced The earlie r a soil is warmed

.

in the spri n g a nd t h e late r it i s kept warm in the fall ,

the lon ger is its growin g season Thi s may have c o n- .

sid e ra ble practica l importa n ce in region s Whe re early crops

brin g the best prices a n d whe re the sea s on is so short

that crops do n o t fully mature .

Soil heat comes largely from the sun the rays of which ,

a re most effective when strikin g perpen dicularly A .

south slope therefore is con siderably wa rmer tha n o n e

, ,

facin g the n o rth a n d a sa n dy s

, o il is much warme r than

clay Th e high spe c ific heat of wate r makes it slow to

.

warm a n d as a co n sequenc e a wet soil is usually late in

, ,
88 The Pri n c i ple s o A
f g ro no my

startin g the growth of plan ts in the sprin g The ex c es .

sive evaporation from a wet soil also reduces its tempera

tu re Such factors as color spe c ific hea
. t tillage a nd a
, , ,

n umbe r of othe rs play a very impo rta n t r61e in regu lati n g

the temperatu re of a soil .

86 Th e o rg a
. n i c ma tte r o f th e so il is without doubt o n e
of its most impo rtan t parts sin ce it in flue n c e s so greatly
the physical chemical a n d biological chan ges that take
, ,

place Th e tilth of a soil its water-holdin g capacity its

.
, ,

temperature a n d a n umbe r of other physical prope rties

,

a re imp roved by the prese n ce of o rga n ic matter which , ,

o n decayin g i n creases the a ,vailability o f min era l matter

i n the soil a nd hasten s d esirable chemical chan ges .

Bacteria which a re so importan t to the soil co uld n o t do

, ,

their work without organi c matter sin ce th ey secure their ,

en erg y by its decompo sition The fertility of a soil .

,

therefore depen d s a s much o n the presen ce of o rgan ic

,

matter a s on a n y other facto r ; and t h e main ten an ce of

fertility must in clude the keepin g up of this importan t
con stituen t
in in g th e o rg a
.

8 7 Ma. i n ta ni c ma tte r The organ ic .

matter of soils is derived largely from th e decay of roots ,

leaves a nd s ,tems although a part of it comes from the

,

remai n s of a n imals Fo r ages accumulation has been

.
,

goin g o n un til some soils have a large percen tage of organi c

material In arid soil s howeve r Where the growth
.
,
‘

of vegetation h a s been light the o rgan ic co n ten t is ,

low ; hen ce o n e of the chief problems in the man age

,

men t of arid soils is to in crease the proportion of organ ic

matter .

O rgan ic matter in the soil is mai n tain ed by the addition

of farm man ure a n d othe r organ ic refuse an d by the ,

raisin g of c rops to be plowed u n der Th e wise fa rme r .

will if possible apply large quan tities of man ure in order

, ,
 C HAPTER IX

THE WA TE R OF THE SO I L

n d an ima
ALL plan ts a ls require water fo r life ad growth
n .

Plan ts may live fo r con siderable time without receivin g

a n y outside supply of min eral food but if water is with ,

held they very soon wilt a

,
n d cease to f un c tion Th e .

yield of crops durin g a ny particular year i s usually a

re fle c tio n of the moistu re co n dition s du rin g the g rowin g

season Even in humid region s the lack of available

.
,

moisture often reduces crop-yields O ver more than .

half of the earth s tillable surface the shortage of moisture

’
,

is the chief limitin g factor con cern ed in crop growth ;

whi le in parts of the hum id region s the excess of water in,

the soil preventsthe cultivation of vast areas of otherwise

ferti le soil O n the whole therefore n o factor c o nn ected
.
, ,

With agriculture n eeds to be mo re carefu lly studied a nd

more thoroughly un derstood than the water of the soil .

88 O ri g in o f so il wa
. te r
. The water of the soil has
at some time been precipitated from the atmosphere .

That c o n tain ed in the soil of a n y given fie ld may have

come in by percolation o r by floo din g th e surface ; but

,

it ha s at some time been vapo r .The quan ti ty of mois

ture in the soil of a n y la rge a rea therefore will be de
, ,

pen den t o n the precipita tion of that region The rai n .

fa ll ca nn o t be in flu e n c ed by m a n but he c a
,
n do much to

save water after it falls In d ry region s he may in crease

.

the amoun t of soil water by irrigation o r he may reduce ,

90
 The Wa
te r of he So il
t 91

it by d rain age when there is to o much fo r the best growth

of the crops He may al so in crea . se the e fi c ie n c y of the
m o isture in the soil by c e rta in tillage ope ration s .

8 9 Va
. ri a
ti on s in soil mo i sture The quan tity of .

m oistu re in the so il is n o t so stable as the phospho rus ,

lime o r silica ; but it varies from sea son to season a

, nd

from day to day It se ldom remain s the same eve n fo r

.

a sho rt period Mo re is be in g ad ded from time to time

.
,

a n d lo s ses o ccur through a n umbe r of chan n els Even .

if fo r a shor t pe riod n o wate r is added o r lost the re is a ,

c o n sta n t movem e n t from plac e to plac e with a ten den cy

to establi sh a n eq ui librium whi ch is s e ld o m o r n eve r , ,

reached Many forces a

. re at work makin g it d i fi c ult

to determin e all the laws by which soil moisture is in

flue n c e d .

90 Th e
. ti on of th e so il mo i sture depe n ds largely
c on d i

o n the quan tity pres e nt a n d the n ature of the s oil -If .

the soil is saturated the action is n o tthe same as if on ly a

,

small quantity of wate r is prese nt The soil is able to hold .

on ly about a certain amoun t of moisture a n d whe n more

is added it percolates rapidly As the quan tity decreases .

,

the ten acity with whi ch it is held in cre a se s A san dy .

soil reac h es the poin t of saturation with much less wate r

than does a clay soil Th e c o n dition of the m o istu re .
,

there fore will n o t a lways be the same wit h a give n pe r

,

c e n tage bu t Will vary ac c o rdin g to the n a ture of t

, h e soil .

The wate r of the soil is usu a lly divided in to th ree

cla sse s determ in ed by the pe rce n tage p rese n t
, These .

a re : ( 1 ) free o r gravitatio n al (2 ) capillary o r film a

,
nd , , ,

( )
3 hygr oscopic water .

9 1 Fre e wa
. te r When the soil bec omes saturated
.

with water a part of it d rain s away due to the action of

, ,

gravity This drain age water is kn own as free o r grav

.
,

ita tio nal water The attraction of the soil fo r it is n o t

, .
92 The Pri n c i ple s o A
f g ron o my

so great as that of gravity This water is fou n d between

.

the grai n s of soil takin g the place of a

, ir Gravitation al .

water held in surface soil fo r a

,
n y g reat le n gth of time ,

excludes the a ir n eed ed by roots N o rm a lly after a .

,

heavy rain the top soil has its a

,
ir spaces fille d with
water but this rapidly sinks to moisten the d rier soil
,

below in Which case it ceases to be free water Drain age

,
.

is practiced to remove th e free water that can n ot d rai n

away un aided .

92 C a
.
pi llary wa te r Afte r .all the free wate r has
d rain ed out of the soil there is still remain i n g a great
,

deal of moisture that is held in a thi n film aroun d each

soil particle Most of the water i n ordi n ary cultivated
.

soils un der fie ld co n ditio n s is of this n ature a n d it is ,

this form that supplies water to pla n ts The quan tity .

of capillary water that c a n be held by a soil depe n ds o n

the surface area of its particles Sin ce man y fin e particles .

have more surface tha n a large o n e occupyi n g the same

volume a fin e-grain ed soil such as clay will hold much
, , ,

more h lm water than a coarse-grain ed soil l ike san d .

C apillary water moves by goin g from the wetter to the

d rier particles in the soil The film s o n differen t soil .

grain s ten d to become of the same thickn ess thus exert ,

in g a pull o n the thicker film s .

93 Hyg ro sc o pi c wa
. te r A pa rt of the moisture is
.

retai n ed by the soil eve n whe n it seems to be d ry Road .

du st o n bein g heate d will give o ff water vapor which

, ,

may be co n den sed o n a cold body This last moisture .

which a soil retai n s is called hygroscopic water If a .

soil is d ried completely with heat a n d the n allowed to

stan d in th e ope n it will ab sorb moi sture from the a

,
ir .

This water is held in a thi n h lm arou n d the particle in a

way similar to that in which capillary water is held o n ly ,

much more firm ly It does n o t move from particle to

.
94 The Pri nc i p le s of Ag rono my

96 . Me th o d s o f e x pre ssing th e q u nt a
i ty of wa
te r .

Soil moisture is usually expressed in perce n tage of th e

soil by weight This may be based either o n the total
.

weight of the soil a n d water o r o n the d ry s , o il alo n e Fo r .

example if o n hea
, ti n g 1 00 poun ds of soil there wa s a
loss of te n po u n ds there would be 1 0 pe r cent of water
,

o n the wet basis the re bei n g n i n ety pou n ds of soil a

, nd

te n pou n ds of wate r O u the othe r han d sin ce te n poun ds

.
,

is p e r ce n t of n i n ety pou n d s the r e would be , p e r

c en t of water in the soil o n the d ry basis The qua n tity .

of water may also be expressed i n percen ta ge of the soil

by volume The depth of water over the surface of a
.

given area of lan d is a com mo n method of expressin g

qua n tity in a n irrigated district .

97 Lo ss o f so il mo i sture
. The water that falls o n
.

the soil c a i
n be lost n th re e ways : ( 1 ) ru n o fi from the
-

surface (2) percolatio n through the soil a

, n d (3 ) evapo ra ,

tio n from the surface .

In arid regio n s it i s de si rable to reduce ru n o fi to

,
’ -

a mi n imum but it m a , y be n ecessa r y to i n c rease it i n

section s of excessive rain fall To o much ru n o ff u n der .

-

a n y co n ditio n i s u n desirable a s it is likely to cause de

,

structive erosio n This loss is d imin ished by kee pin g

.

the soil open a n d receptive in o rder that it may absorb

the rain a s fast as it fall s Percolatio n c a

. n be red uced

only by in creasi n g the water holdin g capacity of the soil - .

This is do n e by keepi n g the soil loose a n d i n c reasi n g its

o rgan ic matter .

Th e loss by evaporatio n is in part u n der the co n trol , ,

of ma n . When moisture is on ce in the soil it should be ,

held there u n til n eeded by plan ts Thi s is accomplished .

by some protecti n g cover such as a mulch .

98 N c c d f o r pre ve n ting e va
.
po ra ti o n T h e pla n t .

gets its moisture from that stored i n the soil ; hen ce if ,

 The Wa
te r of the So i l 95

the supply run s short the plan t suffers Even in humid

, .

climates rain is so u n certain that it is n o t safe to let the

,

soil become d ry by evaporatio n In arid regio n s it is .

,

absolutely n ecessary to store all the water that falls o r ,

the re will n o t be suffic ie n t to produce crops ( se e Fig .

Almost the whole p ractice of d ry farmi n g is foun ded -

o n the preve n tio n of this lo ss Evaporation from the .

soil is affected by the same factors as evaporation from

a water surface Heat win d sun shin e a
. ir humidity a
, , nd , ,

F IG . 19 . Re se rv o i r fo r th e a
sto r g e of i rri g a
ti o n wa
te r .

altitude all play their part With soil a n impo rta n t

.
,

c o n sideratio n is the wet n ess of the su rface Dryin g the .

surface quickly is o n e method of preven tin g loss .

99 Th e wa
. te r ta ble is the level in the soil at wh ich
-

free water is en coun tered In diggi n g a well the place

.
,

whe re water is foun d is k nown as the water-table The .

depth of the water table below the surface varies

- from
a few in ches in swamps to ma n y hu n dreds of feet in some
arid sectio n s It is u n desirable to have water too n ear
.

the surface as roots can n ot pe n etrate below water level

, .

A chan gi n g wate table n ea

r- r the su rface is especially bad ,
96 The Pri nc i ple s oA
f g ro no my

si n ce roots n o soo n er get e stablished tha n water rises a nd

kills them thereby weake n i n g the e n tire plan t The

, .

chief reaso n fo r d rain in g soil s is to lower the perman en t

level of the water table o r to p reve n t its risin g to injurious
-

heights durin g wet season s .

1 00 Th e m o ve me n ts o f so il mo i sture a
. re due to a
-

n umber of disti n ct fo rces Gravity is co n sta n tly pullin g

.

the moisture down wherever there is free water Afte r .

this has bee n removed however g ravity does n o t have

, ,

much effect The capillary water is moved by force of

.

surface ten sio n which works to make the film s o n soil

particles of equal thickn es s When water is removed .

from part of the soil the hlm thick n ess is reduced a

, nd

there is a gradual movemen t in that directio n If there .

is evaporation at the surface o r if roots remove moisture

from below this force of capillarity o r surface ten sio n
, , ,

draws water from other parts When there is much .

film water prese n t the movemen t is comparatively rapid ;

,

but as the soil approaches d ryn ess it greatly dimin ishes , ,

a n d fin a lly ceases A little water is moved from place

.

to place in the soil by what is kn own a s thermal actio n .

There is a n evapo ratio n of water from o n e place i n the

soil a n d a co n de n si n g of it i n a n other Movemen ts by .

this method a re slow a n d o f little impo rta n ce .

1 01 U se s o f so il wa
. te r Th e pri n cipal use of the
.

soil water is to supply the n ee d s of plan ts crops can n ot

be produced without it Soil water also acts as a carrier
.

of plan t food The pla n t c a

. n take up o n ly food that is

in solutio n ; co n seque n tly without a proper amou n t of

,

water n o other food c a n be obtai n ed Water also in .

creases the chemical actio n that goes o n i n the soil makin g ,

soluble the substan ces used by crops .

1 02 Qua
. nti ty o f wa te r u se d b y pla nts A plan t .

may use two o r three time s as much water each day as

 CHAPTER X

TH E CO N TROL OF S O I L WA TE R

IN agriculture it is often desirable to chan ge the amoun t

of water presen t in the soil Where it is n ecessary to
.

remove the excess of wate r this is don e by drai n age

, ,

while if the lan d is d ry its water co n te n t may be i n creased

, ,

by irrigatio n Un der arid con ditio n s where irrigatio n

.
,

water is n o t available it becomes n ecessary to adopt

,

method s of co n servi n g a sca n t precipitation in the soil

fo r the use of crops This is accomplished by the methods
.

of d ry farmin g
- .

IRRI GATIO N

1 03 . a
In c re si ng th e soil m oi st
ure all arid a . nd In ,

eve n in some humid regio n s there a , re time s whe n the soil

moisture is n o t suffic ie n t fo r the best growth of crops .

Where this con dition exists duri n g a n y g reat part of the

time it is ofte n advisable to add water to the soil by

,

irrigatio n Methods of co n ductin g this water a

. re show n

in fig u re s 20 to 24 .

This method has ma n y adva n tages as well as some dis

advan tages A perso n would thin k himself very fo rtu
.

n ate if he could cau se it to begi n an d cea se rai n i n g at will ,

yet with irrigatio n water at hi s di sposa l a farmer c a n do ,

even more He c a . n n o t o n ly have w ater whe n n eeded ,

but he c a n apply it to o n e c rop a n d at the sa me tim e

98
 The Con tro l

F IG . 20 . Wa
te r be in g t ke
a n to th e la
nd .

FIG . 21 . ae
C e m e n t li n i n g p re ve n ts se e p g .
withhold it f om a othe such as ewly c ut ha
r n r y tha t n -

might be i n jured at the time by water Th e rai n even .

,

supposin g it to be un der the farmer s con trol would fall ’

,

o n the e n ti re farm if it came at all .

Amo n g the disadvan tages of irrigatio n a re the cost of

in stallin g the system a n d the expe n se of applyi n g water .

F I G 22
. . Wa
te r d i v e rte d f ro m re se rv o i r th ro u g h tu n n e l i n ro c k .

In arid regio n s however these expe n ses a

, , re j u stifie d by
in crea sed pro fits when the water is u sed with wisdom .

104 Sourc e s o f wa
. te r supply Th e most commo n .

a n d least expe n sive source of water fo r i rrigatio n is fou n d

in ru n n i n g stream s A suitable dam is placed across the

.

bed of a st ream to turn water i n to the ca n al which carries ,

it to the lan d that is to be served Th e head of such .

no t bein g used a n d hold it fo r the croppi n g seaso n As .

more la n d is take n up a n d water becomes less ple n tiful ,

storage usually i n creases a n d methods fo r accomplishi n g

it become complex a nd thorough The pumpi n g of .

un dergrou n d water from well s fo r irrigatio n is rapidly

in creasin g in man y sectio n s .

1 05 Me a
. sure m e n t o f wa te r Irrigatio n water as
.
,

well as lan d a n d c rop s should be mea sured

, In the past .

it has been the custom to guess in stead of taki n g accurate

F IG . 24
. Arte si a
n wa
te r i s o f te n u se d f o r i rri g a
ti o n .

measureme n ts This has led to en dless disputes a

. nd

trouble In the future it will be n ece ssary fo r those c o n

.

cern ed with the u se of water to be familiar with methods

of maki n g measureme n t s a n d exp ressi n g qua n titie s .

The two pri n cipal device s fo r measuri n g flo win g wate r

are the weir a n d the curre n t meter With the former a .

measurin g gate of a k n ow n size is placed in the stream a nd

the height of water flo win g over it determin ed From .

sta n dard tables the discharge is fou n d Whe n the c ur .

re n t meter is used the velocity of the stream flo w is o b

,
 The Con tro l o f So il Wa
ter 1 03

a
t i n ed ,togethe with its c oss section a
r n d from these
r -
, .

the amoun t of water is calculated .

O f the man y ways of expressi n g qua n tities of water ,

the o n es in most commo n use a re the secon d foot a n d the -

acre-foot A secon d foot represe n ts o n e cubic foot of

.
-

water flo wi n g each seco n d ; an ac re foot is the amoun t of

-

water req uired to cover a n ac re of la n d o n e foot deep ,

that is , cubic feet A secon d foot flo win g fo r

- .

twelve hours will flo w almost exactly a n ac re foot

— .

1 06 Me th o d s o f a
. l i
pp y g n w a te r T h e fou r p ri n cipal .

methods of applyin g water to la n d a re : ( )

1 fu rr ow ( )
2 ,

F I G 25
. . Irri g a
ti o n wa
ter b eing d i stri bu te d b y fur ro w m e th o d .

flo o d in g , overhead a
( )
3 nd ( )
4, sub i rrigatio n T h e - .

first two a re by fa r the most im portan t but the last two ,

are ex t remely valuable sometimes Th e fu rrow method .

of distributio n is show n in Fig 25 . .

In the first method water is run i n furrow s a

, n d allowed

to soak the groun d between the row s It c a n well be .

used o n crops that a re i n tertilled a nd ha s the a d van tage

of n o t wettin g the entire surfac e This reduces evapora .
1 04 The Pri nc i ples oA
f g ro no my

tio n
. greatly a s c ompared with flo o d in g A small stream .

of water c a n irrigate a greater area of lan d by thi s tha n by

other method s but more labor is required

, .

Th e flo o d in g method is used most o n pastures mea dow s , ,

a nd t h e small grai n s Thi s method leaves a soil that

.

bakes in a crusted co n dition a nd c a n be u s ed only o n

,

la n d with a n eve n slope O v erhe a d irrigation is used

.
-

fo r law n s an d ga rden s but is n ever practiced o n a large

,

scale Its disadvan tages a

. re the high cost of i n stalli n g

a nd the large evaporation It has the a dvan tage of

.

supplyin g w a ter evenly over the su rface in a co n ditio n

similar to rain that leaves the a ir as well as the soil damp .

Sub irrigation i s practiced by fillin g d e ep ditches o n

-

the sides of the fie ld with water a n d allowi n g it to soa

a
k
through the soil n d saturate the sub -soil without wetti n g
the surface It may also be distributed through un der
.

grou n d pipes The l a . tter method is probably the most

econ omical way of usin g water sin ce it re duces evapora ,

tio n to a mi n imum .

1 07 Th e a
. mo un t o f wa ter to u se will depen d to ,

a con siderable exten t o n the a moun t available As a

, .

gen eral rule however if there is a

, n abu n dan tsupply most
, ,

farmers will apply more than is good fo r either the crop

o r the soil .They try to make up fo r lack of tillage a nd

man ure by the application of water .

C rops vary in their water requiremen ts a n d e ve n the ,

sa me crop does n o t require the same qu an tity of water

in all climates a n d o n all soils These factors must be .

taken in to accoun t in determin in g how much to use .

It is probable that two feet of water applie d durin g the

year is en ough fo r most crop s if the rain fall is a s m u c h as
twelve in che s The yield may be slightly in creased if
.

more than thi s amoun t is used but the cost of applyin g ,

the extra water is probabl y more than the in creased

1 06 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g rono my

should be kept fa irly moist all the time I f a soil is dee p .

a n d reten tive a fe w heavy irrigatio n s a

, re usually better

than man y light on es ; but o n a shallow san dy so il , , ,

it is n ecessary to apply water often Deep-rooted crops .

ca n g o without water much lon ger than tho s e keepin g

their roo ts n ear the surfac e .

Un der irrigation it is a good thin g fo r a farmer to have

,

a n umber of crops in order that the water may be use d

o n o n e when the other does n o t n eed it Wh en but o n e .

crop is grown it may req uire the irrigation stream fo r

,

on ly a sm a l l part of the se a so n leavin g the water to waste ,

at other times ; hen ce a l a rger area c an be served by a

,

given stream of water if it is use d o n a n umber of crops

1 09 O ve r-irrig a
.

. t ion The farmer wh o irrigate s every

.

time he gets a chanc e Whether his lan d n eeds it o r n o t is as

ba d as the boy who wen t to the theater every n ight a nd

slept d urin g the performan c e O n being asked why he .

atten ded if he wa , s n o t su ffic ie n tly i n terest e d to stay

awake he replied that he had to g o because he had a
,

season ticket .

To irrigate when n o t n ecessary is a waste of time a nd

water both o f whi ch a

, re precious To o much water .

red u c es actual yields a nd i n additio n ruin s th e lan d by

, ,

washi n g out fertility It wou ld no t be so bad if the

.

offen der alo n e had to suffer but his folly causes in ju ry ,

to hi s n eighbor locate d o n lower lan d by water loggin g -

the soil a n d causi n g alkali to rise There should be laws .

to preven t the excessive use of irrigation water .

1 1 0 N e e d fo r e c o n o m y
. There is very much more
.

lan d in arid region s than c a n be served by the available

water ; hen ce the factor limitin g crop production is n o t

,

lan d but water It is importa

, . nt therefo re from the , ,

stan dpoin t of th e commu n ity that all water be used to ,

the best adva n tage Six ac e feet of water will produce

r - .
 The Con tro l f
o So il Wa
ter 1 07

man y times as much if applie d to fiv e o r six acres of lan d

as it will if applie d to o n e As the available water be
.

comes less plen tiful methods of greater econ omy will be

,

in troduced These will be of be n e fit to the in dividual

.

farmer as well as to the g en eral commun ity Ec o n omy

, .
‘

in water distribution ( n ote F ig 26 ) bec omes a p rime .

re q uisite .

DRAI N AGE

111 . Re mo vin g e x c e ssive wa te r There a

. re man y

millio n acres of lan d in the Un ite d States con tai n in g so

F IG . 27 Ma
c hi n e a ae
f o r d ig g i n g d r i n g d i tc h e s .

much water that crops can n ot be successfully rais e d there .

Part of this lan d is in pe rman e n t swamps while some of it ,

is d ry durin g a portion of the yea r bein g water-logge d ,

o n ly at certai n season s There is also much lan d havi n g

.

a fairly d ry surface appearan ce but with grou n d water ,

so n ea n y grea
r that roots ca nn ot p e n etrate to a t depth .
1 08 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g ro no my

The chief d ifi c ulty in the way of successful agriculture

on a ll such fie ld s is the surplus water Th e o n ly way to .

make them suitable fo r crops is to d ra in them Drai na ge .

practices a re shown i n F igs 2 7 t o 29 . .

1 1 2 Re mo vi n g a
. lk a
li In most arid regio n s much of
.
,

the la n d co n tai n s a high pe rc en tage of so luble salts This .

ofte n accumulates in such large quan tities that the growth

of plan ts is preve n ted Drain age is the o n ly method of
.

perma n e n tly removin g the alkali which is gradually ,

F ro . 28 . Dra
i ning a o rc ha
n rd .

carried away by pe rcolatin g waters Much of the lan d .

that is at prese n t valueles s o n acco un t of its high alkali

,

co n te n t wo uld be of excellen t qu a
, lity if its exc ess salts
were removed .

1 1 3 Be n e fits o f d ra
. in a
g e Th e d rai n a g e of wet
. la n d
im mo v e s it in ma n y in direct as well as direct ways
, , , .

Lowerin g the water-table gives plan ts a large r zon e from

which their roots c a n d raw plan t food
- a nd moisture .

This lessen s th e n ee d of fertilize rs a n d the susceptibility

to d routh Th e increased a
. eration of the soil res ultin g
1 10 The Pri nc i p les o A
f g rono my

se t of con ditio ns must be taken i n to co n sideration before

decidi n g just how to drain a piec e of lan d .

O pen ditches a re probably th e cheapest method of

carryin g away the water They a re used to advan tage

.

in d rain in g pon ds a n d othe r surface accumulatio n s Th e .

ch ief advan tages of the ope n d rain a re ( 1 ) the cheap n es s ,

with which it c a n be con structed a nd ( ) the ea

2 se ,

with whi ch it c a n be clea n e d Some disadvan tages a re .

that it ren ders waste the lan d occupied a n d cuts th e ,

lan d area i nto small field s that a re d iffic u lt to get a t .

The ope n ditches beco me filled with fallin g earth a nd

weeds a nd a re a s o urce of co n stan t dan ge r to fa rm an imals .

Some form of c o vered d rai n is usually preferable fo r

ordin ary pu rpo ses With the covered drain a tren ch
.
,

is dug a n d some material placed in the bottom that w i ll

allow water to pass throug h This is later covered with .

earth Some of the materials used fo r such drai n s a

. re

rock brush lumber clay tile a

, , n d c emen t tile
, Th e , .

last two a re by fa r th e most com m

, ,o n Where tile c a n .

be h a d it is reco mmen ded un der almost all circum

,

stan c es .

1 1 5 In sta .llin g th e d rain s Th e first step in draini n g

.

lan d is to lay out the system Some kin d of in strumen t .

fo r getti n g levels must be u sed in determin ing the c o n

tours a n d decidi n g where to pla c e the d rain lin es A .

level is also n ecessary to fin d the proper depth fo r the

tren ches After the system is laid out the ditches a
. re ,

dug either by han d o r by machin ery In early days they .

,

were practically always dug by han d bu tmodern machi n ,

e ry where it c a
, n be had n o w does the work much more ,

cheaply Tile should probably n o t be placed n ea

. rer the

surface than two feet o r farther than five o r six feet ,

except in un usual cases Usually about four feet is a .

good depth .
 The Co ntro l o f So il Wa
ter 11

The bottom of the ditch should have a n even grade ,

otherwise the flo w of d rain age water will be un even a nd

silt will be deposited in low places In certa in section s .

,

where there is a tenden cy fo r roots to clog the d rain s ,

th ey mus t be placed deeper than would otherwise be

n ecessary C are should be taken to ha
. Ve the joi n ts of
the tile fit well together to avoid fillin g with dirt The .

work of coverin g c a n usually be do n e with a team Th e .

outlet sho uld be screen e d to keep Out small water lovin g

‘

an imals , and Sh ould be so co n stru cted that it will no t be

easily clogged .

DRY F
- ARMI NG

1 16 . S c o pe of - a
rmi n g
More than half of the
d ry f .

lan d surface o f the earth receives less t han twen ty i n ches

a
of a nn u l p recipitatio n C o n sequen tly thi s vast area .
,

is han dicappe d in its crop production by a shorta ge of

moisture A relatively small part of th is total area c a
. n

be reclaime d by the use of irriga tio n water ; but the

greater part of it if tilled at all must ha , ve applied to it ,

every possible method of water con servatio n The raisi n g .

of cr0 ps with out irrigation where there is less than about

"

twen ty inches of an n ual rai n fall has come to be called ,

d ry fa
- rin in g It does n o t differ essen tially from a
. ny

other farmin g excep t that every process is directed

,

toward utilizi ng eco n omically all of the available

moisture .

1 1 7 Th e q u e sti o n o f ra
. i nfall The total amou n t of .

rai nf all is n o t the o n ly co n sideratio n Its distribution .

throughout the year the qua n tity fallin g at o n e time

, ,

a nd the evaporation all mod ify its effectiven ess In .

some region s with a comparatively high total precipita

tion most of the water falls i n the autum n after the crops
,

a re ha rvested A large percen tage of this is lost before

.
1 12 The Pri nc i p les of Ag rono my

the n ext summer when it is n eed ed In othe r places the .

ra in comes in g reat to rren ts at a few times du ri n g the

year In such ca
. ses comparatively little of the moisture
sin ks in to the soil ; most of i t ru n s o ff The in ten sity of
.

evaporatio n is also importan t sin ce it so greatly m o d ifies

,

the soil moistu re Ho t .

regio n s with man y ,

clear win dy days cha , l ,

’
len ge man s best effo rt .

It is d iffic ult to sto re

Water in the soil from
whi ch several times
the total ra i nfall would
evaporate Ii how .
,

ever there is bu t little

,

win d a nd at the same ,

time a high humidity ,

of the a ir the loss ,

by evaporation is rela
tiv e ly low .

Twelve i n ches of pre

c ip ita tio n well d istri b ,

uted in a regio n of
low evaporation would ,

doubtless make d ry
F 30 A d p u i f m s il w ll
fa rm in g
p te d to d w
IG .

ada
. ee ,

a
m mg
r
n or o , e
mo re success

ful than twe n ty in ches

fallin g in such a way that mo st of it is lost .

Th e d ry farmi n g areas of the Un ited States a

- re some

times divided i nto the followin g fiv e areas accordin g to

the season al distributio n of rainf all
( )
1 P ac ifi c type which ex,te n ds west of the Sie rra
Nevada a n d C ascade ra n ges receivi n g most of its rai n fall

from O ctober to March with but little durin g the summer ;

1 14 The Pri nc i ples of Ag rono my

he ce it ca ot be used
n , nn in d ry -fa
rmin g . The idea
l d ry
farm soil is at least eight or te n feet deep a
nd loamy It .

F ig . 32 . Plo wi n g stu b ble on ad ry fa

rm - .

should be ea sily tilled a

n d readily mulched A good type .

of soil fo r d ry farmin g is show n i n F ig 30

- . .

FI G . 33 . rg e m u lc hi n g i m p le m e n t u se d i n d ry -fa
A la rm i n g .
 The Con tro l o f So il Wa
ter 1 15

1 19 . Dry fa
-rm N0 set rule c a
c ro ps . n be given fo r

the be st crops to be grown o n the d ry fa rm The problem -

.

must be worked out fo r each climatic a n d soil co n ditio n .

U p to the prese n t however the cereals have bee n most

, ,

widely a s well as most successfully grow n Of these .

,

F IG 34 Th e a
mou nto f m o istu re wh i c h th e p l a
n t ha
sa
'

fl e c ts th e
a
. .

'

p r o p o r ti o n o f d ifl e re n t p r ts .

wheat is kin g In regio n s where the major part of the

.

precipi ta
tio n comes duri n g the wi n ter fall wheat has do n e ,

best ; but where the rai n falls durin g the summer o r

where Win ter killi n g is severe the sprin g plan ted varieties
-
,
-
1 16 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g rono my

have bee n most successful Barley oats emmer a nd .

, , ,

ry e have bee n rai sed with va ryi n g success depe n di n g o n

co n ditio n s In ho t climates the grain sorghums have

.
,
-

become importan t d ry farm crop s C orn has bee n - .

succe ssful over a wide ra n ge of co n ditio n s a

n d has the ,

advan tage of bein g plan ted in rows which permits it to ,

be cultivated durin g growth .

It has been d iffic ult up to the prese n t to fin d fo rage

, ,

crops that grow well u n der extreme d routh Alfalfa .

,

F IG 35 E x p e ri m e n ts to d e te rm i n e th e a
mo unt o f wa
te r used by
E
. .

c ro p s
. U a a
( t h x p e ri m e n t S t ti o n ) .

fie ld pea s a n d smooth
, b rome gra ss ha ve bee n used to -

some exten t Potatoes a n d a n umber of vegetables have

.

do n e well Trees fo r shade a

. n d fruit a re g row n in some

sectio n s but usually it is diffi cult to get them started

, .

1 20 Tillag e m e th o d s
. Though the same tillage
.

method s a re n o t succe ssful in all d ry fa rm a reas mo st of

“

-
,

the fu n damen tal p ri n ciples hold fo r all con ditio n s The .

objects of tillage a re to make the la n d receptive to rai n

an d to p reve n t loss after the moisture is o n ce in the soil .

Deep plowi n g u sually in the fall a , n d co n side rable ,

 C HAPTER XI

PLA N T F OOD OF —
TH E S O I L

THE method by which pla n ts secure their food from the

soil was n o t di scove red u n til comparatively a few years
ago From the time of th e a n cie n t Greeks a
. n d Roma n s

down to the begin n in g of the n in etee n th ce n tury i n ve sti ,

gators sought to fin d some o n e sub sta n ce in th e soil that

wa s the real food of pla n t s At diff ere n t time s it wa
. s
thought to be fire water n itre oil a
,
nd ma n y other
, , ,

material s; a n d the idea was rathe r ge n e rally held that

plan ts fed o n a sin gle substa n ce Duri n g this period all .

pla n t food wa
- s supposed to come from the soil ; it was
n o t k n ow n that the greater part come s from the a ir O ne .

theory that wa s held fo r a lo n g time wa s that humus o r ,

o rga n ic matter furn i shed the material from which growi n g

,

plan ts secured their food After it became k n own that.

the carbo n of pla n ts is derived from the carbo n dioxide

gas in the a ir a n d that o nl y a sh comes from the soil it ,

was easy to fin d the real fun ctio n of the soil a n d how to

con trol its pla n t food - .

1 21 Wh a
. t pla nt s u se from th e so i l O f the te n ele .

me n ts required by plan ts seve n in additio n to those ,

obtain ed from water come from the soil These a,

re .

potassium phosphorus calcium magn esium iro n sulfu r

, , , , , ,

a nd n itroge n. A n umber of n o n es se n tial elemen ts -

,

i n cludin g sodium chlori n e a

,
n d silico n a re also ta
, ke n up ,

by most pla n ts E leme n ts a

. re n o t u sed by pla n ts in

1 18
 Pla
nt- o od
f f
o the S oi l

their eleme n ta ry co n ditio n ; but they a re take n from the

soil m in erals each of which is made up of an umber of

, .

elemen ts All crops require the same elemen ts fo r their

.

growth although they do n o t all use them in the same

,

proportio n Potatoes a . nd sugar beets u se relatively -

'
large quan tities of potassi um the grai n crops require ,

co n siderable phosphoru s while alfalfa a ,

n d clover use mo re

calcium tha n do mo st other crops This is o n e but o n ly .

,

o n e of the reaso n s fo r practici n g rotatio n

,
.

Water which furn ishes the eleme n ts oxyge n a

,
nd

hydroge n is also taken from the soil O n ly a small

, .

quan tity of water would be req uired if its sole fu n ctio n

were to furn ish these elemen ts but it is used a s a carrier ,

of foods in the pla n t a n d i s also tra n spi red i n large qua n ti

ties ; hen ce the quan tity used by crops is much greate r

.
,

tha n that of all the other food s combin ed The method .

of supplyin g a n d co n servi n g the soil moistu re has bee n

discussed in C hapter X .

1 22 C o mposi ti o n o f soils
. Soil s a re made up largely
.

of in soluble material of n o food value fo r plan ts The .

amou n t of actual plan t food in the soil is comparatively

-

small but sin ce pla n ts do n o t use large qua n tities of this

,

food the supply is suffic ie n t fo r crop productio n Hil

, .

gard has compiled in the followin g table a great n umber

of an alyses of typical soils .

These a n alyses show that less tha n 5 p e r ce n t of humid

soils IS composed of plan t food a n d that t h e remai n der is
-

largely made up of material i n soluble eve n in stro n g

acid In arid soils the proportion of pla n t food is some
.
,
-

what higher but even there it comprises less than 1 0

, ,

p e r ce n t of the total soil .

The o rga n ic matter in humid soils isusually much higher

than that in soils of arid regio n s ; but the lo w organ ic
matter of the arid soils is relatively high in n itrogen .
1 20 The Pri nc i ples o A
f g rono my

TAB LE 1 .
— C HE MIC A L C o u p o srrro n or HU MID AN D Ann)
So n s . STRO N G Hr n a
o c n to m c Ao m AN A LYS IS

H u m p Rn o xo n s Am p RE GI O NS

G
AVE RA E o r 69 6 AVE R E AG or 57 3
S MPLE SA S au n a
s

In so luble re si d ue
So luble sili c (SiO z) a
Alumi n a(M20 3)
Fe rric iro n
f
Su l uric trio x id e (SO s)
Ma ng a ne se (Mn O z)

Pho sp h o ri c a c i d (P 20 5)

Li m e ( C a O)
Ma g n e si a ( M gO )
So d a( N a 20 )

Po ta sh (K20 )
H um us

1 23 . Th e na
a ly si s of soi ls
order to determin e . In
the plan t food in a soil the chemist ta
- kes a sample to a
,

laborato ry where he an alyzes it He does the samplin g

, .

very carefully si n ce the accuracy of the an alysis depen ds

,

o n the accuracy of the samples If fo r example he .

, ,

should an alyze just the surface in ch hisresults would n o t ,

apply to the lower depths of the soil where roots often

feed ; frequen tly the soil varies much in compositio n at
these differen t depths Agai n if the sample should be
.
,

ta ke n from a low place co n tai n in g co n siderable orga n ic

matter it would n o t represe n t the en tire fie ld In sam
, .

plin g therefore the chemist takes soil from a n umber of

, ,

places in the fie ld a n d at va rious depths a n d mixes all

together in order to get a n average sample fo r a n alysi s .

After the sample has bee n prepared the method of ,

an alysis depen ds o n the in formation desired If the tota l .

1 22 The Pri n c i p le s o A
f g ro n o my

crops is expressed by Warin gton in the followin g table whi ch ,

in cludes the material foun d i n the e n tire harvested crop .

TAB LE 2 . MINE RAL Foons RE MOVE D F RO M TH E

So n . BY C RO PS

To r n .

Yie ld Ash N i tro g en Po t sh a

The table shows the variation in the relative quan tities

of n itrogen potash lime a
, n d pho s
, phoric a
, cid used by
differen t cr0 ps .

1 27 Pla. n tf o o d s t
-h at a re sc a rc e O f the te n e le .

men ts required by plan ts on ly three may be con sidered

,

as scarce These a . re n itroge n phosphorus a n d p o ta

s, ,

sium In a few soil s calcium a

. n d sulfur may be d e fic ie n t ,

but they a re usually prese n t in s uffic ie n t qua n tities to

supply the n eeds of crops fo r cen turies .

Nitro g e n is without doubt the eleme n t most l ikely to

, ,

be lackin g in soil s a n d it is the most expe n sive eleme n t

,

when purchased ; but the fact that it c a n be added to

the soil by the growth of legumin ous plan ts m a kes its

mai n ten a n ce possible in eve ry soil Phosphorus which .
,

is u sed in large quan tities by the grai n crops is presen t ,

in exceedi n gly small quan tities i n man y soils O n this .

accoun t it becomes n ecessary to use phosphorus fertilizers

,
 Pla
nt- oo d
f f
o he Soil
t 1 23

in order to mai n ta i n the fertility of these soils Po ta s .

sium is usually presen t in fairly large quan tities but ,

si n ce it is in the main n o tavailable to pla n ts soils usually

, , ,

re spo n d to potassium fe rtilizers It is probable however

.
, ,

that proper methods of i n creasi n g the availability of

re se rve pota ssium w ill do much toward makin g unn e c e s
sa ry the heavy use of this fertilizer .

1 28 Ex h a
. i o n o f th e so il
u st Th e po ssible e x h a
. us

tion of th e soil has bee n discussed fo r man y years ;

n ume rous differe n t opi n io n s have bee n held Some have .

co n ten ded that the plan t food supply is rapidly bein g

-

used up a n d that it will n o t be lo n g befo re the soil is so

impoverished that crops will n o t grow O thers have .

mai n ta in ed that the soil is bein g con sta n tly re n ewed a nd

as a result will n ever be ex hausted Expe rien ce has .

demon strated however that if the productivity of the

, , ,

soil is to be main tain ed at a high stan dard part of the ,

plan t food removed by crops must be return ed either as

-

farm man ure o r as commercial fertilizers Si n ce plan t .

fo od is ren dered available but slowly it is probable that ,

crops n ever c a n e n ti rely ex haust the soil A lessen e d .

supply of available fo od howeve r greatly red uces yields

, ,

of a ll crops .

1 29 Lo sse s in pla
. n tf o o d result primarily from the
-

removal of c rops from the la n d but i n regio ns of heavy,

rainf a ll large q ua n tities a re also removed by leachi n g a nd

by surfac e washi n g In some of the limesto n e area

. s of
the eastern part of the Un ited States the rock a n d soil ,

have bee n leached so much that the greater part of the

original material has bee n removed leavin g o nly the more ,

inso luble mi n era ls N a

. tura lly durin g thi s process the
,

more available compou n d s have bee n carried away In .

ma ny sectio n s surfac e e ro smn 1 8 respo n sible fo r the

,

destruc tio n of much va lua ble lan d The soil is i n some

.
,
1 24 The Pri nc i ples of Ag rono my

cases washed en tirely away while in others the main

, , ,

part is retai ned but the soluble materia , l is leached from

the surfac e
ma
.

130 Pla in o rg a
a
. n tf o o d nic
- tte r The o rga ni c .

m tter of the soil is c omposed alm ost enti rely of dead

plan ts in various stages of decompositio n These dead .

tissues co ntain a quan tity of mi n eral matter that has

been on ce in solutio n a n d i s therefo re more likely to
, , ,

be available to growi n g plan ts than the min erals N itro .

g e n i s pa rtic ul a rly impo rta n t i n this co n n ectio n si n ce ,

practically all of the n itroge n of the soil is foun d i n the

o rgan ic matter Besides furn ishi n g direc tly a part of the
.

plan t food organ ic matter assists by its decay in re n der

-
, , ,

i n g available the mi n e ral matter of the soil .

1 31 . a
Re l ti o n of pl atfo n - od to v a
lu e of aso il . In
o rder that a soil may be valuable it must have a n ample ,

supply of plan t food ; but this is by n o mean s the o nly

-

con sideratio n Farmers sometimes submit a small sample

.

of soil to a chemist with the request that he an alyze it

an d tell what the la n d is wo rth Those who a re familiar .

with soil study un derstan d that it is impossible by merely

kn owin g the total quan tity of plan t food to tell the exact -

value of a n y la n d Such que stio n s as d rain age aeratio n

.
, ,

m o siture supply textu re a n d ma n y othe r thi n g s help

, ,

to determin e what a soil c a n produce All these factors .

must be take n i n to con sideration in estimatin g the value

of lan d an d in outli n i n g method s of man ageme n t .

SU PPLEME NTARY READ IN G

So ils, Ly o n , Pipp in , a n d Buc n, 327 37 4 k m a pp .

—
.

Fe rtilize rs a n d C ro p s L L Va n Sly k e , pp 1 05 1 1 6
,
.
—
. . .

The So il, F H Kin g p p 1 07 1 34

. .
—
, . .

So ils E W Hilg a
. . rd p p 3 3 42 1
1 —
,
. .

Phy 31 c s o f Ag ric ulture , F H Ki n g , p p 69 1 06 —

. . . .

First Prin c i ple s o f So il Fe rtili ty A Vivi a —

n p p 3 46 ,
.
,
. .
126 The Pri nc i p les of Ag rono my

Materials a re often applied to the s oil fo r their in direct

a c tion as well as fo r the plan t-food which they add .

Farm man ure improves the physic al con d ition of the soil ;
lime corrects acidity a n d flo c c ulate s the particles of fin e
clay ; other fertilizers help to ren der available the reserve
store of plan t-foo d in the soil .

1 32 Type s o f f e rtili ze rs
. Th e material s added to
.

the soil either as direct o r in dire ct fertilizers a re n umer

ous By fa
. r the most import a n t of these i s farm ma n ure ,

which is composed largely of an imal excretamixed with

litter O f the fertilizers purchased from the out side the
.
,

most commo n a re tho se applied fo r the ni troge n phos ,

p h o ru s a n d potas
, sium they co n tain T he se a re usually
.
,

but n o t always in the fo rm of min eral sa

, lts O ther .

materials called amen dmen ts a re used fo r thei r in di rect

action o n the soil rather than fo r the direct plan t food -

they furn ish In addition to the se sub stan c es which

.
,

must be hauled to the soil it is a common practice to

,

grow certain crops which serve a similar purpose These .

a re usually the leg umes In order fo r them to be of use

.

as a fertilizer they a re plowed u n der

,
.

1 33 H o w to d e termi n e f e rtili ze r n e e d s
. In the .

Un ited States more than o n e hun d red million dollars a

,
re

spen t each year fo r commercial fertilizers in addition

'

to the billion s of dollars worth of farm man ure that is

used It is probable that n early half of this commercial
.

fe rtilizer is wasted o n accoun t of lack of judgmen t in

applyin g it O n e of the most importan t problems c o n
.

nec t ed w ith the use of fertilizers is to kn ow the n eeds of

the soil a n d to be able to supply these n eed s in a n in te lli

gen t a n d econ omical mann e r .

This is n o simple matte r It is impossible by a

. ny

sin gle mean s to say just what is the best t reatmen t fo r a

soil but by combin in g the kn owled ge of scien ce a
, n d the
 na
Ma f es a
nd F ertili zers 1 27

wisd om of the prac tica l farmer a partial so lution of thi s ,

p roblem c a n be rea ched A chemical an a lysis of the soil

is very use ful in determin in g the n eeds of so il but it is ,

not s uffic ie n t Such an alysis must be compared with

.

fie ld tests of fe rtil izers a n d with p ra c tical tests of c rop s

,

in order to determin e soil n eed s Where a ll this ih .

formation is brought together a nd c a refully studied a

fairly accurate judgmen t of the soil requiremen ts c a n be

made The practi c e of simply applyin g a

. n y k in d of

fe rtilizer the dea ler may h ave fo r sale without m a k in g ,

atho ro ug h investigation ca nn ot be too stron gly c o n

,

d e mn ed .

1 34 Ni tro g e n f e rtilizers
. . N itrogen
is the most ex
p e n sive of all the fe rt il ize r eleme n ts a n d th e wo r ld s ,
’

supply of thi s co mpo un d is lim ited F ormerly it wa

'

. s ,

o btai n ed from gua n o which is ma n ure a

,
n d de c ayed bodies

o f birds but this sourc e of supply is n o w prac tically

,

e x hausted At presen t the c hi ef source is the beds of

.

so dium n itrate o r Ch ile saltpeter foun d in Chi le

, ,It lies .

n ea r the surface of the grou n d i n great beds but is so ,

mix e d with rock a n d earth that leachi n g out of the salt

is n ec e ssary before it is ready fo r market N itro g e n in .

the form of s o dium n itrate is directly av a i lable to plan ts .

Ammoni um sulfate is an other impo rtan t source of

n itrogen In the makin g of c oal gas by the distillation of
.
-

coa l a quan tity of amm on ia is given o ff The gas is

, .

passed through sulfuric acid where the amm on ia is re ,

moved a n d ammon ium sulfate fo rmed This sa lt is about .

20 pe r cen t n itrogen .

It is possible by mean s of elec tricity a

, n d in othe r ways ,

to c ombin e the n itrogen of the a ir in such a mann er that

it c a n be used as a fert il izer The chief produc ts of these
.

pro cesse s a re calcium n itrate a nd calcium cyan amid .

The main d iffic ulty in the wa y of us in g these fe rtil i ze r s

1 28 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g ro no my

more widely is the lack of cheap power which is required

in the man ufacture of them .

A grea t ma n y a n imal products a re used c hi c fly fo r ,

their n itrogen Dried blood d ried fle sh groun d fish

.
, , ,

tan kage hoof a, n d horn meal leather meal a ,n d wool a nd ,

hair waste a re all used Th e availability of the ni trogen

.

in these compoun ds dim in i shes about in the order give n .

In d ried blood the n it rogen is available at on ce while in ,

leather a n d hair it c a n be used but slowly .

1 35 N i trog e n fix a
. ti o n
- While the use of some com
.

m e rc i al n it rogen m a y always be n ecessa ry it is p r obable ,

that the best husban d ry wi ll direct the farm er to add the

n eces s ary q uan tity of n itrogen to his soil by the growth
of legume crops which a re capable th rough th e n odule ,

formin g bacteria o n their roo t s of fix in g the n itrogen of ,

the a ir Thus When these crops a

.
,
re plowed un der they

en rich the soil o n which they were grown The details .

of this operatio n a re described at g reater len gth in C hap

te r XIII .

1 36 Ph o sph o rus f e rtili zers a

. re obtai n ed from both

organ ic a n d min eral sources Bon es in various forms a

. re

exten sively used F ormerly th ey were used c h ie fly

.
,

in the ra w condition both groun d a ,

n d u n grou n d ; but
n o wmost of the bon e i s first steamed o r bum ed to remove

fat a n d n it rogen ous materials which a re used fo r other

purposes F in e grin din g of bon e makes its ph osphoru s

.

more easily available Tan kage that is relatively high

.

in bon e is used largely fo r its phosphoru s a n d if high ,

in fle sh scraps i t is valuable fo r its n it rogen

,
. Bon e i s .

sometimes trea ted With sulfu ric acid to ren der its phos
p h o ru s mo r e available .

Min eral phosphorus is fou n d in several kin ds of rock

which usually have the phosphoric acid in combin ation
with lime ; iron a n d alumin um
, The prese n ce of the .
 The Pmnc i p les A m
’

1 30 f g
o ro no y

a
tr lize this acidity before such crops as alfalfa a n d clover

will thrive This is best don e by the use of some fo rm

.

of lime Burn e d lime has been used very exten sively

.
,

but it is gra d ually givin g way to fin e ly grou n d lime s to n e -

which is much easier to han dle The effectiven ess of .

limesto n e depen ds to a great exten t o n the fin e n e ss of

grin din g .

1 39 In di re c t f e rti li ze rs
. Ma n y substan ces a
. re add e d

to the soil because of their in direct o r stimulatin g action .

Amo n g the most commo n a re gypsum commo n salt i ro n , ,

sulfate soot a , n d ma n ga n ese salts

, While it may be a
. d
visable to u se some of these materials fo r special cases ,

their gen eral u se is n o t recommen ded sin ce they add n o ,

real pla n t food a n d t h eir tempo ra ry be n e fit may have a

-

reactio n .

1 40 H om e -mi x i ng
. of f e rti liz e rs Man y farmers .

would rather pay more fo r fe rtilizers that a re al ready

mixed than to take the trouble of mixin g them This is .

largely because they do n o t realize ho w much more they

have to pay fo r the various elemen ts when purchased in
the commercial bra n ds of fertilizers than if obtain ed as
the simple fertilizi n g materials such as sodium n itrate -
,

acid phosphate a
-
n d potassium chlo ride
, .

F ertilizer man ufactu re rs po ssess n o special secrets

that can n ot be learn ed by a n y fa rmer who will give the

subject a little study It is a poor policy to pay hun dreds

.

of dollars every year fo r fertilizers about which n othin g

i s kn ow n save what is told by the salesma n Better .

econ omy would lead the farmer to spen d a few dollars

buyin g books o n the subject as the in formation obtain ed
,

from o n e book may make possible the savin g of from 25

to 50 pe r cen t o n the fertilizer bill An y farmer c a n at
.

very little expen se prepare a place in which to mix ferti

lize rs; then by purchasin g the material s best suited to
,
 Ma
n aes ad
f n Ferti li zers 1 31

his con diti on s he c a n mix them himself a

,
nd thereby obtain

amuch more effective fertilizer at the same expen se .

Self relian ce in thi s a

- n d other respects is often a great

a dvan tage .

1 41 Va lue o f fa
. rm ma n ure Th e use of fa rm ma n ure
.

is the surest mea n s of preservi n g soil fertility Practically .

F IG . 36 . E fie c to f m au n re o n p ro p o rti o n o f d i fie re n tp a
rtso f c o rn a
pl
nt .

every farm produces a quan tity of this by product of -

an imal husbandry ; a n d a wise use of it is at the fo un d a

tion of perman en t agriculture Sin ce the very dawn of .

h istory the excreta of an imals have bee n used as fertilizer

,
.

Fo r a lo n g time little was k n ow n of the wa

, y i n which it
improved the soil but the in crea se which it made in the
,
1 32 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g ro no my

yield of crops wa s very eviden t Man ure is n o w kn own .

to be nefit the so il by addin g directly a quan tity of plan t

food by in creasin g the orga n ic matter a
, n d by aidin g the ,

work of desirable soil organ isms It may n o t in all cases .

be a complete a n d well bala n ced fe rtilizer fo r eve ry soil

-
,

but its u se c an always be recommen ded with safety .

Ma n ure shave an effect o n the p o rpo rtio n of differen t parts

FI G . 37 . a
F i e ld s u se d i n f m o u s f e r tiliz e r ex p e ri m e n ts ( Pe n n E x p e ri
a
. .

m e n t St ti o n .
)

of the plan t (Fig F ig 37 shows the way i n which a

. .

fie ld is laid out to te st the value of differe n t fertilize rs .

1 42 Kin d s o f fa
. rm m a n ur e Th e ma n u re from each .

‘
kin d of farm a n imal is d iffe l e n t Th at produced by .

poultry a n d sheep is co n ce n trated a n d d ry while that ,

produced by cattle a n d ho rses co n tai n s more wate r a nd

coarse material The ma n ure of a

. n y a n imal i s i n flue n c e d

by the ki n d of food it eats its age work a n d several

, , ,

other factors O ld a n imals that do but little Work a

.
, nd

eat much rich food produce the best man ure

, .
1 34 The Pri nc i p les o A
f g rmwmy

time it should be so piled that it c a nn ot be leache d .

This may be do n e by putti n g it un der cover o r by maki n g

the pile of proper shape .

Man ure is filled with bacteria a n d fu n gi which a re

co n stan tly at wo rk Some of these te n d to make the

.

man ure heat causi n g a loss of co n siderable n itrogen

, .

Sin ce these destructive o rgan i sm s wo rk be st i n ma n ure

that is loose a n d fai rly d ry thei r actio n c a
,
n most ea sily be

FI G . 39 . Ma
n u re p ile i n a
n u n si g h tly ad
n i n c o n v e ni e n t p l a
ce .

preven ted by compacti n g the man ure to exclude a ir a

nd

by keepi n g it moi st .

1 44 H a
. n d lin g farm ma n ure E xperie n ce has demon
.

stra te d that the be st way to ha n d le farm ma n u re is to

haul it out a nd s pread it o n the lan d when fre sh This .

preve n ts an y serious lo ss from either leachi n g o r t ermen

tatio n .Man y farmers ha ul man ure o n to the fie ld a nd

leave it stan d i n g fo r mo n ths in sma ll piles Th i s is n o t .

a good practice sin ce its loo se co n ditio n allows destructive

,

fermen tation to g o o n readily Moreover the leachin g

.
,
 M au res a
n nd Ferti li zers 1 35

of the piles causes a n i rregula r distributio n of pla n t food -

over the fie ld Fig 40 shows a commo n man ure carrier

. . .

Duri n g parts of the yea r there is n o vacan t lan d o n

which ma n ure c a n be spread a n d h e n ce it must be sto red
, .

This c a n be do n e i n special ma n u re pit s u n der sheds o r , ,

i n the open yard E xpe n sive pit s p robably do n o t pay

.
,

but s imple devices to assist in han dli n g ma n ure a re with

FIG . 40
. Ma rr i e r s a
n u re c a re be c o m in g a
lm o st afa
rm n e c e ssi ty .

out doubt a good thi n g It has al ready bee n stated that

.

by proper pili n g the loss due to leachi n g a

,
n d ferme n ta

tion c an be p ractically ove rcome Where a n ope n ya rd

.

is used the n eatest a n d mo st sa n ita ry ki n d of pile as well ,

as the o n e allowi n g least lo ss is a square pile with verti

,

cal side s an d with edges slightly higher tha n the middle .

The ma n ure that is p roduced each day should be put o n

the pile a n d should be kept compact a n d moi st .
1 36 The Pri nc i ples oA
f g ron o my

A man ure sprea

der is a great tim saver ma kes e -
, ad
n

po ssible a more even distributio n than c a n be m a de by

han d The amoun t of ma n ure that is applied is usually
.

limited by the qua n tity that c a n be obtai n ed Fe w .

farmers a re i n da n ge r of over ma n uri n g thei r la n d

- Most .

soils will use forty o r fifty ton s to the acre every few years
without sufferin g a n y in jury .

1 45 H o w to f e rtiliz e d ifie re n t c rops

. Wh ile each .

crop u ses exactly th e sa me plan t food elemen ts the rela -

,

tive quan tities u sed by differe n t crops vary Pota toe s .

a n d suga r beet s u se relatively la rge qua n titie s of p o t

-
as
sium ; the grai n crop s require co n side rable pho spho ru s ;
while the legumes use relatively more lime a n d n itroge n .

E ach crop al so ha s diff ere n t rooti n g habit s T hese facts .

must all be ta ke n i n to co n sideration when applyi n g ferti

lize rs In pa sture s a
. n ea rly growth of succule n t fo rage is

desired Thi s calls fo r the applicatio n of some form of

.

available n itrogen Th e n eed s of each crop a

. nd the
quality of product desired should be carefully studied
before decidin g ju st ho w to fertilize It is of course .
, ,

n ecessa ry to have the fe rtilizer co n fo rm to the n eeds of

the soil .

1 46 Gre e n ma n ure s The plowi n g u n der of g row

'

. .

i n g pla n ts to i n crease the organ ic co n te n t of the soil has .

bee n practiced fo r cen turies Th e decay of these plan ts

.

helps to make available the mi n eral foods of the soil ,

a n d helps to co rrect defect s that exist i n its physical

n ature .

Le gumes make the best gree n man ure crop s sin ce they -
,

in crease the n itrogen supply of the soil by takin g this ele

me n t from the a ir a n d combi n i n g it i n such a w ay that it
ca n be used by othe r pla n t s The clovers vetche s c o w
.
, ,

peas soybean s fie ld pea s a

, ,
n d alfalfa a re all plowed u n der
,

a s gree n ma n u re s Th e small grain s a

. re al so much used
-
 C HAP TE R XIII

O RGA N I SMS OF THE SO I L

THE so il is n o t a mass of dead matter but is fille d with

,

livin g organ isms Which a re co n sta n tly tra n sfo rmi n g its

compoun ds a nd re n ewi n g its productiven ess These .

organ isms work o n the dead bodies of plan ts a n d a n imals

a n d make the mate rials compos in g them useful to g rowi n g

pla n ts All life o n the earth is depen den t fo r its con tin u
.

an ce o n the un see n organ isms whic h swarm in the soil .

If it were n o t fo r thei r ren ewi n g actio n the available ,

plan t food would in time be con sumed a

- n d pla n t gro w th
would cease A soil composed merely of dead min eral
.

matter u n able to support life would be valueless F o r .

tu n a te ly the soil is n o t in this co n ditio n but teems with

, ,

myriads of micro scopic organ isms of man y forms each ,

con tributin g itsshare toward makin g the soil productive .

1 47 Kin d s o f soil org a

. nis ms A great diversity of
.

life exists in the soil An imals such as squirrels a

.
, nd

gophers burrow in the grou n d a

, nd a re importa n t in

mixin g the soil E arth worms a .

-
re co n ti n ually maki n g

the soil more mellow by mixi n g min eral a nd organ ic

matter a n d by i n crea si n g the availability of ma n y of the

plan t foods Their work is particularly importa

-
. n t in

heavy wet soil s where they improve aeratio n The

, ,
.

higher plan ts in crease the circulation of a ir an d add o r

g a n i c matte r by se n di n g thei r root s i n to eve ry pa rt of the

soil ; certain of the higher fun gi assist in the deca y of
1 38
 Org a
n i sms f
o the So i l 1 39

o rg a n ic matter ; a n d last but n o t least come t ,he bacteria , ,

which a re the mo st impo rta n t of a ll the soil organ ism s

i n th e influe n c e they exert .

1 48 Ba . c teria The existen ce of bacteria wa

. s dis
c ove red by Leeuwe nh oek in 1 695 but little was kn ow n ,

of their real n ature u n til a few years ago They belon g .

to th e plan t kin gdom a nd a re compo s ed of single cells

,

a bout 7 8 37 51 1 of a n i n ch in diamete r although they va ry ,

con siderably i n size as well as shape I n crease is rapid .

,

sin ce un der favorable con ditio n s o n e may divide in about

a half hour At this rate the n umber that might be
.
,

p roduced from a sin gle i n dividual in a week is almost

beyo n d computa tion Bacteria cause man y of the com
.

mo n diseases of a n imals a n d pla n ts Th e di scovery of .

this fact made po ssible a n e w e rain the treatmen t of

dise ase All bacteria a
. re by no mea n s harmful ; some
seem to be n eutral in th eir actio n ; others a re decidedly

be n e fic ia l Most soil organ isms a

. re helpful in o n e way o r

a n other .

1 49 Th e n umb e r o f ba
. c te ri ai n t h e soil is probably
a bout as large as c a n be suppo rted u n der existi n g co n di

tio n s De sert soil s lo w in organ ic matter water logged

.
,
-

soils a
, n d sa n dy soils have comparatively fe w bacteria ;

while loamy soils e specially if man u red have man y

, ,
.

C ultivated soil s of the o rd i n ary type usually have from

to bacteria in each gram of soil .

Where co n dition s a re exceptio n ally favo rable the n um

be r often run s as high as to the gram ; how

ever this varies greatly duri n g the diff ere n t seaso n s of
,

the year a n d i s affected by soil moistu re c rops tempe ra

, , ,

ture organ ic matter a

, n d a n umber of othe r facto rs
, .

1 50 Kin d s o f ba
. c te ri a The size a n d shape of bac
.

teria vary greatly They a re c la

. ssifie d as sphe ric a l ,

cylin drical a n d spiral a , nd a re ofte n compa red i n fo rm

1 40 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g rono my

with billiard ball s lead pe n cils a ,nd corkscrews They , .

may occur sin gly o r in aggregate s of two o r more Th e .

spherical forms differ from the others in bei n g able to

multiply in a n umber of plan es ; he n ce they may mak e
chain s fla , t layers o r cubical masses ,
Th e ro d shaped .
-

a n d spi ral shaped fo rms i n crease in but o n e di rection ;

-

they elo n gate a n d sepa rate i n to two parts Th e three .

main types a re n o t alway s disti n ct a n d some fo rms a re ,

in termediate Hair like fla .

g e llabo rn-e by some bacte ria
aid in locomotio n .

1 51 H o w b a
. c te ri ag row Th e fact that bacteria .

a re c olo rless make s them u n able to use the e n e rgy of s un

light ; but they like an imal s must depe n d o n the d e c o m

, ,

positio n of o rga n ic food s fo r a source of e n ergy O rgan ic .

material therefore is commo n ly n eeded fo r food Sapro

, , .

phytic forms obtain their food s from d ead pla n t a nd

a n imal bodies while parasitic fo rm s get their food from

,

livi n g plan ts a n d a n imal s A few form s c a n live without

.

organ ic matter but sub sist e n tirely o n mi n eral matter .

O xyge n is n eeded by mo st bacteria fo r their growth ;

others c a n g row either in the prese n ce o r i n the abse n ce

of oxyge n ; still others grow o n ly in the abse n ce of fre e

oxygen No ne of the higher pla n ts o r a n imal s have the
.

ability to live without free oxygen .

Bacteria respo n d to temperature chan ges in much the

same way a sdo other livi n g thi n g s At very lo wtempera .

tures their activities cea se while at very high tempera ,

tu res they a re killed Th e tempe ratu re of best growth

.

varies greatly with the species Some grow best at about .

7 0 F while ma n y prefer 95 F a n d a fe w species re

° °
.
, .
,

quire as high a s 1 40 F fo r thei r most rapid gro wth

°
. At .

a temperature of 1 60 F mo st bacteria a °
re quickly killed
.
,

although spo re s of bacteria will ofte n live after bein g

°
heated fo r a short time at 2 1 2 F .
142 The Pri nc iples o A
f g rono my

elemen ts of the soil n itrogen is probably the o n e n eed in g

,

most atten tio n It must co n sta

. n tly be wo rked over a nd

chan ge d from o n e form to an other A part is lost from .

the soil a s fre e n itrogen a n d ammo n ia which escape i n to ,

the a ir o r as soluble n itroge n salts which a

,
re leached out .

To preven t these los ses a n d mai n tai n i n the soil a supply

suffic ie n t fo r the n eeds of crops is o n e of the greatest ,

problem s of agriculture .

The atmosphe re con tai n s a vast sto re of n itrogen But ,

thi s is in a n u n combi n ed fo rm a n d is the refo re n o t in a , ,

co n ditio n to be use d by plan t s The supply of combi n ed .

n itroge n i n the soil o n the other ha n d is limit e d

, It wa s , .

thought fo r some time that o n accoun t of losses which ,

occurred this supply would in time be en ti rely exhausted

,

a n d that it would eve n tually be impossible to raise c rops .

Thi s wa s befo re the actio n of bacteria wa s u n de rstood .

We n o w kn ow that un der proper con dition s these o r

, ,

g a n i sm s a re able to combi n e the n it roge n of the a i r with

other eleme n ts in such a wa y that it c a n be u sed by pla n ts .

Th e di scove ry of this process k n ow n as n itroge n fix a ti o n -

i s respo n sible fo r a chan ge of ideas regardi n g so il fe r

tility .

O ther kin ds of bacteria a re able to cha n ge the n itroge n

co n tain ed in dead a n imal a n d pla n t bodies i n to a form

that c a n be u sed by livi n g pla n t s This gen eral process .

which takes place in a n umber of disti n ct stages is kn own

a s n itrific atio n When available form s of n itrogen
.
,

like the n itrates a re tran sfo rmed in to n o n available

,
-

ammo n ia o r free n itrogen the process is k n ow n as demitri

a
fic tio n .

1 54 Th e fix ti o n
. at og e n wa
s first fou n d to occu r
o f ni r

in co n n ectio n with little n odules which are fou n d o n the

root s of legumes such as peas bea n s alfalfa a n d clover , , , .

It was observed that where these pla n ts grew the n itroge n ,

 Org a
n i sms f
o the So i l 1 43

con ten t of the soil was in crease d I n vestigation showed .

that the n odules were cause d by bacteria worki n g o n

the roots The bacteria livi n g in these n odules a
. re able

to use free n itrogen of the a ir a n d combi n e it i n to the

o rgan ic compou n ds of their bodies from which it may later

be come available to the higher plan ts The fix a tio n of .

n itro ge n i n co n n ection with the growth of legumes make s

these plan ts desirable in all crop rotation s They make .

it possible to main tain the soil n itrogen It wa s late r .

fou n d that certain bacteria a n d fu n gi wo rki n g in d e p e n d

en tly of plan ts a re also able to fix n it roge n from the supply

i n the a ir Th e qua n tity of n itroge n they fix in the soil

a
.

is large in some cases though fix tio n by mean s of legum es

,

p roceeds mo re rapidly .

1 55 Ni tri fic a ti o n a ri fic a Most of the

'

. n d d e nit ti o n .

soil n itroge n has o n ce bee n held in plan ts where it was

o n e of the impo rta n t co n stitue n ts of p rotoplasm When .

plan ts die their n itroge n return s to the soil as complex

,

protein compoun ds a n d as such it ca n n ot agai n be used

, ,

u n til th e compou n ds a re b roke n dow n Some bacte ria .

a n d fu n gi attack dead pla n ts a n d cause decay duri n g ,

which at least a part of the n itrogen is con verted in to

a mmon ia compou n ds Amm on ia is then attacked by a
.

group of n itrous bacteria which chan ge the n itrogen i n to

n itrites which a
,

, re i n turn co n verted i n to n itrates by the

n itric bacte ria In the fo rm of n itrates the n itroge n is

.
,

agai n available to crop s Thu s the n itroge n cycle is .

ca rried o n by a n umbe r of di ff e re n t fo rms of o rga n i sms .

In this cycle n itroge n i s taken up as n itrates by the

,

higher plan ts In their bodies it becomes a part of th e

.

complex protein compou n ds When the pla n t dies these .

,

compou n ds a re b roke n dow n i n to ammo n ia which by ,

the process of n itrific a tio n is co n ve rted i n to n it rites

,

a n d fin a lly i n to n itrates when it is agai n ready to be

,
1 44 The P ri nc i p les oA
f g ro no my

used Nitrific a
. tio n requi re s a good supply of oxygen a ,

prope r amoun t of soil moisture a favo rable temperature , ,

a n d a n umbe r of othe r co n dition s .

In the soil there a re de n itrifyin g organ isms which

chan ge the n itrate s back in to n itrites a nd ammon ia .

These work i n co n ditio n s just the oppo site to tho se favor

able fo r the n itrifyi n g bacteria Poor d rain age a nd a .

lack of soil a ir are amo n g the co n ditio n s favo ri n g thei r

actio n In ordin ary well tilled soils these n itrate d e

.
-

stroyin g orga n isms have but little eff ect O n ly where .

large qua n tities of n itrate fertilizers a re applied to poorly

aerated soils do they have great eco n omic importan ce .

1 56 Ba c te ri a
. and t h e fa rm e r Soil bacteria will g o .

o n doi n g thei r wo rk i n spite of a n ythi n g the fa rme r does ;

but he may by proper method s in crea se their useful n ess

, ,

to him By the in troduction of legumin ous crops in to

.

his rotation s he is able to keep up the n itroge n supply

, ,

a n d by the plowi n g u n de r of o rga n ic matter he fu rn ishes ,

carbo n fo r the formatio n of humus which assists in mak

i n g available the various mi n eral pla n t foods By d rain - .

in g wet la n ds by addi n g lime sto n e to soils that a

,
re acid ,

by the libe ral u se of barn yard man ure a n d by p rope r ,

till a ge method s the farmer is able to get the greatest

,

good out of these i n visible but powerful wo rkers in his , ,

behalf .

SUPPLEM E TARY REA IN G N D

An y te x tbo o k o f ba c te ri o lo g y .

Ag ric u ltura l Ba ct e ri o lo g y H W C o n n , . . .

Ba c te ri ain Re la ti o n to C o un try Li e G Lip m a

n f J , . .

So ils, Ly o n Pippin
, , ad Buc k m a pp 42 1
n n, .
—
47 4 .

C y c pe d a f Ame
lo i o r n r r , o ic a Ag ic u ltu e V l I
, pp 441 453
—
. . .

l An a
Ag ric u ltu ra ly si s, Vo l I (So i ls) , H W Wile y , p p 51 9 57 2
.
-
. . . .
1 46 The P ri nc i p les oA
f g ro no my

tilth atten tio n must be give n to the amou n t of moi sture

,

presen t When a very wet soil is stirre d its particles

.
,

are wedged togethe r a n d the result is puddli n g which is ,

much more un favo rable to plan ts than is the me rely com

pact co n ditio n of virgi n lan d .

Plowi n g should mea n mo re tha n the mere turn i n g ove r

of the soil If well do n e every clod will be shattered
.
,

an d eve ry pa rticle have its relation to eve ry other pa rticle

F IG . 41 . Fi e ld i n g o o d c o nd i ti o n fo r c ro ps
.

cha n ged through the s heari n g actio n which should tak e

place when the plowed slice is turn ed over As the soil .

fall s i n to the fu rrow it should be a gran ular mellow mass

, ,

of loo se particles Th e kin d of impleme n t that will best

.

produce this co n dition varies with each soil San d o r .

loam may be made mellow with almo st a n y ki n d of plow ,

but a heavy clay without orga n ic matter c a n be give n a

good tilth o n ly whe n everythin g is favorable Soil in .

good co n ditio n is shown in F igs 41 to 43 . .

 Ti lla
g e a
nd Cro p Ro ta
ti o ns 1 47

1 58 . we e d s
C on trolli n g Weed s a re . a men ace to
every farm They thrive un der all co n ditio n s that pro
.

duce crops a n d it is impo ssible fo r o rdi n a ry c rops to com

,

pete with them without the farmer s aid Wee ds a re

’
.

i n jurious sin ce they con sume available plan t food a

, nd -

moistu re n eeded by crops ; they shade a n d c rowd out

F IG . 42 . A g oo d
d se e b e d
- .

the more desirable plants ; a n d they ofte n reduce the

market value of crops In arid regio n s where crop p ro

.

ductio n is limited by lack of moi sture successful farm ,

in g can n ot be practiced u n le ss weeds a re kept i n check ;

in dee d the quality of farmin g in a

, n y regio n may be judged

by the tho rough n ess With which weed s a re co n t rolled .

Some o n e has said that weed s a re a good thi n g fo r the

1 48 The Pri nc i p les of Ag ron o my

farm sin ce they keep the farme r cultivatin g Be this .

as it may it is probable that a la rge part of the tillage

,

operatio n s a re pe rfo rmed i n o rde r to kill wee ds ; but the

soil receives other be nefits at the same time Much ;

.

en ergy is wasted in tryin g to con trol weeds which a re

allowed to grow a n d begi n seed p roductio n befo re the

cultivato r is used It takes a great deal of work to kill

.

big weeds a n d if thei r seeds have bee n sca

, ttered a ne w
crop of trouble may be expected The be st time to kill .

weed s is just after they ha ve germi n ate d a n d befo re they

have become well established in the soil A mere sti rrin g .

of the soil at this time is all that is n ecessary but if they ,

a re allowed to get well established a n umbe r of b oei n gs ,

o r cultivatio n s are ofte n requi red .

The impleme n t used to kill weed s depe n ds o n the crop

grown the kin d of la n d a
,
n d the ki n d of weed s
, On .

fallow lan d a n impleme n t cove ri n g co n side rable a rea c a

,
n

be used to advan tage The spike tooth disk a

.
- n d Sp ri n g
, ,

tooth harrows a n d impleme n ts with blades ru n n in g just

,

ben eath the surface of the soil a re effective Fo r tilled .

crops such a s corn a n d potatoe s some so rt of cul tivato r

,

is used to a dvan tage while in crops like a lfalfa the sprin g ,

tooth harrow is a good implemen t to eradicate weeds The .

great secret of weed co n trol with a n y tool lies i n doi n g

the work at the right time .

1 59 C ove rin g m a
. n ur e an d plan t re si d u e s O rgan ic .

mat ter accum ulates o n the surface of a n y soil that i s

cropped In the o rchard leaves fall to the grou n d ; in

.
,

the grain fie ld stu bble is left after harv est ; a

,
n d in mead

ow s that a re to be follow ed by a n other c rop a sod m u st ,

be disposed o f These plan t residues can n ot decompose

.

readily if left at the su rface They n e ed to be turn ed

.

under a n d mixed with the so il in o rde r to decay a n d give

up their plan t foods as well as to assist in makin g available

-
1 50 The Pri n c i p les oA
f g rono my

allow moisture to escape readily This m u lch may be .

p rese rved by ma n y impleme n ts such as ha rrows an d ,

cultivators of various kin ds .

Rollin g the lan d is often practiced to make the surface

smooth a nd to b reak clods C ompactin g the surface .

soil by the roller i n creases capillary movemen t toward

the surface a n d the reby the loss of moi sture The fact .

FI G 44 a
C u lti v ti o n while th e c ro p i s y o u n g g re a
tly i n flu e n c e s
De la
.

wa
.

th e y i e ld . re .

that the soil seems more moi st after a roller is used often
misleads farmerswho thin k they a re actually savi n g water .

1 61 Tilla
.
g e o f vari o u s c r0 ps T h e impleme n ts. of
tillage may be divided i nto three main classes ( )
l
plows (2) cultivators a
, nd ( 3) crushers a
, nd packers .

The p rimary purpo se of the plow is to loo sen a n d pulve r

ize the soil a n d make it mo re fit fo r the growth of plan ts .

Plows a re of n ume rous design s ; n o o n e ki n d is s uitable

fo r all con dition s Th e disk plow has given good results

.

in man y places but the moldboard plow is doubtless

,
 Ti lla
g e a
nd Cro p Ro t ti ons a 1 51

suited to a much wider ran ge Th e old walk in g plow is .

rapidly givin g w a y to some fo rm of ridi n g plow .

Man y differen t kin d s of cul tivators a re used in p re

pa in g the s ed bed in eradicatin g weed s a

r e -
, n d i n tillin g ,

crops durin g growth Every farm should be equipped

.

with several kin ds of cultivatin g implemen ts A very .

useful a n d simple device used to smooth the lan d a n d to

b reak clods without compactin g the soil is m a d e by a t

ta chin g a n umber of planks together with their edges
overlappin g T his plank er o r flo a
. t is especially useful
, ,

to preced e the grain d rill sin ce it scrapes o ff little eleva

,

tion s a n d fills depression s thu s in su rin g a mo re un iform

,

depth of plan tin g .

1 62 Re a
. son s f o r ro ta ti o n o f c r0ps Some so rt of .

crop rotation has been practiced fo r man y cen turies .

Th e reason s fo r this practice were probably n o t at first

un derstood even to d a
,
-
y all the e ffec ts of alte rn ate c rop
p in g are n o t k n ow n ; but so man y reaso n s a re n o w kn ow n

that there seems n o good excu se fo r n o t practicin g some

kin d of rotation o n almost every farm All crops do n o t .

req u ire the va riou s foods in exactly the sam e p ropo rtio n s;

so me use more potash o r ni trogen while others n eed rela ,

tiv e ly mo re phospho rus o r l ime If o n e crop is grow n .

con tin u ously o n the same lan d the available supply of ,

certain elemen ts is red uced a n d the yield will fin a lly

decrease ; but if crop s with d ifferen t requiremen ts a re

altern ated the food su pply of the soil is kept in a more

,

balan ced con ditio n Each kin d of plan t has a differe n t

.

rootin g system a n d ma n n e of g owth

r r If shallow roo ted
- .

crops a re gro w n co n ti n uou sly on ly part of the soil is u sed

, ,

while a n alte n atio

r n of deep a n d shallo wrooted crops
-

overcomes this d iffic ulty .

O n e of the chief reaso n s fo r crop rotatio n s is the im

provemen t of the soil This is made possible by the use
.
1 52 The P ri n c i p les oA
f g ron o my

of legume c rops which fix n it rogen from the a

, ir (F ig .

Th e n it rogen fix ed by these crops c a n be used by others

which follow in the ro tation but it would be practically ,

lost if the legumes were raised con tin uously Th e co n t rol .

of plan t disea ses in sect pests a n d weeds is made possible

, ,

by the rotatio n of crops ; in deed su ch con sideration s ,

often cause the farmer to chan ge hi s crops when he would

n o t otherwise do s o E co n omy in the use of m a
. n labo r -
,

ho rse labor machin ery a

-
,
nd irrigation water results
,

F I G 45
. .
—
E v e ry ro t a
ti o n sh o u ld i n c lu d e ani t o gr e n -g a
th e ri ng c ro p .

from the raisin g of a n umber of crops o n a farm The se .

co n sideration s alon e without a n y of the other be n efits

, ,

would be suffic ie nt reason fo r practicin g rotatio n s .

1 63 Me th o d s o f c rop rota
. ti on C areful plan n in g is .

requi red in maki n g a good rotatio n Th e first esse n tial .

is to decide o n what crops c a n best be g rown un der the

co n dition s When this is do n e the q uantity of each crop

.

to raise a n d the placi n g of it c a n be determi n ed .

The followi n g prin ciples shou ld be kept in min d in

 C HAP TER XV

SP E C IAL S O IL P RO B LE MS

EVE RY region has certain special soil problems n o t fou n d

i n other places Some of these a
. re merely lo c al ; othe rs

apply to a comparatively large area O n each farm soil

.
,

co n dition s are fou n d that a re n o t ide n tical with those

fou n d o n other farm s of the same n eighborhood These .

special co n dition s make it n ecessary fo r ea ch farmer to

stu dy hi s o wn soil in o rde r to solve the problems which
it prese n ts It is n o t possible to discuss o r even to un der
.
,

stan d all the spe cial soil problems

, .

ALKALI

In a rid regio ns there a

, re millio n s of acres of la n d c o n

tain in g excessively high quan tities of soluble salts which

a re usu ally spoke n of as alkalies . Th e soil is ren dered
valueless by these salt s if they a re p rese n t in q u a n tities

that prohibit crop growth Man y soils however c o n

.
, ,

ta in in g con siderable alkali will r aise good crops u n til

st ron g con cen tration s of salt are b rou ght n ea r the su rface

by the evaporation of large quan tities of water In .

judging arid soils it is n ecessary to kn ow the amoun t of

,

soluble salt s presen t a n d thei r relatio n to t h e qua n tity

causin g in jury to crops In the man agemen tof such so ils
.
,

the farmer should kn ow how to preven t the accum u la

tion of salts in the s trata of the soil that is used a n d in

1 54
 Spec i a
l Soi l Pro blems 1 55

re g io hs where large quan tities of alkali al ready pres a

re

e n t he should kn ow h o w to recla im the la n d

,
Effects of .

a lkali o n vegetatio n a re show n i n F igs 46 a n d 47 . .

1 64 Kin d s o f a
. lk ali An y soluble salt presen t in
.

the soil in in ju rious quan tities may be co n sidered a n

alk ali The salts that most often cause in jury a

. re sodium

chlo ride o r commo n salt sodium sulfate o r Glaube r s sa

,
lt ,
’

sodium carbon ate o r sal soda ; a

- n d mag n esiu m sulfate o r
, ,

FI G . 46 . Alkali sp o t wi th a
ti o n
ve g e t kill d
e .

epsom Salt In addition to these sodium n it rate a

. nd a ,

n umber of othe r s a lts do damage in some districts .

Sodium chloride is in jurious to vegetation when presen t

in lower c o n cen t ration s than a n y of the other salts m e n

tio n e d ; sodium ca rbo n ate o r black alkali in jures the

, ,

soil when presen t in low co n cen t ratio n s by dissolvin g the

organ ic matter a n d causi n g a hard crust to fo rm Plan ts .

will grow in the prese n ce of relatively large quan tities of

the sulfates .
 56 The Pri nc ip les of Ag rono my

1 65 . Efie c t of a
lk a
li in jury
on pl a
nt g ro wth . The
don e to vegeta tio n by alkali salts results largely from the
shuttin g o ff of wate r from the plan t o n accoun t of the soil
solution havin g a g reater con cen tration than the plan t
cells By the law of osmosis water passes from the dilute
.

to the more con cen trated solution In a n ormal so il the .

,

root ha s a cell sap with a higher co n ce n t ratio n than the

-

soil solution ; hen c e water passe s from the soil in to the

,

F IG . 47 Ah o rc h ad
r be in g kill d b
e y th e ri se of lka
a li .

pla n t When the soil solutio n is made too co n cen trated

.
,

o n the othe r ha n d water passes out of the roots i n to the

,

soil a n d the pla n t dies .

1 66 Re c la
. ma ti on o f a
lk a li lands The perman en t .

reclamatio n of alkali la n ds rests o n a removal of excessive

sa lts by drain age O ther mean s may give tempora

. ry

relief but d rai n age is the o n ly certai n cure In d rain in g

w
, .
,

the pri n ciples discussed in C hapter X a re to be follo ed .

Where the accumulation of alkali results from over

irrigatin g higher lan ds the remedy is obviously the pre
,

ven tio n of percolatin g wate r which carries soluble salt s

1 58 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g rono my

tion s ; b urn ed lime a n d grou n d limest o n e both a e com

p li sh the res ult .G ro u n d limesto n e ho w eve r is

, usually ,

cheaper a n d if fin e en o ugh it is very effective

, Groun d .

limeston e also has a n additi o n al advan tage of dest royin g

less o rgan ic matter than the burn ed o r caustic lime , .

E RO SIO N

O ne of the chief d iffic ultie swith which farm erso f certain

se ction s have to con ten d is the erosio n of the soil durin g ,

which fertility is washed out a n d at times the e n tire soil

ca rri e d away . Some erosion goes o n n ormally in all parts

of the world ; i n deed it is by erosion that cati o n s a
, nd

ravi n es have bee n fo rmed It is much more i nten se

.
,

however o n lan d that is un der cultivation Man y facto rs

,
.

in flu e n c e the amou nt of erosio n that will take place .

Amo n g these a re the qua n tity a n d seaso n of rai n fall t he ,

slope of the la n d the textu re of the soil the o rgan ic

, ,

matter in the soil a , n d the crops raised .

Where the precipitation is light erosion does n o t take

,

place to a n y great exten t u n less th e wate r falls i n a

few heavy storms a n d then o n ly local dam a ge is don e .

Erosio n is more serious where the lan d has con siderable

slope a nd damagin g streams a re formed A loose .
,

co arse textured so il is in more dan ger of erosion than a

-

fin e o n e that is compact O rgan ic matter in the soil

.

reduces erosio n by i n creasi n g its wate r h o ldi n g c a

- pacity
an d its ab s o rptive power .

1 69 Me t
. h o d s o f pre ve n tin g e ro si o n Erosi o n can n ot
.

be avoid e d by the same m e tho d sun d e r a ll con ditio n s O n e .

way of preven tin g it in hi lly region s where the pre c ipi

ta tio n is excessive is to keep the la n d co n tin ually i n crops .

As soo n as o n e crop is harvested somethin g else is plan t e d .

T his may later be plowed under as a green man ure befo re

 a
Sp ec i l S o i l Pro ble ms 1 59

th e gul ar crop is see d e d Parts of the lan d most likely

re .

to wash a re kept co n stan tly plan ted to gra ss .

Erosio n usu ally begin s by the formati o n of small

furrows across the fie ld These rapidly in crease un til in
.

time they become great w a shes This con ditio n may be .

avoided in the begin n i n g by makin g regular chan n els with

less slope to take ca e of all the un o fl Th e construction
r r - "
.

of terraces a n d plowin g at right a n gles to the s 10 pe a re

useful devices fo r coun teractin g th is ten den cy to wash .

La rge quan tities of stable man ure a re al so be n e fic ia

l in
reducin g erosion O n some soils o n e o r two of the
.

methods gi ven will successf ully preven t washin g but in ,

so me section s every practice i n soil man agement ha s to

be directed toward reducin g erosion .

BLO WIN G
'

In man y section s con siderable d iffic ulty is expe rien ced

,

with soils be in g blown away leavin g fie ld s bare to the,

b o ttom of the plowe d zon e After the lan d is plowed

.

a n d a crop pla n ted a win d storm may c a

- rry the plowed

so il a
O

nd seed to a n eighborin g fie ld Thi s c o n dition .

,

particularly se rio us in certain parts of the G reat Plain s ,

is also foun d to a lesser deg ree in man y other region s

havin g a n a rid o r a semi arid climate
- In places where .

the soil d rifts rea dily fa rms have been aban don ed over
,

large areas Houses barn s a

.
,
n d t rees h a
,
ve been almost
completely covered with soil a n d the en ti re surface of the

lan d tran sformed by dust storms .

In regio n s where the soil blows in this way every opera ,

tion has to be directed toward holdin g the soil in place .

Th e g reatest care must be taken in plowin g a n d harrow

in g .If the soil is left loo se a n d fin e it is sure to be carr ied

,

away A fin e d ry mulch such as is most effectual in

.
,
1 60 The Pri ne ip les oA
f g rono my

preven tin g evaporatio n of moisture can n ot be used a t

all but it is n ecessary to leave a surfac e of small clods
,

which c an n ot be rea dily moved by win d Plowi n g is .

usually don e at right an gles to the dire ction of win d In .

thi s wa y the ridges b reak the fo rce of the wi n d n ext to

the groun d a n d the soil does n o t easily get in to motio n
, .

1 7 0 Pre ve n ti on o f b lo win g
. It is o n the lon g
.

stretches of barren soil that the greatest in jury is don e .

Where a large tract is left summer fall o wed in d ry farmin g

-

dist ricts bl o win g may be gin a

,
n d the whole dist ri c t be

affected When the soil be gin s to move it rapidly cuts

.
,

the gro un d over whi ch it passe s Th e great problem .

,

therefore is to preven t the first blowin g O n e eff ective

,
.

mean s is the altern ate cro ppin g a n d fallowi n g of lo n g

strips of lan d A crop say corn is plan ted in a lon g strip

.
, ,

a few rod s wide at right a n gles to the win d N ex t to .

this comes a strip of fallow lan d a n d then a n other of,

crop In this way there is n o large area of fallow lan d in

.

o n e bo dy a n d the soil does n o t start to blow Seedin g .

to grass o r to some other perman en t crop is sometimes

n ec e ssary i n places where d riftin g is wo rst The methods .

to be used vary with c o n dition s ; sometimes o n e measure

will be suffic ie n t while at other time s every kn own mean s
,
’
must be used to preven t the soil s bein g carrie d away by
the win d .

ETHO DS
M OF JU DGIN G SO I S L
Sin ce there a re so man y factors e n teri n g i n to the value

of lan d it is very d iffic u lt to tell just what it is worth

,
.

The amoun t of mo n ey i n volved in lan d t ran sactio n s is so

great that c o n siderable care sh ould be exercised to deter
min e as n early as p ossible its true value O ften in o n e
tran saction there is suffic ie n t mo n ey wa sted to pa
.

y a
man s expen ses through a
’
n en tire c ours e at a n a g ric u l
1 62 The Pri nc ip les of Ag ro no my

probably less o n lan d of this kin d than where the surfac e

is fla . t Un der some con dition s a rollin g surface may be
desirable while un der others smoother lan d may be pre
,

ferre d Un der practically all con dition s however the

.
, ,

t o pography of the la n d must be given co n sideration in

judgin g of its value .

1 7 3 De pth a
. n d struc t ure o f t h e so il Th e depth of .

the soil a n d its ge n eral make up a- re very importa n t ele

men ts en teri n g in to its value A soil may be n early .

perfect at the surface but if it is on ly a few i n ches deep

, ,

it is of little value fo r some clas ses of farmin g A shallow .

soil has a lo w water holdin g capacity a

- n d its root zo n e is
-

not s uffic ie n t to give the best results fo r ce rtai n crops .

The presen ce of a hardpa n o r of a streak of coarse gravel

n ear the surface grea ly reduces t h e value of a n y piece
t
of lan d To o often lan d is purchase d o n a surface ex
.

amin ation merely This is a dan gerous practice sin ce

.
,

it is impossible by lookin g at the surfac e to tell what lies

below T e co ditio of the sub soil c a
. h n n - n best be studied

by examin in g washes rail roa , d cuts a n d wells o r by

, ,

usin g a soil auger It is impossible to make a soun d

.

jud g men t regardin g lan d without kn owin g its n ature to

a depth of at lea st eight o r te n feet
1 7 4 A c h e mi c a na
.

. l a lysi s of the soil tells the amoun t

of plan t food con tain ed a
- n d gives some in dex to the best
,

methods of han dlin g the lan d It shows wh ich elemen t s

.

a re likely to be d e fic i e n ta n d which a re abun da n t It may .

also tell the reaction of the soil as well as the presen ce of

excessive quan tities of soluble salt s Special skill a nd
.

con siderable time a re requi red to make a chemical an al

y s i s; he n c e,this item is ofte n ove rlooked by p rac tical

farmers in judgin g lan d If the chemical c ompositio n
.

of a soil i s n o t kn own however a ,

n y judgme n t m ade of
,

it must be somewhat supe rfic ia l .

 Spec i a
l So i l Pro blems 1 63

175 . Th e me c h a
n ic a
l aa
a soil shows its tex
lysi s of n

ture o r the size of particles composin g it After a little

, .

ex perien c e the texture c a n be judged with fair accur acy

without a n a
n alysis simply by fee lin g i t There is n o .

d iffic ulty fo r example in dist in gui shi n g between a

, ,

c oa rse s an d a n d a fin e clay ; but i n determi ni n g the tex

ture of a n i n term e diate soil a mechani cal an a lysis is ,

useful Sin ce the textu re of a soil helps to determ in e

.

what crops to grow it should be kn ow n , .

1 7 6 Pro d u c ti vi ty
. Th e real value of lan d is deter
.

min ed by what it Will produ c e Its chemical composi .

tion a n d textu re may seem fa vo rable but they coun t fo r ,

little if crops do no t th rive Fo r this reason it is n o t Wise .

to judge hastily the value of lan d in a n ew project befo re

O

crops a re t ried even though chemical an alyses a

, n d other

in dicators a re available So man y factors en ter in to crop .

production that it is ea sy to overlook some of them ,

but all must be right if yields a re to be satisfactory .

Na tu ra l vegetation topography depth of soil a, nd , ,

chemical a n d mechan ical compo sition a re all good in dica

tors of the value of l a nd ; but the real proof of the

puddin g is in the eatin g a nd t he best in dicator of the ,

value of lan d is its productivity .

U
S PPLEME NTARY READ IN G

Ho w to C ho o se aFam r , T F . . Hun t .

. . a
So ils, E W Hilg rd , p p 3 1 3 370, 42 2 526 .
— —
.

a B
So ils, Ly o n , Fipp in , nd uc k m n , p p 3 7 5 403, 7 1 8 7 40
— —
a
a
. .

The So il A D H ll, pp 233 3 7 0, 28 9 29 7

, . .
— —
. .

a a
C y c lo pe di o f Ame ric n Ag ric ulture , Vo l I, p p 480 48 3, 51 3 53 1
— —
. . .

Phy sic s o f Ag ric ulture , F H Kin g , pp 92 1 07

-
. . . .

a
Fertility o f the L n d , I P Ro be rts, pp 303 341
.
—
.
‘

. .

Re po rts o f So il Surve y s o f U S D A ure u o f So ils n d o f St te . . . . B a a a

Ex pe riment St tio n s a .
 C HAPTER XVI

WHE A T ( Tri ti c u m sa
ti vum)

THE word wheat comes to u s Don dlin ger sa ys ,

1
,

from the Middle Ehg lish wh e te which in turn cam e

”
,

from old En glish h wa e te

”
To th is day the German s
.

’
call it weizen Stra n ge though it may see m both
.
,

these words a re related to others which mean white .

Don dlin ger further suggests that perhaps wheat was

calle d whi te o n accoun t of ry e a n d othe r g rain s bein g

darke r in colo r .

Wheat is o n e of the oldest cultivated plan ts Fa r .

back beyon d the time when the firsthi stories we re written ,

this plan t was n urtu red It seems to have been .

cultivated about th irty cen tu ries before Christ in ,

C hin a
. It has also been foun d in the Lake dwellin gs of
the Swiss which discovery throw s its hi story back in to
,

the prehi storic Ston e Ag e The Bible speaks of wheat.

harvest in very ea rly times ( Gen esis n With .

out in termission this plan t has served m e n down to the

prese n t day .

Geographically its origin is equally un certain Th e

, .

suppositio n that the T igris-Euphrates valley is its b irth

place is favored by de C an doll e Don dlin ger a n d Hun t , ,
.

At a ny rate ,when recorded history began it was ,

c ultivated widely over the earth from Chin a to Egypt .

Perhaps the se arch fo r a ce n te r of spread suggested the

E uphrates region .

1
Bo ok f
o Whea
t p
, . 1 .

1 67
1 68 The Pri nc ip les oA
f g rono my

177 . a
Re l ti on shi ps Gramin ea e is the botan ical
. The
family to which wheat belon gs Man y species of thi s .

family have become val uable fo r the production of seed

Which supplies food to both m a n a n d a n imal These .

plants a re de sign ated as cereal s o r grai n s I n to this , .

category fall whea t oats barley ry e rice co rn the

, , , , , ,

sorghum s a n d the millets

, Th e G ramin ea e i n clude n o t
.

o n ly all of the cereals but also the commo n tame a nd wild

grasses Th e gen eral fie ld con ditio n s fo r good whea

.
'

ta re

well in dicated in F igs 48 53 .

—
.

1 7 8 Ro o ts
. When wheat kern els germin ate they
.
,

sen d out three roots which gather food from the so il to

supplemen t that stored in the kern el From these two .

sou rces comes su ffic ie nt n ou ri shme n t to keep the you n g

,

plan t growin g u n til it c a n establi sh it self .

O n ce the gree n le a fle ts push i n to the sun light food ,

man ufactu re begin s In the mean time ro ot s grow out

.

i n all di rectio n s from a n ode o r joi n t about a n i n ch be , ,

n eath the su rface leavin g the first on es to die because

,

they a re of n o further use The se n e w roo ts grow out .

ward from eight to twen ty in ches a n d then turn down

ward rapidly reachin g in to deeper soil which is both a

,

re servoi r fo r water a f
n d a sto rehouse o r plan t food
- The .

depth to which they pen etrate a n d the n umber of b ra n ches

they sen d out depen d o n the loosen ess the dampn ess , ,

a n d the warmth of the soil ; o n the time of the year ;

a n d o n the kin d of wheat Th e limits of variation a . re

wide yet un der the most un favorable con dition s the ex

, ,

ten t of the root system fa

- r exceeds what the o rdin ary

person th ink s it to be .

O n e plan t showi n g roots seven feet two in che s lon g

,

profusely b ran ched was dug up at the Utah Experimen t

,

F arm at N ephi The Min n esota Statio n repo rts fin d in g

.

a b ran ch root every eighth of a n i n ch fo r eighteen o r

1 70 The Princ i p les oA
f g rono my

if all of these thread like bran ches were plac ed end -

to e nd .

1 7 9 Th e pla
. n ta b o ve g ro un d Like all other members .

of the grass family the wheat stem kn own as a c ulm has

, , ,

four o r five distin ct join ts o r n odes from two to te n in ches , ,

apart in the mature plan t These n odes a re solid while .

,

the straw betwee n in most cases is hollow a , n d sometimes ,

partly filled with pith In the youn g plan t n odesa . re clo se ,

together Growth con sists in a len gthen in g a

. n d thicken

in g of the in tern odes at a poin t just above the n odes If .

the plan t s a re so few that they do n o t fi ll the groun d in

which they a re plan ted un dergroun d n odes sen d out ,

more culm s that is the plan t stools

a
.
, ,

Le ves grow upward from the n odes alon g the stem ,

claspin g it closely half o r two thirds of the way to the n ext

join t Th is part of the leaf is called the sheath ; that
a
.

Whi ch sprin gs way from the stem is ca lled the bl a de .

Th e leaves have parallel vein s a promin en t o n e in the ,

middle formin g a mid rib Le a f blades may be large o r .

small smooth o r rough ; some have edges so sharp as

,

to cut the ski n wh en b rought in con tact by a slidin g

m ovemen t .

Th e head o r spike con sist s of smaller section s born e

, ,

altern ately upon the rachis a zig zag stem which may be
-
, ,

studied in a picture o r by carefully pullin g o ff the spike

lets as the section s a
,
re called O u each side of the .

spikelet is a coarse chaff o r glum e Between a re two to, .

h y e flowers so completely i n clo sed by other chaff that ,

pollen seldom escapes This causes the flo we rs to be .

self fertilized Gen erally two of these flo we rs but some

- .
,

times only o n e o r even three bear a kern el o r berry , ,

.

1 80 Th e k e rn e l d ry a
. nd fairly smooth has a deep
, ,

groove runn in g len gthwise a n umber of fin e hairs at o n e ,

e nd, and a crumpled irregularity at the other This .

 Whea
t 17 1

wrin klin g betrays the location of the emb ryo o r germ , ,

whi ch is n o t more than o n e fourteen th of the en tire

berry The embryo is oily a
. nd c a n easily be removed

With a pin o r the poin t of a kn ife blade The remain der .

of the berry is en dosperm C utin two across the groove .

,

the grain shows plain ly un der a han d len s three distin ct

layers ; the bran outermost a n d the starchy part in side ,

with a layer of dark aleuron e cells between .

When wheat is milled flo ur comes from the whi te ,

in terio r the o ute r two laye rs makin g b ran In big

, .

F IG . 49 . A g o od y i e ld of wh e a
t, Pe n n sy lv ai an .

mills the germ is separated from the en dosperm a n d made

in to flo ur though this weaken s the flo ur a

,
n d also lesse n s

its keepin g qualities to a slight exten t .

1 8 1 Va
. ri e ti e s Lik e all livin g thin gs wheat varies
.
,

un der differen t climatic a nd soil con dition s This is .

but n atural fo r in cluded within the vast ran ge of the c rO p

,

a re man y disti n ct en vi ron men ts to whi ch n ature a nd ,

ma n attempt to fit plastic plan t orga n i sms particula rly ,

if they a re u seful E ast of the Missi ssippi where the

.
,

win ters a re mild a n d the rain fal l abun dan t soft win ter ;

wheats a re grown Be tween thi s river a

. n d the Rockies ,
1 72 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g ron o my

n orth of N e bra sk awhere the s um mers a

,
re d ry a n d hot ,

a nd the win ters severe havin g little sn ow altern ate

, ,

freezin g a n d thawi n g in j ure fall plan ted grai n ; hen ce

-
,

the fa rmers grow hard sprin g varieties Because the .

win ters a re less rigorous a n d because s n ow protect s the

youn g plan ts from freezin g win ter wheats do best o n the

,

Great Plai n s south of Dakota Th e hot d ry ripen in g .

,

period favors hard grain O n the Pa . c ific coast hard

wheat ten ds to soften a n d amber wheat to whiten in re

spo n se to m ild wi n ters a n d wet spri ng s Both the win ter .

a n d the s prin g varieties a re soft a n d sta rchy Th e types .

of wheat in these districts n either begin n o r e n d sharply ,

but blen d in to o n e an other .

All told there a re upwa rds of 1 000 s o called varieties - .

In 1 895 the Un ited States Departmen t of Agriculture

,

selecte d about 200 a s bein g best fitted to various region s .

As al ready in dicat e d n o sin gle choice could be made fo r

,

the Great Plain s alon e C learly then n o o n e variety

.
, ,

is best fo r all localities There a . re n o w exi s tin g eight

distin ct types O n ce merely variatio n s their c h a
. ra c te ri s ,

tics have become fai rly fix ed o n accoun t of con tin uous

selection fo r o n e part of the earth .

C ertain d efin ite qualities a re however desired with

, ,

referen ce to which varieties may be improv e d C hief .

amon g these a re : ( 1 ) hi g h yield to the acre ( 2 ) high weight ,

fo r a bushel (3) hard n ess accompa ni ed by high n it rogen

,

con ten t a
, n d (4) resista n ce to d routh in sects o r plan t , ,

di sea ses Better varieties may be secured by three

.

method s: ( 1 ) by selection of the mo st desirable plan ts

from on es n o wgrown ; (2) by cro ss breedin g ; a n d ( 3) by -

the brin gin g of superior species from some other part of

the world that has climate a n d soil reaso n ably like the

o n e in questio n Better cultural methods will al so

.

im prove the health a n d co n sequen tly the yield of the crop .

1 74 The Pri nc i p les o A
f g ron o my

wheat has sprea d rapidly in to d rier districts u n til it is

the prin cipal crop o n the d ry farm It is on ly of late- .

years that crop s of higher acre return s have d riven it

from irrigated farms .

Whether a crop yieldin g at best on ly a fe w dollars to

the acre c an be p ro fita
bly grown o n high priced lan d is
—

F IG . 50
. Whe a
t fa
rm s sh o ul d be l ag e
r to b e m o st e c o n o m i c a
.l

question able Th e opin ion of the best in formed m e n

.

seem s to be that wheat should gradually pa ss to the

less valuable areas every where makin g room fo r the ,

higher producin g crops o n lan d that bears high ren t .

About all it requires as to soil is fair fertility a n d tilth .

It grows o n san ds loams clay s a

, n d silts
, avoidin g the
, ,

muck soils which a ,

re too rich in organ ic matter Deep .
,

u n iform loams however gen erally give the best yields

, ,

where there i s about twen ty fiv e in ches of rain fall Goo d

-
.

fie ld s of wheat a re show n in F igs 48 49 a n d 50 .

, , .

Hard a n d soft win ter a

n d soft sprin g h a rd a , n d white ,
 Whea
t 75

wheats have adapted them selves to climatic co ndition s .

These variation s illustrate on ly a fe w of the attempts of

the crop to suit more rigorous climates Strain s a re .

con tin ually becomin g a d apted to d rier o r to colder dis

tri c ts Where they we re n o t successful ly grow
,
n before It .

is becau se of this widely in creasin g variation coupled with

its man ifold uses that wheat has become such a gen eral
,

crop
1 83 Pre pa ra
.

. ti o n o f se e d b e d Th e prepa
- ratio n of
.

lan d fo r plan tin g differs with the region Th e chi ef .

d ifie re n c e is in amou n t of se ed a n d time of sow in g ; the

method s of cultivation a re primarily the same .

In gen eral the methods in clude plowin g in the autumn

,

o r late summe r as soo n afte r the c op is taken o ff as pos

r .

sible ; leavin g the la n d rough over win ter so as to preven t

i n g sn ow a
'
ru n o fl of rai n o r mel t
-
n d to pe rmit fro st to break

clods o r sod in to fin e r particles ; a n d harrowi n g in the

early sprin g to preven t loss of moisture by evaporation

a n d to keep dow n weeds F all plowi n g ought to be as
.
-

deep as the machin ery a n d the ho rses o r other power at

’
the farmer s comman d will permit I n creased depth .

of plowin g makes a better home fo r the plan t a n d sto res

a grea ter qua n tity of moisture In region s where spri n g

.

plan tin g is practiced deep fall plowin g is still valuable

,
-
,

but in most cases the grai n is n o t sown un til it becomes

warm the n ext sprin g .

1 84 Se e d a
. nd se e di n g Fa rmers had
. better use
seed that is adapted to their system of farmin g The .

stubble ought to be tu rn ed u n der as early as possible

after harvest Sometimes the lan d should lie through
.

th e win te r without harrowin g If farmers disk it a

. nd ,

harrow after every rai n that crusts the la n d o r starts

weeds they have a loose moist seed bed free from wee ds
, ,
-

when plan tin g time comes .

176 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g rono my

The grain ought to be

screen ed to remove weed
s e e d ru b b i s h
, and ,

shru nk en kern els Large .

,

plump kern els give bet

te r yields tha n small o r
shrun ken on es because
,

of the better sta rt they

give the you n g pla n ts .

But more than screen in g

i s n ecessa ry. F o r sm ut ,

the grain should be

treated with fo rm a ld e
hyde o n e pi n t to fifty
,

gallo n s of water o r with,

blue vitriol (copper sul

fate ) o ne pou n d to fiv e
,

gallo n s of water A good

.

way is to dip a bag of

wheat i n to a solutio n
co n tai n ed i n a half barrel .

About te n min utes i s re

quired to wet all the
grain In the mean time
.
,

a n other sackful might be

scree n ed a nd fille d to
econ omize time .

F rom three to six

pee ks of seed have give n
th e be st c rops whe re n o
irrigatio n is p racticed ,

while u n der irrigation

fo ur to eight pecks a re

used Fo r spri n g pla n t

.
-
1 78 The Pri nc i p le s o A
f g rono my

in g ,ea li ess is esse tial

r n makes possible
n . F all -plowin g
earlier seedin g sin ce diskin g is then all that is n ecessary
,

before plan tin g Duri n g growth about a

. ll that c an be

don e is to harrow .

1 8 5 Ha
. rve stin g There is n o mo n th in the year
.

that is n o t a harvest seaso n i n some part of the earth .

The season varies in the Un ited States from Ma y ni

Texas to September i n part s of the N o rth we st F all
, .

plan ted grai n ripe n s early an d spri n g pla n ted grai n late -

where the weather is cool o r moist .

Methods differ as widely as sea so n s In man y parts .

of the world peasan t s still u se the sickle o r old fashion ed

,
-

F IG . 53 . T h re sh e r a
t wo r k .

cradle but modern harvesters a

, re rapidly wi n n i n g i n all

progressive cou n tries In parts of western Un ited States

.

th e bi n der has given way to the header which removes ,

the head s a n d elevates them i n to tigh t wago n beds to be -

hauled o ff a n d stacked u n til ready fo r th reshi n g The .

header has been supplan ted o n some large farms by the

combi n ed ha rvester a machi n e that cuts threshes a
-
, nd , ,

sacks the grai n in o n e operatio n .

 Whe a
t 79

.Bi de
n cut g
r-rai n is shocked in the fi e ld whe re the st raw
d ries suffic ie n tly to permit easy separation of the grain
from chaff In some localities the wheat cut green is
.

ripe n ed by the tra n s location of starch from the straw ,

fo r which alo n g time in the shock is n ecessary When .

threshin g time approaches the farmer hauls a

,

n d stacks

the bun dles o r he hauls di rectly to the thresher Wh en

, .

grain is stacked the bu n dle sa , re usually placed with heads

in so a
, s to shed rai n a n d resist the attack of fowls o r

rode n ts .

1 86 Di se a
. se s Wheat is atta . cked by glume spot ,

wheat scab rust leaf blight powdery mildew a

, , n d loose
, ,

a n d closed smut O i all these however ru st a

. n d closed
, ,

smut a re most serious .

1 8 7 C lo se d sm ut is a black thread lik e fu n gus which

.
;
-

is spread by tin y black spores that fly th rough the a

, ir
ari d attach them selves to the wheat kern el Sprou ti n g .

about the same time a s wheat the lo n g sle n der tube of , ,

th e smut en ters the you n g pla n t a n d grows i n side It .

follows up the gree n growin g plan t dyin g in the lower

, ,

part of the stem a s the straw ha rden s

, At the time the .

hea d s form the smut en ters the kern el a

,
n d grows i n side .

I n fected kern el s a re like sou n d o n es except they a re dull

in color light i n weight a

, n d hollow They b reak easily
, .

durin g th reshi n g a n d when ha n dled later they scatter ,

spo res which clin g to the soun d kern els O n accoun t of .

the resembla n ce in appeara n ce to clean grai n the farmer ,

may n o t n otice this smut though he fin d s when threshin g ,

a loss of from 1 0 to 40 p e r cen t of the crop This loss .

ca n be preven ted by treatmen t desc ribed ( Pa r C are .

should be take n that the formali n is 40 pe r ce n t fo r

ma ld e hy d e Afte r the grain is treated it is hu n g up
.
,

in bags o r sp read out o n the barn flo o r to d ry befo re

plan tin g .
1 80 The Pri nc i p les o A
f g ron o my

1 88 . en ters the pla n t at flo we rin g time a

Lo o se sm ut nd ,

lives i n side of the kern el The disease is less prevalen t .

than is that caused by closed smut Treatmen t however .

, ,

is mo re d iffic ult si n ce the spores a , re i n side the kern els

a n d ca n n ot be reached by poiso n s The o n ly method is .

o n e k n own as the hot wate r t reatme n t which i s ext remely -

,

hard to use successfully sin ce if the water he a fe w degrees ,

too warm the germin atio n quality of the wheat is in jured

,

o r destroyed Th e grain is soaked fo r fou r hou rs in cold

.

water sin ce hea

, t more readily pen etrates we t grain .

To kill the smut the wheat is immersed fo r te n mi n ute s

,
°
in water mai n tai n ed at 1 33 F Th e additio n of the .

cold Wheat makes co n stan t hea ti n g n ecessary Because .

of the d iffic ultie s o n ly small quan tities of seed c a

, n be

treated Thi s is the n sowed o n a seed plat which will

.

yield clea n seed fo r n ext seaso n .

1 8 9 Ru st is a fu n gous di sease which attacks the stem

.

a n d lea f ; that o n the stem is the more serious The .

spo res live over wi n ter in the stan din g straw o r even in
some other plan t In the spri n g after germin ation the
.
, ,

fun gi attack the wheat at a n y time Th e i n ju ry co n sists .

i n a failure of the grain to fill Although co n siderable loss .

re sult s about all that c a

, n be do n e is to choose rust te -

si sta n t va rieties to rotate crops to drain the lan d a

, nd , ,

to avoid over irrigatio n -

.

1 90 In se c ts
. Hes sia n flie s a
. n d chi n ch bugs a re the -

wo rst of the i n sect en emies of whea t The chin ch bug .

-

atta cks other crops while the Hessia n fly c o nfin e sits wo rk

,

mostly to wheat The latter is a fly which lays its eggs

.

in the you n g plan t When the maggot s hatch they rasp

.

the youn g tissue a n d d ri n k th e sap The chi n ch bug is '

.
-

a beetle that eats the ten der pla n ts They pass through .

n o true larval sta ge but hatch con tin uously throughout ,

the early summer Altogether these i n sects cause a loss

.
182 The Pri nc i p le s oA
f g ro m my

often i n creasi ng the labor a n d u n pleasa n t n ess of harvest .

C areful seed selectio n a nd p roper tillage Will les s en i n

ju ry from chess .

1 92 Qua . li ty in wh e a t co n sists of the ability its flour

has to absorb large quan tities of water thereby produci n g
larger leaves This is becau se of the p resen ce of a n itro g
.

en on s sub sta n ce called gluten which whe n we t becomes , ,

sticky Gen erally the more glute n prese n t a

.
, nd the
more n early it co n sists of 65 p e r ce n t gliadin a n d 35 p e r

ce n t glute n in the lighter is the bread made from a flour

, .

Ma n ifestly however stickin ess ca n n ot of itself cause

, ,

bread to rise Hard wheat sproduce an gular flo u r pa rticles

.

rather tha n spherical o r flat o n es as does soft wheat .

Th e edges pe rmit the sticky glute n to take hold of the

flour grain s a nd to hold them more firm ly together .

Whe n the yea ”

st added to the dough work s it produces ,

ca rbo n dioxide Any substan ce in chan gi n g from a solid

.

o r a liquid to a gas expa n ds As carbo n dioxide is liber

.

ated it n eed s more room ; hen ce it pu shes the dough ,

”
aside makin g it porous Thu s bread rises that is the
, .
, ,

loaf in creases in size but n o t in weight The size a n d the .

lightn ess of the loaf depen d largely o n the quality of the

wheat fu rn ishi n g the flour .

C o n siderable skill is required to pick out the best wheat

from a n umber of samples A clear semi tran sparen t .
,
-

amber color a n d a ho rn y b rittle in terior i n dicate high

,

percen tage of protei n High n itroge n co n ten t gives a

. ny

cereal a greater food value a n d it gives wheat flou r mo re

,

desirable bread makin g qualities Sh run ke n kern els c o n

-
.

tain much p rotei n but the gluten is poor Matu rity

, .
,

then is also a
,
n esse n tial cha racteristic of best quality

in wheat High n it roge n a

. n d lo w moistu re co n te n t in

a soil ten ds to produce wheat that is rich in n itrogen .

Millers a n d bakers kn ow that some varieties of whea t

 Whea
t 183

ae
r much more valuable than others fo r flou makin g r— .

Hard varieties often brin g i n creased prices o n the market .

Th e mo st importan t facto r in determin in g quality in

wheat is climate Region s havin g cold win ters followed
.

by hot d ry summers which cause wheat to ripen rapidly

,

grow hard grain Excessive rain fall as well a

. s mild n e ss
causes wheat to softe n thereby lowerin g its gluten c o n
,

te n t Starchy grain ta
. ken to a ha rd wheat district -

harden s i n a fe w years just as hard on es move d to soft

,

districts gradually lose their horn y texture Ae com .

pan yin g chan ges in chemical composition likewise result .

1 93 U se s a
. n d valu e The prin cipal use of Wheat is
fo r human co n sumption in the form of bread F lour .
,

carefully graded in the large mills is han dled by whole ,

sale dealers who distribute it to homes o r bakeries B read .

is the chief diet of all highly civilized n atio n s .

Besides bei g use d fo r b ead makin g flo ur is made

n r -
,

in to pies cakes crackers doughn uts pan cakes a

, , , nd a , ,

n umber of other co m mo n food s In addition man y cereal .

,

breakfast foods a re made from wheat F o rme rly on ly .

,

flo ur wa s saved at the mill A waste-spout carried the .

bran sho rts a

, n d other by products i n to the stream that
,
-

turn ed the water wheel N o w these comprise a valuable

-
.

pa rt of the output B ran a n d shorts are amo n g the most

.

valuable of stock fee d s Eve n the dust brushed from the

- .

wheat ke rn els before gri n din g is collected a n d mixed with

the bran .

C racked o r broke n wheat is better especially fo r

, ,

swin e than whole wheat which in some cases escapes

, ,

mastica tio n a
n d does n o t digest Th e p rice of wheat .
,

however gen erally compels the use of cheaper grain s

, ,

such as corn a nd barley The depen den ce o n wheat .

fo r such a variety of food products gives it a value

higher tha n dollars a n d ce n ts N early twice as much .
184 The Pri nc i p le s oA
f g ron o my

wheat is grou n d fo r dietetic pu rposes as of all other ,

grain s combi n ed .

In cash value as well as i n tota l yield it is secon d to ,

rice which alo n e feeds over half of the i n habita n ts of the

earth In the Un ited Sta

. tes co rn is the largest crop with ,

wheat secon d Fo r the world however corn oats a

.
, nd , , ,

wheat e ach produce about four billion bushel s while ,

rice totals fiv e billio n .

Potatoes other root crops a

, n d fruits all feed a greater
,

n umbe r of perso n s fo r a give n area tha n wheat but mai n ,

tain them at a lower sta n dard of livin g Wherever the .

sta n dard of livin g is in crea sin g as it is in Ge rman y , ,

Rus sia a ,n d pa rts of I n dia the use of wheat i s sp readi n g

, .

Do n dli n ger says :

1
The g reat i n tri n sic food value of
wheat ; its ease of cultivation a n d p reparatio n fo r use ;

its wide adaptatio n to differen t climates a n d soils ; its

quick a n d boun tiful return ; a n d the fact of its bei n g

p a n i fe ro u s a n d yieldi n g such a va st n umbe r an d va riety

of prod ucts a re a ll factors that e n ha n ce the value of the
wheat grai n Its combin e d qualitative a
. n d qua n titative

importan ce gives to wheat a great superiority over a ny

other cereal a n d causes it to be dealt i n mo re exte n sively

,

upo n the speculative markets than a n y other agricultu ral

product As a . n e ssen tial pa rt of the food of civilized

ma n it a ssumes a n impo rta n ce so vital as to be domi

”
n atin g .

1 94 Stora
.
g e T h e easiest
. way to sto r e wheat o r ,

a n y othe r g rai n fo r that matte r is t o put it i n sacks as

,

it comes from the thresher a n d to pile them o n the

,

groun d The ow n er uses this method as a makeshift

.

u n til he c a n do somethi n g else with the grai n : either sell

it o r store it perman en tly in a place where it Will be p ro

te c te d from the weathe r Sometimes the sacks a
. re left

B o o k of Wh e a
1
t p 8 , . .
186 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g ron o my

blocks lon g by a hu n d red feet high where it waits ship ,

men t o r else bei n g stored in warehou ses some of Which

, ,

cover several a cres Still an other part of o u r local export

.

stops in the n eighbo ri n g town s to be grou n d i n to flo ur .

These mill s have large bi n s holdin g from o n e thou sa n d

to fifty thousan d bushels storehouses which a ,
re really

min iature elevators .

1 95 Ele va
. to rs Particularly in the region of the
.

Great Lakes elevators a

, re becomi n g more common .

Here sacks a re u ht used an d m e n ha n dle the loose grai n

,

almost en tirely by machi n ery It pours directly from .

the thre sher in to dump wagon s Th e loose grai n .

fin d s its wa y i n to ca rs which ca rry it to the elevato r

platforms Trap doors open chutes dow n which it pours

.
-
,

in to vast cella rs E n dless carriers elevate the grai n a

. nd

dist ribute it to bi n s from which it ru n s like water down

chutes in to cars boats o r mill s N o t o n ce is it moved

, , .

by han d Termin al elevators a

. re i mm e n se a ffai rs occa ,

sio n ally holdi n g three millio n bushels of grai n Scattered .

fa r a n d wide over the cou n t ry a re smaller structures

sometimes tributary to the large con cern s a n d some

times in depen den t O n e of the great elevato rs used in

.

the ha n dlin g of the grai n crop is shown in F ig 55 . .

An y grain co n tai n i n g excessive moisture molds a nd

fermen ts in storag e thus losi n g much of its value F o r .

merly a con siderable amou n t of grain wa

, slo st in this way
i n the close holds of ships that carried it from the Un ited
States to E urope Grain must be well d ried before bein g
.
-

stored an ywhere In arid region s it is so d ry at harvest

.
,

time that it c a n be s tored at o n ce without dan ge r I n deed .

,

it gai n s in weight by the absorptio n of moistu re e lim i ,

n ati n g sh ri n kage Wheat shipped from C aliforn ia gain s

.

e n ough in weight before it reaches Lo n don to pay the

cost of haulin g .
 Whea
t 187

Wheat is often bought a

n d stored to await a rise in
price Small storage charges a
. re made fo r re n ted space

in elevators about two cen ts a bushel fo r the first thirty

,

days a n d a half ce n t fo r each additio n al thirty days .

Sometimes farmers store grain in depe n den tly ; occasio n

te a
ally a n umber c o ii pe ra n d ru n a
n elevato r By far .

the greatest n umber sell at threshi n g time Much .

F IG 55
. . La
rg e a a
te rmi n l ele v to rs h e lp to h ad le th e wo
n rld
’
sg a
i
r n c ro p .

grain however is con tracted in the sprin g before it is even

, ,

plan ted .

1 96 Ma . rk e tin g It is d iffic ult fo r the ordin ary

.

farmer to kn ow whether to sell at harvest o r durin g the

followin g wi n ter O ften he n eeds the mon ey a
. n d must

dispose of part o r all of the grain at on ce To sell the .

en tire crop at th e same time saves him labor a n d storage

e xpe n ses but he loses a

, n y adva n ta
ge from subsequen t rise
1 88 The Pri nc i p le s oA
f g rono my

in price This rise sometimes does n o t pa

.
y the exp e n se ;
in deed there may be a drop in stead of a rise The in tel
, .

lig e n t farme r studies the markets Will it pay to .

store ? is the question he must an swer in co n sideration

of the time to sell .

Lo cal mercha n ts a n d mills buy from growers a n d sell

to shippers Large compan ies al so keep agen ts in th e

.

fie ld wh o co n tract fo r grain with th e in dividual farmers .

In well-d evelope d districts most of the grain is han dled

in this way A fe w c o ii pe ra
tiv e farmers compa n ies ship
’
.

their o wn products When successful these n e t large .

,

return s but the un dertakin g is atte n ded with much risk

,

as a busin ess ven ture .

A great ave n ue fo r advan ce in marketin g is a more

systematic gradin g In the grain trade of C hicago wheat
.

is graded as follows
White Win ter Wheat N0 8 1 2 3 a nd 4 , .
, , , .

Lo n g Be d Win ter Wheat N 0 8 1 and 2 ,

. .

Re d Win ter Wheat N 0 8 1 2 3 a nd 4 , .

, , , .

Hard Win ter Wheat N os 1 2 3 a nd 4 , .

, , , .

C olo ra
do Wheat N0 8 1 2 a nd 3 ,
.
, , .

No rthe rn Sprin g Wheat Nos 1 a nd 2 ,

. .

Sprin g Wheat N os 1 2 3 a nd 4 , .
, , , .

White Sprin g Wheat N0 8 1 2 3 a nd 4 , .

, , , .

The grades a re based o n sou n d n ess clean lin ess weight , , ,

color a n d u n ifo rmity N o

, 1 bei n g best Poor wheat is
, . .

”
call e d n o grade These grades have become so n early
.

stan dard that a buyer accepts a c e rtific a te from the i n

spe ctor without lookin g at the grain o r seein g a sa mple
of it .

1 97 Pri c e s va ry a few ce n ts accordi n g to grad e

. In .

some section s little reliable gradin g is don e The grain

, .

buyer makin g a shrewd estimate of the grade kn ows

, ,
1 90 The Pri n c i p les o A
f g ro m my

t Fie ld s a
Whe a nd Ma
rk e ts o f the Wo rld ,
Ro llin E Smith . .

Sto ry o ff o f Bre a
aLo a d T B Woo d , . . .

Whe a
t ad Flo ur In v e stig a
n ti s H ay on , rr Sn y d e r, Mi nn e so t Bul a .

No 8 5 . .

l
Cy c pe d
o i aof A e c
m ri an Ag c ture , V
r i ul o l II, pp 660 6 7 0
- . . .

Whe a t, M W Te n Ey c k
. . .

Prin c iple s o f Irri g ati o n Pr c tic e , a

A Wid tso e , pp 240 253 J
— . . .

So uthe rn Fie ld C r0p s, F ug g a J —

r , p p 32 67 .D . .

U S D A Fa
. . . rm e rs.
’
ulle tin s: B
N o 1 32 In se c t En e m ie s o f Gro win g Wh e a
. . t .

2 1 9 Le mo n s ro m the Gra
. f
i n Rust Epid e m ic o f 1 904 .

250 The Pre v e n tio n o f Whe a

. t Sm ut n d Lo o se Sm ut o f a
Oa ts .

267 uc k w he a
. t B .

507 The Sm uts o f Wh e a

. t, O ts, rle y , n d C o rn a Ba a .

534 urum Wh e a
. tD .

596 The C ulture o f Win te r Whe a

. t in the E a ste rn H l o f af
the U ni ted Sta te s .

6 1 6 Win ter Wh e a. t Va rie tie s fo r the Ea ste rn n ited St te s U a .

 C HAPTE R XVII

COR N OH MAI! E ( ! eaM y )

s a
~
BEC AU SE corn was a commo n term in Europe fo r
all grain s I n dian co rn wa
,
s the n ame applied to fie ld
corn o r maize Early Eu ropea n visitors found the n atives
,
.

growin g it in Peru Mexico a n d N e w Mexico

, , I n dia n s .

taught the En glish settle rs at Plymouth how to grow the

crop fertilizin g each hill with a fish C aptain Jo h n
,
.

Smith of the Ja m e sto wn settleme n t saved the settlers

from sta rvatio n by forci n g the I n dia n C hief Powhata n

to sell him co rn It must have seemed stran ge to these

.

pion eers to fin d in America a plan t of such vast impo r

ta n c e to them Some of the American fie ld con dition s of
.

c o rn culture a re show n in F igs 56 a n d 57 .

1 98 Re la
. ti on shi ps Maize belon gs to the grass
.

family but is n o t closely related to the common gras ses

,

o r to the ot her cereals So fa r as we kn ow

. it has n o ,

close relatives in existen ce to day - .

1 99 Roots
. Th e first roots se n t out by a youn g co rn
.

plan t to sta rt growth remai n but the larger part of the

,

root system like that of wheat develops from a n ode about

-
, ,

a n in ch below the surface of the g rou n d As co rn is .

ge n erally grown in hills the fibro us roots in order to , ,

occupy all the soil grow outward fo r eightee n o r twen ty

,

i n ches a n d then turn dow n wa rd O ther roots reach dow n .

ward at o n c e thus leavin g little u n used soil While the

, .

la t is you g the oots g ow apidly eve howeve

‘

p n n r r r n r r , , ,

19 1
1 92 The P ri n c i p les oA
f g ro no my

FIG . 56 . Go o d c o rn c u ltu re .

F IG . 57 C o rn on a ir i g a
n r te d fam Uta
rh , .
1 94 The Pri n c i p les oA
f g rono my

quan tities o f water a re t ra n spi red to mai n ta i n growth .

Wiltin g ofte n takes place but the rollin g of the leaves

,
‘

reduces loss of water a n d turgidity is resto red a ut o ma ti

cally .

202 Th e flo we r
. Each e a
. r develops i n the axil of

a leaf from a bud in the groove part way up the plan t , .

Kern el s develop from the ovary part of the flower o n the

cob E ach is fertilize d by pollen born e o n the ta
. ssel s .

This alights o n the exposed e n d of the silk which c o n n ects

with the ovary .

Th e win d blows the pollen about so freely that much

is lost To in sure itself again st this loss each plan t pro
.

duces from 9000 to pollen grain s fo r each silk ,

o r about 2000 ovules a n d from eightee n to seve n ty mil

lion grain s of pollen Man y of the silks a

. re fertilized

by pollen from an other plan t In fact the pl a . n t seems

,

to in vite cro ss fertilization by ripen in g a

- n d letti n g its

pollen g o before the silk of the sa me plan t is rea dy to

receive i t .

203 Th e e a
. r Sin ce the cob i s several u n ited spike
.

lets each of wh ich bears two rows of kern el s the n umber

, ,

of rows is even An e a . r havi n g a n odd n um ber is a great

curiosity O ften a
. n ca r has mo re rows at the butt tha n

at the tip but these rows d rop out two at a time Becau se
, .

the tip of the e a r fills last thi s part of the cob is freq ue n tly
,

bare a n d the ke rn els a re n ea rly always smaller a n d mo re

n ea rly roun d here than i n the middle of the e a r At the .

butt they a re la rger but i rregularly shaped F ig 58 . .

shows good a n d u n ifo rm ears of co rn .

All kern el s a re covered with a memb ra n ous hull that

loo se n s when the grain is soaked in warm water The .

embryo is n ear the cob o n the side toward the tip of the
ea r. The remain in g part a bout seven eighths of the
,
-

whole is en dosperm
, corn eo us if hard sta rchy if whi te
, .
 Co m
’
or Ma
i ze 1 95

The co rn eous en dosperm c on tain s more ni trogen than the

white a n d is more valuable fo r feed .

Abn ormalities of structure occasio n ally man ifest them

selves as grai n o n the tassel as divided c obs as o n e ea, r ,

hom e at the tip of an other a n d as tassels born e o n o r

,

between cobs .

204 Typ e s
. The corn that E uropean s first foun d the
.

In dian s growin g in America was much inf erior to the

better kin ds n o wused Although there is but o n e species
.
,

F IG . 58.
1—
Go o d e a
rs o f d e n t c o rn .

this varies so widely that little d iffic u lty is experien ced in

chan gin g a variety o r in improvin g it It is on ly about .

sixty yea rs sin ce co rn improvemen t was begun ; yet withi n

thi s short period has come most of the advan ce made

sin ce white people first grew the crop Widely differen t .

uses of corn a n d va ryin g con ditio n s of growth have give n

rise to six ve ry distin ct groups of va rieties bette r kn own

.

as ty pe s These a. re : ( 1 ) de n t ( 2 ) fli n t ( 3 ) sweet
, ( 4) , ,

p p
o , ( 5) soft an
, d ( 6) p o d .

205 De n tc o rn is by fa
. r the mo s t importan t as it in ,

c lud e sover fou r fift

- hsof the total co rn crop It is so called .

because the c orn eous en dosperm which partially i n closes ,

the soft sta , rchy en dosperm at the crown without c over

1 96 The Pri nc i p le s o A
f g rono my

in g it, allows the kern el to shrin k o r den t in ripen in g .

The den t may be very shallow o r so deep as to give c o n

sid e ra ble roughn ess to the e a r The kern els a re n o t too
.

hard fo r an im als to chew .

Desirable ears a re six to eight i n ches in ci rcum feren ce

ad
n eight to te n in ches in le n gth , with deep , w ed ge-shaped
kern els exten din g well over both tip a n d butt Cy lin d ri .

cal ears with small butts a n d n o bare c o b at the tip a re

most de sirable , beca use the shellin g percen tage is high .

206 Flin t c o rn is so call ed o n accou n t of the ha rd ,

.

glossy kern el s, the crown s of which a re rou n d a n d smooth .

Th e den t fails to develop because hard en dosperm covers

the crown as well as the sides of the kern el en tirely in c lo s ,

in g the st a rchy part Th e kern els a

. re mo re n early roun d ,

wider a n d mo re shallow tha n den t ke rn els

,
Le ss c orn .

in pro portion to cob grows o n the flin t e a r Flin t co rn .

diff ers from den t in havin g a lon ger slimmer c a r a large r, ,

shan k which in creases the d iffic ulty of husk in g a nd ,

fewer ro ws of kern els .

Den t varieties usual ly re qui re a lon ger time to mature

than flin t but this is n o t always the case Although
, .

n ext to den t in impo rta n ce flin t co rn produces somewhat

,

less than o n e-twelfth of the total crop .

207 Swe e t c o rn has sugar in stead of starch in the

.

en dosperm The glucose sugar shrin ks even ly whi le

.

ripe n i n g givi n g the kern els a disti n ctly wrin kled appear
,

an ce In shape the ears resemble den t Its ripen i n g

.
, .

period is med ium Sweet corn does n o t represen t more

.

than 2 o r 3 pe r cen t of the total crop most of this bein g ,

used in the can n in g in dustry a n d fo r table use , .

208 Pa .
p c o rn is eithe r smooth like fli n t o r sha rp o n

the top of the kern els which a re so very hard that a n imals
,

cann ot chew them easily This the d wa .rfis hn e ss of the

,

plan t a ,nd the small size of the ears w hi c h a re gen erally ,

 The Pn nc i p les A
’

1 98 f g
o ron o my

Iowa ( 3) Mi ssouri (4) N e bra

, sk a(5) I n dia n a (6) Ka
, n , ,

sa s (7 ) O hio a
, n d (8 ) Texas
, These eight states have a
. n

area in sq ua re miles equal to 22 p e r ce n t of the a rea of

the U ited States

n a n d to o e third of 1 pe r ce n t of the
n,
-

total la d a ea of the wo ld O e half of all the corn o n

n r r n - .

ea th would
r n o t be p oduced o
r n o e three hu n d red th
n -

part of the earth s area if this particular section were n o t

’

especially adapted to own production .

21 3 Fa . cto rs in p r o d u c ti o n T h e fou r imp o rt an t

.

factors that determin e the successful production of corn

a re : ( 1 ) market co n ditio n s (2 ) le n gth of grow in g—seaso n , ,

( )
3 rai n fall an d (,4) so il .

If the crop its man ufactured products o r the mea

, t ,

produced by feed in g it did n o t sell to advan ta , ge the crop ,

could n o t be grown though the climate a n d soil were

ever so favo rable to its productio n The c orn belt of .

the Un ited States has shippin g facilities through a n e t

wo rk of rail roads a n d waterway s; Chicago a nd St Lo ui s .
,

the great meat markets of the world a re at han d ; vast ,

factories in which starch glucose oil a n d si r up a

,
re made , ,

have grown up in the regio n It is hard to co n ceive of .

more favorable marketing con dition s than here exist .

21 4 Ad a
.
p tati o n C o rn is. ex tr emely se n sitive to
fro st so much so that the len gth of its growin g seaso n -

is measured by the last sprin g frost a n d the firs t o n e of

autum n O n e slig ht frost in the fall in jures the plan t to
.

such a n exten t that although a mo n th of wa rm weather

,

follows the freeze this first d rop of the thermometer

, ,

even though of on ly a few hours duration en ds its grow ’

,

in g sea so n
- An even temperature free from c old n ights is
.

desirable but ab se n ce of frost fo r n early five mon ths is

,

absolutely essen tial In the corn belt there a . re n o late

sprin g frosts a n d n o early fa ll frosts .

The water requiremen t in proportio n to d ry matter

 Com or Ma
i ze 1 99

produced is less fo r corn than fo r other grain s This .

does n o t in dicate however that corn n eeds less water

, ,

than th e small grain s It grows very rapidly after tassel

- .

in g begin s In o n e case it wa
. s foun d that 1 300 pou n d s
of d ry matter to the acre was produced in a sin gle week .

Thus great quan tities of moisture a re n ee d e d i n the grow

in g season
- Exp e rien ce has shown that the yield of
.

corn is almost directly propo rtion al to the moistu re supply

durin g a few critical weeks .

C o rn respo n ds very read ily to the prese n ce of o rgan ic

matter in the soil So ils that a . re loo s e black a n d rich , ,

in organ ic matter a re commo n in the co rn belt The crop .

is grown o n the heavier so ils but is at its best o n the ,

loessial soils which a , re easily kept loose a nd friable .

The physica l con dition of the soil is importan t sin ce good ,

tilth allow s soil moisture to move freely to the roots .

The average acre yield fo r the Un ited States from 1 900

-

to 1 9 1 0 was 24 bushel s; fo r C on n ec ticut bushels ; ,

Ma ssachusetts , bu shels; Main e bushels ; O hio , ,

bushels ; a n d Pe n n sylva n ia bushels In the ,

.

South the yield s were less but the methods of cultu re

, ,

were also in fin ite ly po orer Systematic han dlin g of the

.

crop it is estimated should in the N o rth give a 1 00 bu shel

, ,
-

crop a n d i n the South even mo re Th e bumper crop o f .

226 bush els g rown by a Tenn essee boy i s worthy of

a tten tion .

21 5 Pre pa
. rati o n o f th e se e d b e d
- Deep fall plow
-
.

in g seems rath er advan ta geous to c o rn becau se it en ables

win ter moisture to sin k in to the soil a n d allows fro s t ,

to mellow the seed bed Sin ce large quan tities of organ ic

-
.

matter cause abu n dan t growth in c o rn moderate a pp li ,

cation s of farm ma n ure u sually pay C o rn is a good crop .

to follow clover alfalfa o r other sod -producers Whether

, , .

plowin g is do n e in spri n g o r fall the plow should cover ,

 The Pn n c i p le s A m
’

200 o f g rono y

all the vegetable material to in sure d e cay In the spring .

the disk o spik e tooth ha ow shou d fin e the seed bed

r - rr l -

un til a loose friable surfac e is ready to receive the seed

,

2 16 S e e d an d pla
.

. n tin g After th e farmer h a sdecided.

upon the variety he wishes to grow he should choose ,

seed adapted to the climate Seed should be selected .

in th e fie ld before the grain is cut in order to ide n tify

high producin g early maturing plan ts
-
,
- .

Because both frost a n d moi sture in jure the germin atin g

power of co n se ed requires a warm d ry well ven tilate d
r ,
-
, ,

plac e fo r storage A good way is to han g the ears i n

.

strin gs in such a way that they do n o t touch Kern el s

, .

from butt tip a n d middle of e a

, ,r have equal value a
l ,

though irregular butt a n d tip kern els may interfere with

even distributio n by plan ters In most cases n o t reat .

,

men t before plan tin g is n eed ed .

O n some large farms machin es d o th e plan tin g but , ,

o n most small farm s seed i n g is do n e with han d pla n ters

, .

Although there se ems to be n o advan ta ge in plan tin g

deeper than o n e o r two in ches in hum id sectio n s farmers ,

of the West con sider th ree to six in ches n on e too deep

because they fin d it n eces sary to plan t below the d ry
surface soil In heavy soils plan tin g should n o t be so
.
,

deep as in light san dy o n es , .

Thickn e ss of plan tin g varies from mo re than a kern el fo r

each square foot to o n e fo r each fifte e n o r twen ty square feet .

Medium thick plan tin g a kern el fo r each three o r four ,

square feet usually gives the mos t grain

, Seed is n early .

always plan ted in row s a nd ge n e ra

lly in hills A commo n .

practice is to plan t th ree o r four kern els in hills two to

five feet apart with three to fiv e feet between rows
,
.

About a pee k of shell ed corn sow sa n ac re fo r g rain p roduc

tion bu t fo r fodder o r silage thicker plan ti n g is desir

, , ,

able .
202 The Pri nc i p le s A
f g
o rono my

as so on as the lan d will permit Some ha n d -hoein g may .

be n ee ded to keep down wee ds in the rows Shallow is .

better than very de e p cultivation a n d freq uen t better,

than oc ca sion al .

It i s usually unn ecessary to irrigate corn u n til it has

a good sta rt but in case the soil i s too d ry to germin ate
,

the see d it is a
, d visa
ble to apply the water before plan tin g

FI G . 60 . Re sul ts o f i rrig a
ti o n on co rn .

rather than a fter The time fo r irrigation will be indi

.

cated by a dark color a n d by the wilti n g of the leaves .

The amoun t a n d dist ribution of i rrigation water will

vary greatly with con dition s but it is r arely n ecessary

,

to use more than thirty in ches durin g a sea so n It is

usua
.

lly m ore con ven ie nt to apply water by the furrow

method Th e charts (F igs 59 a
. n d 60) show the res
. ults
to be sec ured from judi ciou s i rrigation .
 Co m or Ma
i ze 203

21 8 . H a
rve stin g . A good tim e to begin to ha
rvest

corn is when the grai n is j ust hard en ough to re sist pre s

sure from the thumb n ail About thi s time the husk .

turn s whitish but the fodder remain s green if frost has

,

n o t n ipped the leaves N othi n g is gai n ed by allowi n g

.

maize to g o un harveste d after it is ready a n d si n ce in , ,

man y se ction s frosts a re likely to do con siderable i n ju ry

,

to the fodder much risk accompanies late harvestin g

, .

Some growers turn hogs a n d occa sion ally cattle in to

the corn to harvest it o n foot Rape o r cowpeas so wed .

betwee n the rows add much to its pasture value The .

practice of hoggin g o fi is in creasin g Sometimes the

- .

ears a re pulled by ha n d o r machi n ery a n d the stove r

pastured Agai n the leaves may be stripped o ff a

. nd

save d o r the top of the sta

, lks a n d leaves cut Most .

satisfactory perhaps is the method of cutti n g o ff the

, ,

stalks at the groun d a n d stacki n g them i n shocks in the

fie ld o r in the yard to be husked later .

There a re severa l ki n d s of corn cutters some of which

-
,

bin d a nd s hock the corn Much maize is cut with lo n g .

k n ives a n d sho rt han dl e d hoes -

Huski n g is commo n ly .

don e by ha n d in spite of the fact that there a

, re machi n e

huskers a nd shre dders The great expen se a nd

. the
complicated ea sily i njured mechan isms have reta
,
- rd e d

the un iversal adoption of c orn harvesti n g machin e ry - .

2 1 9 Sila
.
g e C o rn to be
. made i n to silage is allowed
to sta n d in the fie ld u n til the grai n is n the roasti n g e a
i - r

sta ge whe n it is cut usually with a bi n der a

, ,
n d hauled o n ,

a lo w wagon to the silo Here it is cut i n to pieces a half .

in ch lo n g o r thereabouts a
, n d blow n i n to the silo It , .

settles in to a n a ir tight mass a n d prese rves itself fo r

-

gree n feed in wi n ter when dairy stock have n o p a s

ture o r in the hot d ry summer when succule n t feed is
, ,
204 The Pri nc i p les o A
f g rano my

220 . En e mi es . Wee ds cause the most d iffic ulty

in co g owin g but as already poin ted out they may
rn - r , ,

be largely co ntrolle d by proper tillage C ocklebur bi n d .

,

Weed Russian thistle milkweed a

, nd commo n pigweeds
, ,

all cause the corn grower trouble The pere n n ial bin d
- .

wee d milkweed a
, n d grou n d cherry a
, re most troublesome

west of the Great Plai n s .

Besides weeds maize smut a n d the corn e a

, r worm a re -

the worst en emies to the crop The smut masses should .

be picked o ff a nd burn ed befo re they burst a n d sp read

the smut spo res As smut lives over wi n ter in soil o r

.

man ure it is useless to treat the se ed C lean cultivatio n

, .

an d rota tion of crops a re the effec tive methods of co n trol .

This is likewise true of the co rn e a r worm b illbugs the

-
, ,

root louse
- rootwo rms , an d chi n ch bugs
- which do c o n
, ,

sid e rable damage especially where corn is grow n year

,

after year o n the same la n d o r where culture methods ,

are otherwise poor Fall plowi n g a nd . clea n farmin g -

are the best methods of co n trol Sometimes remedie s .

are u sed adva n ta geously A treatmen t fo r the chi n ch .

bug is given in C hapte r XVI .

22 1 U se s a
. n d vae A
lu bout n i n e-ten ths of the .

crop en ters the food ratio n of an imals without first bein g

shell ed Fo r fatten i n g hog s a
. n d bee f it has n o equal .

Dairyme n a nd horsemen al so use much of it as feed It .

mixes well with alfalfa which is a flesh a nd bon e builder

, ,

while corn furn ishes e n ergy a n d fat C orn alon e is n o t .

,

however a bala n ced food

, .

Green d ried a n d ca n n ed co rn
, , homin y corn mea l , , ,

cereal breakfast foods popcorn a nd corn sirup a

,
re ,

human foods C orn oil starch disti ller s grain cobs

.
, ,
’
, ,

husks a n d pith fin d va rious uses

, while the sta lks a nd ,

leaves a r e used fo r roughage .

Th e value in dollars of corn produced in the Un ited

206 The Pri nc i p les of Ag ro no my

power is in jured by fre ezi n g though the fee di n g qualities ,

are n o t hurt O n the other ha n d the be st way to han dle

.
,

fodder is to shock it o n well d rain ed groun d Th e c o n

- .

structio n shown i n F ig 6 1 is a good type of store-house .

fo r the farm .

C orn is marketed mostly o n foot that is fed to , ,

an imal s that a re bei n g fitte d fo r ma rket It does n o t .

en ter i n to world markets so largely a s othe r cereals but ,

where it does it is han dled much as is wheat except that

,

greater precaution s a re take n in d ryi n g .

Fo r big markets there a re g rade s N o s 1 2 3 a nd 4 i n .

, , ,

each of three classes white mixed a n d yellow , , .

U
S PPLEME NTARY READ IN G

B
C o rn , o wm a n a n d C ro s sle y .

The C o rn Cro p s, Mo n tg o m e ry .

B
The o o k o f C o m , My ric k eta l .

Ma i ze , J
os e ph B urtt - avy D .

C e re a ls in Am e ric a ,
T F H u n .t, pp
1.38 —
2 79 . .

So u the rn Fie ld C rO p s F , J
ug g a r pp 7 8 2 1 6
.
—
D , . .

Ma n ua J
l o f C o m ud g in g A D Sh a me!, . . .

Fi e ld C r0 p s, Wilso n a n d Wa rburt o n , p p 47 1 35
—
. .

Fie ld C ro p Pro d uc tio n G Liv in g sto n , pp 29 98

, .
—
. .

Pri n c ip le s o f Irri g ati o n Pra ct ic e , A Wid tso e pp 255 264 —

J .
, . .

C y c lo pe d i a o f Am e ri c a n Ag ri c ulture Vo l II pp 398 427

—
. . .
, ,

U S D A Ye a
. . . . r bo o k fo r 1 906 , p p 27 9 294 —
. .

U S D A Fa rm e rs Bulle t in s
’
. . . .

N o 8 1 C o rn Gro win g in th e So uth

. . .

1 99 C o rn -g ro wi n g
. .

229 Th e Pro d uc tio n o f Go o d Seed C o rn

. .

253 The Ge rm in a
. ti o n o f See d C o rn .

292 The C o st o f Fi llin g Silo s

. .

. a
303 C o rn -h rv e stin g Ma c hi n e ry .

400 A M o re Pro fita

. ble C o rn Pla nt in g Me tho d .

41 4 C o rn C ulti v tio n
. a .

415 Seed C o rn
. .
 Co m or Ma
i ze 207

537 . Ho w to Gro w an Ac re o f C o rn.

Ho w to M a na
g e a C o rn C ro p in Ken tuc ky a
n d We st

553 Po pc o rn fo r th e Ho m e
. .

554 Po p c o rn fo r the M a
. rk e t .

6 1 7 Sc ho o l Le sso n s o n C o rn
. .
 CHAPTE R XVIII

0 TH E R CE RE ALS

BE SI DE S whea
corn ad
t the cereals common ly grown
n ,

in America a re oats a n d barley Ry e is le ss impo rta nt .

an d rice is c o n fin e d to a fe wdi stricts in the South Buck .

wheat though n o t a true cereal i s grow n to some exten t

, ,

fo r grai n So rghums a
. re mo re impo rta n t fo r fo rage tha n

fo r grai n a nd o n that accou n t

, , are grouped with the ,

millets .

O ATS ( Aven asai

t va)
223 . O ri g i n a
nd a
ti on shi ps
It is little won der
re l .

that oats were n o t used fo r human food un til lo n g after

wheat a n d ba rley whe n we co n sider that wheat has n o
,

husk coveri n g the kern el s a n d the ba rley h a s a much

thin n er o n e than oats The Egyptian s kn ew n othin g of
.

oats a
, n d Greeks o r Roma n s did n o t cultivate them ,

exte n sively at lea st although they k n ew them

, This is .

n o tstra n ge si n ce the grai n is prima rily adapt e d fo r a n imal

,

feed It is n o t surpri si n g that oats probably came from

.

the regio n of the great ce n tral Eurasian plai n s prob

ably from the regio n of Tartary in west cen tra l Asia -

where cattle a n d ho rses had lo n g bee n ca red fo r They .

spread over E urope later especially in the cool moist , ,

section s When in troduced i n to America by the early

.

colon ists oats did best in the damp N orth

, .

208
2 10 The Pri nc i p les o A
f g rono my

holdi n g them fa r apa rt The pan icle may be n in e to

.

twelve in ches lon g a n d from two to eight i n ches wide

’

with in termediate measuremen ts most commo n .

Th e spikelets of which there a , re from forty to seve n ty

five in a pan icle ge n erally co n tai n two ke rn els a smaller

, ,

o n e bei n g tucked sn ugly i n to the groove of a large r o ne .

O ccasio n ally a thi rd grai n develops but this is ra re

, , .

Si n ce si n gle kern els a re rather u n commo n the grain ,

appears somewhat varian t in size of kern el .

Each kern el is covered with a comparatively thick

husk o r hull which brea
, , ks away from the i n terior grain
when rolled Some varieties kn own as hull less shell
.
-

free from the husk o n threshi n g A crooked a wn occurs .

o n the back of the husk i n stea d of at the e n d as with

wheat barley a
, n d ry e, In other respects the structure
.
,

of the grai n is almost iden tical with that of the wheat

kern el save that the oat grain is proportion ately much
lo n ge r a n d covered with hair .

225 Di stri b uti on

. O ats are n aturally
. adapted to
th ose parts of the temperate zo n e that have a cool moist ,

climate throughout the growin g seaso n The crop is - .

n o t se n sitive to ki n d of soil except as it regulates the mois

ture supply Heavy soils rich in organ ic matter favor

.

eve n distributio n of moisture in the soil a n d therefore , , ,

a re best .Sa n dy soil deman ds freque n t applicatio n s of

moisture fo r high yields .

The cou n tries that have the favo rable climatic co n di

tio n s a re the best producers A study of the rain fall .

a nd temperat ure of C an ada n orthern Un ited States , ,

cen tral Ru ssia Germa n y Austria Hun ga

,
— ry Fra n ce a
,
nd , ,

Great B rita i n reveals the reaso n s fo r their vast oat crop .

Pa rts of Scotla n d a n d the Sca n di n avia n cou n tries have

almost ideal con ditio n s but these areas a re too small to

,

e n able them to cou n t as world producers Fo r the five .

 Othe r Cerea
ls 21 1

years en din g with 1 9 1 0, the n ation s produced an n ually

as follows

U n ite d St tes a bushe ls

Euro p e a n Russ1 a bu she ls
Germ a ny bu she ls
F ra n ce bushe ls
aa
C n da bu she l s

The re a
re vast fie ld s of oats in Man churia a n d Ar

g e n ti n a whose tot a l c rops a re u n repo rted T h e total fo r .

the world is over four billio n s of bushels n ea rly the same,

as fo r wheat a n d co rn These othe r grai n s howeve r

.
, ,

exceed oats in total weight .

The oat produci n g areas a

-
re sprea d over the Un ited
Sta tes but the n orthern states from N e w York to Wash
,

i n g to n a n d O rego n a re situated most favo rably Th e .

leadin g sta tes in order a re : ( 1 ) Iowa (2 ) Illi n ois ( 3 ) Wis

, ,

con si n (4) Min n e sota ( 5) N e bra

, , sk a (6 ) O hio ( 7 ) In
, ,

dian a (8 ) N e w York a
, , n d ( 9) Michiga n Western O re .

g o n a n d W a shi n g to n have pe rhap s the most ideal climates ,

but the district is n o t large Man y mou n tain valleys

.

i n the West which a re small a n d ge n erally isolated also

have favorable co n ditio n s .

Th e average acre yield in the Un ited States has bee n

-

slightly less than thirty bushels while in German y a ,

nd

Great B rita i n it is much higher bein g in the n eighborhood

,

of forty to forty five bushels By sta

- tes the leadin g
.
,

acre y ields ( 1 902 1 9 1 1 ) a

- -
re as follows
21 2 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g ron o my

The great producin g sta tes all average less than thirty
four bushels A good farmer may expect from sixty to
.

more than o ne hun dred bushels .

226 Va . ri e tie s . O ats a re c la ssifie d i n to groups a c

cordin g to shape of pan icle sea son of plan tin g c olor

, , ,

a n d size a n d shape of g rai n There a

. re spri n g a n d win te r

oats The South grows wi n ter varieties prin cipally in

.

o de to th ow the growi g seaso n in the cool part of the

r r r n -

yea r . If the spikelets a re bo rn e o n short pe dicels a nd

a re all o n o ne side of the culm they a re side oats

,
or ,

h o rse m ane oats ; if the head sprea ds they a re spread ,

in g. These a re the oat types F urthe r c la .ssific a

tio n s
accordin g to colo r a re described as white yellow b lack , , ,

re d whitish yellow etc

,
-
, Some va
. rieties a re ea rly others ,

late ; some plump others lon g hulled Seedsmen a

,
- nd
.

growe rs i n troduce n e w va rieties every year a n d old va rie ,

ties get n e w n ames A hopeless co n fusio n re sults re n

.

derin g clear groupin g a nd n ami n g impossible A fe w .

leadin g varieties fo r the coun try a re Big F our Silvermi n e , ,

C lydesdale Swedish Select a

, n d Ame rican Ba n n e r
,
.

227 Se e d i ng a
. nd c ulti va ti on Th e preparatio n of
.

the seed-bed fo r oats is similar to that fo r wheat The .

depth of plan tin g vari es from o n e to four in ches just ,

un der the d ry mulch e d soil As soo n as the la n d c a

. n be

wo rked oats may be sown in quan tities of from five to

eight pee ks depen din g o n the yield expected a n d moisture

supply available . In some districts as little as three o r

four pecks a re used ; in others as much as twelve o r four

tee n pee k s Ha rrowi ng may begin as so o n as the gra

. in
is up a n d co n ti n ue u n til it would i n ju re the pla n t F rom .

fiv e to thi rty i n ches of irrigatio n wate r may be applied

in parts of the West i n o n e to six applicatio n s
, .

228 Ha . rve s tin g a nd ma rk eti n g O ats a re usually

.

cut with the bi n der though the header find s occ asion al
,
21 4 The Pri nc ip les A
f g
o ro m my

sagely remarked that the best horses grew i n Engla n d

a n d the best m e n i n Scotla n d .

Oa t hulls light g rai n dust a

,
n d impu rities ,
by p rod,
-

n e ts of oatmeal facto ries are used fo r feed as is the ,

stra w whi ch ha
,
smo re frequen t use as bed di n g fo r a n imals ,

altho ugh as roughage the st ra

,
w supplemen ted by some
,

hay o r grain may carry stock over win ter n early as well
as wild h a y O ats
. alo n e o r mixed with peas make , fai r ,

ha y if cut befo re the g rai n gets ha r d an d wh i le the leaves

a n d culms a re still g ree n Peas of course in crease the .
, ,

n itroge n i n the ratio n .

230 En e mi e s
. Th e c ommon weeds all t rouble oats
. .

Wild mustard is bad ; clean cultivation a nd rotatio n ,

clean seed a nd
, sprayin g With iron sulfate a re helpful

mean s of era dication Wild oats ( Avenaf a . tua ) are ve ry

troublesome in some fie ld s lo n g sown to oats because they ,

mature ahea d of the c rop a n d shell out befo re harv est .

C rop rotatio n a nd clean seed a re preve n tives Sin ce .

wild oats a re lighter than the cultivated g rai n the fa n n i n g ,

mill will partly clean the seed Smut i n ju res oat s to .

con siderable exten t un less the see d is treated The spores .

enter the oat at bloomi n g time O ats a re t reated i n .

the sam e way as wheat the formalin treatmen t bei n g p e r ,

haps the best .

Rust causes much loss but can n ot be remedied directly .

I n directly it may be partly con t roll e d by selection of

early o r rust re sist a nt varieties
-
by u sin g on ly well ,

d rain ed lan d a n d by usin g cultu re method s to preve n t

,

lodgin g .

Th e chin ch-bug sprin g grai n -aph i s a

,
n d the a rmy wo rm ,
-

i n jure the growi n g crop Remed ies fo r the chi n ch bug .

-

have been given in C hapter XVI C lean cultivation a nd .

fall plowin g help to con t rol the others It is n o t usually

- .

p ro fi ta ble to sp ray o r othe r w ise t reat g rowi n g oats for

 Othe r Cerea
ls 21 5

in sects Grain wee vils a

. n d the An goumois grai n moth

are best con troll ed by storage in tight bin s If the bin s .

become in feste d fumigation with carbon bisulfid e will

,

kill the i sec ts

n Hyd ocya ic acid gas is also eff ective
r . n -
,

but extrem ely dan gerous o n e full in halation of it being ,

fatal to m an .

BA LE Y R Ho rdeu m sa
ti vum)

From the earliest daw n of civilization m a n has culti ,

y at e d barley co n ti n uously It has been a n impo rta n t .

crop in all the empires of which we have record Barley .

belo n g s to the same tribe as wheat It has fo r its n ear .

est relative barley grass ( Ho rde um j a - batam) variously -

ca lled foxtail a n d sq uirrel tail - .

23 1 De sc ripti on
. Barley re se mble s wheat
. very
closely havi n g a fibro u s root system of less exten t a
,
nd -

havi n g stools culm s leave s a

, n d spikes that a
,
re ve ry ,

much like those of wheat The chi ef apparen t differen ces .

a re that it s tools less has shorter straw a n d that the

, ,

kern els a re usually c overed with a lightly adherin g husk -

,

which breaks when the grain is crushed Barley heads .

common ly ha ve beards although there a re a n umber of

,

varietie s that lack them ; some lack hulls a n d othe rs ,

lack both beards a n d h ulls These however a re n o t .

, ,

as y e tin gen eral u se .

The spikelet s a re s i n gl e flo we red a

- nd therefore bear , , ,

o nly o n e kern el Three spikelets however lie side by

.
, ,

side In o n e type all three spikelets bear grain while

.
,

in an other type on ly the middle o n e is fertile givin g ,

ri se to th ree rows o r to o n e ro w respe c tively o n each , ,

side of the spike the two sides makin g six a

,
n d two

row s; hen ce the n ame of these types : two rowed a - nd

six rowe d barley

- .

Two owed ba ley is spring grain whi le six rowed is

-r r -
,
21 6 The Pri nc ip les o A
f g rano my

either sp i g o r wi n ter These varieties of six owed

r n .
-r

barley a re stan da rd : ( )
1 Od e rb r u c k e r (2 ) Ma n chu ria , ,

a n d (3) C alifo rni a C alifo rni a Feed a

. n d Ba y B rewi n g
a re c ommo n i n C alifo rn ia O f the two rowed type C heva.
-

lier a nd Hann a a re most po pula r In the Moun tai n .

State s Ten n essee Wi n te r Ch evalie r Uta

, h Wi n ter a
, nd , ,

Beardless do well The Southern States grow win te r

.

varieties in the main .

23 2 Di stri bu ti on a
. nd a da p ta ti on N 0 othe r g rai n .

crop withstan ds successfully such wide differen c es of

climate elevation a
, n d soil as barley
, It i s cultivated .

from the equator up to the Artic ci rcle bein g grow n as ,

a crop at 65 n orth latitude In Peru at

°
feet
.
,

abo ve se alevel it yields well It is a leadi n g crop o n the

- .

hot d ry plain s of Spain a

, n d N o rth Africa though it does ,

bes t o n well d rain ed loam soil s with moderate moisture

-
.

It grows o n almost a n y so i l an d withsta n ds co ns iderable

d routh bei n g therefore a good d ry fa rm crop Sin ce
, ,
-
.

it is the most alkali re sistan t ce real it grows well i n arid

-
,

regio n s that have slightly alkali n e s oils It is ofte n grow n .

o n virgi n lan d u n ti l othe r crops c a n be made to g row

p ro fit a
bly .

Russia Un ited States Germ a

, ny Aust ria-Hun gary , , ,

Japan Spai n the British I sles a

, , n d C a n ada i n the o rder ,

na med a re the le adin g producers C aliforni a Min n esota .

, ,

Wiscon si n the Dakotas a

,
n d Iowa yield over 8 0 p e r ce n t
,

of the crop of the Un ited States .

In ave rage acre yields Idaho is first with a

- n ave ra
, ge ,

of abou t 40 bushel s; Uta h seco n d with bushels ; a nd ,

Washi n gton third with 37 bushels Good yields a

,
re .

from 50 to 1 00 bu shels thou gh 1 25 bu shel s have been

ha rve sted in some districts un de r irriga
,

tion .

233 S ow
. in g an d c u lti va ti on Fo r barley as fo r othe r .

small-grai n s a fin e deep seed bed i s desi re d

, ,
This is - .
218 The Pri nc i ple s oA
f g rono my

withi n forty-eight hours of ea ch other The careful .

removal of di rt a n d weed seed much improves the g rain

fo r both feed a n d malt .

Ca reful sto rage is esse n tia l fo r the same reason as that

stated fo r careful sho c k in g a nd sta ckin g Sin ce malt .

barley is all so ld it must be carefully han dle d Two

, .

third s of all barley find s its wa y in to the ma rket by a

course similar to that of wheat There a re tw o groups .

of grades barley a nd rejected

”
In each there a re .

grades 1 2 3 a, ,
nd 4 , .

235 En em i e s a
. n d u se s Th e in se c ts that attack ba
. r

ley a re ch in ch bug g a aphi s a

r i
-
n -
,
n d He ssia n fly Reme , .

dies where pest s a

,
re presen t a re fall plow in g
- rotatio n
, , ,

a n d clea n farm in g I n sec ts in the bin a

. re con trolled by

ca rbo n b is
- ulfid e fumigatio n Loo se a n d closed smut s of
.

barley a re preven ted by the fo rmalin o r hot water t reat

men t s respectively Where the ru st s a

, . re p resen t selec ,

tion of st iff strawed early maturin g v a

-
,
rieties a -n d plan t ,

in g o n well d rain ed lan d n o t so rich in o rgan ic matter

-

as to cause lodgi n g a re t h e method s of con trol

,
.

Fo r b ogs barley is a splen did co n cen trate prod u cin g

, ,

a good quality of pork Fo r sheep cattle a . n d poult ry , , ,

it is usually cru shed a n d mixed with oat s o r bran to lighte n

it It is much use d o n the Pa

. c ific C oast fo r horses In .

the Latin c oun tries of Europe barley is used fo r brea d , ,

but n o t so much as formerly In the Un ited States the .

,

kern el with husk removed is used as pearl barley in soup .

It forms a part of the man ufactured cereal fo ods .

Th e by products a
- re u s ed in various ways : ( 1 ) the
strawfo r bed din g a n d feed although the beards o r awn s , , ,

lower the feed in g value ; (2) bulls a n d b roke n g rain fo r

feed products ; a n d ( 3) m alt sp routs a

’
n d b rewers grai n
(rem n ants from malt i n dustry ) which a re high i n p rotein , ,

fo r feed particularly fo r dairy cows

, In th e West a nd .

.
 Othe r Cerea
ls 2 19

South , som e
ba ley green hay Hull less barley
i s cut fo r
'

r .
-

mixed with pea s , Cowpea s , o r vetch makes fairly goo d hay,

an d a good pastu re fo r hogs .

Th e value of barley l ik e that of oats a n d corn is closely

relat ed to the livestock in dustry Barley n d bra n a re . a

high in protein a n d m ix well with c o rn , which is hi gh in

carbohydrates There may be a growin g use fo r barley

.

a An
a
s o n e of a n umber of grain s in a mixed g rain ration .

in creased n umbe r of choppers o n the f rm should widen

its use .

As a wo ld c op ba ley yields o n ly o n e a
r r r , n d o ne half
-

billi on bushels a n d ra n ks fa r below the othe r g rain s In .

the Un it ed States barley ran ks n in th oats sixth wheat , ,

secon d a n d co rn firs
, t l n 1m po rtanc e .

RYE ( Sec a
le c ere a
le )
236 . De sc riptio n a
nd di stri but
i on . Ry e came into
Europe later than Roman tim es a nd spread rapidly
over the n orthern a n d ce n t ral parts of the co n tin en t from

Spa in to C en tral Asia It is more clo se ly related to

.

whea t than to a n y other crop An other species occu rs .

in Aust ria Hu n gary a

- n d Ru ssia .

Th e root-sy stem is fibro us but its rootin g habit is n o t ,

as deep as that of wheat It stools c o n siderably gro w .

,

in g lo n ger fin e r tougher culms than other small grai n

, ,
- .

It ha s fe w leaves a n d lo n g spikes the glumes of which ,

always h ea r bea rds The kern els a r e n ak ed

. lon g slim , , ,

an d da rk c olored
-
Ry e has the power of sen din g up
.

n e w culm s a fter bein g cut a power possessed on ly to a,

slight exten t by other cereal s There a re but fe w varie .

ties of ry e becau se cross-fertilization takesplace so readily

,

in the fie ld that all strain s a re mixed .

Russia prod uces more than half a n d German y more tha n

220 The Pri nc i ples o A
f g rano my

afou r th of the crop of the world O ther coun tries fol .

lo w in this order : Austria Hun gary F ran ce a n d the

-
, ,

Un ite d States In the Uni ted States ( 1 ) Pen n sylvan ia

.
, ,

( )
2 W isco n si n ( 3 ) M ichiga
, n (4) Mi n n e sota a n d ( )
5 , ,

N e w York p roduce most of the c r0p Ry e grown as a .

,

win ter c r0 p in Alaska is more frost resistan t than even

-
,

wheat o r barley It c a n g row o n poo rer s

. o ils than n early
a n y othe r crop ; it is al so d routh resista n t
- .

237 H a
. n d li n g th e c ro p F ertile soil a nd. a good
seed be d in crease the yield It is usually sown with
- .

d rills in fall o r spri n g at the rate of fiv e o r six pe e ks; d ry

farms sometim es require only two o r three pee ks a nd

pasture as much as eight pee ks It grows best with the .

shallowest plan tin g that will en able it to sprout Ha r .

rowi n g e n cou rage s stooli n g but i rrigatio n does n o t pay ,

o rdi n arily because yield s a

, re too s mall Harvesti n g .

a n d th reshi n g methods a re the same as fo r wheat oat s , ,

o r ba rley .

Ergot a fu n gous disea

, se is the o n ly se rious e n emy,
.

It is poison ous to cattle in additio n to in juri n g the yield .

C lea n in g the seed a n d rotati n g each yea r help to over

come it I n sects trouble but little ; there a

. re n o special

weed s .

238 U se s
. Ry e b read feeds a va st n umber of the
.

people in Russia Germa n y N o rwa , y S wede n a

,n d othe r , ,

parts of Slavo n ic a n d Teuto n ic E u rope It is yieldi n g .

place to wheat as huma n food As an imal food the grai n .

,

is used mostly i n mixed ratio n s It is better fo r hogs .

a nd horses tha n fo r other a n imal s The grai n also .

form s part of the mixtu res fo r malt a n d the by p roducts ,

-

a re u sed a sa n imal fo od When green the plan t furn ishes

.
,

seco n d cla ss hay

- or if plowed u n der a poor gree n
, , ,

ma n u re The straw is poor feed o n accou n t of bei n g

.

tough F all pla n ted ry e is sometimes pastured by cattle

.
-
222 The Princ i p les oA
f g rono my

poli sh the grain The flour o r polish i s valuable stock

.

feed Asiatics omit the poli shi n g thereby s

. avin g much ,

food value Rice straw h a s some feedi n g a

. n d weavi n g

value .

E MME R ( Tri i
t e um sai
t vu m di c oc c u m)
241 . De sc ri ptio n a
nd sub species of
u se . Emmer is a -

wheat a n d diff ers from it c h ie fly i n that i n

threshi n g the
spikelets retain the kern el s i n the glumes It i s grown .

rather exte n sively i n Ru ss ia southern E urope a n d east, ,

ce n tral Africa Durin g the last thirty years d ry farm

.
,
-

section s of the Un ited State s a n d sectio n s that ca n n ot

p r o fitab ly g row oats fo r feed p roduce co n sta n tly i n c re a

s
i n g qua n tities .

Ru st a n d d routh resi s tan ce a re qualities recomme n di n g

-

its use Both wi n ter a

. n d spri n g va rieties a re grown

win ter i n the We st a nd s p ri n g in the E ast a n d South .

Black wi n ter emmer is the most common ly grown variety .

It isplan ted a sa re oats at the rate of from fou r to twelve

, ,

pee k s a n acre It yield s from twen ty to seven ty bushels

. .

Th e husk coveri n g the grai n p reve n ts the fo rmation of

heavy pasty m a , sses in the stomachs of an im als thereby ,

aidin g digestio n In this respect it is like oats

. .

B UC KWH EA T F a
( g py
o ru m esc u len t
u m)
242 . De sc ripti o n d i stri buti o n
, Buckwheat , a
nd u se s.

is n o t a t rue cereal sin ce it belo n gs to the dock in stea

, d ,

of to the gra ss family It came from Ma n churia to N e w .

E n gla n d N e w Yo rk a , n d Pen n sylva n ia where it is still

, ,

largely u sed a s a catch crop whe n other crops fail a -n d it

is too late to repla n t them .

Th e pla n t a
h s a ta
p
-root ; a b ra n ch e d stem two o r th ree
feet i n height each bran ch en di n g in a
, fla t topped cluster
-
 Othe r Cerea
ls 22 3

of white flo we rs; a n d b road leaves s o methi n g like those

of the morn in g glory The seed is dark gray o r brow n

- .
,

an gular a n d cove re d with a rather s

, tro n g loose hull , .

The growi n g seaso n i s so short that a fie ld may be plan te d

-

as late as July 1 a n d yet mature Its yield is small

, .

but it pay s better tha n n o crop o n la n d whe re some other

crop ha s failed to begi n growth It is cut with a bin der .

an d shocked i n o rder to d ry the succule n t stems Buck .

wheat is famous as the source of pa n cake flour It has .

some value fo r hogs a n d poult ry a n d the s traw is some

times used fo r fee d a n d b e ddi n g but it is rathe r coa rse ,

an d un palata ble .

U
S PPLEM E NTARY READ IN G

Ce re a ls in Am e ri c aT F H un t pp ,
. .
,
. 280 41 0
— .

Fie ld Cro p s Wilso n a n d Wa

,
rburto n pp 1 7 5 268
—
, . .

Fie ld CrO p Pro d uc ti o n G Livin g sto n pp 1 45 1 93 —

,
.
,
. .

So uthe rn Fie ld C rO p s F ug g a , J
r pp 1 3 1 68 7 7 2 1 7 230
— — —
. D , .
, , .

Cy c lo ped ia o f Am e ri c an Ag ri c ulture , Vo l II, pp 202 206 , 48 5 494,

— —
. .

559 564 -
.

U S D A Farme rs B ulle t in s
’
. . . .

N o . 1 39 . Em m e r : A Gra in fo r the Se m i a
rid Re g io n s - .

395 . Six ty d a y
-an d K he r s
on O a
ts .

420 . Oa ts: D i stribu tio n a n d Uses .

42 4 . Oa ts : Gro wi n g the C ro p .

42 7 . B arle y C ulture in the So uthern State s .

43 6 . Win te r O a ts fo r the So u th .

443 . Ba rle y : Gro w in g the C ro p .

466 . Win te r Emm e r .

51 8 . Win te r B a rle y .
 CHAPTER XI X

P 0 TA TOE S (So la u bero s

num t um)

OF the crops design ated as root crops pota toes a,nd

sugar beets a
- re by fa r the mo st importa n t The methods
.

by which they a re p roduced depe n di n g much o n han d

,

labor a nd requi ri n g fertilize rs a nd con sta n t atten tio n ,

deman d that these cr0 ps be han dled o n small areas in

te n sive ly farmed . There is a n oticeable abse n ce of
machin e s that cover te n to forty acre s in a sin gle day ,

although there is a promise of implemen ts that will modify

methods of culture Plan ters cultivators a
.
,
n d diggers ,

have don e much to relieve the farmer of slow a n d ex

ha u stin g ha n d labor
- F ield co n ditio n s in pota
. to-growi n g
are show n in F igs 62 to 65
. .

243 O ri g i n
. . Th e potato wa s growi n g wild in the
valleys of Peru a n d C hile whe n the Spa n iards firs t visited
these cou n tries about 1 542 An othe r ki n d of potato was
.

foun d in Mexico a n d southern C olo rado This us eful .

pla n t made its way in to Virgin ia i n time to be carrie d

to En glan d a n d I rela n d by Raleigh s expeditio n i n 1 58 6
’
.

In I relan d it did so well that it soo n became the p ri n ci

pal food crop Mean time the I n dian s a
.
,
n d whites i n

the n eighbo rhoo d of Virgin ia gradually i n creased their

depen de n ce o n it u n til by the first of the eighteen th c e n
,

tury they used it gen erally By the middle of the c e n

, .

tury it had spread i n to the parts of E urope favorable

,

to its growth a n d gai n e d larger a n d larger footholds o n

22 4
226 The Pri nc i p les of Ag rono my

len gth of this un derg roun d stem depe n ds o n the depth

of pla n ti n g Atvariou splaceso n this stem n e wbran ches
.
, ,

o r stolo n s grow horizo n tally outward beari n g tubers

,

at the e n d Mea n while from two to four root sgrow from

.
,

the up right stem just at the base of tuber beari n g sto -

Io n s.

By the time of maturity the fibro u s roots have sp read

,

fo r six o r eight in ches a

n d have exte n ded fou r o r fiv e feet

FIG . 63 . a
C o n st
n t c u lti va
ti o n a
i s n e c e ss ry fo r g oo a
d p o t to y i e ld s
.

i n to the soil if it i s loo se an d well d rai n ed T ubers from -

.

o n e to thi rty i n n umbe r varyi n g from the size of a pea to

,

six pou n ds have developed i n a si n gle hill About six

, .

o r seve n potatoes as la rge as the double fis ta

re preferred - .

Th e a n gula r stem from o n e to fiv e feet in le n gth usually

, ,

about two o r two a n d a half feet high sta n ds up right o r ,

d roop s acro ss the ope n space depe n di n g o n the variety ,

a nd soil co n ditio n s Th e leave s a .re compou n d with

small le a fle ts growi n g in the axil a n d scatte red i rregula rly
 Po ta
to es 227

betwee n the thick poi n ted oval leaf parts which a

, , re -
,

from o n e to thre e in ches lo n g .

Buds o r eyes a re born e spa rsely at the stem e n d a nd

close together at the bud e n d A strin g passed roun d .

the tuber a n d held i n po sitio n with a p i n in each eye

shows the spiral arra n geme n t of eyes C ross-section s .

of a tuber show three n early co n cen tric a n d o n e irregula r ,

part The outermo st the extern al cortical is poor in

.
, ,

sta rch an d so thi n a s to be almost en tirely removed i n

pee li n g The n comes a thicker layer rich i n starch
.
, ,

called the in tern al cortical surrou n di n g the extern al ,

medullary al so rich in starch Th e dark colored core

, .
,

the in tern al medull a ry i s watery a n d lo w i n s

, tarch A .

pota to that con tai n s propo rtio n ately large extern al

medullary a n d i n tern al co rtical is de sirable o n accou n t

of high starch co n te n t which gives the potato the quality

,

of mashin g readily whe n cooked Potatoes that a re .

yellow a n d soggy afte r cooki n g a re u n desi rable in America ,

where they a re baked o r boil e d but a re highly p rized by ,

the Fren ch who serve them fried

,
.

246 Va
. ri e ties Potatoes a
. re u sually classed as early
a n d late although color depth o r arra n geme n t of eyes
, , ,

a n d rough n ess of s kin might each give rise to a groupi n g .

Th e early varietie s yield less but matu re in about o n e ,

hun dred days bri n gi n g higher prices o n accou n t of reach

i n g market early Late potatoe s comprise the bulk of
.

the crop whe rever large acreages a re grow n except n ear ,

city markets Requirin g about o n e hun dred a

. n d thirty

days to ripe n they can n ot reach the early market but

, ,

a re allowed to grow late i n o rde r to give the greatest pos

sible yield .

Varieties origi n ate either by variatio n in hills pla n ted

by sets o r from mixtures ari si n g from the seed pla n ted
,
-

hills which always co n tain several disti n ct kin ds of tubers

,
.
228 The Pri nc i p le s oA
f g rono my

Th e Pearl , fo r example comes from a bud variation of ,

Blue Victors while the Burbank wa , s fo un d i n a seed sown -

hill O fte n old varieties a

. re give n n e w n ames in o rder

to sell them Some co n fusio n i n diff ere n t section s c a

. n

n o t b e avoided b ut should be as n early elimin ated as

,

possible .

Bliss Trium ph Peachblow E ureka E arly O hio a

, nd , , ,

E arly Ro se a re common early varieties Rural N e w .

Yorker Sir Walter Raleigh C arma n N o 3 Gree n Mou n

, , .
,

ta in a n d Bu rba n k a
, re popular in the N o rt h e rn States .

In the Mou n tai n Sta tes Pearl Idaho Rural Rural N e w , , ,

Yorker Mortgage Lifter N e tte d Gem C armen Peerless

, , , , ,

Majestic a nd Freema n a
, re p r o fi tab le yielde r
,s u n de r

irrigatio n .

247 Di stri b uti o n a

. nd a da p ta i
t o n A co o l eve n g row .
,

in g -seaso n without severe frost a n d a loose warm soil , ,

co n tai n i n g medium moisture throughout the seaso n a re ,

the co n ditio n s most favorable to potato growi n g Ideal - .

co n dition s i n Scotlan d Germa n y a n d Russia produce

, ,

almost u n believable yield s Eighteen hu n dred bushels .

to the acre was grow n o n the seed farm of Lo rd Rosebery -

n ea r E di n b ur gh Sca n di n avia also has a good climate

.

fo r potato productio n .

The large cou n tries that lie in this sectio n of E urope

a re all heavy p rod ucers ra n ki n g as follows in total p ro ,

ductio n : ( 1 ) Germa n y (2 ) Russia (3) Austria Hu n gary

, ,
-
,

a n d (4) Fra n ce with the U n ited States fift

, h a n d G reat ,

B ritai n sixth .

O utof the fiv e billio n bushels produced Germa n y grows ,

about o n e a n d seve n te n ths billio n s while the Un ited

-
,

States p roduces o n ly o n e third of a billio n bushels - .

h
T e ac re-yield is 1 97 bushels i n Germa n y 1 8 6 in the
B ritish Isles ; 1 40 in Austria Hu n gary ; 1 34 i n Fran ce ;
—

1 00 in Russia ; a n d 90 i n the U n ited States Main e lea ds .

230 The Pri nc iples of Ag ro no my

all sta tes with 225 bushels Some other lea

, ders a re Idaho .
,

200 bushels ; Mo n ta na a n d Utah 1 8 0 bushels ; Wash ,

in g to n 1 7 0 ; C olo rado 1 60 ; a
, n d Wyomi n g 1 45 All
, , .

except Main e a re i n the i rrigated district o As tota l pro .

d uc e rs the sta
, tes ran k : ( 1 ) N e w Yo rk (2) Michigan (3) , ,

Mai n e (4) Wisco n si n (5) O hio a

,
n d (6) Illi n ois
, with , ,

o n ly Main e averagi n g mo e tha n in ety two bushels

r n - .

In the East four hun d red bushels is a good acre yield

,
-
,

FI G . 65 .
—
G re t p ta
a o to -
p ro d u c i n g se c ti o n , Aro o sto o kC o u nty , Ma
i ne .

while in the irrigated district seve n hu n dred to eight

hu n dred bushels a re produced occasio n ally a nd o ne ,

thou san d bushels u n der especially favorable con dition s .

Good farmers may expect from three hu n dre d to five

hu n dred bushels a n acre .

248 Pre pa
. rati on o f la nd F armers c a n well affo rd .

to spe n d extra time a n d labor p repa ri n g a good seed bed

-

fo r pota
,

toes Heavy applicatio n s of farm ma n u re pay

. ,

th ough it is well to apply it to the previous crop o r i n the

fall precedi n g potatoes i n o rder that it may be well de
composed This helps to form a fi e moist seed bed
.
n -
, .

C oarse ma n u re open s up the soil permitti n g excessive

 a
Po t to es 23 1

d ryin g which is detrimen tal The high water-holdi ng

, .

capacity of soils due to man urin g in creases yield s materi

ally To serve e ffic ie ntly the orga
. n ic matter mu s t be
thoroughly mixed with the soil O ld decomposed man u re .

does this very well but fresh man ure sometim es does
,

more harm tha n good Moreo ver too much coarse .

,

organ ic matter in lirn y soils aggravates potato scab .

Where commercial fertili zers a re u s ed potatoes respo n d ,

rea d ily to potash .

Deep fall plowi n g is essen tia

- l in looseni n g the see d
bed a n d i n holdi n g water fo r the n ext s eason A rough
w
.

surface left over i n ter preven ts a n y run -o h a

'
n d gives

frost a n opportu ni ty to di s in tegrate clod s a n d liberate

plant food - A disk complet

. es the fin in g process lon g
be fore a plow could be used Thi s hastens the warmin g .

of the soil a n d red uces the en o rmous evapo ratio n of ea rly

sprin g by the formatio n of a mulch An other diskin g .

,

o r o n e o r tw o harrowi n gs to keep the mulch loose will ,

leave a deep mellow moist se ed bed ready fo r plan tin g

,
-
,
.

249 Se e d
. Some varietie s have much higher yield
.

i n g possibilities than do others ; therefore the variety ,

chosen is importan t O n e disturbi n g fac tor i n choosin g

.

potato seed is that some dist icts ca n ot use hom e grown

r n -

se ed . Th e N orth ships to the South practically all the

seed used there Arizon a al so im ports seed pota
. toes In .

the West some growers have sma

, ll farms in mou n tain val
leys whi ch fu rni sh seed fo r their large farms i n the lower
valley In most cases selected hom e grown seed is best
.
- .

After a good variety is chosen the n ext most im po rtan t ,

thin g to c o n sider is disea se wh ich may red uce the yield

,

from 5 to 50 o r even 1 00 pe r ce n t Most di seases c a

,
n .

be detec ted by exa min in g the tubers Ab solute freedom .

from di se ase if possible is desi red

, ,
.

Somet imes varieties deteriorate o r run out Thi s ,

.
232 The Pri nc i p le s oA
f g ro no my

n eed n o t happe n if p roper selection is p racticed There .

is a ten de n cy to u se o r sell the marketable potatoes ,

thus leavin g the small o n es fo r seed It ha s bee n foun d

.

that potato hill s vary a great deal n o t on ly in the n umber

of potatoes they produce but also in the kin d Some , .

hill shave from four to eight tubers of very much the sam e
size a nd s hape con taini n g n o very large o n es a n d n o tma n y

small o n e s; othe rs o n e la rge potato a

.
n d a n umbe r of

small on es ; while still othe rs con sist almost en tirely of

small tube rs Si n ce both very large a
. nd very small
potatoes a re un de si rable o n the ma rket hi ll s With a fa ir ,

n umbe r of med ium sized tubers a

- re m o st desi rable .

A se t from a n y potato in the hi ll ten d s to p roduce a

hill like the paren t hill A big potato from a poor hill
.

is n o t so good seed a s a smaller o n e from a good hill It .

seem s that a n y potato in a hill is a s good fo r seed a sa ny

other a n d if such i s t ru e the re is n o obje c tio n to u si n g

,

the sm all potatoes from desirable hill s If however .

, ,

small tubers from a bin o r pit a re u s ed most of them will ,

be from poor hill s .

Seed selectio n i s so sim ple that every farmer c a n fol

lo w it succe ssfully The farmer Will kn ow which part

.

of the patch h a s the healthie st potatoe s With a dig .

gin g fork he c a n take out a fe w hun d red hill s p ili n g them ,

sepa rately . By exa mi n in g the piles he c a n easily select

,

hills that con tain the type he desires Fo r more te c hni .

cal work some may desire to study the plan ts all summer
,
.

When such is the case a peg may be driven clo se to the

,

hill s that promise well .

Selected seed requires ca reful sto rage a n d protectio n ,

from frost a n d heat Boxes o r crates holdin g from forty

.

to seven ty poun ds a re co n ve n ie n t sin ce this method

,

p reven ts decay of a n y great n umber of tubers a n d pe r ,

mits qui cker shipmen t .

234 The Pri nc i p le s o A
f g ro no my

to a n otched revolvin g horizo n tal d isk wh ich is watched

, ,

by a m a n w ,
h o fills emp ty n otches o r removes a se t if two
a re in o n e place When the n otch passe sover the delivery
.

spout the set d rops through The picker machi n e re

, .

quires o nly the d rive r but mis ses from 5 to 20 pe r cen t ;

,

the other requires two m e n a nd c a n be made to mi ss less

'

than 1 pe r cen t The horse-power plan ter furrow s d rops

.
, ,

a n d cove rs fiv e o r six ac res a day It is estimated that .

a farmer c a n affo rd a machi n e plan te r if h e g rows six

acres o r mo re .

The re is n o fix ed depth fo r plan tin g Fro m two to .

six in che s is u sua l while three to fou r i s mo st common

,
.

Light warm soils pe rmit a

,
nd requi re g reate r depth s .

G rowin g tubers sho uld be surroun ded by loose soil a nd

yet n o t be so n ear the surface as to expo se a n y to su n light ,

which will in jure them by ca usin g chlorophyll to develop .

E arly potatoe s a re plan ted a s soo n as po ssible a n d late ,

o n es u su ally in Ma y though i n s ome dist

, rict s ea rly Ju n e ,

i s the best tim e In the South J . a n uary to Ap ril is the ,

time ; a secon d crop is plan ted in some distric ts in July

o r Augu s t The distan ce between h ill s a
. n d rows varies

from twelve to twen ty in ches Te n to fifte e n bushels .

will plan t a n ac re .

251 Tre a
. tme n t d urin g g ro w th If the groun d cru sts .
,

harrowin g before the potatoes a re up m a y help them

through About two weeks later when the vi n e s a
. re

three o r four in che s tall an other harrowin g is a dvi sable

,
.

The cultivator may begin wo rk in an othe r week o r two ,

m ulchin g deeper toward the middle of the space between

rows if i rrigatio n water i s to be applied This prepares .

fo r a furrow .

From five to twen t y fiv e in ches of i rrigation water -

may be applied in o n e to fiv e o r six application s Every .

two weeks o r so soo n a

, s po ssible after each irrigation o r
 a
P o t to es 235

rain storm the cultivator should be used to stir the soil

, ,

gradually leavin g a wider space un touched as the vin es

in crease in siz e This may be co n tin ued un til the plants
.

would be i njured by the horse o r cultivator Then su ffi .

cien t han d-h oein g to con trol weed s is n ecessary .

252 H a
. rve st in g a n d ma i ng
rk e t E arly potatoe s a re
.

harvested as soo n as they a re large en ough to be put o n

the market ; the late crop is left a s lo n g as is co n si ste n t

with approachi n g win ter o r maturity in o rder to gain ,

all possible advan tage from the cool autum n growin g ,

seaso n Small patche s a

. re frequen tly dug with fo rk s

o r tu rn ed out with the plow ; but digge rs a re gai n in g i n

importan ce particularly fo r large fie ld s A shovel blade

,
.

passes un der the potatoes a n d elevato rs ca rry the tube rs

upward at the sa me tim e sh akin g o ff the d irt Some .

machi n es have rotatin g arms that throw out the vin es ;

some also so rt the tubers The potatoes a re picked up
.

by han d behin d the fo rk plow o r digger a ,n d sacked

, , ,

boxed o r load ed loo se in to wagon s to be hauled away a

,
nd

sold o r sto red in pits o r cellars .

Th e potatoe s that a re sold g o eithe r to co n s umers

directly o r to jobbers who ship o r distribute them to

,

retailers Potato prices vary so much that it is hard to

.

tell whether to sell at harve st o r to store fo r the win ter

a n d sprin g market s Becau se of its perishability the
.
,

crop is waste in sprin g if it can n ot be disposed o f Some .

growers sell half a

a
n d sto re half ; othe rs belon g to co 6 pera

tive ssociatio n s that assist in marketin g Wherever ship .

pin g is p racticed carload lots of sin gle vari eties sell to

,

the be st adva n tage C areful so rtin g a

. n d g radi n g a l so
help sales a n d p rices Both boxes a n d sacks a
. re u sed

fo r shippin g .

253 Sto ra
.
g e T h e pa rt of
. t h e c rop that i s sto red
goe s in to pits loose o r in to cellars loose in sacks o r in , ,
236 The P ri n c i p les A
f g m
’

o ron o y

bo xes Pits cost less than do cellars They ordi n arily

. .

co n sist of a tren ch a fe w in c hes deep in which is set a

rick heaped -u p with potatoes a n d cove red with st raw

a n d ea rth As wi n ter approaches they a

. re cove red with ,

more straw a n d earth A stove-pipe through the c over

.

i ng to aid in ve n tilation may be clo se d with cloth in

freezin g weather Pits should be emptied when o n ce
.

open ed the potatoes bein g sold o r removed to a cellar

,
.

Th e im po rtan t poin t s i n sto rage a re : ( )

1 to keep the
tempe rature above freezin g but n o t over 40 F ; (2) ,
°
.

to provide ven tilatio n ; (3 ) to examin e fo r di se ase a nd

con dition of keepin g ; a n d (4) to be able to remove c o n

v e n ie n tly a pa rt without di sturbi n g the others In these .

respect s c ellars excel pits ; boxes a re bette r tha n s acks;

a n d sack s bette r th an bi n s of loo s e tubers .

254 We e d s a
. n d i n se c ts All c ommon weed s t rouble
.

potatoes though the re a

,
re n o n e that a re trou ble some to

potatoes alo n e The in ten sive cultu re d eman ded by the

.

potato should con trol a n y wee d O i the i n sects the .

,

fle a -beetle ( Ep i tria: c uc u me ri s) bo re s holes i n the leaves

'

allowin g th e blights to en ter Arsen ate of lead aids .

i n lesse ni n g the i n ju ry More i njurious is the pota

. to
beetle o r C olo rado potato beetle which eats the leaves ,

about the time of bloom P a is green spray at the rate

r - .
,

of o n e pou n d in o n e hun d red twen ty gallon s of water

o r arsen ate of lead six o r eight pou n d s in o n e hu n d red
,

gallo n s of water lessen s thi s i n jury Potato worms .

,

potato stalk weevils grasshoppers a ,

nd Ju n e bee tles ,

do lesser in ju ries They a re . gen erally co n t rolled by

clean cultivation a nd rotatio n .

255 Di se a
. se s Potatoe s a. re attacked readily by p a r

asitie organ isms which often cause a lo ss in a district of

,

f om o n e fou rth to o n e half the crop so metim e scompletely

r - -
,

destroyi n g it Late a . nd early blight F usari um wilt ,

238 The Pri nc i ples oA
f g ro no my

in gthem yellow a
ed u cin g the yield Bo rd eaux
nd r .

mixtu re spray aids in its co n trol .

Dry ro t (Fusa ri u m o x ys p o ru m ) i s wide sp read It at .

tacks the stems cau ses wilti n g by clogging the trach ea

,
l
tubes a n d g rows d ow
,
n wa rd i n to the tube r fo rmi n g a da rk ,

ri n g which shows i n a thi n c ross se c tio n of the stem e n d

- .

All seed showin g in fection should be discarded Si n ce .

this di sease lives in the groun d rotation is essen tial to its

,

con t rol .

Rosette o r Rhizocton ia ( Co rti c i u m va

, g u m ) i s commo n ,

a n d may be n oted by black spots o n the potatoes It .

attacks the stems from the outside a n d eats th rough t he

ph loem th us holdi n g the food in the vin e Thi s cau ses
,
‘
.

rosettes of leaves a n d small worthless tube rs to fo rm o n

the vin es To discard in fected seed a

. n d to soak the

tubers in a mercu ric bichloride (Hg C lz) solutio n 1 part to

1 000 of wate r a re the remedies u sed Because the disease
.

lives several years in the soil o r o n other plan ts clean ,

farmin g a n d rotatio n s a re n ecessary .

Scab (Oo sp o rasc a bi es) attacks the tuber causi n g a

rough appea ra n ce re sembli n g a scab As it su rvives in .

th e soil rotation s a
,
re be n e fic ia l Th e see d t reatmen t
.

is soakin g two hou rs in fo rmalin solution o n e pin t to thirty

gallo n s of water F resh man ure a . n d l ime seem to e n c o u r

age the disease .

Blackleg ( Ba c i llus p hyt o p ht ho m s) attacks the vin e ,

causin g wiltin g a n d the tuber causi n g ro t

, , Rota tion s .
,

clean grou n d a n d little wate r after a

, n attack a re re c o m

men ded as mean s of con trol .

Seed selectio n fo r resistan t strain s discardin g i n fected ,

seed lo n g rotation s a
, n d seed t reatmen t a
, re the most

hopeful mean s of keepin g up yields N e g lec t is lik ely .

to cau se the ru i n of the potato in dustry in some localities .

Seco n d growth is th e p roductio n of n e w tubers when

 Po t t a
o es 239

water is applied after drouth The potatoes can n ot get .

large a nd they a re poo r i n quality I n tern al brown .

spots a re fou n d in the i n te rior of some potatoes especially ,

in the E arly O hio It is probably n o t a disease but a

.
,

physiological con ditio n which in jures the odo r a n d flavo r

of the potato but n o t its seed value It is caused by .

d routh in some cases .

Growin g potatoes du rin g tuber formation a re very

se n sitive to sudden cha n ges of temperatu re Heavy .

storms a n d irrigatio n at times cause ab n o rmal co n ditio n s

, ,

that a re n o t easily explai n ed .

256 U se a
. n d va lue The most importan t use of
.

potatoes is fo r human food Large parts of Irelan d .

,

German y Fran ce Au stria Hun gary a

, , nd Rus sia a
-
re ,

depe n den t o n the pota to a s the p ri n cipal food product .

A gen eral crop failure would probably cause a fami n e in

some districts The p e r capita con sumptio n is twen ty
.

bushels in German y as again st fiv e a

, n d o n e half i n t
- he
Un ited States Desiccated potatoes a
. re valuable foods

in tropical a n d frigid zo n e s Potatoes a re sliced a nd

.

toasted to make potato chips In addition potatoes a re .

,

used some o f r stock feed a

- n d fo r the ma n ufactu re of

starch siru p alcohol a They a

a
, , n d dextrin
, re sometimes .

used fo r silage Si n ce pot to es a

. re about three-fou rth s

water the total d ry matter of the crop is less than that

,

of the leadin g cereals although in gross weight the yield

,

excee ds a n y o n e of them .

U
S PPLEME TARY REA I N D NG
a a
The Po t to , S m ue l Fr se r a .

a
The Po t to , Grubb a n d G uil o rd f .

F e ld C ps, Wilso n a
i ro n d Wa rb urt o n , pp 422 443
— . .

Field Cro p Pro d uc tio n , G Livin g sto n , pp 358 369

.
—
. .
240 The P ri nc i p les of Ag ro m my

a a
The Po t to In d ustry o f Co lo r d o , C o lo Bul N o 1 7 5, Fitc h , e nn e tt,
. . . B
a nd J
o hn son .

a a
C y c lo ped i o f Am eric n Ag ric ulture , Vo l II, pp 51 9 529
.
-
. .

a a a
Am e ric n Irri g tio n F rm in g , W H O lin , pp 1 7 0 188
.
—
. .

U S D A Fa
. . . rm e rs
.
’
u lle tB
in s
N o 9 1 Po t to
. . aD a a a
ise se s n d Tre tmen t .

a a a
295 Po t to e s n d the Ro o t Cro p s s Fo o d
. .

. a a
320 Po t to Spr y i n g .

. a
365 Po t to Gro win g in N o rthe rn Sec tio n s .

a a a
Po t to C ulture o n Irrig ted F rm s o f the We st .

. a aa
407 The Po t to s Truc k Cro p .

a aa a
41 0 Po t to C ulls s So urc e o f In d ustri l Alc o ho l
. .

. a a
533 Go o d See d Po t to e s n d Ho wto Pro d uc e Th e m .

a D a
Po t to -tu be r i se se s .
242 The Pri nc i p le s o A
f g rono my

from the suga beet In 1 8 05 o ne of his pupils Achard

r- .
, ,

began th e sugar in d u stry by sta rti n g a facto ry in the

German provin ce of Silesia Six years later the Fren ch .

pla n ted acres of beets at the o rder of N a p o le o n ,

who appropriated a large sum of mo n ey fo r in structio n

i n schools a
n d to assist i n buildi n g facto ries By 1 8 25 .
,

it had become a n establi shed in dustry in Fra n ce ; by

F IG . 67 . T hi n ni n g su g a
r-be e ts, G e rm ay
n .

1 8 35, the Germa n s realizi n g ho w much the Fre n ch had

,

gain ed both from the i n dustry a nd imp roved cultu re

method s bega n beet growi n g o n a commercial scale In
,
-
.

1 8 36 Fra n ce p roduced
, ton s of sugar a n d Germa n y

1 400 to n s Soo n the G e rma n output led a

. s it has do n e ,

ever sin ce Beet-cultu re spread rapidly in to other parts

.

of E urope a n d fin ally exte n d ed to the Un ited States

about 1 8 30 but it did n o t become importan t here u n til
,

1 8 7 9 whe n a facto ry wa
, s built at Alva rado C alifo rn ia ,
.

Sin ce that tim e growth has bee n rapid a

, n d regula r In a .
 Ro o t Cro ps 243

cen tury the cultu re of suga beets has grown to such n

, r-
a
exten t that half the sugar produced in th e world is beet
suga r E u,r ope p oduci g mo e than n in e te n th s of the
r n r -

total Sugar beet co n ditio n s a

.
- re shown i n F igs 67 69 .
—
.

258 De sc ripti o n
. In gen eral appea ran ce the beet
.
,

is whitish a n d shaped like a lo n g co n e broadest ju st ,

below the crown from which about a dozen leaves grow

out in thick clu sters These vary in len gth from six .

in ches to two feet a n d in width from two to six i n ches

, .

O n opposite side s of the root a re t wo dep ressi on s o r dim

ples u sually slightly spiral in shape From the dimples
, .

a n d from the cen t ral t a p r oot of the beet fi b ro u s

-
feedi n g ,

roots b ra n ch o fl
’
gatherin g food a , n d moi sture from a

rather large a rea sometime s to a depth of five o r six feet

, .

C ross sectio n s of a beet show a series of co n ce n tric

-

altern atin g ri n gs mostly of soft a , n d firm tissue The .

compact rin gs a re thought to be richer i n d ry m a a tte r and

sugar A lo n gitudin al section shows ( 1 ) the crow n which

.
-
,

is rough slightly green ish in color a

, n d watery a n d (2 ) t he , ,

root which co n tai n s the suga r

,
Th e root should taper .

slowly keep broad to con siderable depth a

,
n d be sin gle ; ,

bran chi n g roots a re objec tion able Th e co n cen tric ri n gs .

show in straight lin es con vergin g at the bottom The .

crown removed in toppi n g is a part of th e stem as shown

, , ,

by th e leave s growi n g from it; the lower part is a n en

la rg e d root that should weigh from o n e to o n e a nd

o n e half pou n ds in o rde r to meet the dema n ds of facto ry

-

operators Duri n g the secon d year seed stalks from

.
,
-
,

two to four feet tall a n d co n siderably b ra n ched h ear ,

f om o e fifth to two poun ds of see d fo r each mother

r n -

beet .

259 Ad a p
.t ai
t o n an d d i stri b u i
t o n Beets like pota .
,

toes do best in cool moist climates that have lon g grow

, ,

i n g sea so n s They a re n o t se n sitive to frost bei n g grow n

.
,
244 The P ri nc i p les o A
f g ro n o my

F IG . 68 . Su g ab e e ts
r- re q u i re avi g o ro u s le a
f g ro wth .
246 The Pri n c i p le s oA
f g ro n o my

fall
-
plowi n g mellows the seed bed a n d permits wi n te r a nd -

spri n g rain fall to pe n etrate deeply Two o r three double .

d iskin g s in the sp rin g will firm the seed bed a n d co n se rve -

F IG . 69 . Su g ab
r- e e ts re q u i re alag a
mo u
r e nto f h ad la
n bo r .

moistu re Facto rie s furn ish the seed a

. n d in ma n y cases , ,

pla n t it by co n tract The seed ha . s bee n b red a

n d selected

fo r six o r seve n yea rs to i n su re high suga r co n te n t If a .

 Roo t Crops 47

perso n keeps in min d that perce n tage of sug ar is a variable

character a n d that it has bee n raise d from 6 to 1 6 p e r cen t

a n d as high as 2 5 he will appreciate that without co n sta n t

,

Se lection low perce n tages would result in a few yea rs .

Se e d costs about fifte e n ce n ts a pou n d in America a nd

is sow n at the rate o f te n to twen ty poun ds a n acre usually ,

in Ap ril o r Ma a
,

y thoug h ea rlie r,
i n some localities n d lat e r

in others Plan ti n g is commonly do n e with a four ro w

.
-

see d d rill a n d a team From o n e to th ree i n ches is the

.

usual depth of plan ti n g slightly less than fo r small

grain s in rows from sixteen to thi rty i n ches apart .

26 1 Tre a
. tm e n t d rin g g ro wth
u A s soo n as the rows .

show plai n ly the beets a ,

re cultivated with a four ro w -

cultivator which follows the rows of the plan ter Wee ds

, .

between th e rows a re removed a n d the soil is mulched .

Th e beets a re blocked every six to t e n i n che s by mea n s of

short hoes Th e blocks a . re thi n n e d by ha n d to o ne

beet in a place Four o r five sprouts come from o n e seed

.

o r boll .This a n d the thick pla n ti n g to i n sure good

sta n ds make thi n n i n g n ecessa ry F o r a time govern me n t .
,

expe rts expecte d to develop seed with si n gle germs but -

,

the experime n t was no t en tirely successful .

When ever the soil n eeds it further cultivatio n is given ,

the crop N o o r three han d boe i n gs remove we eds a

.
- nd

loose n soil i n the ro w aroun d the pla n ts Toward th e .

e n d of J u n e o r in ea rly July in most i rrigate d districts ,

furrows a re made a n d fiv e to thirty i n ches of wate r a re

applied in from o n e to four application s Rather .

thorough soakin gs seem to be be n efic ia l a s the cultiva ,

tion that follows lessen s evaporation a n d the greate r ,

le n gth of time between allows the water to distribute

itself eve nly in the soil Water loggin g must n o t how .
-
,

ever be permitted si n ce this causes short o r b ran ched beets

, , ,

as doe s compact soil N o t man y cultivation s c a . n be

248 The P ri nc i p les oA
f g ro no my

given after irrigation as the leaves soon become so larg e

,

as to be in jure d Some farmers coun t o n harrowin g six

.

o r seve n times ea rly in the seaso n .

262 Di se a
. se s C ultivatio n
. n ecessa ry fo r be ets
should be so in te n sive as to keep weeds well un de r co n trol .

Th e co n stan t selection of beets has preve n ted disea ses

from causi n g wide spread losses Heart ro t leaf spot .
-
,
-
,

a n d a bacterial di s ease however i n jure the crop materially

, ,

in some sectio n s Both di sease a

. n d i n sect i n ju ry i n c rea se
with the age of the sugar i n du stry a n d with the p re se n c e

of other pla n ts i n the C hen opodium group in cludin g white ,

pigweed Russian thi stle a

, n d white tumbleweed
, .

Heart ro t a - nd blight ( P ho ma beta s) a disti n ctive ,

disease of beets is the worst hi n d ran ce to sugar b e et

,
-

productio n in German y Austria Hun gary a , n d F ra

- n Ce , .

It h a s rece n tly e n tered thi s cou n t ry Ge n erally in .

August the i n n e r leaves a

, n d then oute r o n es black e n ;

both die leavi n g the bare beet crow n Th e disease passes .

dow n in to the co n cen tric rin gs a n d produce s ro t so me ,

time s almo st ruin i n g the crop The destruction of all .

pla n t rem n a n ts from i n fested areas preven ts spread ,

a n d t reatme n t of seed with Bo rdeaux mixture p reve n ts

propagatio n of the disease in n e w crops .

Leaf spot ( Cerc o sp o rabetic o la

-
) appea rs o n the leavesas
b row n spots with reddish purple borders which spre ad
-

u n til the e n tire leaves become d ry Th e crown sen ds out .

n e w leaves at the expe n se of the root Th e be st pre c a u

.

tio n some thi n k is to spray youn g plan ts with Bordeaux

, ,

mixtu re .

Beet leave s a re also attacked by a bacterial disease

about which little is kn ow n The disease makes its way.

i n to the roots reducin g yield a n d pe rce n tage of sugar .

Rotatio n a n d ca re in i rrigatio n are the methods of co n trol

advocated .
250 The Pri nc i ples oA
f g ro no my

beets a re loo s en ed a n d raised from thei r position by some

so rt of digge r o r puller a n d then toppe d by han d

, .

Th e crown of the beet as fa r a s it is green that is at , ,

lowest leaf scar is removed Le aves a

, re eithe r left o n
.

the grou n d o r hauled o ff to feed cattle while the beets ,

a re usually haul ed di rectly to the facto ry o r they a re ,

loaded o n cars by arran gemen ts which dump the load

from platforms In rush season s however man y beets
.
, ,

a re piled in fie ld s o r yards a n d cove red with tops to p re

ven t frequen t freezin g a n d thawi n g Freezin g seems to.

do n o in jury un less thawin g follows At the fac tory .

,

the beets a re sto re d in lon g bi n s left open to the weather .

Th e beets g rown fo r suga r a re weighed a n d the sugar

compan y pays the farme r either a flat rate so mu c h a

o r acco rdi n g to suga r c o n te n t a
.
to n n d pu rity that ,

is o n a slidin g scale
, .

265 U se a
. n d va lue The most impo rta
. n t use of

sugar beets is in th e man ufactu re of sugar though they

-
,

have con siderable fee d value Th e tops a . re valuable

a nd a re ofte n pastu re d o n the grou n d becau se they c o n

tain most of the min eral elemen ts of fertility The .

, b
pulp a y p roduct from the sugar in dustry is a valuable
-
,

stock feed bein g highly succulen t Beet sugar man u

-
,
- .

fa c tu rin g c an n eve r become a fa rm ope ratio n because it

requi res much expen sive machi n ery a n d ma n y compli

ca ted O pe ratio n s .

Beet cultu re has a decided v a

- lue o n the farm aside from
the cash return s Th e deep plowi n g the in ten sive cul
.
,

ture a, n d the fertilizatio n n ece ssa ry in succes sful p ro

ductio n of beets im prove farmin g methods materia lly

a nd in crease yields of other crops Weeds a re a
l so .

con t rolled a n d busi n ess method s i n t rodu c ed in to agri

cultu re The farmer the soil a
.
, n d the sug a r compan y
,

a re mutually be n e fi te d in most cases .

 Roo t Crops 251

266 . Ma
n uf a
ct
ure the factory is
of sug r a Whe . n

ready to us e the beets i n a bi n the e n d is open ed a nd a ,

section of the floo r in the bottom of the V shaped bin -

removed Th e beets tumble in to a st re a

. m of water whi ch
carries them to rotatin g paddles o r b rushe s where they ,

a re washed a n d scrubbed An elevator carries them to a

.

weighin g hoppe r after wh ich they a ,re sliced in to c o sse tte s

a n d ste a med un der p ressu re to dissolve out the sugar .

The juice o r g a r is mixed with lime to p recipitate impu ri

, ,

ties whereas the pulp is run outside in to vats o r silos fo r

,

stock feedin g C arbon dioxide which is n o w run in to

- .
,

the juice un ites with the lime ren derin g it in soluble a

, nd

c ausi n g it to settle a n d carry to the bottom much of the

dark impure substan ces Filters remove the small lime

, .

particles Lime a n d carbon dioxide a

. re again added .

Afte r fi lte rin g sulfu r-d ioxid gas is

, pass e d th rough the j u ic e

to remove disso lved lime Surplus water is boiled o fi a .

’
nd ,

the juice goes to crystallizi n g pan s fo r further con cen tra

tion Before goin g to the c e n trifugals which a
. re steel cyl ,

in ders with perfo rated lin in gs the si rup is m ixed In the , .

rapidly whi rli n g ce n t rifugals the liquid is fo rc ed th rough

-
,

the small hole s of the lin in g a n d the crystals a re sc raped

o ff an d d rie d by a cu rre n t of wa rm a ir Th e liquid which .

has n o t un dergo n e crystallization is saved a n d agai n

con ce n trated fo r two more yields of suga r sm all o n es o f , ,

course Sack in g is the last proces s befo re marketin g

. .

MAN GE LWU
- R! ELS
267 . Man gel wurzels o r man golds a
De sc ripti on . s -
, ,

they a re va riously called diff e r from suga r beets i n that

,
-
,

they a re u sually much la rge r weighin g from fou r to six ,

po un d s Gen erally they grow partly out of the groun d

.

a
,

nd a re very i rregula r in shape bein g l a rgest some dis ,

252 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g ro no my

ta n c e below the crown ; they a re reddish in colo r with ,

yellowish o r pin kish flesh ; a n d they co n tai n a pp ro x i

mately 1 2 pe r cen t d ry matter about half of whi ch is ,

sugar whereas sugar beets a

, re about 20 p e r cen t solid ,

fou r fifth s of wh ich is sugar Beef cattle a

- n d hogs do .

well o n thi s crop Dairy cows c a n use them as a pa

. rt

ration but they dema n d more solids especially p rotei n

, , ,

than the succulen t man gel c a n supply .

268 U se
. The man gel is the chief root crop used
.

fo r feedi n g in the Un ited States although in En glan d ,

turn ip sa n d rutabaga sra n k firs t Th e value of the ma n gel .

is in its succulen ce C orn silage i s displacin g it to some

.

exte n t though in n orthern Un ited States a

,
n d C a n ada

root s deserve mo re co n side ratio n O n e di sadva n tage of .

roots is that fo r o n e to n of d ry matte r from eight to te n

ton s of water mu st be han dled The food value of the .

d ry matte r i s h igh howeve r becau se it is both palatable

, ,

a nd digestible Great quan tities can n ot be con sumed

.

o n accou n t of the exces s of wate r .

269 Culture. The lan d sho uld be prepared a s it is

fo r sugar beets Se e din g i s do n e with o n e ro w d rills
- .
-
,

with four ro w d rills o r by han d o n small area s They

-
, .

a re pla n ted at the rate of six to fifte e n pou n ds to the ac re

a n d at a depth of o n e to two i n ches Pla n ti n g is usually .

don e in April o r Ma y T h e small pla n ts g r ow. slowly

a n d it requi re s ca re i n the firs t cultivatio n to p reven t
coverin g up the row s Man gels require the same atten .

tio n as sugar beet s in regard to thinn in g except that they

-
,

a re left farther apa rt As to cultivatio n a n d i rrigatio n

.
,

the same methods apply .

Wh en frost kills the outer leaves thereby stoppin g ,

growth man gels a re ready to harve st

,
They a re some .

time s pulled by han d o r by plowi n g a furrow clo se to the

ro w . Beet diggers a re also used to loo s en the roots .
254 The Pri nc i ple s of Ag rono my

crop after an oth er crop is removed o r between rows of co rn , .

Two o r three pou n ds of seed to the acre a re used rutabagas

should be sown twice a s thick a n d usually pla n ted i n

May o r early Jun e Plan tin g ought to be just deep en ough

.

to place the seed in warm moist ea rth C ultivatio n , .

,

irrigatio n harvestin g a
, n d storage a re the sa me as fo r
,
.

man gel s save that turn ips must be used in early win ter .

27 2 Va . lu e f In En glan d turn ips a n d rutabagas fo rm

part of the regular farm rotatio n a n d ta ke th e same ,

place fo r stock feed that man gel s do in German y They

- .

a re grow n i n C a n ada ; in the Un ited States their cultu re ,

is n o t exten sive Turn i ps a re used also fo r huma n food

. .

As feed ru tabagas ran k high en ablin g the fa rmer to

, ,

greatly red uce grain ration s Five to fifte e n ton s of .

turn ips a n d te n to twen ty to n s of rutabaga s a re good

ac e yields Rutabagas a
r - . re valuable fo r beef cattle ,

hogs a , n d sheep Becau se they keep well i n to sp ri n g

.
,

th ey serve well fo r this purpose particularly where silos ,

a re n o t used They a re ea s
. y to feed sin ce o n ly slicin g ,

is n ecessary a n d this savi n g of time gives them c o n sider

,

able additio n al value Tu rn ips a re used fo r sheep a

. nd

hog pasture They pull up easily a

. n d the u s e of leaves

as well as roots is possible .

CARRO TS (Dau c us c a a
ro t )
27 3 . De sc ription oot of carrots may be ta
. Th e
per r

in g cylin d rical o r short a

, n d thick ; they m a
, y be w h ite ,

yellow oran ge o r red dish in color An outer laye r

, , .

breaks away from a n irregula r in te rio r that i smo re watery

an d mo re palatable A med i um sized root system spreads

.
- -

outward ; the leaves a re fin e ly divid e d ; white flo we rs

are bo rn e the secon d year in de n s e flat umbels ; the seeds
are cup-shaped .
 Roo t Crops 255

27 4 . Culture sa a
n dy soils in which
nd u se . Lo ose, ,

well rotted farm man u re is in corporated m a

- ke a warm , ,

mellow seed bed Seed at the rate of four to six poun ds

- .
,

to the acre is sow n as soon a ,

s the g roun d is in good co n di
tion Sin c e it is small the se ed requires shallow plan tin g
.
, .

Rows should be about thirty in ches apart to permit use

of cultivators ; the carrots should stan d from two to
fou r in ches apart If thicker they should be thinn ed .
, .

I rrigation cultivation harvestin g a

, nd storage a re t he , ,

sa me as fo r m a n g e ls o r rutabagas .

Th e garden crop is used prin cipally fo r household pu r

poses Fo r forage larger area s should be grown When
.
, .

u sed fo r forage carrots fu rn ish succulen c e a

, nd a re e s

p ec ially desi rable fo r ho rse s .

SUPPLEME NTARY READ IN G

The Sug a r B
ee t, W re a .

Fie ld Cro p s, Wilso n a n d Wa rburto n , pp 41 2 42 2 , 451 463

- —
. .

Fie ld Cr0 p Pro d uc tio n , G Liv in g sto n , pp 323 336 —

. . .

Fo ra g e a n d F i be r C ro p s in A m e ri c a T F H u n t, pp 2 7 5—
303 , . . . .

Fo ra g e C ro p s, E B V o o r h ee
. s, pp .2 7 5—
29 1 . .

So uthe rn Fie ld C ro p s, :
F ug g a J
r , p p 42 5 456
—
. D . .

Cy c lo pe d iao f Ame ric a n Ag ri c ul ture , Vo l II, pp 539 550, 588 595,

- — . .

6 1 3 623 —
.

U S D A Ye a
. . . rbo o k fo r 1 904 p p 341 352
. .
—
.

J
,

Pri n c ip le s o f Irrig atio n Pra c tic e A Wid tso e , pp 286 298 —

. . .

U
,

The Co mm e rc ia l Pro d uc tio n o f Sug a r Bee t See d in ta

h, F . S
.

Ha rris, ta U
h Bul N o 1 36 . . .

Ameri c a n Irrig a tio n Fa rm in g , W H Olin , p p 205 228

-
. . . .

U S D A Fa
. . . rm e rs
.
’
ulle tin s: B
N o 52 Sug a
. r-bee t
. .

392 Irrig a tio n o f Sug a

. r ee ts B .

548 Sto rin g a . n d Ma rk e tin g Sw e e t Po ta to e s .

567 Sug a r- e e t Gro w

. B
in g un d e r Irrig a tio n .

568 Su g a r-Bee t Gro w

. in g u n d e r Hum id Co nd i ti o n s .

6 1 5 Le aSp o t, a
. Dise a f se o f th e S u g a
r -bee t .
 CHAPTER XXI

ALF ALF A ( Medi c a

g o iv
st aa
)

P ERMAN EN agriculture must be d iv e rsified N o t on ly

T .

must there be a variety of crops in rotation but livestock ,

raisi n g must accompa n y crop p roductio n Horses a

. re

n ecessa ry as bea sts of bu rden ; cattle sheep a , n d hogs ,

a re valuable as milk o r mea t producers Good hay is

- .

a n im po rta n t facto r i n the succe s sful p roductio n of live

stock In this alfalfa is un excelled In region s that
. .

have poo s ippin g facilities cattl e raisin g is im po rtan t

r h ,
— .

Pasturage a n d hay a re essen tia l o n both ran ch a n d fa rm .

In supplemen ti n g the n ative pastures of the West when

ran ge lands could n o t be used in wi n te r o r when they p ro

d uc ed little feed alfalfa has been of in estimable value

, .

In fact it m a , de po ssible pio n eer settlemen t in the West .

Ah early sta rt heavy yield s of deliciou s forage lon g life

, , ,

a nd a daptability to arid clim ate s a n d a rid soil s promoted

its spread So marked has been the effect of all these

.

in flue n c e s t hat 95 pe r cen t of the alfalfa crop of the

Un ited States is p roduced west of the Mis si ssippi .

Methods of han dlin g the alfalfa crop a re shown in

F igs : 7 0 to 7 2
27 5 N a. me a n d o ri g i n . O f thirty o r fo rty n a mes by
which alfalfa is o r ha , s bee n kn own i n variou s part s of
,

the world alfalfa a nd lucern a re mo st w idely used .

Alfalfa seems to be gain in g rapidly in popularity ,

largely o n accoun t of the ad option of that n ame in treati ses

258 The Pri nc i ples oA
f g ron o my

fifte e n years ago Practically every sta . te n o w grows it

to some exte n t Al though alfalfa had been i n troduc ed
.

in to southern C alifo rn ia from Mexico a nd in to N e w ,

York from Europe n early a cen tury befo re the C hile

in trod uc tio n there was n o widespread cultivatio n Pe r
,

haps the favo rable co n ditio n s that gave the crop a g ood
sta rt we re n ecessa ry to b ri n g its true value to the atte n

tion of farmer a n d ra n chma n .

27 6 Re la. ti o n shi ps Alfalfa belo n gs to the Legumi

.

no s ain which a
a, re tho u sa n d s of species amo n g which ,

a re peas bean s clover vetches locust trees lupi n es

, , , , , ,

sweet peas a n d the little a stragalus commo n o n sage

,

bru sh lan ds of the moun tain states In the gen us Medi .

cago about fifty species a

, re foun d .

The legume family is easily disti n gui shed by pea

shaped flo we rs by pods that break open alon g both
,

sutures by the compou n d leaves a

, n d by the ti n y e nla rge
,

men t o n the roots called n odules o r tubercles In these , .

live bacteria which feed upon the pla n t takin g free n itro
g e n f r om the a ir an d a ssi sti n g,g r eatly i n the mai n te n a n ce
of soil fertility In the valleys a . n d o n the hill s of the

West there a
, re fift y o r mo re species of n ative legumes
which have probably had much to do with the great
fertility of virgin lan ds .

27 7 Roo ts
. You n g alfalfa plan ts sen d down p ro
.

a
.

p o rti o n te ly lo n g tap roots bea r i n g

- fin e b ra n chi n g roots .

Th e first stem is si n gle a n d lacks the c row n that develops

,

with age The plan t is decid e dly pere n n ial livin g from
.

four to fifty o r sixty years depen di n g o n the favorablen ess

of the fie ld Th e roots co n ti n ue to grow in well d rai n e d
.
-

soils as lon g as the plan t lives This re sults in imme n se .

root system s
- Roots fiftee n to twe n ty feet in len gth a
. re

commo n ; thirty to forty feet is occasio n ally reach e d ; a

cave in the gravel delta at Logan U tah exposed a root , ,
 lf a
Alfa 259

fifty -six fe et lon g while C oburn reports that roots pen e

,
1

tra te d the roof of a tun n el o n e hu n d red a n d twen ty n i n e -

feet below the su face of a Water tables

'
r n alfalfa fie dl - .

limit depth because roots will n o t pen etrate more than

six o r eight in ches i n to a soil devoid of a ir .

Though they a re n early alway s si n gle tap-root s th re e ,

o r four la rge roots sometimes displace the si n gle o n e .

About half a n i n ch is the us u al diamete r below the crow n .

The thickn ess gradually dimi n ishes u n til the roots a re a l

most hair like These fin e roots that do the feedin g form
- .

a n etwork in the soil but they do n o t fo rm so d becau se ,

they a re n o t stolo n iferous He n ce if all roots a re b roke n

.
, ,

the plan t dies sin ce there a ,

re n o buds except o n the c row n .

Th e fin e roots bear scattered i n various places small , ,

n odule s which a re either separate masses o r e n la rge

men ts of the roots a n d which vary in size from a small

,

p i-n head to that of a pea The se may be fou n d by .

carefully diggi n g i n to the root system of almost a ny -

alfalfa plan t Some plan ts however bear o n ly a fe w

.
, , .

27 8 Ste m s a
. n d le a ve s When the stems a re h a. r

vested fo r hay n e w shoots come out from the thicken ed

,

crown n ear the surface of the grou n d As more a n d mo re .

crops a re cut the crow n s i n crease i n size u n til some a

, re

six in ches across becomi n g divided i n to two o r three

,

disti n ct parts Some make the lan d rough by stan din g

.

four o r five in ches above the surface If a harrow splits .

the crown without cuttin g the roots separate plan ts may ,

In sprin g youn g stems develop as soon as the groun d

,

is warm These grow steadily un til blossoms appear

.
,

when they stop in crea sin g in size in order to develop

see d At this time the stem may vary from six to sixty
.
,

in ches in len gth a nd from o n e sixtee n th to o ne fourth

- -

1 T
he B o o k of Alf a
lf ap 6 ,
. .
260 The Pri nc i ples o A
f g ro no my

of a n i n ch i n diamete r ; twe n ty four to thi rty in ches in -

height a n d o n e e ighth of a
— n i n ch in thick n ess a re usual
;
The stem s a re usually g reen but they a re sometimes
,

marked with re d ; they a re hollow with w hite pith in

the ce n ter ; they b ran ch frequen tly in the axils of leaves
which a re arra n ged altern ately In ge n eral first c rop .
,
-

stems con tain in g more fibro us material a

, re much coarse r ,

than those of succeedin g crops A lo n ger period o f .

growth is used by the first crop in mo st ca ses tha n by, ,

later crops .

Pin n ately compou n d leaves of three le a

- fle ts grow out
from the main stem a n d b ra n ch first o n o n e side a n d then

o n the othe r Three leave s u sually ari se from o n e axi s

.
,

with a middle o n e much larger than the two side o n es ;

b racts i n dicate the presen ce of still other rudimen ta ry

leaves Th e cen tral vein of the compoun d leaf may at

.
,

a n y time develop i n to b ra n che d stem s o r simply divide

, ,

to form the mid rib of the le a fle ts which a re oval s haped ,

-
,

a n d slightly saw toothed at the outer e n d- The mid rib .

sen ds out parallel side vein s which show o n both surfaces ,

the u pper of which is a much darker green a n d the lower

slightly hairy .

27 9 Flo wers a
. n d se e d At blossomin g time each
.
,

b ra n ch a n d the mai n s tem bear at lea st o n e cluster of

pea-shaped flo we rs that a re pu rple in commo n alfalfa ,

though some varieties bear yellow a n d othe rs gree n ish

flo we rs Th e calyx is five parted compo u n d at the base

.
-
,

a n d sha rply poi n ted at the si n gle tip s Separate peta ls .

,

n i n e stame n s in a bu n dle o n e alo n e a

n d a compou n d
, ,

ovary that develops in to a p o d form the other parts of ,

the flo we r Growin g pod s a

. re disti n ctly cu rled makin g ,

from o n e to four distin ct curve s a n d bea ri n g from o ne to

a dozen seed As maturity approaches the pods ta

. ke ,

o n a dark b row n color a n d the seeds become yellowish ,

262 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g ro no my
I

yet 95 pe r cen t of
, o ur crop con tin ues to be common
alfalfa .

28 1 .Di strib uti o n and d pt tio n Western Un ited aaa .

States , Arge n tin a C hile , Peru , southern Europe , N orth

,

Africa , South Africa Australia , a n d western ce n tral Asia

,

produce alfalfa exten sively All these section s a re semi .

arid , with hot , d ry summers a n d wi n ters either n o t rigor

l
ous o r e se s ow covered The greatest productio n by
n - .

states in the Un ited States is as follows : ( 1 ) Kan sas , (2)

N e bra sk a, ( )
3 C olo rado , ( )
4 C alifo rn ia , ( )
5 Idaho (6 ) ,

Utah , (7 Mo n tan a (8 ) O k lahoma , (9) Wyomin g , a

, nd

( )
1 0 N e w Mexico .

A deep fertile well d rai n ed soil permits the greatest

, ,
-

developmen t of the crop especially When lime is presen t ,

in liberal qua n tities a s it is likely to be Where n o leachi n g

,

has occurred The deep feedin g roots c a

. n the n supply-

food a n d moisture abu n da n tly Th e right ki n d of bacteria ,

must al so be presen t sin ce in their ab sen ce the youn g

,

plan ts grow o n ly a fe w in ches high a n d then die Some .

soil from a n old fie ld scattered ove r the n e w patch i n

o c u la
te s it if the n ecessary bacteria a re lacki n g in the

n e w see d bed Porous sub soils a

- . re desirable fo r root -

expan sio n ; the plan ts tolerate some gravel .

Water loggin g seriously hin ders developmen t of the

-

plan t by preven tin g aeration a nd by causin g alkali

accumulatio n at the surface Youn g plan ts sufle r quickly
’
.

from salt con cen tration s ; but when older a corky crown ,

en ables the plan t to resist girdlin g Adaptability of the .

crop to either exten sive o r in ten sive culture stren gthen s

its position as o n e of the prin cipal crops in the West .

Alfalfa respo n ds read ily to ma n urin g irrigatio n a nd , ,

cultivation by in creased return s ; it also produces much

fo rage o n d ry farms Then too it yields best when
- .
, ,

grow n on ly five o r six years o n o n e piece of groun d but ,

 Alfa
lfa 63

will co n tin ue to produce hay fo r te n fifte e n o r eve n , ,

twe n ty years when co n dition s a re favo rable That such .

a crop is widespread is n atural particularly sin ce it is ,

most palatable a n d n utritious .

28 2 Pre pa
. ratio n o f th e la nd and se e d ing Fall .

plowin g fin e s the seed bed a n d allow s rai n fall to e n te r

-

the soil freely ; both of these a re impo rta n t fo r pla n ti n g .

Small seed can n ot get a hold un less food a n d moi stu re

a re at ha n d Liberal applicatio n s of well rotted farmyard

.
-

man ure warm the soil a n d i n crease the available wate r

a n d pla n t food After such preparatio n spri n g plan tin g

-
.
,
-

should give good stan ds If deep cultivatio n is practiced

.

the roots pen etrate more easily Lime is n ecessary o n .

acid soils .

Sin ce fall plan tin g gives as good results as spri n g

-

plan ti n g farmers often plan t then to save time in the

,

sprin g a n d to get a large r ha rvest n ext seaso n In this .

case the previous crop must come o ff the lan d gen erally
,

by August in order to ma ke possible the ready prepara

tio n of a fin e moist porous yet firm seed bed August
, , ,
- .

o r eve n J uly seedi n g pe rmits the pla n ts to establi sh them

selves before win ter sets ih Whe n sprin g pla n ted .

,

alfalfa should beg in growth as soon as the lan d is warm .

O n e to fiv e poun ds of seed to a n acre have give n full

sta n ds though from t

, e n to twe n ty a re mo re satisfacto ry .

From twen ty to thi rty pou n ds a re requi red fo r successful

sta n ds i n humid regio n s o r o n soils i n poo r co n ditio n .

Drills a re almost un iversally u sed N urse crops of .

barley oats o r wheat may o r may n o t be desirable

, , , ,
.

They a re n ecessary o n ly o n ve ry hard o r very loose soils .

In Algeria ro wcultivatio n pays but in America n h a y fi e ld,

s
it is n o t used except in small plats plan ted fo r seed
, .

283 Tre a. tme n t d uri n g g ro w th Some farmers h a r .

ro w with sp ik e tooth sprin g tooth o r disk barrows i n

-
,
-
,
264 The Pri n c i p les oA
f g ro no my

sprin g o r fall I n sects disease o r weeds may n ecessitate

.
, ,

special atten tio n Light applicatio n s of farm man ure

.

pay o n some a n d i rrigatio n o n all soils i n a rid sectio n s

, .

Irrigatio n water up to about forty in ches bri n gs ih

creased return s From o n e to te n application s a
. re made

either by floodin g o r in shallow furrows Which aid in leadin g

the water over d iffic ult patches o r in coverin g large areas
with small streams O ver irrigatio n men aces some dis .
-

tric ts si n ce floodi n g fo r more tha n o ne day at a time may

,

drown the plan ts a n d permit frost to do co n siderable

i n jury Fall early sprin g a

.
, n d wi n ter i rrigatio n a, re all

importan t in regio n s of scarce water a n d mild wi n ters .

C o n servatio n of rain fall i s a fu n damen tal eco n omy in

all d ry regio n s .

284 H a . rve sti n g Un der n ormal co n dition s the best

.
,

t 1me to cut the crop fo r hay i s in early bloom Rakes .

may follow the mower almost immediately di rectly o n

d ry fa rm s a
- n d well d rai n ed la n d
- I rrigated alfalfa cu res .

best if piled in small cock s Within a fe w hours of cut

ti n g the same day if possible In this way farmers .

ca n save the leaves o n the stems which makes the hay ,

mo re valuable than swath cured hay In rain y weather - .

,

mo reover hay sufle rs more in the swath than in com

,
’

pact piles .

When bull rakes a re u -

w
d hay cu res in heavy wi n d rows ,

a n d is pushed to the stack without bei n g loaded o n wago n s .

Va rious kin d s of fo rks a n d n ets a n d seve ral type s of d e r

ricks un load the wago n s Which a re loaded by ha n d almost

,

en tirely though loaders a

,
re used in s ome sectio n s O n .

d ry farms a to n to the acre pays ; o n e a

-
,
n d o n e half to -

two a n d o n e half to n s a
— re f reque n t Four o r five ton s .

fo r the seaso n is a good retu rn un de r i rrigation thoug h ,

six to eight a re ha rvested from a n acre u n der favorable

con dition s .
266 The P ri n c i p les oA
f g ro no my

requires much skill Sheds a re prefe rable

. sin ce it is ,

n o t n ecessa ry to stack carefully u n de r cover .

Most hay is fed o n the farm o r marketed loose in the

vicin ity When shipmen ts a
. re made the hay is com ,

pressed in to bales weighin g from 50 to 1 50 poun d s Baled .

an d loose hay a re usua lly weighed o n wagon s fo r market ,

although sta cks a re often measu red I n accuracy in .

F IG . 72 . Ha
y sh o uld be fe d on th e f a
rm .

measuri n g due to variation in shape regularity a nd , ,

den sity cause this to be un satisfactory in man y in sta n ces .

28 6 U se a
. n d va lue In palata bility digestibility
.
, ,

n ut ritio n and ,
healthful n ess alfalfa hay lead s Some
, .

horsemen prefer timothy because alfalfa is laxative fo r

d rivin g horses A pa rt of the preferen ce fo r timothy is
.
,

however due to custom Wo rk an imals n eed on ly moder

,
.

ate grain ratio n when alfalfa is fed because of the high

protein con ten t It excels as roughage fo r dairy cows
.
,
 Alfa
lfa 267

beef cattle a n d sheep

, As silage it ha s n o t bee n success .

ful because of d iffic ulty in compactin g .

Groun d hay is used in mixed feed s as alfalfa meal .

It wastes less a n d compou n ds i n ratio n s more readily ,

but otherwise it has n o adva n tage over hay .

Alfalfa pasturi n g is widely practiced in spite of the

dan ge r of bloat to cattle a n d sheep De w covere d leaves .
-

eaten by hun gry stock may prove in jurious Ho rses .

a nd hogs may feed o n alfalfa pastures a n y time ; If

cattle a re left co n ti n uously o n t he feed n ight a n d day ,

dan ge r dimin ishes but it n ever di sappears Wisdom is .

n ecessa ry i n pasturi n g cattle a n d sheep o n the growi n g

crop After hayin g n early all fie ld s a

. re grazed over
,

in discrimin ately Withered stands n eed cause n o alarm ‘

. .

Extremely clo se pastu rin g weaken s the alfal fa fo r it is ,

n o t stolo n iferous a n d fo rms n o true sod .

28 7 Mix ture s a
. re ge n erally detrime n tal i n that they

lessen the yield O n a cco un t of maturi n g at a diff eren t

.

time they also hurt the quality of the hay by in troducin g

,

coarse woody stems o r un desira

, ble beard s O rchard .

grass timothy Ken tucky blue grass a

, , nd Berm uda -
,

grass a re mix ed with alfalfa p urposely o r c reep in n a t

ura lly but they a
, re un satisfacto ry a nd a re co n side red

weeds Squirrel ta
. il locally k n own a s fo x ta
- il ( Ho rd eu m
,
A

j u ba tu m ) dodde ,
r sweet clove r yellow t
,
refoil J u n e -g r ass , ,

quack grass a - n d crab grass all cause trouble

,
Thorough- .

harrowin g a n d occasi o n al plowi n g a re the remedies fo r

almost all wee d s in a lfalfa :

28 8 E n e mi e s Besides weed s oot ro t stem blight
- 4 -
. r
.
, , ,

leaf spot a
- n d several mi n o r disease s do va ryi n g damage
,

to the crop Rotation a . n d cultivatio n la rgely co ntrol

them Stem blight which seriously attacks the stems

.
-
,

of the first crop o n ly c a n be co n trolled by cutti n g as ,

soo n as the disea se appears .

268 The Pri nc i p les o A
f g ro no my

No widesp read in sect does co n sta n t damage Grass .

hoppers may be disregarded if fall plowin g a nd clea n

-

fa rmin g are p racticed Hibern atio n s a

. re thu s destroyed .

F IG . 73 . Do d d e r on lfa
a lfap la
nts
.

Swarm s from waste lan ds occasion ally cause trouble .

Va rious traps fo r catchin g them have been devised .

Th e chalcis fly has recen tly do n e much seed i nju ry in

27 0 The P ri nc i p les o f m
A o m my

ad
n ch fl a
a
used fo r feed F rom o n e to twen ty bushels
re
’
.

weighin g from sixty to seven ty pou n ds a re harvested

from an ac re .

U NTARY S PPLEME READ IN G

Th B k f Alfa
e lf aF D C b
oo o , . . o urn .

Alfa
lfai Am i aJ E Wi g
n er c , . n .

a
Fo r g e Pl a
C V P pe , pp 305 360
i
nts, r —
. . . .

F e ld C p P d uc ti , G L v g st , pp 27 8 293
i ro ro o n i i n o n — . . .

o r aa n r i n ri a
F g e d be r C o ps Ame c , T F H un t, p p 1 7 0 1 99
fi - . . . .

fafa a
Al l in the So u th we st, G F Fre e m n , Ari z Bul N o 7 3 . . . . . .

C y c lo ped i ao f Am ri a Ag ri ulture V l II p p 1 92 1 97
e c n c ,
o .
,
.
-
.

Am e ric a n Irrig a ti Fam i g W H Oli pp 1 41 1 69

on r n , . . n, .
-
.

U S D A Fa rm s B ull ti s:
’
. . . . er e n

N o 1 94 Alfa
. lf aSe ed
. .

339 Alfa lfa . .

37 3 Ir i g a ti
. r f Alfa
lfa on o .

495 Alfa lfa . See d Pr d uc ti o on .

637 Th G a . ssh p p
e P ble m ad Alfa
r lfaC ulture
o er ro n .
 C HAPTER XXII

TH E CLO VE RS A N D O TH E R LE G UME S

ALF ALFA is the impo rta

n t fo rage crop west of the

Mississippi Red clover is similarly importan t n orth of

.

the O hio a n d east of the Mis sissippi save that it has

,

timothy fo r a teammate in furn ishin g fo rage What .

alfalfa is to the West a n d re d clover to the N o rth cow

, ,

peas a re to the South : the impo rta n t legume forage .

The othe r legumes yield seed o r hay a n d all a

re able to
,

fix atmo sphe ic it oge

r n r n They also have high feed i n g
.
—

value as a result of high protein .

RE D CLO V R E ( f
Tm o li u m p rat
ense )
Red clo ver is the most impo rta n t legumi n ous crop grow n
in the Un ited States As a forage it a
. n d timothy com
,

pete fo r first place leavin g alfalfa third The acreage .

of red clover dimi n ished about 40 pe r cen t from 1 8 99 to

1 909 due to the in creasi n g d iffic ulty of gettin g good sta n d s
”
o n old farm s . Some attribute this to clover sickn ess ,

a n ab n ormal co n dition little un derstood but partly

remedied by lo n g rota tio n s .

Roman s a n d G reeks n eve r s aw re d clover N o t un til .

the thirtee n th ce n tury is there reco rd of its use as forage .

It was n ea r the e nd of the eighteen th cen tury befo re

Europe cultivated it exte n sively Early colo n ists carried
sa
.

it to Massa chusetts where me n tio n wa

, s made of it a
crop in 1 7 50 .
27 2 The P ri nc i p les oA
f g ron o my

290 . De sc ri pti o n oot system c o nfin e s itself

. Th e r -

largely within the plowed soil sen din g a fe w roots down

four to six feet a n d occa sio n ally eight A small crown .

sen ds up hairy much bran ched stems bea rin g man y pal
,
-

mately compoun d leaves which a re ge n e rally pattern ed

with white o n the upper su rface Den se globular flower .

,

heads rise from the e nd of all b ran ches F ifty to o n e .

hun dred a n d fifty small blos som s va ryi n g f rom pale pin k

to red comprise these heads Th e whole plan t presen ts .

a bushy appearan ce every pa rt of which is covered with

fin e hair .

C ross pollin atio n seems n ecessary to seed productio n

- .

Bees aid greatly in ca rryin g pollen from plan t to plan t .

When mature the seeds Which a , re in most case s hea rt

,

shaped vary from yellow to deep purple in color

, From .

twen ty to o n e hun d red develop in o n e head .

O rdi n a ry re d clove r is about a foot in height With

hollow stems ; a variety kn own a s mammoth clove r is
large a n d has s olid stems Mammoth clover blooms at .

the same time a s timothy a n d is better the refo re to use , ,

in a timothy mixture tha n re d clove r Which blooms two ,

weeks earlier A much la rger seco n d c rop is sen t up by

.

re d clove r Like alfalfa re d clove r has ma n y st rain s

.
,

n amed from the sectio n s that grow them In gen eral .

the st rain sa re much alike with each best in its o w,

n home .

29 1 Di stri b uti o n a
. nd ada ptati o n R e d clove r is .

widely cultivated in E u rope C hile a n d N e w ! ea,la nd as ,

well as in the Un ited States In all n ortheastern states .

,

it ran ks with timothy a s the leadin g fo rage In acreage .

,

the states stan d in the followi n g o rde r : ( 1 ) N e w York ,

( ) Iowa ( 3) Missou ri (4) Michigan (5) Wisco n sin (6 )

2 , , , ,

Pen n sylva n ia ( 7 ) Illi n ois (8 ) O hio (9) I n dia n a a

, , n d ( 1 0) , ,

Mi n n esota eve ry large state n orth of the O hio a

,
nd

Missouri rivers a n d east of the a rid sectio n This area .

27 4 The P ri nc i p les oA
f g rono my

it will bloat sheep a n d cattle In rota tion s it fix e s atmos

.

p h e ri c n it roge n i n the soil which be n e fits the n ex

, t c rop
materially Because of lasting on ly two yea rs it en ters
.
,

n atu rally i n to practically every rotatio n Where it c a n be

grown Disease re sistan t strain s a nd better plan n ed

‘

- -
.

rotatio n s seem to be much n eeded at least where clover ,

sickn ess prevails .

OT HER C LO VE RS

294 . Alsik e
o T
( fm o liu m k
c l ver
y bm d u ) A lsi
'
k e is
’

m .

much like red clove r save that it is smooth more cold ,

resista n t has light pi n k flo w

, e rs an d b row n seed a nd c a n ,

en dure water loggin g With much less i njury It succeeds

- .

where clover sickn ess a nd w e t la n ds kill red clove r .

White clover
a
295 Whi te c love r ( Tmf o li u m rep en s)
. .

is commo n in lawn s n d pastures Because of its creepin g .

habit of growth , hayin g machi n ery c a n n o t gathe r it

readily Acre-yield s a
. re small when harvested fo r hay ,

si n ce on ly the leavesa n d flower s talksc a n be gathered A .

variety kn own as Ladin a c lover is g rown fo r hay i n

n orthern Italy .

Sin ce it ha s a creepin g habit its stem s hug the grou n d ,

rather closely Roots g row out from these bra n ches

.

givin g the plan t a n e wstart A n early fibro usroo t sy stem.

-

aids i n formin g sod whi ch helps to withstan d tram pin g in

,

pastures a nd law n s Wherever cool weather prevails

.

a n d plen ty of moi s ture is present white clover th rives It , .

grows from C an ada to Mexico where these con dition s

exist a,
n d does well in shady pla c es .

2 96 Swe e t c o e r
. l v M el lo us a
i t lba ) is a rank growi ng
-

bie n n ial havin g a , n abun dan ce of s mall whi te flo we rs

a n d coa rse stems Which become woo dy after bloomin g .

C umari n give s the plan t a bitter taste a n d a cha racteris t ic

 The Clo vers ad n Other Leg umes 27 5

odor that repe l stock Bein g a legume it is rich in n it ro

.
,

g e n
. T h e pla n t is deep rooted r esists d routh
-
but c a
n , ,

al so tolerate we t so ils It likewise withstan ds both heat

.

a n d co ld to a mark ed d egree It grows o n a ny soil.

,

thrivin g o n roadsides ditch ban ks a n d o n i rrigated lan d

, ,

n o t carefully cultivated In so me sec tion s it c overs the

.
,

moun tain sides .

Stock feed o n it in waste places C oa rse woody stems .

a n d bitter taste lessen its palatabi lity If cut however .

, ,

before bloo min g the stems cure i n such a wa

, y that they
a re so ft a n d the bittern ess is less i n te n se Stock like the .

hay Its won derful adaptability a

. n d good yield s rec o m

men d its cultivation in section s where fo r some reason , ,

n either alfalfa n o r re d clover is p ro fita ble .

297 Crimson c love r ( Tmfo li u m t

. nc a ma tu m) much ,

grown in the middle Atlan tic a n d Southern States fo r

a gree n co ver-crop bears a fla m in g crimson flower from

, ,

when ce its n ame This clover i s a win ter ann ual in the
.

South a n d a sprin g an n ual in the N o rth where it is oc c a ,

sio n ally foun d . As a hay crop it lacks so me of the valu ,

able prope rties of other clovers It bears man y hairs .

which in the in testin es of horses occasio n ally form balls

, ,

causin g death to the an imal Dan ger of bloat also .

ac c o mpan ies i ts use as a pa stu re Despite these u n .

desirable qualities it is widely used as feed ; fo r gree n

,

man u re a n d rotatio n it is valuable .

Hun garian clover Mexican clover berseem shaftal

, , ,

o r Persi a n clover yellow t refoil a

, n d the bu r clovers fur ,

ni sh some forage in small dist ricts .

F I E LD PEA
- S ( Pisu m a
rvense )

298 . De sc ripti o n a
nd d pt ti on - aaa
Th e fie ld pea of te n .
-
,

kn own as the C an ada fie ld pea, resembles the garde n pea

-
27 6 The Pri nc i p le s f m
oA o m my

save that it is more th rifty a n d has lo n ge r stems larger ,

leaves violet in stead of white flo we rs a

, n d smoother a nd ,

slightly smaller seed In depth the root-system seldom

.
,

exceeds th ree feet while the s , tems vary from o n e to te n

feet in len gth Th e stem s which a
. re hollow sta n d np
, ,

right in the early pa rt of the seaso n but soon fla en dow n

tt
o n ac c ou n t of the len gth of the vin es O n the whole .
,

the plan t is sm ooth a n d rathe r succule n t c overi n g the ,

groun d a lmost completely in goo d growth o r cl imbin g ,

plan t stalks a n d f rames by mean s of ten d rils at the termi

na l divisio n of pi n n ately b ran ched leaves Bei n g a
- n an n ual .
,

it g rows a n d matures rapidly in 7 5 to 1 1 0 days Ea rli .

n ess colo r of flower shape of pods va riatio n i n seed a

, ,
nd , ,

len gth of vin e factor in differen tiatin g about a hun dred

varieties some of which a
, re favorites in o n e pla c e an d some

in an othe r All of them however do best in cool moi st

.
, , ,

climate s a n d o n heavy lo a m soils O n accoun t of bein g .

adapted to the sa n n ld
me co ditio s as oats fie peas grow in
-
,

the same section s often in the sa , me fie ld s mixed with

them Southe rn C an ada a
. nd the N o rthe rn States
p roduce most of the crop though man y high valley s in ,

the West yield fa irly well O n tario Michigan a nd .

, ,

Wiscon sin in order lead in acreages Excessive heat

, , .
,

which peas can n ot with stan d preven ts their cultivation ,

south of M a rylan d .

299 Sowin g . Th e abun dan ce of foo d in the large

.

seed permits fairly deep sowin g from o n e to four in ches —

,

even o n a coarse seed bed F all plowin g in the N orth - .

-

re n de rs po ssible ea rly s owin g sin ce the pea has co n sider ,

able frost resi stan ce a n d may be seeded as soo n as heavy

frosts a re ove r a nd a s soon a s the con ditio n of the lan d

permits .

F armers co mmon ly plan t from o n e a n d o n e half to

-

th ree a n d o n e-half bushels a n acre whe n pea sa re pla n ted

27 8 The P ri n c i p les of Ag ro n o my

hogs a n d other a n imals pasture it to a d va n tage The .

extreme palatability of the green vi n es makes it valuable

i n a mixed ratio n Refuse Vin e s a n d pods from factories
.

that c a n ga rden peas a re valuable feed if p rese rved in

stacks o r silos F ruit growers a n d othe rs w

. h o wan t green
-

man ure fin d peas good in spite of the fact that shallow

rooti n g le sse n s their su b soili n g value -
.

B EAN S ( P ha
seo lus sp ec i es) ( Fig . 7 4)

302 De sc ri pti on
. belon g to the same family
. Bean s
as peas , a
n d though there a re several ge n era mo st of them

belon g to the gen us Phaseolu s The plan ts have a shal .

low semi tap root system rather e rect stems broad

- -
, , ,

hairy leave s a n d lo n g te n d rils

, The flo we rs vary th rough .

whites yellows a
, n d blues ; the pod s a
, re gen e rally lo n g ;

the seeds may be practically a n y colo r o r shape In si ze .

they va y f om o n e eig th to o e a
r r h n n d o n e half i n ches
- -

in le n gth N early all varieties a

. re smooth .

Un l ike peas bean s can n ot withstan d frost They

, .

resemble co rn i n that a slight frost n o t o n ly reta rd s but

stops growth O n thi s accoun t they a . re limited to s ec ,

tion s that have four mon ths free from frost that is from , ,

about the middle of May to the middle of September .

Michigan a n d N e w Yo rk p roduce 60 p e r ce n t of the bea n s

grown in the Un ited States C alifo rn ia Florida a n d Wis .

, ,

co n sin a re al so heavy growers C ool moi st cl imates .

,

a n d rich loamy soils promote the greate s

, t developmen t ,

but un der irrigation they may re sist fairly hot d ry ,

weathe r Loo e wa m well d rain ed soil s rich in lime

.s r -
, ,

may be d isplaced by poorer o n es though at co st of high ,

yield .

303 C ulture
. F all plowin g prepares the warm mel
.
-
,

lo w seed bed that is best fo r bean s

-
F i n e ma n u re al so .
 The Clo vers a
nd Other Leg u mes 27 9

helps Late plan tin g permits sprin g plowi n g which

.
-
,

ought n o t however to be delayed u n til just before plan t

, ,

in g as is ofte n the case si n ce too much moi stu re evapo rates

,

an d the soil does n o t become s uffic ie n tly firm fo r good

FIG . 74
. A g ood c ro p o f fie ld b e a
ns .

germin atio n From a peck to a bushel a

. n acre is pla n ted

by han d by pla n ter o r by grain d rill with the w idth

, ,

regul ated by stoppin g some of the hole s Pla n te rs c a

n .

drop the bea n s in bills o r in d rill rows -

.

As soo n as the rows show well cultivati o n should begi n ,

280 The P ri n c i p les o A
f g rono my

in order to loose n the soil a n d kill weeds a n d it should ,

con tin ue at i n terval s u n til the vin es become so large that

they would catch o n the cultiva tor C ultivation should .

be given after every application of irrigatio n water which ,

may be used in mod erate quan tities from o n e to fiv e

o r six times .

As soo n as the bea n s a re matu re en ough to preve n t

shrin kage they may be cut a ,

n d stacked to avoid los s from

shell i n g which they do at complete maturity Two

, .

ro wbea n cutters make harve sti n g ea sy while bea n th resh ,

e rs simplify threshin g An ordin ary grai n th resher.

,

slowed dow n to avoid splittin g the bean s does sa ti sfac ,

tory wo rk Bean s pay fairly well but a

. re n o t widely

grow n They see m to have gai n ed gradual ly in the

.

last fe w years havin g been in troduced in to man y dis

,

tric ts in which they were n o t fo rme rly grow n N early .

all experimen t station s in the West g ive favorabl e reports

fo r some variety but this is n o t su rp ri si n g becau se the re
, ,

a re so ma n y v a rieties that they a re adaptable to Widely

d iffere n t con dition s .

304 U se
. Bean s sell well o n the market d ried o r
.
,

can n ed They have co n siderable feedi n g value fo r stock

.

as grain whe n groun d a n d mixed w ith othe r feed s ; he

t y
seem to have a laxa tive effect when fed alon e Some .

times the green plan ts a re cu red fo r hay o r they may be

pastured To wha teve r use the pla n ts a

. re put after h a r

vest they always fix some n itrogen in the soil du rin g

,

growth .

C O WP E AS ( Vi g naSine nsi s a
nd . tja
V Ca rg ) ( F ig . .

305 De sc ripti on
. . C owpea s a
re peas at all but
not ,

bea n s , differin g from the garden bean in that they have

lon g, wrin kled pod s , gen erally lo n g trailin g vin es a
, nd ,
28 2 The Pri nc ip les of Ag ron o my

the crop has grown much in impo rtan ce What alfalfa .

is to the West a n d what re d clove r is to the N o rth c o w

, ,

peas a re to the South : a legum in ous forage crop of high 1

feedin g pasture a nd
, rotatio n value C otto n lan ds
, .

n eed a rotatio n badly a n d such a o ne as will suppo rt

livestock In this Cowpeas excel fo r they furn ish large

.
, ,

yields good pasture a

, n d abu n da n t o rga n ic matte r whether
,

fed o r used as green man ure Th e main te n an ce of greater .

n umbe rs of l i vestock so n ec essary fo r the South will , ,

depe n d largely o n this crop .

3 0 6 C ulture. We ll wo ked see d beds warm a

r - . nd -
,

n o t wate r logged a re esse n ti al

- From two pee ks to three
, .

bushel s of seed a n acre a re b roadcasted o r d rilled ; plan ted

alon e o r mixed with sorghum corn Jo h n so n g rass millet

, , ,
-
, ,

o r soybea n s Si n ce its ch i ef val u e is fo r fo rage it i s cut

.

gree n a n d cu red i n the fie ld o r o n racks as the weathe r

perm its Ripe n ed seed is ha n d picked o r threshed from

.
-

the vi n es .

C owpea hay see ms equal if n o t superior to red clover

a
,

a n d is n ea rly as n ut ritious as alfalf f o r cattle sheep , ,

a n d hogs As pasture it has con siderable value espe

.
, ,

c ially whe n pla n ted i n co rn fie ld s late in the seaso n to be

hogged —o fI N ote Fig 7 9 . . .

S O YB EAN S (Soj ama x)

307 De sc ri ptio n
. Soybean s resemble other bean s .

in ge n eral but they a re more e rect mo re woody a

,
n d mo re , ,

hairy The root system co n sists of a well developed

.
- -

tap-root with few side bra n ches Blossoms vary in .

color from white to purple ; the pods a re usually short ,

flat a ,
w n y ; most seed is flat smooth a
n d ta n d oily , ,
.

In height the pla n t varies from six in ches to several

,

feet but two to three feet i s most commo n At this .

height the fie ld s prese n t a compact appearan ce o n a

,

,
o
 The
' '
Clo vers a
nd Othe r Leg u mes 28 3

coun t of pro lific b ran chin g When the seed ripen s the .
,

en tire plan t die s si n ce it is an a n n ual

, .

Both the climatic a n d soil requi reme n t s fo r soybea n s

approximate those fo r corn rather closely except that ,

frosts a re n o t n ea rly so i n ju rious Warm moderately .

,

moist growi n g seaso n s a - n d wa rm loo se soils rich in lime , ,

a re best Like all other legumes the right ki n d of bac

.
,

teria must be in the so il to secure lux uria n t growth .

308 C ulture
. Well prepared seed beds aid materi
.
- -

ally in early germin ation Seed is commo n ly pla n ted .

durin g Ma y at the rate of twe n ty to thi rty pou n ds a n

acre in drilled ro vvs F rom two to four in ches seem s th e

'

most favorable depth Shallow cultivation may begin .

as soon a s the rows show plai nl y a n d co n ti n ue u n til ,

the size of the plan ts preve n ts the use of horse a n d culti

y ato r . Weeds in jure the crop seriously a n d must there ,

fo re be kept out The pla n of irrigation fo r cowpeas

, .

is practically the same a sthat fo r fie ld bea n s .

When used fo r hay the time to cut is just a s pods fo rm .

The rake ought to follow the mower clo sely in orde r to

preven t the leaves from dryi n g too quickly C urin g .

is best do n e in the cock because the stems do n o t the n ,

get too hard n o r the leaves over brittle C attle shee p

— .
, ,

a n d hogs fo r wh i ch the c rop is be st adapted do n o t reli s

, h ,

the stem s a s they do softer food Mixtures of corn .

,

cowpeas so rghum millet a

, n d g rass i n c rease the yield
, , ,

but n o t the quality which is n aturally high Hogs , .

,

particularly do well o n soybean pastures Fo r seed

, .
,

the crop is han dled as a re fie ld bea n s .

MIS C ELLA EO US N LE GU ME S

309 Ve tc h ( Vi c i a
.
) Of the man y ki n ds of vetches ,
.

c o mmo n vetch a n d hai ry o r Wi n ter, vetch a

re most fre ,
284 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g rono my

quen tly grown fo r forage These plan ts a re a n n uals a nd .

wi n ter a n n ual s respectively The root systems a

, re .
-

bra n chi n g a n d o n ly mode rately deep ; the stems a re lo n g

vin es ; the n umerou s leaves a re fin e ly divided e n di n g

in ten d ril s Purple flo we rs a

. re bo rn e i n compact masses

o n a pedicel ; flat b road pods bea r small da rk seed s Which

,

a re fai rly ha rd Hai ry vetch is covered with abun da n t

.

velvet like hairs

- .

C ommo n vetch does well in cool moist climates that ,

do n o t get very cold Pa c ific C oast region s a re favo rable

. .

Hairy vetch doe s well in temperate regio n s that favo r

soft wi n ter wheats It seem s adapted to these regio n s
.

o n accou n t of bei n g fai rly d routh resi sta n t -

.

F rom forty to sixty pou n d s of seed will so w a n ac re

whether d rilled o r broadca sted Mixin g with oats o r .

gra ss which help to support the ta n gled Vin es is usually

, ,

recomme n ded fo r pastu re a nd hay The method of .

curin g vetch hay differs but little from that of alfalfa .

Th e hay is fin e a n d palatable e specially fo r cows a nd ,

sheep Ho rses like it less than clover alfalfa o r pe as

.
, ,

o n accou n t of its extreme soft n ess Fo r soili n g a n d s ilage .

it is good An n ual pla n ti n g a

. n d medioc re yi elds make

it less valuable than alfalfa fo r on ly o n e full crop c a n be ,

cut F armers may grow their o wn seed thus reducin g

.
,

the expen se of pla n tin g .

3 1 0 O th e r le g u me s
. Pea n uts a re grown in the .

South fo r hog pasture a nd fo r n uts Ta n g l e r peas .

,

ochrus fe n u greek lupin es serradella lespedeza o r Japan

,
-
, , ,

clover velvet bean s Florida beggar weed j a

, c k be a
, ns , ,

mu n g bea n s moth bean s hyacin th bea n s gu ar san foi n

, , , , ,

k ud j u bird s foot trefoil astragalus chickpeas a

,
’
-
nd , , ,

g ra s sp e a
s a re u sed i n va r iou s pa r ts of the U n ited S ta tes
a n d the O ld Wo rld fo r hay o r pasture They a re all .

legumes a n d valuable as n itroge n gathere rs a n d fo r fee d ,

 C HAPTE R XXIII

GRASS E S

To the grass family belon gs a host of pla n ts similar

in stru cture yet varyi n g so widely i n size a n d useful n ess

as to seem un related Between lawn grass a . n d gi ga n ti c ,

tree-like bamboo is a wide gap partly fille d with larger

grasses such as timoth y sorghums a n d co rn which reach
, , ,

F IG . 76 . Th e
’

e fle c ti v e u se of li g ht m ahi n e
c ry in h ad li
n ng a c ro p
th e h y .

great size in some climates Thousan ds of species belo n g .

to this family Amo n g them a . re m a n y of o ur most

useful plan ts In fact the gra sses a re probably o ur most

re clas sed all the ce rea

.
,

valuable pl an ts si n ce w i th them a
,
l
28 6
 Gra
sses 28 7

crops most of the fo rage a

,
n d pasture pla n ts except a

fe w legumes a n d most of the ra n ge a

,
n d p rai rie pla n ts .

In additio n some specie s serve m a

,
n as law n s as o rn a ,

men tal plan ts a s weav i n g mate rial a

,
n d as packi n g fo r ,

furn iture an d other b reakable commodities .

Some write rs class with the grasses all hay a n d pasture

plan ts ,
clover a n d alfalfa as well as members of the

FI G . 77 . A c o ve re d ck i
a a
h y st n th e h u m i d se c ti o n .

Gramin ea e o r g rass family

, O n ly the true grasses will .

be treated he re Amo n g the most useful of these a

. re

the grain the hay a

, n d the pastu re c rops , N o t all grasses .

a re u seful si n ce some a
, re o ur wo rst weeds The h a y c rops .

a re fun dame n tal to the n atio n s prospe rity Methods of ’

.

han dli ng these crops a re well show n i n F igs 7 6 to 7 8 . .

A fibro us root system with o r without rootstock s ;

-

stems composed of n odes a n d i n tern ode s which a re eithe r

hollow o r fille d with aporous pith save a t the n odes ;

lea ves claspin g the culm fo r a distan ce above the n ode
288 The Pri n c i p les o A
f g rono my

from which they sprin g a n d termi n ate i n n a rrow pa rallel ,

vei n ed blades ; a bran ched head beari n g seed with a

clo sely born e coveri n g : these a
-
re the impo rta n t st ructural

characteristics of the grass family Th e forage grasses a re .

timothy red top orchard gra ss b rome grass blue—grass

, ,
- -
, , ,

Jo h n so gra
n — ss oat grasses ry e grasse s fescues wheat
,
-
,
-
, ,

F IG 78 A g o o d su bp ly f fo r g c ke d
ae we ll sta
—
. . o .

grasses meadow foxtail a

, n d a fe w others
- The first fiv e
,
.

me n tio n ed a
re much mo re impo rta n t tha n the others .

TI MO T HY ( Phle u m p rat
e n se )
T imothy origin ated in the O ld World where a n umber
of wild species a re fou n d The n ame p robably came from
.

Timothy Han se n wh o i n troduced the crop i n to Mary

,

lan d from N e w E n glan d .

3 1 1 De sc ri pti o n
. Timothy bears a slen der spike
.
,

like pan icle from o n e to twelve in ches in len gth o n a

slen de r culm o n e to six feet in h eight F rom three to .

eight leaves bran ch o ff from the upright stem As the .

roots a re n o t st ro n gly stolo n iferou s the pla n t doe s n o t ,

290 The P ri nc i p les oA
f g rono my

c p havi g ve y sm a
ro n ll see d
r . Well d eca
yed o rga nic
-

matter in crea se s bo th moisture a nd fertility F all .

plowin g pe rmits frost to mellow the surface ; win te r

sto rms dampe n a n d firm the see d be ds fo r sp ri n g pla n ti n g
- .

About half the crop of the Un ited States is sown in

the fall with win ter wheat fo r a n urse c rop In this case .

a grass see d atta chm en t d rops the se e d just in fron t o f ,

o r just behi n d the s

, hoes of the d rill A light ha rrowi n g .

covers the see d though Pipe r thin k s dee per plan ti n g

,
1

would be better The seed s must touch moi st soil in

.

o rder to germin ate a n d sh ould be plan ted

, from a half
in ch to o n e in ch in depth depen di n g o n the seaso n a nd

soil Seed may al so be plan ted in the fall without a n urse

.

crop a nd
, in sprin g with o r without a n u rse crop , , .

Broadcastin g both by ha nd a n d by mea n s of the wheel

barrow seed er is much practiced Irre sp e c tig e of the .

method used in plan tin g the farmer should so w about ,

fifte e n poun ds of seed to the acre .

In some sectio n s co rn o r potato lan d is p repa red by a

,

tho rough h a rrowi n g without previous plowin g In most .

sectio n s however fall plowin g sprin g harrowin g a

, ,
- nd ,
-
,

d rill sowin g give the most satisfacto ry stan ds

- Fre .

quen t i rrigatio n s pay o n la nd s that have good d rai n age .

Heavy application s of fa rmyard ma n u re to the stub

ble pay Where comme rcial fe rtilize rs a
. re u sed n itro g ,

en o n s man ures make most p rofita ble retu rn s C love r .

mixtu res se rve this purpose .

T imothy ought to be cut a s soo n as the blossoms fall ,

but it does n o t deteriorate rapidly u ntil the se ed rea ches

the so ft do ugh stage This e n ables the farmer to utilize
.

a later h arvestin g seaso n than fo r a n y other fo rage c ro p .

Th e hay cures readily bei n g in ma n y cases hauled o n the

,

same day that it is cut In h umid sectio n s tedders side

.
, ,

1
Pi p e r , F o ra
g e Pl a
nts , p . 130 .
 Gra
sses 29 1

deli very rakes a n d loade rs are widely used ; in t

,
he West ,

it is ha n dled largely as alfalfa Derricks a re used to .

build stacks a n d t racks to fill ba rn s The first crop bea rs .

most seed Grain bi n de rs co mmonly harvest the seed

.

crop which is threshed in a

,
n o rdi n a ry sepa rato r with

special sieves .

3 1 4 U se a.n d va lu e The most importan t use of .

timothy is fo r hay sin ce the pastu res yield but little feed
,

a n d the sod weaken s u n der t rampi n g As a silage o r a .

soili ng crop it is little used Though the sta n dard hay .

cro p of Am erica its i n trin sic feed value is less tha n that
,

of the clovers o r alfalfa o n acco un t of its lackin g the high

TAB LE 3 . AC RE AGE AN D YIE LDS OF F O RAGE C a

o r s IN TH E

U N IT E D STAT E S . ( FRO M PIPE R ) .

C no r Ac mcs TO N s Pa
n C ENT

Tim o thy (a lo n e )
Red c lo ve r (a lo n e )
Ti mo thy and
,
c lo ve r
1
(mi x ed )
Tim o thy (to t l) a
Red c lo ve r (to t l) a
f
Al a lfa
a
Cere ls fo r h a y
O the r ta m e g r sse s a
So rg h u m s
Mille t
C o wpe a s
Ca n da a
p e as
Ke n tuc k y blue-g ra ss
Bro m e-g ra ss
All o the r ta m e g ra sse s
Wild g ra sse s

1
a a
T ke n lf c lo
sh a ver n lf ti mo th y wh e n g ro wn i n mi
ad h a x tu re .
292 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g rono my

protei n c o n ten t of legum es C ommo n grasses vary little .

in foo d value o r digestibility Palatability ea se of c u r .

,

in g pro lific see d productio n healthful n ess a

, n d yield , ,

i ng power dete rmi n e what g rass is most pro fita ble to g r ow .

Tim othy exc els o ther grasse s in these qualities Market .

deman ds influe n c e p ri c e ; the p rejudice of farmers a nd

stockme n also plays a part ofte n n o t a n in sig nific a nt ,

o ne . Timoth y has a n adva n tage al s o in that it is th e

stan dard market ha y an d that ma n y st ock
,m e n p refe r

it to clover a n d alfalfa in spite of the fact th at it su rpa s

, ses
them on ly fo r fee din g d rivin g horses .

3 1 5 En e mi e s
. Bill bugs a
. n d joi n t wo rms cause some
- -

in se c t i n jury ; a rust a nd a s mut i n fest the plan t The .

greatest harm h oweve r comes from leavin g meadows

, ,

sow n too lo n g without rotation Thi s causes the sta nd .

to be so thi n as to re duce yields materially .

E
R DTO P A
( g ro sti s a
lba)
31 6 . Redtop is so ca
De sc ripti o n lled from the dis
.

tin c tly re ddish appearan ce of a fie ld of it i n bloom It .

is mo re lo n g lived than timothy its stems a

- re mo re sle n der ,

but tougher its leaves fin e r its sod more compact but

, ,

more shallow a n d its pan icle much mo re sp readi n g

,
The .

seeds a re small light t ria n gular i n shape a

,
n d ge n erally
, ,

grayish brown in c o lor The compact sod is a result of

- .

n umerous rootsto cks a n d of decum be n t stems se n di n g

,

out roots from the n odes .

3 1 7 Ad a
.
ptati o n A s r edtop withsta
. n ds wate r-log
gi n g to a marked degree it replaces timot hy o n very ,

wet lan d sometimes growin g

,
i n sloughs o bottom lan ds
r -

in which water stan ds pa rt of the yea r It resists as .

much cold as timothy a n d mo re h eat It grows in all .

parts of the Un ited States a n d as fa r n o rt h as Alaska .

294 The Pri nc i p les o A
f g ron o my

32 1 . aa
Ad pt ti o n . Apparen tly
degree o f c o ld no

kill s th is grass though it loses vigor i n hot sum mers

,

even when abun dan t water is supplied N atural !y .

adapte d to temperate regio n s it thrives in this zon e ,

whe eve
r r s uffi c i e nt moistu e falls o
r n well d rain ed soils
—

th a t a re rich i n lime It c an en dure n eithe r a

. cidity n o r
wa ter loggin g N earl y all of th e seed grow n i n the Un ited
- .

States is produced o n a few h un d red square m ile s n ear

Le xi n gto n K e n tucky whi ch is i n the heart of the Blue
, ,

grass Regio n .

322 Culture
. Beca use of the low vitali ty of the
.

see d , heavy seedi n g is required fo r good sta n ds If .

sow n alo n e forty pou n ds may be n eeded Usually

, .

th e fa rmer sows smaller quan tities in mixtures In man y .

cases blue gra ss due to persisten t spreadi n g by mean s of

-
,

rootstocks will d rive o u t othe r cr

, ops leavi n g n early a ,

straight sta n d F i n e moist so ils well mixed with humus

.
, , ,

a re best Th e seed is most ofte n b roadcasted a

. n d ha r

rowed Better stan ds may be had o n law n s by c o verin g

.

th em with straw o r by shadi n g in a n other way, N urse .

crops may o r may n o t h elp i n fie ld cu lture This de .

pe n ds o n so il a n d climatic c o n ditio n s .

323 U se a
. n d va lu e Blue—grass yields little forage
.

that may be gathere d fo r hay As a pastu re plan t it is .

,

kin g in Am e rica though meadow fo x ta , il is most popular -

i n E n gland Mixed with white clover; Ken tucky blue

.

grass fo rms the best pastures in th is co u n try a n d also

the best lawn s in the N orth a n d West Bermuda grass .

-
,

however suppla n ts it in the South

,

Its popularity fo r pasture is n o t without reaso n .

Though yields a re small it i s so aggressive that bare,

spots a re soo n fille d I t gai n s rather than lose s u n de r

.

heavy pasturin g if it gets suffic ie n t moisture All a

, ni .

mals a re fo n d of the g rass when it is gre e n When d ry it .

 Gra
sses 295

is much less desirable however In palatability fresh , .

,

blue grass excels all others with the po ssible exc eptio n
-
,

of smooth b o me grass O u acc o un t of its aggressiven ess

r - .
,

it is a bad wee d in clover a n d alfalfa fie ld s The legumes .

yield much more heavily a nd suff er when blue—gra ss ,

creeps in sin ce it even tually crowds them o n t unless

, ,

frequen t harrowin gs o r o c c asmn al rotatio n s follow .

O R
CH AR D—G A R SS ( Da
ct
y li s g lo meraa
t )
324 De sc ripti o n
. grass is a deep ooted
. O rchard - -r
,

rathe r ra n k-growi n g bun chy yet leafy grass The shape

, , .

of the pa n icle suggests a cock s fo o t by which n am e it is

’
,

kn own in En glan d Bun chin g is due to vigorous roots

.
‘

devoid of stolo n s Tufts sometimes two feet across cause

.

decided ly rough surface bare in man y plac es These ,

.

tufts a re st ro n gly n etted by mean s of ma n y tough fibro u s ,

roots . Un doubtedly the plan t roots three o r four feet

,

deep in favo rable so il .

325 Ad a
.
p tati o n H eat in
.
j u res o rcha rd -g rass less
than it does timothy o r blue grass but c old hurts it much
-
,

mo re seriou sly The n atu ral place fo r its cultivation

.

is just south of th e timothy belt It is to be regretted .

that tim othy has gain ed such a hold that other use ful
grasse s such as orchard-grass oat-grass a
,
n d b rome-grass , , ,

were n o t tried in region s too warm o r too d ry fo r the

greatest developmen t of tim othy Porous well d rain ed - .
, ,

fertile soils pe rmit o rch a rd g rass to make best g rowth - .

The plan t uses con siderable moisture to a dvan tage ,

though when n ec essary it c a

, n with the help of deep , ,

roots e n du re ra
, ther severe d rouths As sha de does n o t .

i njure the crop to a great exte n t it does well in orcha rds , .

326 Culture
. Similar care a
. s to preparation of the
la n d fo r sowi n g a
n d metho d
, of scatterin g the seed ,
296 The Princ i ples oA
f g ro m my

should be obse ved r the ca se of orcha d gra

in ss as in th at
r -

of the other grasses Both sprin g a. n d fall pla n ti n g suc

o ec d . F all plan ti n g should take place early en ough to

permit some growth before win ter ; spri n g plan tin g gives
best results when the groun d has become warm but is
still damp .

When sown alon e fo r hay from twen ty-hy e to forty ,

poun ds of seed a re used Mo re c omm on ly from four

.
,

to te n po un ds a re pla n ted in mixtu res Patches grown.

fo r seed requi re a stan d on ly half as thick a s ha y fi e ld s .

O r c h a rd - grass makes the best hay when o ut in early

bloom a s the stem s become woo dy very rapidly thu s
, ,

decreasin g palatability Becau se this grass matures

.

se veral days before most other gra sses mixtures a re

,

u sually un satisfac to ry fo r hay o n acc oun t of the varia

tion in time of cuttin g Harrowin g a . n d ma n urin g help

to keep up yield s a n d to p reve n t the growth of exc e s sively

large bun ches Applicatio n s of irrigation water up to
.

thirty o r fo rty in ches pay in the West though smaller ,

quan tities yield more in propo rtion to the water used .

327 Va . lu e a n d u se O cha d grass yields about as

.r r -

much hay as timothy a n d mo re seco n d growth which ,

con si sts largely of leaves maki n g it valuable fo r fall pa

, s
tu ra g e S
. i n ce it begi n s g row t h ea rly it also aff
, o rds c o n

sid e ra ble sp rin g pastu rage Where severe a

. n d c o n ti n uou s

t rampin g in jures the root s bare spots appea ,

r at i n tervals .

O ther grasse s a re n eeded to keep a good sod i n pastu res .

Ha y fr om ove r-r ipe o rcha rd -g ra ss i s c oa rse an d wo o d y ;

un less very carefully cure d it lacks the palata bility of
timothy o blue grass The shortn ess of the pe riod
r - .

du rin g which it may be cut a n d still make good hay is

a decided d rawback Early matu rity o n the other han d

.
, ,

aids in keepin g down weeds in the crop a n d perm its

pasturin g of the fie ld s .
298 The P ri rwi p les of Ag rono my
f

wheat is h owever probably more satisfacto ry From

, , , .

te n to twe n ty pou n ds a n acre a re plan ted fo r hay a n d from

four to te n fo r pasture Because the seed clogs the d rill

.

holes farmers usually broadcast a

,
n d c ross ha rrow it .

When it is on ce established severe h arrowin g im proves ,

its growth by preven tin g the fie ld s from becomin g sod

bou n d Application s of barn yard man ure h elp to mai n
.

tain yields o n fie ld s fiv e o r six years old Moderate .

quan tities of irrigation water a re be n e fic ial By care .

ful han dlin g the crop oug ht to succe ed in some localities

,

o n the d ry fa rm - .

33 1 Va lu e a
. n d u se Fo r hay the g ra
. ss is o ut just ,

after full bloo m a n d cu red a s i s alfalfa Th e abu n dan ce .

of green leaves makes cu rin g mo re d iffic ult tha n is the

case with oth er grasses Th e arid region s in which it is

.

la rgely grown ove rc ome this objec tion in part by o ff erin g

bright h ayin g weath er B rome-grass will cu re whe re .

alfalfa does Th e high percen tage of leaves to stems

.

gives the forage a n in v itin g look a n d a desira ble softn ess .

The g ra ss is p robably mo re n ut ritiou s a n d a higher yielder

than other c ommon grasses Its great palatability ca uses

.

stock to relish it hi ghly .

Pa stu res of brome grass wear well furn i sh much feed

-
, ,

a nd g row ea rly as well as late Some in v e stigation s sug .

gest that it be mixed with alfalfa fo r pasture Where .

a lfal fa is used fo r hay a n d th rives this s hould n o t be ,

don e as grasses yield less a

, n d the value of alfalfa is low

ered .

In spite of the man y good qualities of brome grass it -

,

may p rove un desirable N o t en ough is kn own about it

.

to make it advisable to plan t great areas with impun ity .

However it p romises so well a

, s to deserv e a t rial Farm .

e rs should try the grass i n small a reas o r get advice from ,

th eir Experimen t Statio n o r fro m growers in their n eigh ,

 Gra
sses 299

w
bo rh o o d befo re so i g exte sive
n n fi e ld s B ome grass
r - .

varies widely Keyser of C olorado fou n d 1 2 1 variatio n s

. .

Wi sdom in selectin g the c orrect variety fo r hay o r pas

tu re o n irrigated o r d ry fa rms may lea
- d to un q ualified
succe ss With this n e w crop .

E GRAS SES
O TH R

332 . a
T ll m e d o w o a a
tg a- r th m m la
ss ( A h a ti s)
is rr e n e e u

a n ere ct growin g pe remi ia

- l bun ch grass that thrives
un der th e sam e con dition s as orchard grass It with - .

sta n ds more h eat mo re d routh but less f rost than tim othy
, , .

It does n o t c o un t fo r much in American agriculture

at presen t but ran ks h igh in Fran ce a
,
n d other parts of

Europe where it is grown fo r hay

,
When heavily pas .

ta it weaken s rapidly beca

.

red , use of in ability to fill un oc

c up ied so il due to its lack of rootstocks Its lon g life
, .
.

in crease s its value to so me exten t Perhaps it may fin d .

,

some region s too warm fo r tim oth y a nd brom e grass

-
,

too gravelly a nd too d ry fo r othe r co m mo n g rasses where

farmers n eed such a c rop pla n t - .

Oa t grass is sown i n eithe r fall o r sprin g without a

-

n u rs e crop becau se it can n ot en dure sha de to a ny ma rke d

degree Heavy se edin g is n ecessary o n accoun t of the

.

lo w viability of seed Eighty poun ds a . re frequen tly

u se d when the c r0 p is grown alon e Mo re often about .

twen ty po u n d s a re sow n in m ixtu res with o rcha rd grass -

,

with alsike clover o r with both , .

A bitter ta ste lessen s the palatability con siderably .

If cuttin g is delayed till after bloo m the culms get ,

woody A yield slightly high er than that of the o rdi n ary

.

g ras se s pa rtly cou n te rbala n ces i ts poo r qu a lity

333 Be rmu d a a
.

.
-
g r s s C
( y n o d o n D ac ty lo n ) is v aluable i n

lawn a nd pastu re in the South It is a n ex c ee din gly.

300 The Princ i ples oA
f g ro no my

stron g sod former often se rv in g effe ctively in preven tin g

-

ero sion o n un protected soils Whereve r moisture aboun ds

.

a n d regula r frosts do n o t occu r it resi s ts t rampin g a

, nd

grow s co n tin uously sa ve in ea rly sp ri n g Lawn s in the .

South a re almost uni v ersally of thi s g rass whi ch keeps ,

green in hot summer but is brown in win ter a n d ea rly sp ri n g .

Little seed is p ro du c ed o rdin a rily N e w sta nd s a re .

started by plan tin g small pieces of sod in furrows o n a

firm mo ist seed bed
,
- These should be two to three feet
.

apart each way fo r fie ld s a n d o n e foo t fo r lawn s Heavy .

di skin g ope n s up the sod causin g a mo re vigorous g rowth

wh en fie ld s have be come sod boun d - .

When used fo r hay each cuttin g is small but with a

moist climate severa
, ,

fertile so il a n d a warm , l growths ,

make a high total yield In man y cases however suc

.
, ,

c es si n l hay crop s a re n o t p roduced In feedin g value .

,

it is very similar to timothy Because of its aggressive .

un dergroun d stems it is a bad wee d in man y fie ld s

, .

To era dicate i t m e n who have studie d th e grass re c o m

,

men d shallow plowin g just p re c ed in g d ry hot weath er ,

o r frost . Smotherin g it wi th cowpeas o r some other ra nk

growin g crop is som et imes successful .

334 J. o hn so n g ra
- ss ( Ho lc us ha lep ensi s) is a coa rse ,

broad leaved grass closely related to so rghum Produc

- .

i n g both seed a n d la rge ro ot stocks abu n dan tly it spreads ,

rapidly by mean s of irrigatio n ditches in wa rm section s

such as the South Arizo n a a , nd southern C alifo rn ia

,
.

Jo hn so n gras s succeed s an ywhere in the c otton belt

- .

In fact it n o t o n ly su c ceeds but usurps fie ld s un less it is

,

carefully guarded again st Diffic ulty of eradication has

.

cause d farmers to regard it as a n oxious weed in spite of ,

the fact that it is probably the best hay grass in th e South ,

frequen tly yieldin g as much as h y e ton s a year If .

cut youn g the quality of hay is fair but pastu res a

,
re ,
 C HAPTER XXIV

P AS T U RES, ME ADO WS A N D BO ILI NG ,

S YS TEMS

THE pa sturin g of livestock o n grassy plain s a n d steppes

wa s the most primeval fo rm of agricult ure As civiliza .

tio n i ncrea sed m a n left o ff h u n ti n g a

, n d too k to ten di n g

flo c ks a n d herds Soo n he fou n d it pro fita

. ble to have a n

un derstan din g with his n eighbor as to who se ca ttle were

to graze o n particular a reas Abraham a n d Lo t divided
.

r a
thei p st e lan ds fo r this purpo se Later when crop s
u r - .
,

became importan t livesto ck were still n eces sary Thus

, .

to-d a y whe
,
reve r m an live s he has cattle
, a n d beasts of
burden These get a part of their feed from pastures
.

o r from u n oc c upied public lan ds called ran ges , .

33 6 De fin i ti o n
. By the term
. pa sture is m ean t
a n y la n d from which livestock gathe r feed fo r them s elves ,

a s opposed to so ili n g which is cutti n g a,

n d feedi n g the

g ee pla ts
r n n o r, as oppo sed to ha y
-maki n g w h ich c o n ,

sists of curin g th e crop by d ryin g it before feed in g It .

makes n o differen ce whether the a reas a re m a n -mad e

o r whether they a re n atu ral n o r does it matter what the

,

n atur e of the pla n ts g rown may be s o lon g as they a , re

u se d fo r feed .

337 Kin d s o f pa
. sture If the area is n aturally c o v
.

ered with pasture crops o r if the lan d is con tin uously use d
,

fo r the grazin g of livestock the pastures a re sai d to be

,

perma n en t These perman en t pa

. stu res a re either ra n ge

3 02
 a
P stures, Me d o ws,a a
nd e ms
S oi li n g S yst

lan d meadows o r sloughs A part of th e exten sive

, , .

prairies east of the Rock ies is still a ran ge pasture .

The mea dows a n d fie ld s ren ewed occasion a lly regu

la rly or irregularly are tempo rary pastu res They .

con sist eith er of fie ld s left sow n fo r a n umber of yea rs o r

fo r o n e o r two season s In man y section s the stubble

.

of gra in s a n d fo rage crops is pastu red These strictly .

,

speakin g a ,
re n o t pastures that is the primary use is
, ,

n o t fo r past u re but fo r c rop ha rvests N evertheless .

,

they a re of eco n omic im po rta n c e .

338 A g o o d pa
. stur e should be thoroughly a n d eve n ly

c overed with pla n ts that will fo rm sod of such a n ature

as n o t to be in ju red by the trampin g of an imal s n o r be

checked in its growth through close croppin g Th ese .

plan ts ought to be so palatable a n d fin e a s to e n courage

the an im als to eat suffic ie n t quan tities a n d so n ut ritiou s
,

that the quan tities ea ten will n ourish the body a nd s upp ly

en ergy fo r work whether it be d rawin g loads growin g wool

, , ,

o r man ufactu ri n g mil k Th e pastu re n eed s to be green

.

a con siderable part of the year a n d to yield much feed

, .

33 9 Immrta
. nce . More than o n e third of all the
-

improved farm lan d in the Un ited States is in pasture .

In the West the ran ge lan d fa

,
r excee ds the fa rm la n d i n

area Part of the farm lan d

. perh aps a third o r mo re
is in tempora ry pasture Much weste rn lan d is so
.

d ry that it ca n n ot be cla sse d as g razin g la n d although ,

sheep feed o n it .

Immen se d roves of sh e ep a n d c attle fo rmerly g razed

throughout the West The day of the cattle kin gs is

.

p a ssi n g rapidly whe re it i s n o t n o w pa st but fo rest re ,

se rve s still fu rn ish pastu rage fo r n ume ro us an imals .

The a n imals taken from the ran ge lan ds in the fall a

,
re ,

tu rn ed in to the meadows a n d stubble fie ld s to pick at

the un gathere d plan t parts In some sectio n s they wi n te r

.
304 The Pri nc i p le s o A
f g rono my

on meadows supple men ted with a partial ration of ha y

Th e co n ven ien ce of a p a
.

stu re in which to tu rn an imal s ,

especially du rin g hayin g a n d ha rvestin g is of c o n sider ,

able value Much labor is also saved

. .

340 N a . tive g ra ss togethe r with ru sh es a , nd s ed ges ,

largely comp rises these mea dows The sedges ( often .

ca lled b road leaf) with t ee c o rn ere d stem s a

- h r -
, n d b road ,

bun ch ed l ea ves a n d th e ru shes (wi re gra ss a

,
n d bul rushes ) -
,

with roun d hollow stemlike leaves grow abun dan tly

, , ,

in the wet valley bottoms a n d slough s The se supply .

co siderable secon d cl a
n — ss feed o n the wet lan ds that a re

imp regn ated with alkali Salt gra ss a n d relate d species

.
-

also grow in similar plac e s makin g fin e r hay a n d better feed .

W heat -gras ses lupin es wild vetch a

, n d n umerou s othe r
, ,

plan ts occur o n the ran ge s Sheep get co n side rable graz .

in g from sagebrush a n d shadscale .

341 Crop pla

.
— nts Ke n tucky a . nd C an ada blue
grasses timothy redtop smooth brome grass orchard
, , ,
-
,

grass tall meadow fescue Italian a

, n d pe re n n ial ,ry e

g ras se s tall meadow

,
oat g ra ss an d re d white -
a n d al sike , , ,

clovers a re all u sed in pe rman en t a n d tempo ra ry pa s tu res ,

a n d some of them fo r hay In addition to these alfalfa .

, ,

the small grai n s with a

- n d without a mixtu re of peas rape , ,

corn a, n d millet s a re u s e d to varyi n g exte n ts i n diff e re n t

local ities In gen eral these yield more palatable a

.
, nd

more abu n dan t feed than the n ative grasses Except .

redtop th ey thrive be t o n well d rain ed soil s that a

,
s - re

fairly rich in lime Lime a n d d rai n age a

. re especially

n ece ssa ry o r K e n tucky blue g ass timothy b ome g rass

f r r - -
, , ,

alfalfa a n d re d clove
,
r Blue grass a
— n d the. r y e -g r as se s
n eed much moistu re .

342 Mix tu re s help in ma n y ways

.

( )
1 T hey usually i n su re a co n ti n uous g row t h fr om
early sprin g th rough summer to late fall .
306 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g ro m my

Fo r lo w, we t lan ds such as sloughs

P e re n n ia
l ye
r -
g r a
ss
Re d to p
Rho d e Isl a
n d be n t-g ra
ss
Me a
d o w fe scue
Alsik e
clo ve r
White clo ve r

A m ixture used with success on the good soils of th e

East is as follows :
Ti mo thy
Re d c l o ve r
Alsik e c lo v e r
White c l o v e r
Ke n tu c k y bl u e -g ra
ss
Ta ll m e a d o w fe sc ue
rd -g ra
O rc h a ss

Fo r poor lan d in the section s the followin g

,

often used because it is

Ti m o thy
Re d to p
Al si k e c l o v e r
White c l o v e r

Ken tucky blue—grass is the most popular of all sin gle

pasture plan ts Th e lon g d ry periods en cou n tered in
.

d ry farm regio n s preven t the fo rmatio n of goo d pastures

- .

Variou s experimen ts o n d ry farm s show that smooth

-

b rome grass a
-
n d ry e are successful Timothy has do n e .

best o n the mou n tain ran ges with b rome grass seco n d
-
, .

B rome grasshas a deep root system a

.

- n d fo rms a sod resist

-

a n t to trampi n g This except that it does n o t sod

.
,

stro n gly is likewise true of a

,
lfalfa which is sometim es ,
 P sta
u res, Mea
do ws, a
nd e ms
Soi li n g Syst 307

use d fo r d ry farm pasture particularly when either the

-
,

first o r seco n d crop promises to be too small to pay fo r

cuttin g Man y farmers turn the an imals o n stubble to
.

gather re m n an ts which would d ry up a n d be lost by blow

i n g away Pastures o n d ry farms seem to be more suit

.
-

able fo r horses than fo r other an imals .

343 Fo r d i fie re n t a
. n ima ls O n e reaso n why horses .

do best o n d ry pastures is that they n eed rather large

fie ld s which promote exercise They do n o t feed so .

close to the groun d as to in jure the root crown s of alfalfa

- .

They c a n get o n with less water th a n some other a n imals ,

but n e ed it regularly They do n o t bloat as do cattle a

. nd

sheep .

C attle n e ed a more succule n t feed a n d more wate r , ,

than ho rses ; therefore green pasture s a re more valuable

, ,

particularly fo r milch cows Sin ce cattle eat rapidly .

,

they sometimes bloat especially o n alfalfa wet with d e w

,
.

F o r sheep small pastures used in rotatio n a re re c o m

men ded in order to keep dow n parasites F in e feed is .

desirable ; resistan t sod is preferable as they eat close ,

a n d i n jure the roots of such pla n ts as alfalfa timothy , ,

a n d o rchard g rass They bloat easily o n alfalfa a

-
. n d some

grasses If there a
. re n o willows ih the fi eld the re should .
,

be sheds to provide shade .

Hogs like cool n ess a n d water They do as well o n .

small pastures sin ce they require little food at o n e time

, .

Shade a n d water i n the feed lot compe n sate fo r small

area ; this however does n o t imply that food should

, ,

be scarce Hull less barley a

. n d peas
- corn a n d rape , ,

c o rn
, rape barley a,n d vetch oats a n d vetch oats a nd , ,

peas a
, n d ba rley make good c rops o n which to turn hogs .

They also dig out root crops to advan ta

- ge .

Poultry do bette r whe n they have access to green

feed Grain s a
. n d alfalfa a re used most .
308 The P ri nc i p les o A
f g ro no my

344 C on d i tion
. of pasIt is a commo n pra
ture s . c

tice to utilize lan d n o t easily han dl e d i n the regula r

croppin g system fo r grazi n g This lan d may be too rocky
.

to permit the use of plows a n d other machi n ery It may .

be wate logged o r covered with water ; covered with

r-

willows ; rough a n d u n eve n ; cut up by sloughs a n d lo w

ridges ; o r filled with some n ative g rowth such as rushes .

Sometimes the very exten sive n ess of a man s o wn in g s

’

re n ders it impossible to fa rm the la n d with the equip

men t he has His livestock may roam at will over what

.

ever part of the public domain is u n reserved A n umber .

of serious faults a re he re suggested In additio n too

.
,

ma n y farmers permit bu n ches to develop a n d weeds to

get a hold in a part o r all of the fie ld Some parts may

, .

be too d ry even When other parts a

, re cove red with water .

F i n ally ma n y pastu res a

,
re n o t yieldi n g to thei r full

capacity o n accoun t of a poor stan d of pla n ts .

345 Im pro vi n g pa
. sture s Th e rocky a
. n d very rough

areas will fo r a lon g time at least be left i n pastures as

, , ,

n o t much else c a n be do n e with them Removi n g man y .

rocks is rather expe n sive .

Drai n in g will much improve meadows that a re too wet

either in the spri n g o r throughout the seaso n La n d that .

i s water logged in the sprin g is likely to suffer fo r water

-

later in the summer because the water holdi n g capacity -

is lowered by puddli n g a nd because a shallow root

,

system is produced by excess water A combi n ation of .

drai n age a n d irrigatio n will remedy this co n ditio n .

B rush la n ds gen erally n eed partial o r e n tire cleari n g

-

before they become good pastures F irin g grubbin g .

, ,

a n d sheep o r goat pastu ri n g help to clear b rushy districts .

Rushe s a nd s edges te n d to give way slowly to the more

valuable grasses after lan ds a re d rai n ed Plowi n g a nd .

resowin g may sub s titute this slow method The farms .

310 The P ri nc i p les oA
f g ron o my

the shee pmen to ke ep their flocks away from design ated

districts F orest reserves ha n dle the situation by limit
.

in g the n umber of an imals that may be pastu red o n the

reserve In excessive hu n ger duri n g a s n owstorm fo r
.
,

example a herd of ran ge cattle ate at the oak bru sh

, ,

leavin g n o bran ches smaller than a n i n ch i n diameter .

Practically the same thi n g happe n s in over grazed -

meadows At first the sta n d gets poor ; then bare spots

.

make their appearan ce ; a n d fin a lly the su rface becomes , ,

tramped rooted up a , nd barren except i n spots O f

-
, .

course the an imals can n ot keep in good con ditio n The .

greed y ow n er loses o n both the an imal s a n d the pasture .

347 Ma . na g e m e n t M a n ife stly the r

.eme d y f o r ove r ,

stocki n g is to preven t the i n ju ry Proper discretio n must .

determin e the n umber of an imals that may pasture a

fie ld a ,n d the time they should feed co n ti n uously St ro n g .

so d will bear close grazi n g lon ger tha n will weak T imo .

thy orchard grass a

'

, n d clovers except the white

-
, sufle r , ,

immediately Blue grass redtop sedges a

— . nd
, rushes , ,

a re rather pe rsisten t a nd will with stan d co n siderable

close feedin g It is n o t p ro fita . ble to pasture too closely ,

however except in a , n eme rge n cy .

It is doubtful whether pastures of the less persisten t

grasses should remain lon ger than a few years without
bei n g plowed The plan ts may weaken the soil structure
.
,

break down a n d parasite s accumulate u n til the old sod

,

is a men ace Some of the most successful pastures a

. re

a part of the farm rotatio n In its turn say every four .

,

to te n years the pa sture may be moved with advan tage

,

to the pla n t the soil the a n imals a

, n d the fa rmer
, , .

Ho rses should no t always be pa stu red in o n e meadow

a n d cattle i n a n other F eedi n g habit s d ifle r e n ough to
.
'

be a factor in pasture ma n ageme n t With a large fie ld .

,

it is usually better to use on ly part of it at a time a n d rotate

 Pa
st
u res, Mea
d o ws a
,nd Bo i li n g Syst
e ms 311

the an imals if they a re n o t to be mi n gled Dairy cows .

should n o t be worried by horses n o r be in co n tact with

the wallows of hogs .

A part of the pasture should be allowed to g o un used ;

it n eed s a rest This permits the plan ts to grow up
. .

Legumes a n d othe r pla n ts that grow at the e n d of the

stem deman d this more in sisten tly than the grasses the ,

leaves of which have their growi n g poin t n ear the base

of the leaf blade They grow without startin g from the
- .

groun d each time a s mu st other plan ts Parts of the .

grass will n o t be eaten down To en courage a fresh start .

,

the mower should be run over these spots at least twice

a year Then the coarse stems make better hay when
.

cut In man y cases horses a

. n d cattle will pick up the

clipped stem s although they avoid them while stan di n g

, .

Sometime s early in the spri n g grass is n o t as palat

, ,

able as itis a fe w weeks later Waste is often preve n ted .

by waiti n g before turn in g the an imals in to the fie ld The .

yield a n d palatability of you n g grass i n crease with age .

348 Me a . d ows In ge n eral meadows fo r the p ro

.
,

duction of hay deman d about the same atten tion as

pastures Drain age of the we t lan d irrigation of the
.
,

d ry the use of superior crops the removal of weeds the

, , ,

reseed i n g of spots that a re killed an d the re n ewal by ,

rotatio n all deserve i n tellige n t p ractice Le ss atte n tio n .

is paid to harrowin g a n d c rop mixtures F o r hay plan ts .

,

should mature about the same time while in pastures ,

they should mature at differen t times except when the ,

meadows a re used fo r pastu re s a part of the year as ma n y

ae
r .

Th e n a
al meadows as al ready i n dicated a
tu r re bei n g, ,

gradually replaced by cultivated grasses o r other hay

crops because these yield more hay of better quality
, .

In rive r an d lake bottom s much la n d is still bea ri n g

-
,
31 2 The P ri nc ip les oA
f g rono my

salt grass sed ges rushes blue grass a

-
, n d red top
, all cut , , ,

fo r small hay yield s Man y of these areas ca n n ot be

.

reclaimed o n accou n t of the expe n se in labo r a n d capital ,

an d therefo re Will persist as pastures fo r a lo n g t ime

, , .

SO I LI N G

349 . U se . of the Un ited Sta

In sectio n s tes that .

have to feed cattle from high priced lan d a - n d whe re ,

labor is cheap pastures a re bei n g partly replaced by soil

,

ing . An imal s a re n o t pastu red but a re fed o n gre e n fo r

age hauled to them soon after it is cut a n d befo re it has

lo st its moisture Succule n ce is especially valuable fo r

.

dairy cow s a n d fo r s tock n raised fo r beef

bei g
.

In Germa n y soili n g i s practiced ge n erally while i n

, ,

Den mark the a n imal s a, re tethered l n the fie ld s i n stead

of bei n g allowed to pasture In both of these cou n trie s .

la n d is high priced a n d labo r is cheap

- Lan d must be .

made to produce as much as possible because exten sive ,

tract s a re n o t available to the farmers con sequen tly ,

waste about the ed ges of the fie ld s is decreased in every

wa y F .e n ces a r e commo n ly omitte d pe rmitti n g all the ,

la n d to be cultivated Sin ce the Un ited States still .

has u n u sed areas that may be pastured soilin g a n d tether ,

in g a re n o t practiced except locally , Some of th e soilin g .

crops a re show n in F igs 7 9 to 8 2 . .

350 Va lu e. Disadvan tages of soili n g a

. re

1 Much mo re labo r is required to m o w a

. n d feed the

crop in small quan tities each day tha n to pasture o r cut

the e n tire fie ld at o n ce .

2 Hayi n g each day is a hi n d ra n ce to other farm work

.

a n d is i n co n ve n ie n t o n that accou n t .

3 In stormy weather it is very disagreeable to ha n dle

.

crops .
314 The P ri nc i p les oA
f g ron o my

3 Th e
. feed is more eco n omically u sed sin ce there is ,

n o fouli n g from ma n u re heaps .

4 Th e cattle c a
. n be kept mo re comfortable whe n fed

green forage than whe n expo sed to the hot su n o r to win d

an d storm s in ope n pa stu re s .

F IG . 80
. So rg h u m s a
re da
a p te d to h o t, d ry c a
li m te s
.

5 . Man ure c a
n be p reserved a
n d applied to the right

crop in
otation thereby con servi n g fertility
r , .

6 In co n seque n ce about three times as ma n y cattle

.
,

may be kept o n a given area of la n d Their gai n in flesh .

is greater o r their milk flo w is kept more eve n tha n u n de r

other system s of feedi n g .

The disadva n tages o ff set the adva n tages in such a

-

wa y as to cause the utilizatio n of c rops fo r soili n g to be a

n
31 6 The P ri nc i p les o A
f g ro no my

e con omic question It may n o t be p ro fita ble as a gen e ral

.

practice in the Un ited States but it is in man y dairy ,

section s .

351 Soili n g c rops

. An y o n e crop is n o t ready fo r .

soilin g fo r more tha n o n e o r two week s A series of crops .

n eeds to be ca refully a rra n ged i n o rder to keep gree n feed

con sta n tly o n ha n d In alfalfa di st ricts this o ne crop.

,

ca n be kept ready th roughout the e n ti re sea son except

i n early spri n g when it is watery

, Ah alfalfa fie ld mowed .

part at a time un til full bloom i s reached c a n be mowe d

over in the same order yieldin g n early mature feed fo r ,

the rema in der of the summer a nd fall Alfalfa is more .

,

over the best soilin g crop kn own because of its high

, ,

yieldi n g power its palatability a , n d its high protein c o n ,

te n t It can n ot be surpassed in districts where it grows

.

successfully .

Green cereals cut in the milk corn fodder grasses peas , , , ,

soybea n s millets sorghums vetches rape clover a

, , nd , , , ,

cowpeas a re used separately a n d in combi n atio n A vari .

ation in time of plan ti n g chan ges the time of maturity

to con siderable exten t thus len gthen in g out the period ,

of useful n ess A series of small areas may be plan ted to

.

various crops so selected plan ted a n d a rra n ged as to , ,

give a con stan t supply of green forage As soon as the .

early crops a re used they should be resown o r others ,

plan ted to preve n t the lan d s lyin g idle Roots may ’

.

assist in autum n .

SUPPLEMEN TARY REA IN G D

Me a
d o ws a
n d Pa
sture s ,
J E . Win g .

Fa rm Gra sse s o f th e U n i te d Sta te s W J Sp illm an ,

. .

Fie ld CrO p s Wilso n a n d Wa rburt o n pp 3 79 390 301 306

— —
.
, , .
,

Fie ld CrO p Pro d uc tio n G Livin g sto n pp 37 0 380 ,

-
.
, . .

Fo r ag e C r0 p s V o o rh
,e e s pp 3 4 41 3 1 1 32 7 , .
-
,
-
.
 C HAPTER XXV

S O RGH UMS A N D
’
MI LLE TS

THE sorghums a n d millets a comparatively n e w a ,nd

rather disti n ct ki n d of c rop have rec e n tly come to n otice

,

i n the semi arid section s of the Un ited States

-
Th e .

Un ited States Departmen t of Agriculture fou n d them

growi n g in similar regio n s of the O ld World a n d i n t ro

d u c e d them here a s worthy of trial Th e millets spread .

rapidly fo r a time The sorghum s a re no w replaci n g

.

them slowly but surely save in a few districts .

Both a re by n ature d ry weather crops offeri n g po ssi -

,

bilitie so n the d ry farm a

— n d eve n u n der irrigatio n Pere n .

n ial forage crop s a re favo re d in the West la rgely becau se

of alfalfa s bei n g so extremely well adapted In spite of

’
-
.

this there seems to be a n ee d fo r an n ual drouth resistan t

,
-

crop s .

S O RGH U M H
( lc us
o , or An d ro p o g rm Sorg hu m)
,

352 . O rig i n . N0
will ever kn ow exactly just
o ne

where the group of pla n ts we kn ow as sorghums orig

in a te d Some evide n ce suggests Africa as the starti n g
.

p oi n t ,but othe r facts likewi se i n dicate a n i n depe n de n t

origi n in I n dia Man y wild grasses closely allied to the
.
,

domesticated members of the family a re fou n d growi n g ,

wild in Africa more in fact than i n a n y other part of

, ,

the world Th e sorghums a . re show n i n F igs 80 8 1 .

, ,

ad
n 82 .
So rg hu ms a
nd Mi llet
s 31 9
 The P ri n c i p les oA
f g rono my

As crop-pla n ts sorghums a
, re as old as a n y kn ow n .

In Egypt they were grown whe n histo ry was first re

corded They soon spread i n to Asia a
. s fa r as Ma n chu ria .

N o twith sta n d in g this the Greeks grew n o sorghum ;

,

n eithe r did the Roma n s u n til sho rtly after the C h ristia n

e ra whe n a
, n impo rtatio n from I n dia took place .

As fa r a s America n experie n ce i s co n cern ed the hi sto ry ,

of the crop is brief In 1 8 53 C hi n ese sorgo (when ce th e

.

word a s we have it) was b rought from F ra n ce In 1 8 57 .

,

the Un ited States Departmen t of Agriculture i n troduced

varieties from every part of the world where much wa s
grow n Th e n atio n al govern men t al so e n couraged the
.

spread a nd trial of these varieties Rather con sta n t .

developmen t h a s si n ce followed i n the regio n s adapt e d

to the particular members of the family brought here ,

although the c r0 p h a s n o t as yet become a majo r o n e Its .

possibilities a re pote n tial rather tha n realized that is its , ,

promises a re exte n sive but it s record s n arrow o n accou n t

, ,

of its havi n g had but little chan ce to prove itself .

353 Re la. ti on sh i ps Sorghum s belon g to the grass

.

family bein g in man y re spect s clo sely related to maize

, .

Jo h n so n grass ( Ho lc u s ha
-
lep en sis) is a bad weed in the
warmer part s of the Un ited States Vigorou s rootstocks .

are la rgely respo n sible fo r the pestiferous habits of this

pla t
n . N o t all Jo h n so n gra ss has roo tstocks
- si n ce a ,

few varieties of it a re a n n uals spreadi n g o n ly by seed

, .

The n comes Suda n grass a — n d Tu n is g rass which resemble

—
,

Jo hn so n grass a
- n d vary towa rd the so rghums All of .

these a re a n n uals lacki n g rootstocks which cause pere n

,

n ial rooti n g habits Suda grass seems to occupy a

n —.

place of in termed iate improvemen t betwe en Tu n is grass -

an d the cultivated so rghum s .

3 54 De sc ripti on
. C o rn is so much l ike sorghum
.

that by the ordin ary perso n they would be mista ken fo r

322 The Princ iples o A
f g rono my

diff e ren t purp oses Just as co rn varieties fall in to six .

groups o r types sorghum varieties n aturally group them

, ,

selves in to three distin ct types accordi n g to the purpose

fo r which they developed .

355 Va ri e t
. ie s Though other c la ssific a .tio n sa re ofte n

made the so rghum s a

,
re commo n ly c la ssified a s ( 1 ) sweet
sorghum ( )
2 g rai n
, so rghum an d ( )
3 b room co rn ,
- .

Particularly adapted fo r sirup grai n o r whisk productio n , , ,

each type is used fo r forage a n d g rai n O n accoun t o f .

the comparative in fan cy of the in dustry so rghum pro ,

duction has n o t become n early so specialized as corn o r

fruit growi n g in regard to selection of varieties fo r differe n t
-

purposes ; yet there is a gen eral adapta , tion of varieties

that can n ot be ign ored .

Sweet o r sacchari n e sorghum is grown p rima rily fo r

, ,

sirup a n d sugar F o r that purp ose so rgo a

. s it i s called , , ,

wa s brought to the Un ited State s The sudden g rowth .

of the beet sugar i n dustry however offere d a more ec o

-
, ,

no m l c al mea n s of p rocuri n g sugar Sho rtly afterwards .

sweet sorghum proved the most valuable type fo r forage .

Th e sweet sap seems to give it a palata bility n o t foun d

in other groups The stalks a re fin e a . n d leaves more

abun dan t than in other ki n ds The see d is small with .

,

distin ct red o r dark brow n color a n d bo rn e i n loose pa n i

‘

cles Amber O ran ge a

. n d Sumac a
, re the mo st exte n ,

sive ly grown varieties Red Amber Plan ter s F rien d a nd

’
-
, ,

Goosen eck a re also wo rthy of men tio n .

Those varieties used fo r grai n have little if a n y swee t , ,

juice in the pith a n d they a re coa rse r than the s

, a c

chatin e type Shorter n odes fewer leaves larger kern els

.
, , ,

a n d mo re clea r-cut sheathi n g cha racterize grai n so rghum s .

Th e hea ds a re gen erally compact a n d white yellow o r , ,

dark brown Ka fir milo feterita durra shallu a

.
, nd , , , ,

k o wlia ng a re most commo n va rieties Milo a nd k o w liang .

 Sorg hu ms a
n d Millet
s 323

mature earlier than k a fir in about n i n ety to o n e h un

dred days N o t on ly a
.

. re the k ern els used fo r grai n but ,

the fodder is used to some exten t fo r forage .

B room-corn is distin guished by the lon g bru sh o n which

small seed is born e sparsely Sin ce this type is grown .

fo r whisk the len gth a

, n d even n ess of the pedicels a re

primarily importan t Stan dard broom co rn which is

.
-
,

gen erally about twelve feet ta ll bears bru sh from eighteen ,

to thirty i n ches lon g A shorter brush from twelve to

.

eightee n inches in len gth is produce d o n a smaller plan t

which is kn own as dwarf b oom corn because of bein g
r -

on ly four to six feet in height .

356 Di stri b uti on a

. nd a da pta ti o n A s might be .

expected from a plan t of tropical origin sorghum is n a t ,

ura lly adapted to a regio n of warmth a n d abun da n t s un

shin e By choice of vari eties o r from havin g been grown

.

fo r cen turies in arid regio n s it has come to prefer a d ry,

atmosphere Greatest yield s a

. re of course obtai n ed , ,

where moderate moisture is available but it c a n be suc ,

c e ssfully produced in comparatively d ry districts It is .

rathe r d ro uth resista n t in sectio n s simila r to South Afri ca

-

a n d the G reat Plai n s sectio n of the Un ited States Piper 1

.

says , N 0 degree of summe r heat see m s too i n ten se fo r

the sorghums but they a , re i n jured both i n sp ri n g a n d in

fall by light frosts .

Grain sorghum varieties mature in such short grow

-

in g seaso n s that they a

- re able to matu re in South Dakota

a nd s outhward Some fo rage varieties do well in Mi n n e

.

sota a n d O n ta rio Rapid growth coupled with d routh

.

resista n ce en ables this c rop to p roduce mo re eco n omical

grain a n d fo rage tha n co rn o n the G reat Plai n s whe re

rai n fall is less tha n twe ty fiv e i n ches though co rn has

n -
,

n o t bee n replace d to a n y ma rked exten t whe re the a nn ual

1
a
Fo r g e Pl ats p
n , . 26 2 .
324 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g rono my

precipitation exceeds this The best area fo r sorghum .

in America begin s in about the same lon gitude as doe s

that of d ry farm Wheat Th e co n siderable resistan ce to
- .

alkali that is man ifested by sorghums as a class should

also haste n the spread of the crop in arid region s .

N early all arid regio n s of the O ld World grow sorghum ,

with Egypt South Africa Australia I n dia a

, n d n o rthe rn
, , ,

C hin a leadin g in total productio n Th e order of impor .

tan ce can n ot be ascertain ed si n ce statistics a re u n avail ,

able partly because much of the crop which is u sed fo r

forage is fed without bein g measured In the Un ited .

States moreover statistics a

,
re unreliable when it come s
,

to details Kan sas is fa

. r in the lead p roduci n g perhap s ,

half the en tire crop N ebraska O klahoma Texas .

, , ,

C olorado a ,
nd C aliforni a grow small acre a ges These .

states a nd Utah perhaps some others have large

tracts of n e w lan d that could be made to produce so r
ghum eco n omically In some cultivated section s oth er
.
,

crop s might be replaced p ro fita bly Man y trials by .

farmers a n d Experimen t Statio n s must p reced e a d e fin ite

statemen t as to where the crop will succeed o r fail .

Roughly however va st promise lie s in the u n developed

, ,

po ssibilities of sorghums in d ry regio n s west of the n i n ety

eighth meridian This of course implies that selected
.
, ,

varieties be tested as was suggested fo r corn That some .

tropical sorghums have required more than seven mon th s

to matu re when grown in Florida shows h o w e ssen tial
the use of adapted varieties is to successful production .

Soil s sh ould be well d rain ed a n d po rous to permit roo t

-

pen etratio n Sorghums have a reputation fo r bein g

.

hard o n the lan d by causin g the crop that follows to

yield lightly Some perso n s thin k this is due to the power
.

of the plan t to d ry the soil con siderably below the Wilt

in g po in t of other cr0 ps C areful preparatio n of the .
326 The Pri n c i ples of Ag ro n o my

359 . H a
rve stin g . grain cro p Wh en fully mature , th e
is o ut either with a co rn bin der with a sled cutter o r by
- -
, ,

han d Th o rough d ryin g before threshin g preven ts heat

.

in g of th e grain C urin g i s most easily accomplished in

.

shocks which a re built wide at the bottom to keep the

heavy headed grain from fallin g over The bun dles a

- re .

either run through thresher o r the heads run in a n d the

stover withd rawn a n d shocked o r s tacked un til used fo r

rough feed O cca sion ally the farmer he ads the plan ts
.

particula rly dwarf strai n s by h and o r machin ery a nd

th reshes on ly the heads Th e stalks a re pastur ed o r .

ha rvested sepa rately .

Yield s as high as seve n ty bushel s a n acre o c cu r though ,

twen ty is more commo n a n d fo rty is good In years so .

d ry that corn fails sorghum has given twelve to twen ty

,

bushel yields .

Forage is cut gree n silage i n the soft dough a ,

n d fodder ,

just at bloom C orn bin ders cut large areas more cheaply
- .

than ha n d labor
- Ha y is made someti
. m es by b ro ad
casti n g thick stan ds cuttin g with a mower a n d cur i n g
, ,

as grass In thi s case the stem s ought n o t to exceed the

.

th ickn ess of a pen cil a n d sho ul d be cut befo re bloomin g .

Acre yields varyin g from te n to forty ton s of g reen

—

f eed have been reported F ifteen to twen ty ton s a re .

taken o ff the lan d frequen tly In cu red hay o r d ried .

fodder the return s n e t from two to eight ton s in from o n e

,

to six cuttin gs depen din g o n the season a n d moistu re

available .

Th e whisk of dwarf broom co rn is pulled from the stem

-

at the upper n ode a n d removed f rom the fie ld at o n ce .

In sta rieties th e stems a

n da rd v a re cut pa rtly th rough
,

two feet o r so above g ro un d a nd t wo rows ben t across

each othe r maki n g V shaped platfo rm s o r ta ”
bles of
-
,
“

,
“
crossed stalks Th e b rush as the whisk is called i s
.
, ,
 So rg hu ms
‘

aM nd i lle t
s 327

no w cut o ff a n d plac ed o n the tables to d ry After .

bei n g cured in sheds it is m a de in to bales of 300 o r

,

400 pou n ds Sometimes seed i s allowed to ripen but

.
,

thi s lessen s the va lue of the whisk more than it in creases

the value of the grai n In both ca se s thre shers remove
.

the seed from the brush which is thr ust agai n st the c y lin
,

d er a n d the n withd rawn From two hun d red to seven .

hun dre d poun ds of cured bru sh represen t ordin ary return s

from a n ac re .

Wh en grown fo r siru p sweet so rghum matures in the ,

fie ld. While still stan din g the leaves a re st ripped o ff ;

heavy rollers press the juice from the culms Heat a nd .

settlin g cla rify the juice of impu rities Warmin g in .

shallow pan s con cen t rates the sirup to the desi red c o n
sisten cy of 30 p e r cen t moisture About half o r two .

thirds of the juice presses o ut in a good mill a to n yield ,

i n g from 7 00 to 1 200 poun ds of juice which con ce n t rates

from te n to thirty gallon s of sirup From fiv e to fiftee n .

ton s of stems grow o n a n ac re .

3 60 U se. .Sorghum grain is used o n ly fo r stock

feed in Am erica though in Asia a , n d Africa it is a n im

portan t human food The grain i s starchy a . n d hard .

Un less cru shed fed wet o r mix ed with other feed s a part
, , ,

of it escapes digestion Eighty to n in ety poun ds of .

corn equal o n e hun d red poun d s of sorghum in feed in g

value If fed alo n e the grain h a
. s a co n stipati n g effect
, ,

which is relieved by the accompan yin g protein feed mece s

sary to balan ce the ration C olored seed is sharply .

bitter due to tan ni n Poultry men prize the grain h ighly

, .

fo r th eir fowls .

The d ry stems a n d lea ves of the sorghum make fair

roughage As silage so rghum n early equals co rn ; as
.
,

ha y it ra n ks about the same as oats wheat o r ba rley , , .

It is cut fo r hay with mowers o r bi n ders Stock may pa s .

328 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g rono my

ture c on siderable q uan tities of feed from green fie ld s ,

sin ce un der favorable con dition s it makes several growths

a n d suckers freely O n e serious dan ger however be sets
.
, ,

its use as pa sture After bein g stun ted by excessive

.

heat a n d d routh p russic acid a virulen t poi so n s

, o metime s
, ,

develops in the leaves o r stems This will kill stock in .

a fe w m in utes Exactly what con dition s cause poison in g

.

i s n o t clear but it seems that if th e plan t is kept growin g

, ,

there i sn o dan ger The d ried fodder does n o ti nju re stock

. .

Sirup man ufacturin g is n o t Widely practiced Th e .

deman d fo r whisk supplies fo r the m a n uf acture of b rooms

en c o urages broom corn production Illin ois Kan sas

- .
, ,

Missouri a n d N e wYo rk pro duce 8 0 p e r cen t of the Whisk

,

crop .

3 6 1 En emi e s
. Kern el smut attacks in dividual seed s
. .

Fo rmalin seed trea tme n t lessen s the in ju ry Head smut .

covers the whole head a n d ha s n o t been succ e ssful ly

treated Blight may kill the leaves Selection of resist
. .

a n t varieties c a n probably c o n t rol it .

In Texas the sorghum midge does c o n siderable d a

,
m
age to the head s C o rn e awo m s
r r
. fall a my worms
r - -
, ,

chin ch bugs a-
nd , sorghum ap h id s do some d a mage .

Wise cultivation will largely con trol in sect s a n d pla n t

disea ses a s well as weeds .

362 Stora
.
g e a n d m ark e tin g T h e b rush fr om b r
.oom
corn is marketed in a n umber of grades at o n e to six cen ts
a poun d depen din g o n the len gth u n iformity fle x ibility , , ,

a n d colo r of the whi s k C areful dryin g sweatin g a

. nd , ,

balin g a re e sse n tial i n curi n g fo r quality si n ce the high ,

moi sture con ten t re n ders moldin g a nd discoloration

likely Grai n fodder a
.
, n d silage a re ha n dled as is c o m
, ,

but very little gets to market It is primarily a local .

c rop N o t even th e sirup which is a farm delicacy a

.
,
nd

n o t a ma rket p roduct gets fa r away , .

330 The P ri nc i p les o A
f g ro n o my

E urope use them exten sively fo r forage They grow well .

in d ry hot district s with short season s sometimes matu r

, ,

in g in fo rty to fifty day s They do well wherever so r.

ghum pays a n d w ill g row fa rther n orth

, but they have ,

several faults which c o nfin e them to district s where so r

g h u m s ca n n ot matu r e su ffi c ie n tly an d which cause , them
to be used o n ly a s catch crops whe n it is too late to start
-

more valuable plan ts More than a millio n acres a

. re

grow n but cultivation is dimi n ishin g rather than ih

,

creasi n g .

3 65 Re la
. ti on shi p a n d d e sc ri pt i on Th e millet s i n .

c lu d e te n di ffere n t species i n fiv e o r more ge n e ra Th e .

most commo n valuable type i s the foxtail millet (Seta ri a

i ta li c a ) . In thi s g roup a r e commo n Ge r ma n Italia n an d , , ,

Hun garia n variet ies O ther types a

. re b room co rn millet -
,

Ja p a n e se ba rn ya rd millet a n d pea
, rl millet F oxtail .

millet is closely related to the common weed g ree n ,

foxtail (Seta ri a vi rid i s) It wa

. s cultivated i n p rehisto ric
times C hi n ese records men tio n it about 27 00 B C
. . .

The plan t s a re a n n ual gra s se s very leafy growi n g from

, ,

o n e to fou r feet tall Th e head s a

. re from two to eight

i n ches lo n g in rather compact spikes which i n some

varieties a re disti n ctly lobed Th e seed is yellowish
.
,

about o n e millimeter in diameter with the hull boxed ,

aroun d the grain N um e ro u s bristly hairs project out

.

ward from the spike .

366 C ulture a
. n d va l ue From two to fou r pecks of
.

seed a re sow n to the ac re usually with drill s Ro w

, .

plan tin g is used occasion ally fo r seed production The .

slighte st frost s kill millet ; hen ce late plan tin g pays .

An y time in Ju n e seem s favorable .

Quality in the hay deteriorates rapidly after full bloom ,

whe n the yield a n d quality a re both g reate s t F o r cattle .

,

millet hay is about equal to grass but is i n ferior to clover ,

 So rg hu ms a
nd Mi llet
s 33 1

ad a
n lfalfa Ho rses suffer i n several ways from co n tin
.

uo us fee di n g of millet hay Action of the kid n eys and .

bowel s i n creases ; join tsswell a n d get lame ; bo n y texture

weaken s Wisdom suggests that c attle as well as horses

.

be fed mixed roughage rather than straight millet .

See d crops yield from fif te e n to fifty fifty poun d -

bushels a n ac re Just before maturity bi n ders cut the

.
,

seed crop which cures in the shock Ripe heads shatter

,
.

ba d ly . O rdi n ary th reshe rs are used to separate the seed

from the straw .

A smut attacks the seed but it c a n be destroyed by the

,

formalin trea tme n t that is used o n seed wheat C hin ch .

bugs a re fo n d of millet which fo r that rea , son is often used , ,

as a trap crop to be plowed un der when the i n sects have

collec te d o n the plan t s
a
.

367 O th e r type s
. Ja p an e se .b rn ya rd millet is
coarser than foxtail millet has bran ched head s a n d is
, ,

used fo r soili n g but does n o t cure readily fo r hay It is

, .

grow n widely fo r food in C hin a I n dia a n d other parts of , ,

Asia .

B room corn millet has a b rush like head a

- n d larger -

see d than the common type It grows as a cerea l crop in .

Russia a n d also to some exte n t fo r forage Th e Dako ta s .

an d Man itoba produce co n siderable which is also used ,

mo stly fo r forage .

Pearl millet sometimes call e d p e n ic illa

, riais twice as ,

large a s oth er millets ha s a rathe r woody stem fille d with

,

d ry pith a , n d bears seed in a compact cyli n d rical head

from Which it has been called cat tail millet It is rather - .

coarse a n d d ry fo r hay In the South its immen se .

,

yieldsof gree n forage make it a n d teosi n te a n other a n n ual ,

very similar to corn popular fo r feed As much a

,
s fifty .

ton s to the acre of green fodder ha s bee n cut in o n e seaso n

from each of these crops .
332 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g ro no my

U
S PPLEME N TARY REA IN G D
The C o rn Cro p s, M o n tg o m e ry , pp 27 9 342 .
— .

Fie ld C rO ps, Wilso n a n d Wa rburt o n , pp 258 263 , 3 36 347

— — . .

C e re a ls in Am e ric a , T
F H un t, pp 38 2 399
. . .
—
.

Fie ld C ro p Pro d u c tio n G L iv i n g sto n , pp 22 1 238

, . .
—
.

Fo ra g e P l a n ts , C V .P ip e r ,.
pp 260 —
304 . .

Fo ra g e C r o p s, E B . V o o rh
. e e s , p p 3 7 1 3 1 .
-
.

Fo ra g e a n d F i b e r C r o p s , T F H un t , pp 1 1
. 1 .
—
1 20 . .

So u the rn Fie ld C ro p s, F J
ug g a r , pp 23 1 247
. D .
-
.

l
Cy c ped
o i a o f A m e ri c an A g ri c u lt u re , Vo l II , pp 3 8 4—
388 , 46 9- 47 4, . .

57 4 58 2
—
.

U S D A Fa
. . rm e rs
. ulle tin s
.
’
B
N o 1 01 Mille ts
. . .

174 ro o m C o rn
. B .

288 Ka hr C o rn. .

322 Milo . .

e tte r Gra B
in -so rg h um C rO p s .

458 The es . B
t Two Swee t So rg h um s fo r Fo ra
ge .

552 K fir a sa .Gra a
in C ro p .

605 Sud a n G ra.ss .

334 The Pri nc i ple s o A
f g ro no my

the ca se A ce n tury ago wool a

. n d silk were the comm on

textiles .

C otto n ha d bee n grown fo r c e n turie s i n C hi n a a n d fo r

a shorter period in I n dia a n d Egypt a n d bei n g a n ative of ,

the N e w World fo r a n u n kn ow n pe riod of time i n Peru

,

a n d other pa rts of Ame rica N o t u n til the begi n n in g of.

the n i n eteen th cen tu ry however did it cou n t fo r much

, ,

as a world crop I n troduce d in to the Southern Sta

. tes it ,

thrived a nd w as cultivated o n a small scale befo re th e

Revolution Washi n gton a
. n d Je fie rs o n g rew it with the
'

help of slaves who separated the lin t from the see d by

han d When Eli Whitn ey s cotton g in proved successful
.
’
-
,

cotton growi n g sprea

- d rapidly It has supported most .

of the peo ple in the South supplied a livelihood fo r ,

m illio n s in n orthern factories a n d helped to build a n ,

im men se foreign trade O n the other han d it was o n e of

.

the big factors in i n ten sif yi n g the misun derstan di n g that

led to the C ivil Wa r .

3 69 Re la
. ti on shi ps Hollyhock is the most co mmon
.

plan t that is closely related to cotton ; the mallows a re

al so in the same family In the same ge n us a . re fiv e

species of cotton ( )
1 Upla n d ( )
2 S e a i sla n d ( )
3 ,
-
,

E gyptia n (4) Peru via n a

, n d ( 5) Be n gal o r I n dia n
, Of , .

these lon g a n d sho rt fibe re d upla n d o r lo n g a

- n d sho rt

sta ple cotto n co mprise most of the commercial fie ld s in

America Some Se ai sla n d is grown however in the
.
-
, ,

tidewater regio n s particularly in Georgia The chief

, .

differen ce in the species is len gth of fibe r which varies ,

from o n e half i n ch in short staple to two a

— n d o n e half
— -

i n ches in Seaislan d lon g sta

- ple producin g a fibe r of
,
-

i n termediate len gth .

Altogether there a re several hu n d red va rieties of cotto n .

These a re grouped i n to eight types o r va riety group s: ( )

1
C l u ste (2) Semi cluster ( 3) Rio Gra n de (4) Ki n g (5)
r ,
-
, , ,
 Fi bers a
nd Misoell a neo us Cro ps 335

Big bo ll, (6) Lo n g lim be d , (7 ) I n termediate , n d (8 ) Lo n g

- a
staple Uplan d These n ames , in gen eral , in dicate growth
.

habits o r growth regio n s Jackson , Hawkin s , Peterkin , .

a a
L yto n , Toole , Ki n g , n d Allen Lo n g st ple re stan dard
- a a
varieties
37 0 . De sc ri ption . C otto n
has a deep ooting habit -r
,

but also sen ds n umerous horizon tal bran ches in the upper
three in ches of soil Th e stem is solid woody con sider
.
, ,

ably bran ched a n d from three to six feet lo n g

, Th e .

leaves a re broad three lobed a ,nd palmately vein ed -

,
-
,

while the flo we rs a re usually white o r yellowish co n tai n

in g a pistil with a divided stigma a n d a compact group

of stame n s bearin g waxy pollen Though n aturally .

cross-fertilized by in sects the flo we rs a re capable of self

,

fertilization Small stems arisin g from the main bran ches

.

o r sub b ra n ches bear the flo w

- e rs an d later the boll which ,

is a heavy pod co n tain in g the lin t a n d embedded seed .

Un der a microscope mature lin t shows a d efin ite twist ,

in g perhap s due to d ryi n g of the tubular fiber

, This .

twist roughen s the surface of the lin t stren gthen i n g the

grip o n e fibe r gets o n an other when it is made in to th read .

E ach fibe r a si n gle cell is a product of the flo we r

, , It .

sur oun ds the seed which is about o n e fourth i n ch in

r ,
—

diameter A coat of oil that covers the lin t must be re

.

moved before cotto n is dyed o r before it is made in to

abso rbe n t cotton .

37 1 Ad a
.
ptati o n C otto n Will grow in most soils ;
.

clays a nd loams moderately d ry a , n d well d rai n ed are -

,

most favorable Moderate moisture a . nd frost free -

season s from six to seven mon ths in duration en courage

the best growth Because these con dition s exist in the
.

So uthern States as n owhere else it is this sectio n th at ,

produces mo st of the cotton of the world O f twen ty .

million 500 p oun d bales the Un ited States produc e s 1 2

-
,
336 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g ro n o m y

millio n I n dia 4 million Egypt

, ,million The other 7 .

million bales a re the combi n ed harvest of B razil Peru , ,

Mexico Turkey a, nd , C hin a Texas Geo rgia Mis

.
, ,

sissipp i Alabama South C aroli n a Arka n sas O klahom a

, , , , ,

N orth C aroli n a a n d Loui sia n a p roduce 96 pe r ce n t of

,

the American crop a n d ra n k in the orde r n amed So .

exclu sively does Texas grow cotto n that 40 pe r cen t of

h e r im moved la n d is devoted to this crop .

3 7 2 C ulture
. . It is a practic e common but u n wi se , ,

to grow cotto n o n a fie ld several years in succession Th e .

stalks a re b roken a n d plowed u n der o r burn ed B e ds

a re made by turn i n g two furrows towa rd each othe r

every three to five feet the spaces often remain in g un,

broken u n til the first cultivatio n Seed at the rate of .

o n e -half to o n e bushel a n acre is d rilled i n to the se bed s

by a o n e ro w plan ter after a shallow furrow is ope n ed

-

w
.

Wh en the plan ts a re ell started dirt is thrown away ,

from them a n d they a re chopped out un til the plan ts

a re left o n e o r t wo feet apart in the ro w F rom o n e to .

fiv e cultivatio n s a re give n gen erally shallow to avoid

, ,

cuttin g the roots which a , re abu n da n t n ea r the surface .

Much of the cultivation has been don e with o n e mule -

plows a n d poo r machi n e ry but recen tly two ro w culti

,
-

va to rs good ha rrow s a
, n d e ffic ie n t plows have been in
,

tro d u c e d i n to man y section s Exten sive cultivatio n .

without rotation a nd without barn yard fertilizer has

resulted i n the rui n of ma n y fie ld s i n spite of the fact that

lin t a n d oil cause n o d rai n o n mi n eral fertility C otto n .

seed meal a n d comme rcial fe rtilizers a re u sed to some

exten t ; d ive rsifie d farmin g rotation a n d better culture

, ,

a re badly n eed ed .

Boll weevils a
- n d bollwo rm s have caused much d a mage ;
cotto n wilt a n d root ro t both pla n t di seases , in jure the ,

crop co n siderably Better farmin g meth od s through

.
338 The Pri nc i p les o A
f g ro no my

browsed Burning the stalks is ba

. d p rac tic e un l e ss ,

n ecessary in in sect o r disease c on trol because they add ,

organ ic matter to th e soil when plowed un der .

Flax has been grown from the earliest tim es as a fibe r

crop Priests used it fo r their robes a
. n d fo r w ra pp gi n

mummies a n d the people made clothi n g from it in both

,

Palesti n e a n d Egypt lo n g befo re the tim e of C hrist .

37 5 De sc ri ption
. The plan t con sists of a slightly
.

b a che d ta
r n p
-ro o t ; a sle n de r stem fr om o n e to th r e e

feet lon g either simple o r bran ched ac cordin g to whethe r

,

it is i n thick o r in thin patches ; lin ear lan ceolate leave s

that a re altern ate a nd n early sessi le ; bea utiful five ,

parted delicate blue flo we rs; o r a globular pod fille d

,

a
with te n flat o val russet seed s rich in oil The bast
-
, .

”
fibe r o ralin en i s se pa r ted from the stem by
, , rettin g

37 6 Ad a a
.

.
p t ti o n F lax will g.row o n an y kin d of goo d
soil i n climates that permit the successful productio n of
wheat Ru ssia produces two thi rds of the fibe r fla
.
-
x of

the world ; Austria Hun gary Fran c e Belgium a -

, nd , ,

Holla n d grow most of the remain in g third The crop of .

the Un it e d States grown largely fo r see d is produc ed

, ,

almo st entirely in the three states : N orth Dakota ,

Min n esota a n d South Dakota

,
Sin c e man y states in .

wheat areas have fla x growi n g possibilities the crop will

-
,

probably spread much Like the Un ited States Ar .

,

g e n ti n ag rows fl a x f o r se e d p roduci n g 3 4 p e r ce
, n t of the
en tire see d -crop This exceed s the production of a
. ny

other coun try Russia is thi rd a . n d the Un ited Sta tes

secon d in importa n ce .

37 7 Culture
. Most of the fla
. x crop in t h e Uni ted
States is produced o n n ewly b roken groun d before a
-
ny
 Fi bers a
nd Mi soell a
ne a
us C ro ps 339

other crop is sown After plowin g the lan d is smoothed

.
,

an d two o r th ree pee ks to the acre plan ted o n e o r two

in ches deep by mea n s of grain d rills Little t reatmen t .

F IG . 83 .
—
A g ood c ro p o f a
fl
x se e d . Wi sc o n si n .

before harvest is given The seed a n d fibe r crops a

. re

harvested differen tly .

Seed fla x is cut with a grain b in der an d th resh ed by a n

ordin ary thre shin g machin e Fo r fibe r the fla x is pulled

.
,

by han d tied in bundles a

,
n d cured i n shocks ,
The .

n ext p ro c ess retti n g

, con sists of sprea , ding the stems
340 The P rinc iple s o A
f g ro no my

thi n ly o n the gro un d a nd ex po sin g the m to d e w o r wate r

fo r three o r four we eks This loose n s the fibe r whi ch i s

.
,

removed by po un din g with mallets o r by be ndi n g i n a

machin e A thorough bea

. tin g with woo de n p addle s
complete s the se pa rati o n a fte r whi ch combin g se pa
, rate s

the lo ng fibe r (fla x lin e ) from t h e sho rt (to w)

37 8 U se a n d va
.

. lue Lin se ed o il use d in th e man u

.
,

facture of pa in ts va rni shes , m e dicin e oilcloth a

, nd , ,

lin oleum is extracte d from the see d by c ru shi n g h ea

, tin g , ,

a nd pressin g o r by tre a tin g with n aphtha Residues .

,

pressed in to o il c a- ke o r g roun d in to li n see d mea l a re ,

valua ble fo r stock feed The straw con ta

-
. i ns some feed
in g value a n d al so a little brittle fibe r tha
, t ca n be mad e

in to co arse baggin g o r use d fo r pa ck in g in upholstery .

Well c ure d fibe r makes a cloth th at is valuable because

-

of its stren gth a n d unif o rm whi ten ess ; beca use it doe s
no t f ray in la un de ri n g a s does cloth m a d e from cotton o r
wool ; a n d because it takes s ta rch well Fo r these rea .

so n s lin en is use d fo r c olla rs e uh s other appa rel a

'

, , n d fo r , ,

household articles that must be of spo tless wh ite .

O THE R FI B ERS

37 9 . H e mp ( Ca
n na
bis iv
s t aa
which is related to th e
) ,

mulbe rry a n d the

”
mock o r o sage o ra n ge yields so me
, ,

coarse fibe r fo r ropes burlap baggin g a , nd matti n g , .

Th e best crops a re p rod uced i n co rn growi n g s ectio n s tha t -

have a moist fertile soil rich in l im e T ho ugh other se c

,
.

tio n s have favorable soil a nd clim ate the blue-grass ,

regio n s of Ken tucky a n d Ten n essee an d pa rt s of N e w ,

Yo rk a n d N e brask a as yet produce most of the c r0 p .

The stamen s a n d the pi s til s a re bo rn e o n diff ere n t

hemp plan ts Stamin ate plan ts bran ch less tha

. n the

pistillate a n d o n that accoun t yield a bette r fibe r

, Both .
 342 The Pri nc i p le s oA
f g rono my

they a re in n o r what kin d of plan ts they a

, re p rovided h e ,

ca n make s ome use of them The use may in some cases.

be harmful but this makes n o di fferen ce ; if he wan ts th e

,

plan t he grows it as a crop

, .

0 38 1 Ca. bb ag e ( Bra s si c a o lera c ea ) an d k o hl ra b i, ( ra

B s
si c a o lerac ea va r ca u lo -ra p
. a) are us ed to some ex t e n t fo r

feed in g in isolated district s Koh lrabi n o t widely grow n

.
,

F IG . 84
. a
C bba
ge a
sah e ld c ro p . De la
ware .

in America , is a
n en la rgemen t of the stem while cabbage ,

head s a re massed leaves Kohl rabi is sown thi nn ed

.
, ,

cultivate d harv ested stored a

, n d fed in the s
, ame wa, y as
ruta baga s; in yield a n d feedi n g value it is al so very

similar to the rutabaga C abbages a .re commo n ly sown

in hot houses a n d t ra n splan ted i n Ma y o r J u n e two o r

three feet apart in hill s with rows equally fa r apart .

F o r feedin g the crops may be seed e d thick i n fie ld s a

,
fter
 Fibers n d Misc ella
a ne o us Cr ps o 343

the last frost a n d thi n n e d late r Their c hi ef use is fo r .

human food though in some section s they a

, re grown ,

fo r stock-feed yieldin g o c casion ally as high as forty

,

ton s of forage to the acre C abbage is val uable fo r milch .

cows but is rather d iffic ult to cure ; as pasturage it

,

serves both cattle a n d sheep very well A cabbage fie ld .

is shown in Fig 8 4 . .

38 2 Ra p (
.e B r assi c a N ap )
u s g rows fr om t wo to fou r

fe et tall sen din g out man y broad succulen t leaves in ,

early gro wth Sown broadcast at the rate of three to

.

five poun ds a n acre it will ke ep down weeds ; it yields

,

most in rows two to three feet apart It may be sown .

in late sprin g o r d urin g early summer either alo n e o r with

grain Sometimes it i s plan ted two o r thre e we eks a
. fter
grain le a
, fin g out abun dan tly when the grai n is cut .

Sometim es it is sown between corn rows after cultivation

has cease d It is valuable fo r hog o r sheep pa sture but
.
,

is n o t cure d fo r d ry forage Yields a re rather heavy . .

Dwarf Essex is the usual variety .

383 K a le ( Bra
. ssi c a o le ra c ea
) a headle ss cabbage , ,

furn ishes c o n siderable win ter soilin g in the coast region

of Wa shi n gton a nd O rego n bein g cut fo r green feed ,

durin g the mild win ter The yields vary from te n to .

thirty to n s of green forage a n ac re with fifte en to twen ty ,

ton s common un der favorable co n dition s Thi s slightly .

exceeds the yield of rape Sin ce all the mustards feed .

heavily o n min eral food of th e soil fertilizer is be n efic ia l ,

in c o n siderable quan tities F arm man ure in the We st .

a nd c ommercial fertilizers in the E ast a n d in the O ld

World a re u sed to supply these deman d s .

384 En emi e s
. Although in ten sive culture sho uld
.

easily co n trol the weed s some in sects a nd t h e disease

,

club root co mmon to the whole fa

-
, mily a re by n o mea n s ,

easily eradicated The club root ( P la . smo di o rp habra ssi-

344 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g ro m my

c w) fun gus develops i n side the root distortin g it a nd ,

causin g the plan ts to die The spo res live in the soil
.

awaitin g a chan ce to attack other roots Long rotatio n .

is the on ly method of co n trol k n own fo r soil on c e in fested .

Th e cabbage root maggot ( P eg o my i abra

- ssi c ce ) lays '

its eggs n ear the root a nd t h e maggot riddles the root

,

causin g the plan ts to look sickly a n d then to die One .

method of co n trol is to place a spoo n ful of carbon

bisulfid e in the soil four to six in ches from the plan t a nd ,

to compress the soil tightly over hole The liqui d be .

comes gas a n d pen et rate s to the maggots .

Pa ris green o r a rsen ate of lead used as fo r potato bugs , ,

that is sprayed o n youn g plan ts aids greatly in co n trol

, ,

lin g the green cabbage worm ( Pi e ms ra a

p )
e P lowi n g a'

s .

soo n as the crop is removed also helps co n siderably .

The cabbage aphi s ( Ap hi s bra ssi c ce ) feed s o n the leave s

a n d but fo r pa rasitic en emie s would be decidedly in j ur i

ous to all cru cifers It is best han dled by tho rough

.

sprayin g with tobacco solution black leaf 40 o ne -

part in four hun d red of water .

Flea beetles cabbage loopers cabbage webworms

-
, , ,

cross striped cabbage worm s dia

-
mon d back moths a
, nd -
,

c abbage cu rculio s do damage in various ways The .

method of con trol is la rgely o n e of preven tion by mea ns

of culture a n d rotation An y good man ual gives in sec ti

.

cide treatmen ts .

TO B ACC O (N i cana
i
ot Ta bac um)

Some plan ts have always supplied m a n with

d rugs
which he has chosen to u se fo r remedies stimulan ts o r , ,

n a rcotics .O pi um a
n d cocai n e were u sed fo r a lon g tim e
to soothe stimulate o r deaden n erv ous respon se After
, ,
.

the discovery of America tobacco became the chi ef

,
346 The Pri nc i p les o A
f g ro n o my

by cuttin g the whole plan t C urin g requires steady d ry

.

in g that keeps the leaves pliable Large barn s a re filled .

with th e leaves hun g over la ths Slow fire s a re ofte n .

u sed to hasten curin g in w e t weather .

When well cur e d the leaves a ,

re un ifo rmly b ro w n a nd

n o t b rittle O u a damp day they a

. re strippe d o ff the
,

stem a n d tied in bun dles These a re later made i n t o

.

larger bun dles a n d allowed to sweat If wareh ouses .

a re n ear , the loose bun dles a re sold but if shippi ng is ,

n ece s sary the tobacco is packed in large hogshea

, ds .

Sin ce carefully grad e d leaves b rin g the best price c o n

-
,

sid e ra ble care is exercised to separate leaves of differen t

quality a n d to pla c e o n ly o n e grade in a package .

3 88 Sug a
. r cane - About half the sugar of the wo rld
.

i s made f om s ga ca n e ( Sa
r u r- c c ha ru m ofi ic i n a
r um) wh ich is ,

p oduced o ly
r n i n t op ical
r a n d semi tropical coun t ries
- .

F IG . 85 . a
Pl
ntin g su g a
r c ae
- n . L aa
o u isi n .
 Fibers ad Mis lla a
n s C ops ce ne o r 347

B ritish In dia Cuba Java a , n d Ha wa u a re the c hief p ro

, ,

d u c e rs Lo uisian a a
. n d Texas produce all that i sg rown in

the Un ited Sta tes Alluvial so ils alon g the lower Mis
.

sissipp i supply abun dan t moisture a nd therefore p ro , ,

duce g ood yields .

Sugar-can e which is a perenni al ha

, s plum e like tassels ,
-
,

bears n o ears has buds at the n odes a

,
n d res embles c o rn ,

in size n ature of stem leaves a

,
n d root sys tem The , ,
- .

buds grow when the stalks a re covered with moist

ea rth as they a
,
re when a n e w crop is started (F ig

Afte r plan tin g suffic ie n t cultivation is given to co n t rol

,

weed s .

C hemic al an alyses in dicate the tim e fo r harvest by

showin g when the sugar co n ten t is h ighest The can e is .

strippe d of its leaves toppe d in the fie ld a n d c ut close

’

, ,

to the groun d with large kn ives Sin ce the suga r co n ten t .

lowers soon a fte rzc uttin g the can e is ta ken at on c e to the ,

fac tory usually o n cars Heavy rolls cru sh th e stal ks

,
.
,

squeezin g out the jui ce which is ma d e in to sugar by much

,

the same methods as beet juic e .

38 9 Swe e t po ta
. to e s Most of the swe et potato .

( Ipo mceaBa a
t tas) crop of the Un ited States is grown in
the South Loose friable soils favo r best growth of the
.
,

en larged roots which a re the edible pla n t parts C ultiva .

tio n is very similar to that given Irish pota toes .

Shoots from the roots a re t ran splan ted fo r a n e w crop

( Fi g
. Sin ce frost in jures the crop readily the plan t is ,

harvested before cold weathe r sets in .

Sweet potatoes a re used almost en tirely fo r hum a n

con sumption formin g in the So uth a more importa n t

,

article of diet th an the common potato (Fig They .

a re fed to hogs to some exten t a n d the fie ld s a re us ed

fo r pasturin g hogs which a re tu rn ed in to

, root out the
potatoes .
 Fibers a
nd Misc ella
ne o us Cro ps
'
351

3 92 . Timb e r c ro p . With the depletion of many

forest lan ds the price of lumber has ri se n to such a
, n ex

ten t that it is pro fita ble fo r farmers in man y loca lities

to grow small patches of tim ber Hardwood fo r repair .

o f various machi n es a n d tools ought to be at ha n d at all

tim es In some se c tion s a few trees may be grown fo r

.
,

this purpose a n d kept fre e from lo w b ran ches by pin chin g

o h bran ch buds a
'
n d by p run in g wisely .

Teac o flee n uts tropical fruits

'

393 O th er c ro ps
. .
, , , ,

ru bbe r trees sugar maples poppies fo r opium hops cacti

, , , , ,

a n d dye a n d m e dici n al pla n ts are g row n to some exten t

in parts of the wo rld Besides these coun tl ess plan ts a re .

,

grown in small garden s fo r home use fi na lly the .

,

flower growin g in dustry has a ssumed importan ce (F ig 88 )

- .

Green houses a n d hom e roo f an d hou se-garden s aboun d

with inn umerable plan ts bea rin g bea utiful flo we rs leaves , ,

o r stems .

U
S PPLEMENTARY REA I G DN
C o tto n , C W urke tt . . B .

He m p , o y c e B .

Fie ld C ro ps Wilso n a n d W rburt

,
o n , pp 241 255 363 38 6
—
a .
-
, .

Fie ld C rO p Pro d u c tio n G Livin g sto n pp 33 7 357 —

, .
, . .

Fo ra g e n d F i a
be r C ro p s i n Am e ri c a , T F H un t, pp 3 04—
402 . . . .

a
Fo r g e C ro ps, E B Vo o rhee s, pp 292 3 1 0 .
—
. . .

a
Fo r g e Pla nt s, C V Pip e r pp 58 9 595 —
. .
,
. .

So u the rn Fie ld C rO p s, F u g g r pp 248 424 48 4 547

— J—
. D a ,
.
,
.

C y c lo pe d i ao f Am eri c a n Ag ri c ulture , Vo l II, pp 22 1 224 226 229

- —
. .
, ,

247 258 , 28 1 303 , 37 7 38 0, 380 38 4, 388 39 1 , 494 41 0, 530

— — — - - —

534, 554 559 , 63 1 636 , 639 6 56 — — —

.

U S D A F rme rs ulle tin s

. .
’
. . a B
N o 2 7 Fl x fo r See d n d Fibe r
. . a a .

C o tto n See d n
36 . ad its Pro d uc ts .

47 In se c ts Affec tin g the C o tto n Pl

. a
nt .

48 The M a
. n uri n g o f Co tto n .

1 64 R pe s a
. aa
Fo r g e Cr0 p a .
352 The Pri nc i ple s o A
f g rono my

C o n tro llin g the B

o ll Wee vil in C o tto n See d a nd t a
Gin n e rie s .

The U se o f Pa ri s G ree n in C o n tro llin g th e C o tto n

Bo ll Wee vil .

a
Esse n ti l Ste p s in Sec uri n g a n E rly C ro p o f C o tto n a .

a
Misc e ll n eo u s C o tto n In sec ts in Te x s a.

B uildi n g u p a Run -d o wn Co tto n Pla n t tio n a .

a
Fl x C ulture .

The Ad va a
n t g e o f Pla nt in g He vy C o tto n Se e d a .

The C o tto n o llwo rm B .

Se a -Is la n d Co t to n .

B
A Me tho d o f ree d in g E rly Co tto n to Esc pe o ll a a B
Wee vils .

C o tto n Wilt .

B
The o ll Wee v il Pro ble m .

A Pmfita ble C o tto n Fa rm .

a
C bba ge .

The C o n tro l o f the o ll Wee vil B .

U
C o tto n Im pro ve me n t n d e r Wee vil Co n d iti o ns .

B
Th e o ll Wee v il Pro ble m .

An Ex a a
m ple o f In te n siv e F rmi n g in the C o tto n e lt B .

Gro win g Eg yp ti a n Co t to n in S lt Ri ve r V lle y , Ari a a

zo n a.

A N e w Me tho d Co tto n C ulture of a

nd a
its Appli c ti o n .

C o tto n Wilt a
n d Roo t-Kno t .
354 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g rano my

yielders whatever in crease came might be expected year

,

a fter year N o r would this ba

. r the opportun ity fo r .

improvemen t by superior cultural methods ; in deed it ,

often happen s th at the better the plan t the more readily

it respo n d s to addition al care .

Hun t estimates that if grain plan ts c o uld be obtain ed

1

that would p roduce o n e addition al kern el in each head o r

o n each c a r the total yield of the Un ited States would
,

F IG 90 B re e d i n g n urse ry fo r ti m o th y ( Pe n n sy lv n iaE
a x p e ri m e n t
a
. . .

St ti o n ) .

in crease by bushel s of corn bushels ,

of oat s a nd , bushel s of barley O n e addition al .

potato in each hill would total extra bushels

of potatoes .

394 Wh a . t i s immo ve me n t Perhaps the most im

po rtan t thin g in crop impro vemen t is in crease in yield .

Better q uality also deserves atten tion in that it in creases

the usefuln ess a n d market price of the product C lean .
,

un iform potatoes free from di sease a re much sought after ,

particularly fo r seed Growers wo uld pay extra fo r them

. .

ls i n Ameri c ap p 1 4 1 5
C erea 1 —
, . .
 I mpro vement of Crops 355

Pl ump wheat of un iform tex tur e ; soft leafy ha y; o r ,

apples alike in color fla vo r a n d size b ri n g extra p rices

, , .

Both yield a n d quality a re re sulta n ts of seve ral complex

factors They a
. re en ds goals toward which improve
men t must be pushed N o t always c a n thi s be don e
.

directly fo r it may be that o n e factor alon e such as disease

, ,

in potatoes i shin deri n g

,
Improvemen t in yield o r quality
.

FIG . 91 . Had n th re sh e r fo r wo r ki n a
pl
n t b re e d i n g
- .

is mo st often made by lookin g back to fin d the cause of

the defect O n e m u ddy tributary will discolor all the
.

river below its en t ran ce ; if this is cleared the whole ,

stream is clear If a crop lacks resi sta

. n ce to d routh ,

to heat to frost to in sect s to disease to alkal i o r to

, , , , ,

water it may be in jured seriously a

, n y time by a si n gle

weakn ess though it has stren gth in all other respe cts
, .

”
A chain is n o stro n ger than its weakest li nk .
356 The Pri nc i ple s oA
f g ron o my

Should a variety of co rn from a se c tion with a lo n g

g ro wi n g-se as o n be b ro ught in to a dist ri c t with a shorte r

o ne ,
it co uld n o t mature ; a nd w hatever its po ssibilities
in oth e r re spe c ts n o t mu ch will actually co me fro m it
, .

Though climatic a d apta tion is para mo un t gen eral suit ,

ability to so il a nd cult ura l methods is also essen tial .

Potatoes suc c ee d best o n loose fertile soils a n d un de r

,

clea n cultivation A se lection of a . d apted varieties is

the first step toward better cro ps Experimen t sta tio n s
.

a re co n tin ually te sti n g crops to fin d the stra in s be st

sui ted to their loca litie s .

395 Id e a. l so ug h t Improvemen t co n sists largely of

.

advan ce men t toward some desired q ua lity in a give n

crop The facto rs tha
. t determin e be st growth a re too ls

of the plan t breed er who c a - n wield t h em effectively .

Thi s he c a n do o n ly whe n he k n ows where t o strike a nd

ho w We have much to lea

. rn abo ut pl a n t breed in g but -
,

even if we kn ew all n o great gain s could be made un less

,

the breed er had a n idea l plan t clea rly in mi n d Just as .

a n a rchitec t see s a n d always wo rks to build t h e house he

ha s in min d so must the plan t bree d e r k n ow just what he
,
-

desires N o r m u st th e ideal chan ge Imagin e th e kin d

. .

of house a pe rson would h ave if he cha n ge d hi s min d ea ch

week while he wa s buildi n g it If his ideal is wro n g he
.
,

will come out wro n g ; if he has a good plan he will co me ,

out right provided he doe s n o t ch an ge So it is with the

, .

plan t ; the first idea ! must be right then a

'
ll e flo rt must ,

be n d toward it But this ideal may be impossible o r

.

so n early so that it is n o t feasible We c a n ha rdly hope .

to grow grass that is all leaves but we c a n acc omplis h

,

much in reducin g th e pe rcen ta ge of stem The idea l .

so ught should be po ssible valuable disti n ct a ,

n d co n stan tly
, ,

stri ven fo r .
358 The P ri nc i p les o A
f g ro no my

en dless d iffic ulty a nd perhaps makin g impossible th e

p ro fit ba
le p roductio n of some c rop R ussia n t h istle ,
.

bin dweed , quack grass , peren n ial so w-thi stle , C an ada

-

thistle , a n d milkweed a
re a fe w weed s especially ha rd to

eradicate that may be thoughtlessly in troduced in impur e

seed .

In ad ditio n to impurities in th e seed there may be some

that lack the power to germin ate o r lack the n ecessary
st re n gth to se n d up vigo rous pla n ts Si n ce it is de si r .

able to kn ow what ki n d a n d h o w much imp urity seed

con tain s a n d its relative power to grow

, it is essen tial ,

to test sa mples before sowin g .

In order to do this small qu a n tities of se e d from seve ra

, l
parts of the sack o r bin sho uld be mixed thoroughly a nd

divided i n to halves o n e of which should be repeated ly

,

mixed a
.

n d divided u n til a rep rese n tative sample small

e n oug h to test is secu red With the help of han d forc eps
.
,

n eed le s a
, n d a ha n d le n s a sepa ratio n of the sample i n to

fiv e piles may be made : ( 1 ) good seed (2) dirt a n d chaff , ,

(3) other crop seed (4) b roken kern el s a

, n d ( 5) weed see d , .

By carefully weighi n g the separates the te ster c a n dete r,

mi n e the perce n tage of purity a n d by compa ri n g the

,

weed seed with sample s in a collectio n he c a n fin d out to ,

what weed s they belo n g The n ext step is to test the

.

viability o r germin able power of the pure seed To do

, , .

this a plate half full of moist san d is covered with a piece

of white cloth o r blottin g paper a n d 1 00 o r 200 se e ds a
,
re

coun ted out o n it After placi n g an other plate o n top

.

to preve n t d ryi n g the plates a

, re set in a warm place In .

a few daysthe seed sthat have germi n ated may be cou n ted
a n d reco rded . Repetitio n of the cou n ti n g every day fo r
a short period will show the percen tage of germin ation .

By referri n g to table s of pu rity a n d of ge rmi n atio n stand

ard s o n e may fin d out if the seed is worth plan tin g

, .
 Imp ro vemen t of Crops 359

398 . Re pro d uc ti o n . A seed is the mature fertilized ,

ovary of a plan t a n d the co n n ecti n g lin k betwee n tw o

gen eration s of plan ts The pare n t plan t grew a

’

. nd

developed partly in order to produce seed th at it might

leave an other gen eration of similar plan ts Flowers in .

plan t s seem to be primarily fo r this purpose A perfect .

flo we r co n sists of calyx corolla sta men s a n d pistil

, but , , ,

man y pi a n ts h a v e o n ly the la st two part s wh ich a re the ,

im porta nt on es sin ce from them the seed develops

, .

Po llen from th e stame n s alight s o n the stigma of the

pisti l a n d un der favo rable con ditio n s se n d s a lo n g tube

down the style to the ovule Th e un ion of the pollen .

an d ova ry cause s a un io n of the male gamete in the

pollen with the female gamete in the ovule Thisprocess .

,

k n own as fertilizatio n begin s the life of the seed which

, ,

when mature co n sists of 1 ) a mi n iature plan t o r embryo

,

surroun ded by (2) a quan tity of stored -up food both ,

of which a re in tu rn i n clo sed in ( 3) a memb ra n ous cover

in g called the hu ll Si n ce each seed is capable of be

.

comin g a plan t the n um ber of descen dan ts a paren t

,

plan t may h ave depen ds o n the n umber of seeds it c a n

produce This varies from a fe w hun dred in the case of

.

some crops to a quarter of a million o r more in th e case

of large Russian thistles o r tumbli n g mu stard .

399 Va ri a
. ti o n Mere chan ce would cause some of
.

the man y de scen dan ts to differ from others but the la w ,

of variation causes each in dividual to diff er from every

other Just a. s n o two people a re alike no t wo plan ts ,

a re alike They diff er in color size shape rooti n g flo we r

.
, , , ,

in g a
, n d i n n u me rous other ways O ats alwaysbri n g forth .

oats but th ere a

,
re n o t wo oat plan ts that do n o t differ .

O n e amo n g several thousa n d will do best i n pa rticula r

surroun din gs It is u pon this pri n ciple that both n atur l
. a
a nd a rtific ia l selection depen d .
360 The Pri nc i p le s oA
f g ro no my

400 . aa
N tur l se le c ti o n Because some o n e plan t o ut
.

of t housa n ds is more fitte d to su rvive in its particul r a

surroun din gs th at o n e plan t will grow mo st vigorously
, .

N o w, if a a
ll the see d s from n y o n e ki n d of plan t grew ,
th i s pla n t would soon fill the whole e rth Therefo re , a .

i n the e n d , n o t ma n y more i n dividu als c n live n ext yea r a

a
than do this ye r without crowdin g out others Sin ce .

o n ly a few of a ll the descen dan ts of a plan t c n possibly a

survive tho se most fit live a
, nd t h e remain i n g o n es die .

Th us n ature co n sta n tly improves the wild pla nts by

un en din g relen tless selection Fo r coun tle ss ages o n ly
, .
,

the most fit of whole races have en dured to rear de sce n d

an ts which in turn a
, re culled out by eve r i n crea si n gly
rigorous selectio n Th e lon ger thi s weedi n g out of the
.

wea kest con tin ues the better adapted th e survivors a

, re

to cope with their e n emies All o ur bad weed s orig i .

na ted in the O ld Wo rld wh e re fo r th ousa n ds of yea rs , ,

th ey h ave bee n struggli n g fo r existen c e in cultivated

fie ld s Thi s lo n g i n cessan t struggle to retai n foothold
.
,

has developed their mean s of survival .

401 Artific i a
. l se le c ti o n Beca u se m a n has put his
.

crop plan ts in u n n atural surroun di n gs they h ave lost the

-
,

fitn e ss acquired befo re they we re dome sticated The n e w .

struggle thus set up cause s man y variation s which aff ord

opportu n ities fo r selection With a n ideal in mi n d m a
. n ,

ca n imp rove th ese pla n ts if he co n ti n ue s to select rig

o ro usly a nd un errin gly from man y gen eratio n s of

plan tsgrown in the same en viron me n t This is o n e ma so n .

why home grow n seed is better tha n imported His idea

- l .

must n o t cha n ge n o r must h is grip wea ken by u n wise

choosin g O n ly the best c a
. n be tole rated .

Although the method of procedure looks simple c o n ,

sid e rable d iffic u lty is en cou n tered in decidi n g just which

i n dividual pla n t is best Fo r example the h ill of po ta
. toes ,
3 62 The Pri n c i p les oA
f g ro n o my

403 . a
V ri e ty te sts Much is bein g accomplished o n
.

experimen ta l farms by testin g in rows o r in plats the

yieldin g power of the n umerous varieties of crops in order
to fin d out the o n e best adapted to climate soil a nd , ,

cultural methods of the di strict Sin ce out of twen ty .

o r mo re va rieties s ome must be best variety tests p rom ,

ise much .

The Un ited States Departme n t of Agriculture has

broaden ed this work by keepin g in the fie ld a n umber of
m e n to look fo r n e w crops o r n e w varieties of common
crop s that p romise to do well in some sectio n of the
Un ited Sta tes with similar so il a nd climate Turkey .

red a n d durum wheats exemplify such i n troductio n s At .

experimen t statio n s n e w varieties a , re tested fo r a n umbe r

of years before th ey a re recommen ded to farme rs Man y .

crop plan ts a re fou n d u n suited a nd a re rejected ; but a

fe w have bee n valuable In gen e ral crop s from southe rn
.
,

E urope do well in C aliforn ia from middle E urope in ,

the C en tral States a n d from the a rid Steppes of Russia

, ,

in G reat Plai n s areas .

404 Ste ps in bre e d i n g

. There a re th e n three steps
.

in breedi n g :
( )
1 I n duci n g va riatio n .

( )
2 S electio n of mo st p romi si n g va r iatio n s .

( )
3 T esti n g the selectio n s to fi n d out thei r power of
t ran smittin g desirable qualities to proge n y .

405 Cro ssi n g

. Besides chan gi n g the food the mois
.
,

ture the heat o r the cultural relation s of a crop a perso n

, , ,

may i n du ce variatio n by a rtific ia lly b ri n gin g the polle n

of o n e pla n t in co n tact with the pistil of an other Some .

plan ts such as corn a

,
re n aturally c ro ss fertilized while
,
-
,

others such as oats wheat a

, , n d barley , are n atu rally ,

self fertilized ; but this makes n o diffe re n ce in the eff ect

-

of crossin g In either case a widely varian t p roge n y

.
-
 Imp rovemen t of Cro ps 363

will result in a few ge n eratio n s This off ers n e w sta rtin g

.

poin ts fo r selection .

406 Me n d e l s la w If pollen from flint corn fertilizes

’
. .

de n t o r if den t pollen fertilizes flin t th e resultin g kern els

, ,

all look flin ty Le t this c o rn be so plan ted n ext seaso n

.

as to be protected from further crossin g a n d about o n e ,

fourth of the co rn will be den t a n d th ree fou rths flin ty

- .

T he den t will alwaysb re ed tru e but th e flin t will co n ti n ue

to prod u ce some den t a n d some flin t A th ird part of .

the flin t will breed true but it is h ard to tell wh ich part
, ,

sin ce all three fourths appear to be fli n t but on ly o n e

-
,

pa rtis pure flint The corn th at isharvested the fall after

.

the cross is made ha s both characte rs in it but appea rs

to be flin t th at is the flin t character is domin an t a
, , n d the

den t c haracter recessive .

Le t F rep rese n t the fli n t character D th e den t char ,

acter a n d x th e n ature of the c ross polli n atio n

, Fw D -
.

gives F D N ext year F Dx F D gives 1 F F 2 FD :

.

1 DD O n e fourth of the corn F F a

.
-
nd o n e -fourth , , ,

DD a, re pure a n d will b re ed true Half is F D o r hy .

,

b rid (con tain s two ch a racters) a nd will break up ,

n ext year i n to 1 F F 2 F D : 1 DD Th e u n io n of the .

two characters is called combi n ation a n d the late r sepa ra

tio n is k n ow n a s segregatio n Most c haracters of plan ts

.

seem to g o in pairs behavin g a sF a n d D in the example

cited They a. re the n k n ow n as u n it cha racters This .

la w of breed i n g may be stated thus : Whe n two plan ts

ea ch havin g o n e of a pair of u n it characte rs a re cro ssed ,

the two characters form a combin ation in which both

a re p resen t but in whic h the domi n a n t cha racte r hides

the recessive ; a n d that in the n ext ge n eratio n the domi

n ant ,the hybrid a n d the recessive used will segregate

,

out in the proportion s of 1 : 2 : 1 respectively It is ,

ca
.

ll ed Men del s law after its discove re r G regor Me n del

’

, , .
 The Pri nc i p le s oA
f g rono my

By the help of Men del sla w b reed ers c a

’
n tell somethi n g
,

as to what the results of a cro ss a re likely to be N atu .

rally t hi s h a
, s helped much i n b reedi n g wo rk but ma n y ,

thin gs no t yet un derstood stan d in the way of rapid prog

ress. O n e of the se obstacles is th at some pla n ts like
pota toes do n o t p ropagate by mea n s of seed but by buds .

In these cases o nly straight selectio n c a

, n be used si n ce ,

cro ssin g is impossible u n der o rdi n ary farm prac tice ,

t hough the true seed of potatoes is sometimes made to

p roduce n e w variation by crossin g .

407 Impo rta n c e o f la rg e n um b e rs Sin ce plan ts do .

n o t co st much thou s , a n ds of them may be bred O n ly a .

fe w a n imals c a n be di sca rded o n acco u n t of thei r great

value but with plan ts all save o n e o r two out of thou

, ,

san ds may be set aside Because of this greater rapidity

. .

in plan t than in an imal-b reedi n g may be expected Why .

th en the poor developme n t of plan t breed in g ? F i rst

—
,

sexuality in pla n t swa s u n kn own u n til rece n tly ; seco n dly ,

an imal b reedin g began with the dawn of histo ry a

-
nd

plan t breedin g on ly two hu n d red years ago ; thi rdly the

-
,

male an imal c a n be co n trolled while pollen of plan ts

, ,

wh ich blows everywhere c a n be co n t rolled o n ly with the

,

utmost d iffic ulty Much h a . s been don e howeve r by , ,

selectio n a n d variety adaptatio n te s

- ts .

408 Be tte r se e d
. Pla n t breedi n g farms occasion
.
—

ally se n d out de sirable strain s of some crop Frost .

re sista n t fruit s have i n t roduced fruit-g rowi n g in dist ricts

whe e it a
r w s hithe to impos sible ; ru st resista n t carn a
r -

tion s can taloupes a

, nd ,small grain s dec rease losses in
-

ma n y sectio n s; seedless o ran ges a n d g rapes a re boon s to

the fruit in du stry ; co rn that ripe n s in sho rt season sallows

this crop to be grown n orthward ; frost resistan t alfalfa -

is n o w widely grow n in the n orthern Great Plain s whe re

this crop previously became win ter killed - .
 CHAPTER XXVIII

WEE DS

N ATU RAL selectio n has bee n operatin g so l o n g that some

plan ts a re able to hold th ei r grou n d agai n st n atu ral com

p e ti to rs W. eed s h ave su rvive d n o t o n ly agai n st ot h e r

plan ts but again st m a n w ho by cultivation ha

, s atta
, cked ,

them in n e wways a n d in n e wplaces T hey have survived .

in spite of man s eff ort to eradicate them His effort to

’

w
.

surroun d crops with co n dition s favorable to th eir gro th

has made th e fig ht agai n st weed s in cu ltivated groun d
still more relen tless O n the other han d crop plan ts
.
,
-

have been unfitte d fo r competition by con sta n t care a nd

p rotectio n W. heat fo r example, would p robably , dis

appear in a few years if it were left to take care of itself
, .

This eve r i n creasin g keen n ess of competitio n makes

-

weeds more a n d mo re fit to main ta in themselves Va ri .

ous in deed a
,
re the
, meth ods they have adopted To .

overcome them m a n firs t m u st lea rn th ei r ways : to fin d

w
,

a weak place in th eir armor is his hope N e tools n ew .

,

method s of cultivation a n d the application of sprays

,

a re o n ly attempts to se n d agai n st a wee d a n en emy

wh ose methods of attack the weed is n o t prepared to
face The farmer must kn ow the n ature of the weed he
.

is attemptin g to co n trol ; what it c a n a n d ca n n ot with

stan d ; a n d h o w be s t to strike in to its wea kest part .

409 De fin i ti o n
. Weed s a . re simply pla n ts g rowin g

where they a re n o t wa n ted n ui sa n ces to the fa rme r i n

,

han dlin g a n y pa rticu la r c rop o r piece of la n d Al falfa .

3 66
 Weeds 36 7

in pota toes a n d volu n tee r wheat in beets a re as disti n ctly

weeds as a re the commo n pigweed s o r foxtail Sometime s .

the crop plan ts themselves stan d so thickly upo n the

-

lan d that they crowd each other out by shadin g o r by

competitio n fo r moisture Much damage comes to d ry .

farm wheat in this way which cau ses larger losses than
,

appear at first glan ce Apples a nd . peaches must be

thin n ed to in sure large fruit When o n e apple limits .

the size o r quality of an other it i s a weed , .

Some person s main tai n that ugly plan ts a re w ee ds ,

a n d on ly ugly o n e s Morn in g glories a

. re n o t ugly but -

they a re abomi n able n ui sa n ces Sagebrush is ugly but .

,

it is valuable in its n atural home Some person s rega rd .

as weed s o n ly those plan t sthat have flo we rs which do n o t

attract atten tion The flo we rs of the small grain s fo r
.
-
,

i n sta n ce a
, re n o t at all n oticeable while mo rn i n g glo ries ,
-

a nd C an ada thistle two of o ur worst weeds have

, ,

showy flo we rs O thers con sider plan ts that spread rapidly

.

to be weed s Thi s is u sually the case Below a

. re two .

common ly used d e fin itio n s but they probably make n o

-
,

clearer statemen ts than the o n e given : ( 1 ) A plan t

which in terferes with the growth of the crop to which the
fie ld is tempo rarily devoted ( )
2 A n y i n ju r iou s , ,

troublesome o r u n sightly plan t that is at th e same time

,
”
useless o r comparatively so .

41 0 Cla
. ssi fic ati o n As regard s len g th of life weeds
.
,

may be c la ssifie d as an n ual s win ter an n uals bien n ials, , .

,

a n d pere n n ials acco rdi n g to whether th ey live o n e two , ,

o r mo re years This is pe rhap s the most useful a

.
, s well ,

a s the most comprehen sive c la ssific atio n made fo r in it ,

a re all weeds a n d upo n it depe n ds the method of e ra

,
d ic a
tion An other useful groupi n g is to n ame the families
.
,

such as grasses musta , rds composites a nd legumes

, ,
.

The objection to this system is that an n uals a n d pere n

368 The Pri nc i ples A
f g
o ram my

n ials often occur with in a family a n d he n ce dema n d

,

differen t treatme n t To tell whether a weed is a

. n an n ual

o r a pe re n n ial suggests the ge n eral method of co n trol .

Both systems of n amin g a re helpful a n d should therefo re , ,

be used .

41 1 O c c urre n c e
. N o farmers a
. re exempt from wee d

pests They occur everywhere ; they grew even in

.

Eden Ever si n ce they have bee n sprea

.
, din g fa r a nd

wide by the n umerous a n d i n ge n ious meth o ds that they

have tra n smitted to the n ext gen eration o r that they ,

have si n ce acquired in the struggle fo r existe n ce So .

tho roughly has n ature do n e the work that n o spot has

escaped .

At the doo rstep they creep out from the edge of the
,

sto n e o r out of a c rack ; alo n g the pathway they c o ve r ,

all grou n d n o t co n sta n tly trodden ; in waste places they ,

ma r the lan dscape ; i n crop s they c rowd a ,

n d st ruggle

fo r supremacy ; a n d eve n in the ce metery t hey g row from ,

the graves of the dead It is o n ly the livin g m a

. n with a

ho e o r a plow that they respect; o n ly from him do they

hide their head s a n d then n o t u n til he u s
, , e s sharp edges .

N o r do they lack pe rsi ste n cy ; let him leave a si n gle root ,

a n d though they la n guish fo r a time if he does n o t fin d

the solitary root by whi ch they cli n g to the soil a

,

n d to

life they take a fresh hold a

, n d befo re he is aware have ,

tighten ed the grip un til he realizes that he ha s lost his

opportun ity of easy con quest .

N 0 1: o n ly do they pe rsist i n the soil but they feed o n ,

othe r plan ts as parasites Th e dodder twin es about th e

.

alfalfa suckin g the sap ; the mi stletoe does the sa

, me o n
trees Plan t diseases a
. re la rgely due to pla n t parasites .

The first yea r that vi rgi n la n d p ro duces a crop some ,

weed s c reep i n Soon they t respass in large n umbers

. .

In a fo rest regio n devoid of commo n weeds let a fire lay ,

37 0 The Pri nc i p le s o A
f g ron o my

get mo re p ro fi t w h e n the g r ai n is sold O fte n he doe s th is

.

inn ocen tly but he has been k nown to do it willfu lly Much
, .

sweet clover se ed has been mixed with alfalfa because the

clover was worth less o n the ma rket poun d fo r poun d .

C a ada blue g ra
n - ss seed ha s bee n impo rted to ad u lterate
that of Ken tucky blue grass - .

(9 ) Settle rs h ave i n t roduced fo r medici n al ,p rope rties ,

n e w pl a n ts which have l a
, ter proved to be u nmitigated
n uisan ces . Burdock a n d h oa rhoun d have be en coaxed

across the contin ent comin g perhaps a , s he rbs from

Europ
( )
1 0 F i n ally a f e w, weeds scatte r thei r ow n seed by

mean s of min iature ex plosion s gen erally caused by a pod

bu rstin g as in some of the vetches Th e squi rtin g cu
, .

cumber ac complishes the sa me pur pose by the rin d keepin g

ri gid a n d fo rci n g the seeds out .

413 Lo sse sfrom we e d s

. Exactly what a
. re the losses

due to weeds is u sually ext remely hard to estimate In

, .

some case s they steal plan t-food a

, nd i n o t he rs moisture
from the crop—plan ts In addition large weed s shade o r
.

crowd out the smaller useful plan ts O n e o r a ll of these

.

in ju ries may resu lt at a n y time In the West however.

, ,

the loss of water is th e mo st seriou s sin ce upon the , ,

moistu re depen ds th e q uan tity of crop s produced that is , ,

water i s the limitin g fac tor Ba d ly in fested farms lose

.
-

much in sellin g values o n accoun t of weeds They c a n be .

clean sed on ly at great exp en se i n cash labor crop loss , , ,

a n d time . Pain t adds more to the p rice of a buildin g

than the c o st of material a n d application ; weed s detract

more from the p rice of lan d than the co st of eradication .

They a re eye so re s -
Some farms have suffered so much
.

that they will n o t brin g the own er a n y rea son able price ;
they a re un salable C o e cites a
.
1
n in stan ce whe re lan d

1
So u th Da
k o taB u lle ti n, No . 1 50 .
 Weeds 37 1

valued at $ 1 50 to 8200 could n o t be sold beca use it was

infested with horse n ettle .

Some weeds a re poison ous causin g loss by the killin g,

o r the wea ken in g of stoc k La rkspur loco a n d wate r

hemlock do this other weeds ta

.
, ,

in t milk or ren der an imals ,

un clean burs in j ur e wool to a con side rable exten t .

Besides these direct in juries to the crop the farmer su f ,

fers other lo sse s n o less Mpo rta nt Weed s may carry .

plan t disea ses o r shelter in sect pests A troublesome d is .

ease of cotton also atta cks n umbers of common weed s

which keep the fun gus alive u n til it fin d s an oth e r o p po r
tun ity to attack c o tto n Alfalfa leaf weevil is sheltered -

durin g the win ter in dea d weeds a n d rubbish of a n y so rt .

Man y weed sa re a great hin d ran ce in harvestin g Th ey .

clog g ain bi ders potato d igge rs a

r n - -
,
n d othe r machin ery , .

C o n tain in g much moistu re they preven t crops from curin g

,

properly In ma rketable p roducts extra labor is re

.
,

quired to remove such foreign matter Moreove r when .

,

the crop sells the buyer docks in pric e o r weight o r in

, ,

both fa ,
r beyon d the act u al damage o n account of the ,

presen ce of d ry stem s seeds o do r o r taste due to im

, , ,

pur ities Here is a direct mon ey loss

. .

Th e most n oticeable of all d iffic ultie s with weed s is that

in their removal in calculable labor i s exp en d ed yearly
, .

If cultivation had n o other purpo se a n d pe rfo rmed n o othe r

se rvice th an the killin g of weed s the loss wou ld be en o r

’
,

mous but cultivation be n e fits the crops by loosen in g a

, nd

mulchin g the soil a n d perhaps in other ways

, A crop that .

is o n e th ird weeds in creases the labor of han dl in g it by o n e

-

half . Here is a loss seldom reckon ed but o n e dese rv in g ,

con sideration .

Tum bleweeds catchi n g in wi re fen ces lodge there in

, ,

n umbe rs suffic ie n t alm o st to hide the fen ce li n es St ron g .

an d even m oderate win ds exe rt immen se press ure o n thi s

37 2 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g rono my

in cre ase d surfac e tuggin g a nd st rain in g o n the wire

, ,

loo sen in g posts in so ft groun d a n d pull in g staples In , .

addi tion to bein g un sightly these weed a ccum ulatio n s ,

when d ry i n crease the possi bility of disastrous fire .

F in ally some studen ts main ta

, in that wee d s exe rt a
moral stress o n the farmer From o n e viewpoin t it doe s .

se e m rea son able that the n eglect of wee d s may ex ten d to

other thin gs More rea so n able perhaps is the idea th a
. t , ,

the weed s would no t be allowed to over ru n the fa rm -

,

if the careless n ess were n o t alrea dy prese n t If however .

, ,

there be a moral loss i n a dditio n to the o n e hun d red million

dollars due to d a m age of cr0 ps in the Uni ted Sta te s a n

n ua lly the ha, rm is i n deed astoun din g , , .

414 Pre ve n tion

. Le t u s glan c e at the vita
. l practica l ,

phase eradication The sourc es o f seed the struct ure

.
,

o f the we ed pla n t a n d the n atur e of the i n j ury a

, re all

factors in determin in g the metho d of co n trol .

Here as an ywhere el se preven tio n i s primary See d

, ,
.

m u st be clean ; let the fa rmer a n d seed sm a n look well t o

th at It is fun d a
. men tal Then the farmer should e x e r .

cise wisdom i n haulin g man ure from yards whe re con tami
n atio n is likely If ditch ban ks a
. n d fie ld s a re clea n water ,

will carry but few weed seeds Le t roads a n d fen ce li n es .

be cleared ho rses a n d sh eep ca n n ot then ca rry sticke rs

”
.

If ma n i s careful t h ere is n o n ee d of seed scatteri n g from

,

cars sh ips o r food products These last h owever re

, ,
‘
.
, ,

quire the wisest kin d of in spection a n d legi slatio n with the ,

legislation cut to a min imum In spection a n d education .

a re the most hopeful aven ues f rom which aid is expected .

In a large meas ure the problem of eradica tin g weed s

,

must be han dl ed by the comm u n ity that is by the , ,

fa rmers a s a group in a coope rative un it Un der the .

direction of the coun ty farm demo n st rato r the fa rme rs ,

that a re n o t al ready o rgan ized should c o 6p e ra te to combat

37 4 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g rono my

en coun tered Some part of the plan t lives a n umber o f

.

years Le aves a
. n d seed stems grow up from root crown s - -

o r root stocks each yea r These parts a re gen erally .

so d e ep in the groun d that they a re ha rd to reach Da n .

d e lio n s a n d mallows a re examples of pla n ts propagat e d

by root crown s Rootstocks a

- . re u n de rgroun d stems c o y

ered with bud s a ny o ne of which will grow Th e

, .

leaves have dwin dled in to scales hidin g buds which se n d

out both stems a n d roots This is the d iffic ulty with .

morn i n g glo ries sa

- lt grass C an ada thistle quack grass
,
-
, ,
-
,

rushes a ,n d sed ges .

Th e roots will eve n tually starve if they a re n o t fed .

Th e leaves feed the roots; th erefo re n o green part is to ,

be allowed above groun d It is n e c essary to rota te with

.

crops that will smother them by sh a d in g o r that will ,

permit co n stan t cultivation The rootstocks ought to .

be plowed in the fall thus givin g frost a chan c e to get

,

C o n stan cy alo n e c a
”
in a good lick . n p reven t pests

gain i n g stre n gth ; leaves above groun d soon become gree n .

Th e chlo rophyll make s foo d fo r the sto rehouse that

must be ex hausted A besiegi n g fleet would n o t co n sider
.

letti n g a n occasio n al ship load of supplies pass the block -

ade When a strict blockade has weaken ed the en emy

.
,

then is the time to strike In the co n t rol of weed pests .

,

the course is ide n tical Weeds a re most easily killed

.

immediately after they ge rmin ate befo re they c a n es ,

ta blish a root system - Thi s is the best time to attack

.

them si n ce their lease o n life is n o w weakest Harrow

, .

in g will both root out the plan tlets a n d b ri n g othe r seed s

n ea r the su rface whe re they fin d co n ditio n s favo rable to

begi n growth .

It is n early as e sse n tial to germin ate the seed that is

in the soil as it is to kill the weeds Though all seed s .

lose vitality in time some live a n umber of years in the

,
 Weeds 37 5

soil Amon g these a

. re musta rd cocklebur a n d othe r , ,

hard shelled seed

- .

If fo r a
, n y re ason weed s a re n o t attacked when on ly
,

a fe w days old cultivation should n o t be delayed lo n ger

,

than necessa ry As some plan ts seem to be weaker

.

durin g bloomin g this may be a goo d time fo r attack

, ,

It is in that seed has n o t yet formed Delay beyon d

, .

bloomin g pe riod islikely to be fraught with serious c o n

sequen ces fo r some weed s matu re seed very sho rtly
,

after the blossoms disappear Some flo we rs of a pla n t .

may show at the same time that others con tain mature
seed .The blossom should serve as sign al hun g out to
warn that see d will soo n begin to ripe n .

41 6 Ge n e ra l pri n c iple s
. C lark a n d F letcher
1
.give
the followin g
1 There is n o weed kn own which can n ot be e ra
. di
ca te d by co n stan t atte n tio n if the n ature of its growth ,

is un derstood .

2 N ever allow weed s to ripen seeds

. .

3 C ultivate frequen tly pa rticu la rly ea rly in the

.
,

sea son so as to destroy seedlin gs

, .

4 Ma n y weed seeds c a
. n be i n duced to ge rmin ate

in autumn by cu ltivatin g stubble imm ediately after

ha vest
r M ost of these seedlin gs will be win te killed
. r-

or ca n be easily disposed of by plowi n g o r cultivatio n in

sprin g .

5 All weed s beari n g mature seeds should be burn t

. .

Un der n o circum stan ces should they be plowed un der .

6 All weed s c a
. n be dest royed by the use of o rdi n a ry

implemen ts of the farm the plow the cultivator the , , ,

harrow the spud a n d the hoe

, , .

7 Be co n stan tly o n the ale rt to p reven t n e w weeds

'

”
from becomin g established .

Fa r m Weed s p p —
15 17 1
, . .
37 6 The Pri nc i ples oA
f g ron o my

The
p acti c e of summe fallowin g la n d to the exclu
r r- ,

sion of all crop s throughout the season whateve r may ,

be said again st it a fio rd s the best oppo rtu n ity to supp ress

,

n oxious weed s Fo r lan ds foul with persiste n t g rowi n g

.

peren n ials a thorough summer fallow will usually be th e

,
- .

most effective a n d in the e n d the least expe n sive meth o d

, ,

of brin gin g the weed s un der con trol .

To keep farm s free from we eds fe w method s give ,

such good results as a systematic short rotatio n of crops ,

with regular seed i n g down to grass o r clover at sho rt

”
in tervals .

41 7 H e rb i c i d e s have been ex perim e n ted with fo r a

.

n umbe r of years in E urope C a n ada a n d the U n ite d

, ,

State s s ome i n te restin g thi n g s have been discovered

.

co n cern i n g the sp rayin g of weeds to kill them C opper .

sulfate (blue vitriol ) iron sulfate commo n salt s ulfuric

, , ,

acid slaked lime corrosive sublimate a

, , n d seve ral othe r ,

compou n ds have give n some success in differen t e x p e ri

men ts Much care is n ecessa
. ry o r the c rop i s i n ju red

alo n g with the weed s If a rain storm follows soon afte r

.

sprayi n g the chemical s run 0 11 a

, nd lose their eff ect .

With mo re kn owledge of the eff ect of chemicals o n plan ts

and more care in their applicatio n con siderable help ,

shou ld be derived from the u se of herbicides .

C opper sulfate is mixed twelve poun ds in fifty two

"

gallon s of water ; it kills burdock prickly lettuce com , ,

m o n mu sta rd prostrate pig weed s a

,
n d goosefoot ao , ,

cordi n g to experimen ts at the Iowa Sta tion .

C ommo n salt applied both as spray a

,
n d directly to the

soil kills some weeds but also i njures the crop plan ts
,
- .

It is mo st valuable o n a n area in which a weed is just

starti n g a n d whe re the c rop c a n be s ac rific ed to e radicate

the weed .

C arbolic acid mixed o n e part to fou r of water a

, ids ,
37 8 The Pri nc i p les o A
f g rono my

Weed s Tho ma
. sSha w .

n d Fa
rm Frie nd s a
Fa rm Fo e s C M We ed 1 55 —
, . .
pp , . .

C y c lo ped ia o f Ame ric a n Ag ri c ulture , V II, pp 10 1 18

o l . 1 -
. .

. . a
U S D A F rme rs u lle tin s: B
’

a
. .

No 28 Weed s, n d Ho wto Ki ll The m

. . .

. U
1 88 Wee d s se d in Me d ic i ne .

27 9 A Me tho d o f Era
. d ic a J o n Gr s
tin g o hn s s a .

306 . D
o d d e r in Re la a
tio n to F rm See d s .

aa
368 The Er d ic tio n o f Bin d wee d , o r
.

Glo ry .

The Era d ic a a
tio n o f Qu c k-Gr ss a .

53 1 La p ur, o r Po iso n Wee d

”
rk s
“
. .

C o n tro llin g C a na da Thi stle s .

6 1 0 Wild O ni o n : Me tho d s o f Er d i c tio n

. aa .

. a
660 Wee d s n d The ir Co n tro l .
 PART IV

D MANAGE ME NT
F IE L
38 2 The Pri nc i p les o A
f g rono my

is n o t co n sistent with good busi n ess methods Eve ry .

type of farmin g has its ups a n d dow n s the re bei n g a mo r e

,

n d fall i n the p rice of a

o r le s s regula r rise a ll fa rm products ,

particularly those susceptible of rapid ove r-p roductio n .

Th e farmer wh o succeed s is usually the o ne who sta n ds

by his colors un til the time of adversity has passed ; he

is then ready to reap the reward which follows h is pe r
siste n ce It would of course be foolish to con tin ue i n
.
, ,

atype of farmin g that could n ever be made to pay u n der

the co n ditio n s in which the farmer fin d s himself ; but
he should n o t be i n duced to cha n ge o n accou n t of reverse s
that follow a temporary depressio n in prices .

A series of years with high prices fo r a n y farm p roduct

is almost sure to be followed by years of over productio n - .

When the price of potatoes is high everybody plan ts ,

potatoes ; this mean s that the price will fall A good .

market fo r hogs c a n easily be ove rdo n e o n accou n t of

the rapidity of their multiplication a nd t h e short time

re quired fo r them to come to matur ity It takes a lo n ger
.

time to chan ge the price of horses cattle a ,

n d apples
,

than that of hogs a n d potatoes ; but they too a re subject

to chan ges Staple crops like wheat a

. n d co rn that c a n

be stored from o n e year to an other a n d t ra n spo rted grea t

distan ces a re much le ss affected by rapid fluc tu a tio n s
in p rice tha n the mo re pe rishable o r bulky p roducts .

As a rule it is safer to g o i n to the raisin g of pota

, toes
whe n p rices a re low tha n whe n they a re high because o nl y
,

few fa rmers will plan t potatoes du rin g a depressio n .

Th e farme r who pla n ts about the same area of each crop

every year gets the advan tage of high p rices as well as
havin g to suffer fro m the low ; he is usually better o ff
than the farmer who chan ges his system every yea r .

Th e un stable farmer is likely to make chan ges just at

th e w ro n g time .
 Pla he F a
nn i n g t rm 38 3

420 . Number of e nte rpri se s . E ach

farmer should
main tain en ough en terp rises to make sure that his i n come
will n o t be shut o ff by the failu re of o n e o r two crops ;
a n d still he should n o t have so ma n y e n te rp rises that n o

specializatio n is possible Each farm should have a

.

n umber of majo r ki n ds of p ro ducts from which the g reater

part of its i n come is derived This en ables the farmer

.

to learn these bran ches especially well a nd makes him

able to compete in them There a .re o n ly a fe w co n di

tio n s however where high specialization in farmin g is

, ,

desirable If a farm is located n ear a special market

.
,

o r if co n ditio n s a
re pa rticula rly favo rable to some p fo d u c t ,

it may pay to specialize ; but o n the ordi n ary farm ,

d ive rsific a tio n with a n umbe r of leadi n g p roducts is much

safer .

42 1 Th e fa
. rm ste ad i n cludi n g the fa rm home a
, nd

other buildin gs co n n ecte d with it is the ce n ter of the farm

,

activities It should be so locate d that the operatio n s

.

of the farm c a n be ca rried o n with the g reatest eco n omy ;

it should at the same time be a desirable place to live

, ,
.

O n man y farm s the fa rmstead is located o n the co rn e r

n ea rest the tow n Thi s is usually a poo r locatio n si n ce
.
,

it is n ecessary to make man y more trip sto the lan d than

to town Fo r co n ven ie n ce in getti n g at the lan d the
.
,

best locatio n is in the ce n ter of th e farm ; but so ma n y

ad va n tages g o with havi n g the home locate d n ext to a
public road that this is usually a better place to build .

Somethin g in the ease of getti n g at the la n d is sa c rific e d

fo r the con ven ie n ce of bei n g o n a regula rly traveled road :

Where land is ow n ed o n both sides of the road it is a poor ,

practice to put barn s a n d stables o n the side opposite

the house sin ce the dan ge r from passin g vehicles is

,

great a
, n d the a rra n gem en t fo r con ven ien ce a n d beauty

is n o t desirable .
38 4 The P ri nc i p les oA
f g ro no my

Th e farmyard should be kept n eat a n d the va rious

buildin gs a rran ged fo r co n ven ien ce beauty a n d h ea

, lthf ul ,

n e ss . As much ca re should be taken in plan n in g th e fa rm

home a s the city home because the fa rme r is a

, s much
en titled to the conven ien ces of life a s his cousin livin g
in the city .

422 Arra . n g e m e n ta n d n umb e r o f fie ld s Some of th e .

fa rms that have been han d e d down from gen eration to

gen eration have been divided a nd s u b-d ivid ed in to fie ld s

of va rious sizes a nd s hapes seemin gly without a

, n y pla n ,

un til it would be impossible to adopt a

a
n y d e fin i te system

witho fit complete rearra n geme n t Fa rms of thi s k in d

.

should be ove rhauled a n d en ti rely repla n n ed to pe rmit

the u se of m o dern machin ery a n d modern method s A .

great deal of time is wasted o n i rregular field s of un d e

si rable sizes .

Th e fie ld s should be so arran ged that they will all be

easily accessible from the fa rmstea d A desirable a r .

ran gemen t is to have o n e mai n ro a d situated in such a

way that it is con n ect ed with each fie ld Thi s road if kept .

in good repair en ables the farmer to haul large load s of

man u re to the fie ld s a s well a s la rge loads of crop s from
them A la n e runn in g to the pastu re saves time a
. nd

an n oyan c e Where o n e o r two rotation s a

. re in operatio n

o n the fa rm it is desi rable to have all the fie ld s the s

, ame
size i n each rotation Th e n umber of fie ld s should n o t
.

be larger than n ec e ssary sin ce the lan d between fie ld s

,

is usually wasted a n d en c ourages the g rowth of weed s

, .

423 Si ze a. n d sh a p e o f fie l d s T h e best . size fo r

fie ld s will depen d o n the crop grown a n d a n um be r of

other facto rs F o r ga rden crops where most of the wo rk

.
,

is do n e by han d the size of the fie ld is n o t impo rtan t ; but

,

fo r o rdi n a ry crops where machin ery is employe d fie ld s

, ,

should be so large th at time is n o t lost in too frequen t

386 The Pri nc i ples o A
f g ro n o my

lan d eatn ess con ven ien ce in han dlin g water a

,
n , n d a n um ,

be r of othe r factors must be kept in min d in plan n i n g

ditches .

425 U se o f wa . ste pla ces Man y farms con tai n .

patches of lan d that a re d iffic ult to cultivate o n accoun t

of their topography a rra n geme n t o r the presen ce o f , ,

roc ks It often costs mo re to till these patches each yea

. r

tha n the retu rn s justify Where this is the case it i s .

,

advisable to use the lan d fo r a perman en t pasture fo r ,

a wood lot o r fo r some other useful purp ose tha

, t doe s
n o t requi re c ulti v a
tion .

U
S PPLEME NTARY READ IN G

Fa rm M a na g e m en t G F W arre n pp 239 2 69 , . .
, .
—
, 365 401
—
.

Fa rm D e v e lo pm e n t W M H a 96 1 1 6 —
y s pp , . .
, . .

N e wYo rk C o rn e ll B ulle tin No 295

.
,
. .

C y c lo ped i ao f Am e ric a n Ag ric u lture , Vo l I p p 1 42 1 6 1

—
. . .
,

C y c lo ped i ao f Ame ric a n Ag ric u lture , Vo l II , p p 90 97

— . . .

The Yo un g Fa rm e r , T F H un t, pp 9 26 . . .
—
.

Fa rm M a n g e m en t, F W C a a rd , p p 7 0 90, 1 98 207
— —
. . . .

Ag ric u ltura l Ec o n o m ic s, H C Ta y lo r pp 1 1 7 1 35 . .
, .
—
.

U S D A Ye a
. . rbo o k fo r 1 8 92, pp 343 364
. .
—
. .

U S D A Ye a
. . rbo o k fo r 1 9 12 , p p 343 364
. . .
—
.

U S D A Fa
. . rm e rs
.
’
ulle tin
. N o 37 0, Re pl n n in g B . a a
Pro fit .
 C HAPTER XXX

WHA T C RO P S TO GRO W

CRO PS fo rm a co n siderable part of the in come of p ra c

tically every farm wh eth er the farm e r is specializi n g in

,

crops o r in livestock The i n come may be derived from

.

th e sale of crops o r from the sale of milk a n d beef Wh ich ,

a re c rops t ra n sfo rmed i n to mo re re fin e d p roducts T he .

keepi n g of a n y ki n d of s tock is im possible without crops

to fee d them True feed may be purchased from the
.
,

o utside but thi s gre atly reduces p ro fits Wa rren i n

,
.
,

N e w Yo rk State foun d that the fa rme rs wh o made most

,

mon ey always sold crops even though they were in th e

,

livestock busin ess Me n in the dairy busin ess fin d it

.

po ssible to raise a con siderable amou nt of ext ra hay at

very little a d dition al expen se A farmer may h ave a.

hobby fo r livestock raisin g ; but to make p ro fits ce rtai n ,

he ought in addition to stock product s to have some

, ,

c rops to sell .

426 Cr0p a
. da p tati o n It is p.robable that as ma n y
losses in farmin g result each year from n o t raisin g the
rig h t crops as f rom poo r cult ure methods In decidi n g .

wh ether to raise a crop it is n o t sufi c ie n t to know that

,

it will grow ; but its relative value in compariso n with

other crop s sho uld al so be taken in to con sideration To o .

many farmers a re s a tisfie d to produce the c rop s that

h ave always been ra ised with o ut making a careful study
,

to see if other crops would n o t be more p ro fita ble .

38 7
388 The Pri nc i p le s oA
f g ron o my

In d ecidin g what crop to raise the climate the soil , , ,

a n d the ma rket must be take n i n to co n side ratio n Most .

crops c a n be made to grow u n de r a n um ber of climatic

co n ditio n s but they do best in a give n zon e ; a

,
n d it is

workin g with a han dicap to ta ke them out of the zon e in

which th ey do best C otton might be made to grow i n .

parts of N e w York State o r C olorado but in these places ,

it could n ever compete with that prod uced in the Southern

States .

C rops h ave preferen ce regardin g soil s al so Peaches .

a n d cherrie s will g row i n a heavy clay but they do much ,

better in a sa n dy soil Th e small grain s o n the other

.
-
,

han d do best o n a heavy soil although they will g row

, ,

in san d It is well fo r th e farmer to learn the ki nd s of

.

soil to which each crop is adapte d in plan nin g hi s crop

pin g systems .

A farm may be able to pro duce a given crop ever so

well but unless there is a pro fita
, ble market it should ,

n o t be g row n Pe ri shable crop s must be raised n ea

. r

the place of co n sumptio n ; bulky crops fo r market c a n

n o t be p roduced p ro fita bly at a g reat distan ce from the

r ail road .

427 Di ve rsity o f c r0ps

. Th e v alue of crop rotation s
.

i n keepin g up fertility has been discussed It is n o t .

advisable h owever to do as o n e ma
, n p roposed afte r
,

readi n g of the be n e fit s of rotatio n : pla n t all hi s farm to

alfalfa a few years then plow it all up a n d plan t to co rn
, ,

a n d the n ext yea r to wh ea t raisin g but o n e crop each ,

year Whi le thi s procedure would give the soil the ben e
.

fits of a rotation it would lack th e diversity deman ded

,

by good farm practice .

A n umber of crops should be raise d at the same time

o n the fa rm in o rder ( 1 ) to les sen risk (2) to d ist ribute ma n ,

a n d ho rse-labor mo re even ly t hr oughout th e seaso n ( 3) ,

 The P ri nc i p le s o A
f g rono my

Whea nd c a
t gro ws over a Wide ran ge of con dition s a n ,

en d ure much more cold weather than corn It is a lso .

able to adapt itself fairly well to moisture con dition s .

Ry e is a d apted to cool climates It will grow in a very .

poor soil but d o es best in a soil that is fairly fertile It

, .

n ever p roduce s very heavy yields even un de r the best

of con dition s a n d i s therefo re no t adapted to i n ten sive

, ,

farmin g .

All of these gra in crops may be grow n at great distan c es

from large market s as they a re s u ffic i e n tly co n cen t rated

to be shipped Mo st farms c a . n with p ro fit raise some , ,

ki n d of grain fo r home con sumption even where it would

n o t pay to rai se it fo r shipme nt .

Potatoes requi re a rather co ol climate a n d do best i n ,

a mellow deep soil They n eed suffic ie n t moisture to

,
.

in sure a un iform even growth but th eir quality is

,

in jured if too much water is presen t Potatoes a re .

perishable ; h en ce the price is likely to be i rregular .

Man gels sugar beets a ,

nd other root crops req uire
-
,

con dition s similar to those require d by potatoes Sin ce .

they can n ot be shipped a n y g reat di s tan c c the market ,

fo r sugar beets is depen den t o n n ea rn ess to a sugar

-

factory .

Alfalfa is o n e of the most p ro fita ble forage crops where

c o n dition s favo r its g rowth It requires a soil co n taini n g
.

lime a
,
n d p refers a n open sub-so il Th e g rass crops re .

quire c o ol moist co n ditio n s fo r their best growth Every

, .

farm should p roduce some forage Th e kin d of crop to .

rai s e fo r thi s purpose depen ds o n a great man y con ditio n s ,

such as moisture climate soil a ,n d the kin d of livestock

, ,

whose food it is to be .

C otto n sugar can e a

,
n d rice all requi re a wa rm climate
-
,

a n d othe r special con ditio n s which limit thei r g row th to

c ompa ratively small a reas .
 Wha
t Crops t
o Gro w

Th e fruit c ops usually pay well if rai se d un der the

- r

particular soil climatic a n d marketi n g co n dition s whi ch

, ,

they deman d Before plan tin g a n orcha rd great care ,

should be exercised to see th at con ditio n s a re favo rable ,

sin ce man y years may be wasted before a mista ke is

discovered .

F rom the n umerous cr0 ps that a re available o n e s h ould ,

exp erien ce n o d iffic ulty in gettin g a diversity of pro fita ble

crops fo r almost a n y co n dition s .

430 Wo rk in pro d uc in g va
. ri o u s c r0ps In arran gin g .

a croppin g system crops should be sele c ted whi ch do n o t

,

c o nflic t with each othe r by req ui r in g atten tio n at the

sa me time As fa r as possible the wo rk s

. hould be even ly ,

dist ributed durin g the year After bein g planted the .

,

small g ra
- in s requi re very little atten tion un til harvest
tim e C o rn a
. n d potatoes o n the oth e r han d n ee d cul , ,

ti va tio n durin g the g rowin g seaso n Th e main wo rk in - .

rai sin g suga r beet s c omes at t hi n n in g a

- n d at diggin g time .

Ha y n eed s but little atte n tio n exc e pt at ha rvest M uch .

of the work in a n o rchard c a n be do n e duri ng the win te r .

Thus by p rope r plan n in g crops may be sele c ted which

, ,

use labo r machin ery a , n d irrigatio n water at diff e ren t

,

tim es This greatly in crea

. ses the p ro fits by makin g ,

ret urn s mo re ce rtain a n d la rger a n d by in suri n g con stan t ,

work fo r me n a n d ho rses .

SUPPLEMENTARY RE ADIN G

An y bo o k o n fie ld c ro p s .

Fa rm M a na g e m e n t G F W arre n , pp 42—
1 0
.3 402—
41
. 5 , .
, .

N e w Yo rk ( C o rn e ll) u lle tin N o 295 B . .

So ils Ly o n a
, n d Pi pp in p p 497 502 , .
-
.

Ag ri c ultural Ec o n o mi c s H C Ta y lo r pp 65 7 7
-
, . .
, . .

Cy c lo ped i ao f Ame ri c a n Ag ric ulture Vo l I pp 8 1 1 09 , .

, .
-
.

U S D A Fa rm ers B ulle tin 446 The C h o ic e o f C ro p s fo r Alk a

li
’
. . . .

La
,

nd s .
 C HAPTER XXXI

E QU I PME N T OF THE F ARM

FA RMIN G is n o w an i n dust ry that is co n ducted la rgely

by the use of machi n ery There is hardly a . n ope rat i o n

from the plan ti n g of crops to the milkin g of cows that is

n o t don e with the aid of some kin d of machi n e In the .

early hi story of farmin g p ractically everythin g wa

, s do n e
by han d a ,
n d the few implemen t s used o n the farm we r e

very sim ple Duri n g the last cen tury however there
.
, ,

ha s been a co mplete revolutio n in this re spect With .

the in ven tion of the grain harv ester th e possibilities of ,

ag rl c ultu re we r e ve ry g reatly i n c rea sed Befo re this.

tim e the amoun t of g rain that could be rai sed was lim ited
to the quantity that c ould be ha rvested by the slow meth
ods the in use
n T o day n o such lim it exi s
.
- ts sin ce every ,

operation in grain farming c a - n be do n e with machi n ery .

Th e size of a grain farm is lim ited n o w o nly by the capital

-

that is available In the other bran ches of agriculture

.
,

the use of modern equi pmen t ha s wrought simila r tra n s

formation s .

43 1 Th e f a
. rm e r a s am e c h an ic Th e fa rmer of a
.

few gen eration s ago could get alon g with but very little
kn owledge of machi n ery si n ce he had n o machin es but
, ,

n o w all this has cha n ged Th e modern farme r ha rdly

.

does a thi n g without the aid of some complicate d ma

chin e The use of these various devices requires skill
.

a s well as co n side rable k n owledge of mechan ism The .

392
394 The Pri nc i p les o A
f g rmwmy

Some farmers g o to the other extreme a n d buy every

a
n e w m chi n e a
n d device that is put o n the ma rket As .

a re sult they have hun d red s of dollars worth of idle

’

equipmen t The wise farmer is con servative in p ur

.

a
chasin g equipmen t , n d buys on ly stan dard implemen ts .

He is however afraid to purchase a machin e when

no t, ,

he sees that it will earn mon ey .

433 Ma . ha
c h in e s t t g e t o ut o f d a te Every year .

man y n e w kin ds of machin es a re offe red fo r sale Some .

F IG . 94
. C e m e n t fin d s m a
ny u se s o n th e f a
rm .

of thes e can safely be pu rchased at o n ce but the majo rity ,

of n e w devices a re o n ly i n the expe rime n tal stage when

first put o n the market They may be good in p ri n

.

c ip le but probably ma n y thi n gs about them will be p e r

,

fe c te d afte r a fe w years of t rial This mea n s that there

.

will be a rapid cha n ge a n d th at the firs

,
t machi n e will
be ren dered out of date by more perfect models It is .

usually a good thi n g therefore fo r the farmer to let ne w

, ,

equipmen t have a year o r two of trial before he ties up

 E q u i pme n t of the F a
rm 395

his mon ey in it Stan dard equipme n t such as wagon s

.

a n d plow s seldom get s out of date .

434 Ma
. ha
c h in e s t ta re se ld o m u se d Some pieces .

of equipmen t that seem almost n ecessary o n the farm

a re use d but fe w time s in a sea s on The farmer who has .

a few acres of grain n eed s a fan n in g mill to elean the seed ,

a n d yet it seems a waste to have this machi n e idle except

fo r a few days d uri n g each yea r This d iffic ulty c a

. n be

overcome in part by the cooperatio n of a n umber of farm

e rs i n the pu rchase a n d use of such machi n e ry See d .

grain c a n be clea n ed almost a n y time du ri n g the yea r .

This makes it possible fo r a dozen o r twe n ty farmers

to use the same fan n i n g mill maki n g the expen se fo r ,

ea ch o n e very slight The same rule c a . n be applied to

the ow n ership of grain d rills harvesters threshi n g ma

, ,

chin es a n d n ume rous other impleme n ts

, .

435 Siz e o f ma c hi n e ry The size of machin ery

da
. .

must be a p t efl t o th e ngeeds of the fa rme r O u the .

very large farm , i t is desi rable to have all the machin ery
‘

so la rge that it may be ope rated with as little m a n labo r

a s po ssible Where fie ld s a
. re small o n the other ha n d , ,

la rge machi n es can n ot be used to advan ta ge o n accoun t

of the co n sta n t turn i n g that is n ecessa ry The traction .

e n gi n e as a sou rce of powe r i n tillage ope ratio n s may be

use d un der certain co n ditio n s but it fin d s n o place o n the
,

o rdi n ary farm In t ryin g equipmen t of all kin ds th e

.
,

farmer should con sider well the sizes that will best meet
his n eeds The machin es should be large en ough to do
.

his work a n d n o t so la rge that capita

, l is u n n ec essarily
tied up in them .

436 Th e d uty o f ma
. c h in e ry refe rs to the amou n t of

work do n e o r the area of lan d served by a

, n impleme n t ,

durin g o n e season The duty of a mowin g machi n e would

.

be very great if it could be worki n g the year rou n d but ,

 96 The Pri nc i p les o A
f g rono my

it is u sed on ly duri n g the do m p a

ra tive ly b rief pe riod when
hay is in the right stage to cut The duty of a grai n drill .

is low because the season when grai n c a

,
n be pla n ted i s

short a n d o n e impleme n t c an cove r o n ly a limited a re a

of lan d The duty of a

. n impleme n t is in c reased by ke ep

in g it in goo d wo rki n g o rder a n d by ru n n i n g it double

shifts du ri n g the bu sy seaso n By u sin g lights a n d cha n g

.

F I G 95 . . a
G so li n e e ng ine u se d fo r st aki
c ng a Wi sc o n si
h y ,
n .

in g m e n ad
team s a potato digger may be ru n twen ty
n ,

four hours in a day if n ecessary thereby maki n g its duty ,

two o r th ree times what it would o rdin arily be The .

same plan may be followed with man y other implemen ts .

437 De pre c i a
. ti on E ve ry fa rm impleme n t depre
.

ciates partly through wea ri n g out a

, n d pa rtly th rough

getti n g out of date A gasoli n e en gi n e built fifte e n years

.

ago would be worth very much lessto day had it n o t be e n -

,

u sed at all because ma n y improvemen ts have si n ce bee n

,
398 The Pri nc i p les oA
f g ro no m y

likely to rust should be oiled If this is don e the im p le .

,

men t is always ready fo r use The practice of repairin g .

when the machin e is taken out fo r use in the begin n in g

of the seaso n results in a great waste of valuable tim e .

All machi n ery should be kept in a good state of repair ,

as this lessen s the depreciatio n a n d i n creases the e ffic ie n c y .

Mower kn ives plow s a , n d othe r simila r impleme n ts wo rk

, .

much more e ffic ie n tly if kept well sharpe n ed .

439 Sui ta
. ble fa rm b ui ld i n g s F arm buildi n gs a l
.
,

though n ecessa ry may be co n side red as the no n produc

,
-

tive part of the farm They a re n eed ed as p rotectio n

.

fo r the farmer as well as fo r his stock farm prod ucts a nd , ,

machin ery yet they add n othin g directly to the farm

,

i n come Buildi n gs therefore should n o t be expen sive

.
, , ,

sin ce they tie up capital that i s n eeded in the more p ro

d uc tiv e e n te rpri ses People who kn ow n othi n g about
.

farmi n g a n d the way its p ro fits a re obtai n ed a re likely

to criticize the average farmer fo r his lack of expen sive

buildi n gs The farmer must be con servative in this te
.

spect however o r his desire to make a showin g in build

, ,

i n gs will cripple him in his worki n g capital .

There is n o doubt that farm buildi n g s could be im

proved in design a n d that, with proper plan n i n g the
, ,

mo n ey n o w i n vested could have been bette r spen t The .

arran gemen t of farm buildin gs in man y cases results i n a

great wa ste of time Th e modern farmer by the use of
.
,

cemen t a n d other available buildi n g materials ca n con ,

st ruct all n ecessa ry buildi n gs at comparatively low ex

pe n se C are in plan n i n g en ables him to do much more
.

with his mon ey than if he co n structed a n umber of small

buildi n gs without regard to arran gemen t The impor .

tan ce of co n ve n ien ce a n d sa n itatio n have also been largely

ove rlooked in the past .

 E q u i p men t of the F a
rm 3 99

U
S PPLEME NTARY RE AD IN G

Fa ruc ture s K
rm St , . J
T Ek bl w . a .

Fa
rm M ana g e m e n t , G F W rre n , pp 355 364
. . a .
-
.

a a
C y c lo pe d i o f Ame ric n Ag ric ulture , Vo l I, pp 162 27 8 —
. . .

Fa aa
rm M n g e m e n t, F W C a . rd , p p 40 47
—
. . .

Phy sic s o f Ag ric ulture , F H Kin g , p p 223 254, 329 553

. . .
— -
.

a a a a
F rm M c h in e ry n d F rm Mo to rs, vid so n n d C h se Da a a .

a D
F rm e ve lo p m e n t, W M H y s, p 355 38 4 .
—
. a . .

a
F rm Eq uipme n t, O hi o Bul 297 . .

C o st o f Pro d uc in g Minn e so t F rm CrO p s, Mi nn e so t Bul 1 1 7 aa a . .

. . . . a
U S D A F rm e rs ulle tin s:
’
B
No 303 C o rn -Ha
. . rv e sti n g M c hi n e ry a .

a
347 Re p ir o f F rm Eq uip m e n t
. a .

47 5 Ic e Ho use s
. .

48 1 C o n c re te C o n stru c tio n o n the Li ve sto c k F rm a .

57 4 Po ultry Ho u se C o n struc ti o n
. .

58 9 Ho me M d e Silo s
. a .
 C HAPTE R XXXII

F AC TORS OF S U CCE SS I N CRO P P ROD UC

TI O N

ON E of the most d iffic ult thin gs in a n y busi n ess is to

main ta in a proper balan ce between its pa rts There is a .

co n stan t ten den cy to develop hobbies which mean s that ,

other phases will be n eglected A merchan t had a hobby

.

of keepin g his store n eat a n d clea n claimin g that a

, n

o rderly establishme n t attracted trad e He was so .

pa rticular about scrubbi n g a n d putti n g thi n gs in o rde r ,

that when customers came in they were n eglecte d ;

customers were secon dary to clean lin ess He also n e g .

le c te d to give prope r atten tio n to buyi n g a n d to othe r

importan t parts of his busin ess As a result of his hobby

.

a n d in spite of the fact that h is sto re was a mod el of

n eat n ess he lost most of his t rade a

, n d became ba n kr upt .

The farmer un le ss he is careful will give most of his

, ,

atten tion to o n e o r two phases of his busin ess a n d n eglect

the others He must be co n stan tly o n the alert to keep

.

the busin ess well organ ized to have the capital all wo rk
,

i n g to practice the right ty pe of farmi n g to han dle the

, ,

crops a n d a n imal s in the best way a n d to ma rket to the

,

best advan tage He must recogn ize that successful

a
.

f rmin g is made up of a great ma n y importan t factors .

440 Si ze o f fa
. rm In o rde r to make a success in
.

the production of crops the farm must be of the prope r

,

size High y ields may be obtain ed but un less a con sider

.
,
402 The P ri n c i p les oA
f g rono my

also to pay fo r itse lf in a very few years If it does no t .

do this they say there is n othi n g in farmin g E very o n e

,
.

recog n izes the fact that capital is requi red to e n ter the

bank in g busin ess ; yet more capital is often i n vested i n

a farm than i n a small ba n k .

The rai si n g of fie ld c rop s c a n p robably be do n e with

’

less ca pita! than is required fo r a n y othe r b ra n ch of agr i

culture Dairyin g a
. n d the pure b red live stock busi n ess
-

requi re a la rge i n itial outlay fo r stock ; fruit growi n g -

requires the i n vestme n t of capital a n umbe r of yea rs

before return s a re expected N o twith sta

. n d in g the re l

a tiv e ly low capital required to raise fie ld crops they ,

can n ot be successfully produced without the i n vestmen t

of con siderable mo n ey The lan d must be purchased o r
.

re n ted a nd a suitable seed bed prepared See d must

- .

be pla n ted a n d the c rop ca red fo r duri n g g rowth the n ,

harvested a n d ma rketed befo re a n y retu rn s a re secu red .

Ma n y failures occur in farmin g because suffic ie n t capital

is n o t availabl e The prospective farmer therefo re to
.
, ,

be most successful should have at his disposal suffic ie n t

fun ds to operate his farm in the most e ffic ie n t man n er .

442 Prope r type o f f a

. rmi n g T he type of fa rmi n g
.

followed is as important to success as a re the me t hod s

u sed In every sectio n some types pay bette r tha n others
.
,

a n d the discovery of t he payin g type is o n e of the chief

problems of the m a n o n the la n d Th i s has been dis
.

cussed mo re fully in C hapter XXX .

443 G o o d ma
. nag e m e n t F.a rmi n g will n o t pay
un de r the mo st favorable co n ditio n s without in telligen t
man agemen t There a
. re so ma n y cha n ces fo r losses
that un less good j ud g m e n t is exercised failure is sure to
result . In farmi n g n e w co n dition s a
, re co n sta n tly p re~

sen ti n g themselves ; henc e it is impossible to lay down

a n y set rul es The fa rmer must be co n sta n tly alert a
. nd
 Fa
ct
o rs o f Suc c ess i n Cro p P ro d u c t
io n 403

ready to adapt the method to c o n ditio n s as they ex ist In .

man y of the in dustries the work is exactly the same yea r

,

after year a n d whe n o n ce learn ed n o d iffic ult

, y is e x p e

rie n c ed . Farmi n g o n the other han d is n ever the sa

, me ,

durin g a n y two yea rs Season al variation s a

. re so g reat

that each day presen ts n e w problems .

The ec o n omical use of horses a nd machi n ery plowi n g ,

plan tin g a n d ha rvesti n g at the righ t time a

,
n d i n the rig ht

wa y an d ma rketi n g p ro d uc t s to the best adva n tage ,

both call fo r the highest type of executive ability It is .

n o t e n ough to be able to raise good crops ; they must be

produced at a p ro fit This requires good man agement

. .

444 K e e pin g re c o rd s
. Th e farmer c ann ot without
.
,

keepin g so me kind of reco rds tell whi ch ph ases of his ,

busin ess a re most p ro fit able Th e mercha n t keeps books

.

primarily to tell whom he is owi n g a nd w h o owe s h im .

Th e farme r c a n usua l ly keep accoun t of the se th i n gs

without a se t of bo oks ; but in o rder to tell where his
p ro fi ts c a
me f rom an d whe re th e losses occu r a set of simple
farm accoun ts is in dispe n sable By doin g this he is .
,

able to elimi n ate u npro fita ble crops a n d rai se o nly those

givin g greatest return s Fe w farmers Will fin d it a

. d vis
able to keep a complex se t of accoun ts but some simple ,

bookkeepi n g will certain ly pay .

445. Pro fits to afa

rm e r vs .
yi e ld s to the a
c re .
— 4
In
discussi ng crop production the idea is sometimes advan c ed
,

that the chi ef aim of the farmer is to get high acre —yields .

While high yields a re desi rable they a re by n o mea n s ,

all that the farmer wan ts His chief con cern is to get .

a high total in come fo r h is year s work A n e t earn in g ’

.

of te n dollars an ac re o n a fa rm of 1 00 ac res is mo re p ro fit

able than a n ea rn i n g of twe n ty fiv e dolla rs an ac re o n a -

farm of te n acres .

High yield s do n o t always bri n g a high n e t p ro fit fo r

404 The Pri n c i p les oA
f g ron o my

ea ch acre Fo r example potatoes usually brin g actually

.
,

less mon ey to the farmer durin g a yea r whe n yields a re

high all over the cou n try than duri n g years of low yields .

Method s should be adopted which give large yields ; but

of equal importan ce is the o rgan ization of the busin ess
,

in such a way that the fa rme r will receive a high total

in come even though the yield of a n y i n dividual c rops is

n o t h igh . In sho rt the fun ction of the farmer is n o t

,

prima rily to make his lan d give big yields but to use the ,

lan d in helpin g himself to get a large yearly in come The .

farm is fo r the farmer a nd no t t, he farmer fo r the farm

446 Pro fits fro m ma n a n d h o rse la
.

. b or Th e fa rme r .

should n o t expect to make all his p ro fits from the lan d ;

he should also make mo n ey from the m e n he hires a n d from

the horse s he uses Some farmers seem to thin k that

.

mon ey paid out fo r hired help is lost whereas in reality , ,

’
a go od p ro fit should be made o n every day s labor used
o n the farm T o do this requires careful man agemen t
. .

Th e wo rk must be so well plann ed that n o time is spen t

doin g un p ro fita ble jobs Employmen t must be arran ged
.

fo r rai n y days a n d othe r times whe n it is impossible to

do the regular farm work .

More atten tion i s usually given to m a n tha n to ho rse

labor N o farmer would thin k of keepin g hi red m e n if

.

there wa s n o wo rk fo r them to do but idle ho rses a re kept

,

o n the place fo r mo n ths at a time By p rovidin g wo rk .

fo r all the ho rses o n the fa rm the cost of p roduci n g crops

,

is greatly red uc ed .

447 U n d e rsta
. n d in g e ac h c ra p E ach ki n d of cr
.op
ha s its o w n peculiar requi remen ts wh ich must be catered ,

to if they a re to be p ro fita ble The farmer should .

base his practices upo n a kn owledge of the n eed s of his

crops He must un derstan d that alfalfa n eed s a soil
.

co n tain in g lime while co rn n eed s a soil havin g con sider

,
406 The P ri nc i p les o A
f g ron o my

Succe s s in crop p rod uction does n o t c o n sist alon e in

doin g o n e th in g well ; it call s fo r good judgment in ma ny

disti n ct kin ds of wo rk The farmer who has a fad of .

marketin g , o r of raisin g crops in a particular way , often

n eglects other impo rta n t facto rs , a n d as a result fall s

sho rt of success Th e successful farmer must keep his

.

busin ess well balan ced that is he must give to each , ,

phase of his work the atten tion that its importan ce j usti
fie s .

SUPPLE ME NTARY RE ADIN G

Fa na
rm M a g e m e n t G F W rre n
, . . a .

Rur a l Ec o no mic s, T N C a rv e r
. . .

C y c lo pe d i ao f Am e ric a n Ag ri c ult ur e , Vo l I, pp 1 62 202

—
. . .

a
C y c lo ped i o f Ame ric a n Ag ri c ulture , Vo l II , p p 8 1 1 09 . .
—
.

C y c lo pe d i ao f Am e ric a n Ag ric ulture , Vo l IV, p p 2 1 5 2 7 6

—
. . .

a a
Rur l We lth a n d We l a f
re , G T F irc h ild . . a .

a
Ag ri c ultur l Ec o no m ic s, H C Ta y lo r . . .

The Yo un g F rme r, T F Hun ta . . .

C o fipe ra tio n i n Ag ri c ulture , G H Po we ll . . .

The Fa rm e rs
’
B
usin e ss H a n d bo o k , I P Ro be rts . . .

a
F rm Ma nag e m en t, A n d re w o ss B .

U S D A Fa
. . . rm e rs
.
’
ulle tin s B
N o 454 A Suc c e ss ul Ne w Yo rk Fa
. . f rm .

. a
62 1 M rk e tin g Fa rm Pro d u c ts .
APPE N DIC E S
41 0 App end i x

Ne va
da R e no . C o lle g e o f Ag ric ulture Co
N w Ha
e m p shir e D u ha
m r . lum b us .

N e w erse y J B
Ne w run swic k . O kla ho m a Stillwa ter .

N e wMex i c o Ag ric ultur l C o l a O re g o n C o rva lli s .

le g e . Pe n n sy lv a n ia Sta te C o lle g e .

Po rto Ric o Ma a
y g u ez .

St te Sta a ti o n Ge n e v a . Rh o d e Isla nd Kin g sto n .

C o lle g e o f Ag ric ulture a nd Co r a

So uth C ro lin a C le m so n C o l
n e ll E x pe ri me n t St atio n le g e .

Itha ca . So u th a D k o ta B
ro o kin g s .

N o rth Ca ro lin a Te nne ssee Kn o x v ille .

C o lle g e Sta ti o n We st Ra Te x a s C o lle g e Sta tio n .

le ig h . U ta h Lo g a n .

Sta te Sta tion Ra le i g h . Verm o n t B

u rlin g to n .

N o rth a D
k o ta Ag ric ultur l a Virg in ia la B c ks burg .

C o lle g e . Wa shi n g to n Pullm a n .

O hio We st Virg in ia Mo rg a nt ow n

a
.

Ex pe ri m e n t St tio n Wo o s Wisc o n sin M d iso n a .

te r . Wy o min g La ram ie .

a D a
The Uni ted St te s e p rtme n t o f Ag ric ulture is a t Wa shi n g to n ,
D C O ne ma
. .
y a d d re ss the Se c re ta
ry o f Ag ric u lture , o r ri t
e to o ne w
of tD
he i vi sio n so f the e p a rtm e n t D
The m o st im po rt n t d ivi sio n s . a
a af
re s o llo ws

Wathe au er B ure . B ure a u o f B io lo g ic al Surve y .

B ure au f Animal I d ustry

o n . Di vi si o n f Pu blic a
o ti o s n .

B u e au f Plat Ind ustry

r o n . B ure a u o f St a ti stic s .

Fo re st Se rvic e . Offic e o f Ex perim e n t St ti o n s a .

B ure a
u o f C he m i stry . Offic e o f Pu blic Ro d s a n d Eu a
B ure a
u f S ils o o .
g i n ee ri n g .

B ure a
u o f E to m o lo g y n .

So m e of th e m o st im po rt at a
dd
n re sse s in Ca
n daare a
D o m i n io n D p atm t f Ag i
e r en o r O n ta
ri o Ag ri c ultura
l C o lle g e ,
cu l tu O ttawaO tai
re , ,
n r o . Gue lph O nta rio .

i m ta
,

Ex p e r l Fa
en rm s O ttawa ,
. Ag ric ultur al C o lle g e Wi nni pe g , ,

Ma
ni to ba .
 Appen di x 41 1

APPE ND IX B

L AB RAT RY O O GUID ES
Ma n ua l o f Ag ric ulture So ils an d C ro p s D O a
rto , . . B .

A La bo ra to ry M a n ua l o f Ag ric ulture L E C a ll and E G , . . . .

Le sso n s o n So il E
, . J Russe ll .

The Phy sic a l Pro pe rtie s o f So ils A G Mc c a , ll . . .

So il Phy sic s La bo ra to ry M a n ua l G Mo sie r a , J

n d A F G ust af so n
. . . .

U
A n it in Ag ric ulture D Ellif , J . .

Ex a m in i n g a n d Gra d in g Gra in T L Ly o n a n d E G Mo n t g o m e ry .

n ua
. . . .
,

La bo rato ry M a l o f Fa rm M a na g e me n t G F Wa rre n and K C , . . . .

Live rmo re .

La bo rato ry M a n ua l o f C e re als a n d Fo ra g e C ro p s Ge o Li v in g sto n , .

a nd Ma lo n Yo d e r .
41 2 App endi x

APPE ND IX C

FERTILITY IN F ARM PRO DUCE

APPRO X IMATE MAX IMU M AMO U NTS RE MO VAB LE TO AN ACRE

AN NU ALLY

Pno n uc n Po m s

N itro Ph o s Po t s a N i tro Ph o e Po t s a a
To t l
Amo un t
g en aa
p h rn sium g en p h o rus si um Va
lue

1 00 b u . 1 00 17 19
3 T . 6 . 18
1 48 23 71 . 69

100 b u . 66 ll . 33 . 96
2} T . 5 . 15
97 16 . 48

. 36 . 78
. 12
. 48

. 39 1 44
.

. 24
. 63

3 T . 72 9
4 bu . 7 2 . 18
4T . 1 60 20
3 T 1 30 14
Alfa
lfaha
.

y 8 T 400 36

.24 . 70
1 14
.

. 88

Po ta
to e s 300 b u 83 39
a
. .

Sug r-b ee ts 20 T 1 00 . 54

. 15
. 21
. 06 . 30
0 42 23 7 6

lh . 25 7
lb . 18 3
ih . 57 7
400 lh .

mo m Ho p k i n s So i l F e rtil ity
’
ad
n Pe rm a
ne n t Ag ri c ulture . ( Ginn Co )
.
41 4 App end i x

AP PE ND IX E

WEIGHTS AN D MEASURES

16 o un c e s o z( .
) 1 po un d (lb ) .

1 00 p o un d s l h un d red we ig ht (c wt) .

20 h u nd red we ig h t ( c wt . 1 to n (T .
)
1 to n 20 c wt . 2000 1b . oz .

Li nea
r Mea
su res

1 2 in c he s (ln .
) 1 foot(ft ) .

3 f ee t 1 ya rd (y d ) .

a
5% y rd s, or 1 6} ft
7 . 1 ro d (rd ) .

320 ro d s 1 m ile (m i ) .

1 mi . 320 rd .
=
—
17 60 y d . 528 0 ft . in .

Sq uare Mea
sm es

qu a
1 44 s re in c he s ( sq . 1 squa f t (sq re oo . ft ) .

9 squ a re fee t 1 squa y ad (sqre r . d

y ) .

30} sq ua re y a rd s 1 sq a o d ( sq
u re r . rd ) .

1 60 sq ua re ro d s 1 a (A )c re .

640 a c re s 1 squa mil ( sqre e . mi ) .

1 squ a re m ile 1 sec ti o n

36 sec ti o n s 1 to wn ship (twp ) .

q a s u re f
ee t 1 a
c re

1 60 a
c re s sec ti o n

0 1: Cubic Mea
su res

1 7 28 c ubic in c he s (c u in ) . . 1 cu f
bic o o t (c u ft ) . .

27 cu f
bic ee t 1 c u b ic y ard (c u y d ) . .

1 c ubic y rd a c u in . .

1 c ub i c y ard 1 lo a d
24% c ubic fee t 1 pe rc h
1 28 c u bi c fee t 1 c o rd
1 ft x 1 2 i n x l in
. . . 1 bo a rd o o t f
 App end i x 41 5

4 g ills (si) 1 pi n t (p t) .

2 pi n ts q a
1 u rt (q t ) .

a
4 q u rts 1 g a
llo n (g a
l) .

a
3 1 % g llo n s 1 b a rre l (bbl ) .

7% g a
ll n s wa
o te r 1 c u bi c f t (a
oo pp ro x im a
te ly)
1 ga llo n wa te r po un d s
1 U S ga
. ll n
. o 23 1 c u b ic in c h e s

1 q u rta
l p ec k (p k .
)
l b ushe l (b u .
)
cu . in .
41 6 Appe nd i x

APPE N DIX F

U
Q ANTITY O F SEED N
PLA TE D TO THE AC RE
1 2 bushe ls
—

2—4 bu she ls
li —2
i bushe ls
1 2 bushe ls
—

2i 3% bushe ls
—

i bushel
1 bush e l
2 bu she ls
Fla
x 5— 2 bu she ls
C o rn 1 5 20 p o u nd s
—

Po ta to e s 10 1 8 bu she ls
—

Re d c lo ve r 8 1 2 po un d s
—

Alsik e c lo ve r. 6 10 po u nd s
—

Wh ite c lo ver 4 8 po un d s
—

Ti m o thy 1 0 1 5 po un d s
—

O rc h a - a
rd g r s s —
1 5 20 po un d s
Sug a r bee t
- s 1 2 1 6 po un d s
—

a
Blu e -g r ss 1 0 1 5 po un d s
—

f
Al a lf a 1 0 20 po un d s
—

a
Bro m e-g r ss 1 5 20 p o un d s
—

Bur c lo ve r 1 2 po un d s
Swe e t c lo ve r 1 0 25 po un d s
—

a
M n g e ls 5 8 po un d s
—
 Append
'

41 8

APPE ND IX H

MEAS RIN G U R ULES

i c ubic foot T o. d e te r m i n e t h e c p ac i ty o f bai n fi n d th ea n u m b e r,

o f c u bic f
ee t nd m ult a i p ly by i o r m ultip ly by 8 a , n d d i vi d e by 1 0 .

Mm urin g e r c o m a . a
It req ui re s bo u t two bu sh e ls o f e a r c o rn

to m a k e o n e bu she l she lle d To fin d the c p c ity o f

. aa
c ri b , fi nd a
the n um be r o f c ubic ee t n d m ult f a
i p ly by g o r 4 . .

Mea su ri ng ha y Th. e q u n t i ty o f h ay i n m oa a
w i s ve ry h rd to a
es a
tim te a c c ur t e ly a a
The d ee per the h y i s, the h rd er i t wi ll be
. a
p a c k e d .S o m e ki n d s o f h y re h e v i eraa th n o tah ea rs ; th e lo n g e r i t
sta a
n d sthe m o re c o m p c ti t be c o m e s Se ttled h y will u sua
. a lly we ig h
a f
bo ut fiv e po un d s pe r c u bic o o t, o r 400 c u bic ee t will we ig h o n e f
to n .
(See Appe nd ix I ) .

a
Me suri ng la nd The e a
. sie stw y to c a a
lc ul te l n d me sure m e n tsa a a
i s to fig ure 1 60 sq ua re ro d s a s o n e c re a
A str ip o n e ro d wi d e n d
. a
1 60 ro d slo n g the re o re e qu a
, f ls a n , c re a a
s d o e s st r ip o ur ro d s w
, a id e f
a n d 40 ro d s lo n g , o r e i g h t ro d s w a
i d e n d 20 ro d s lo n g , e tc .

’
a
A survey o r s c h i n is o ur ro d s lo n g f It is d i vid e d in to 1 00 lin k s,
.

aa
so th t ll c a a
lc ul tio n s re in d ec im ls a a
Te n c h in s squ re e qu l
. a a a

SQUARE ME ASURE EQUIVALENTS

SQ . IN . SQ . FT . SQ YD
. . SQ Ro n
. AC RE

1 44 1
9 1
2 7 2} 304 1
1 60 1
640
 App en d i x 41 9

APPE ND IX I

U
R LES FO R MEASU RIN G HAY IN THE STAC K

A num be r o f me a sure m e n ts a re ta ken a n d the a v e rag e o b tain ed

fo r : L le n g th , W wi d th , 0 o ve rthro w (alin e i sthro wn o ve r

the sta c k to th e g ro un d o n th e o t he r sid e and t h e o v e rthro w i s the
d ista n c e o v er the s tac k ro m t f
h e bo tto m o n o n e sid e to th e bo tto m
on t he o th e r ) The n the n um be r o f c u bic ee t in the sta
. c k ma fy be
f f
o un d ro m t f
he o llo win g o rm ula s f
(0 W)
K m ultip lied by itse l a nd t f
hi s pro d uc t by the le n g th o f

st cak cu . ft

time s L cu . ft .

(O — W)

a
Fo r ro un d st c k s, g e tth e a
v e rag e c irc u m e re n c e ( C ) atf
o r ab o v e th e b se a
or bulg e , fin d th e ve rti c a
”
l he ig h t o f the m e a sure d c irc um e re n c e f
fro m th e g ro un d nd t he sla a
n t h e ig h t ro m t f
he c i rc umf e re n c e to the

to p o f the sta Th e n u se the o rmula

( C “1 8 C )
f
ck .

33
8 tim e s (he ig h t
1
of th e b se a 3; slan t h1
e i g h t o f t o p ) c u f t . .

f
Whe n the n um be r o f c ubic ee t is k n o wn thi s n um be r isd ivid ed ,

by the n u m be r o f c ubic ee tin a f

to n to fin d h o wm a ny t o n st here a re .

Th e re a re abo ut343 c ubic ee tin p ra firi e h a y th a t h a s se t t le d 30 d a y s

o r m o re bu t 422 c ubic e e t i so t
, f f
e n c o n sid e red a sc lo se r Fo r a la.l a f f
422 51 2 c u bi c ee t a
—
f
re u s e d in diff e re n t re g io n s fo r h a y t h a t h a s se t
tled 30 o r m o re d a y s W h e n t h.e h a y h a s se tt le d 5 to 6 m o n th s 422
c u b ic f
ee t and a ter a y e a rf 3 4 3 c u b i c ee t a r f
e u s u a lly a c c e p te d a s a
to n . Fo r ro un d sta c ks a to n u su a lly c o n ta in s 51 2 o r m o re c ubi c
fee t a f
te r 30 d a y s Th e n u m .b e r to b e u se d v ri e s w i th t h e ad e p th
of s aa
t c k s we ll a sw i th the ti m e o f se ttlin g .
420 App endi x

APPE ND IX J

WHEAT HARVEST C ALEN DAR

Ja ay
nn r . Au stra
li aN e w! e a
, lan d C hile a n d Arg e t
, in e Re p ublic
, n .

Fe brua
ry a
nd Ma
rc h . U p pe Eg y p t In d ia
r , .

April . Lo we r Eg yp t , I di aSyriaCy prus Pe rsi aAsi a

n , , M ino r , , ,

Me x ic o C ub
, a .

Ma y . a
Te x s Alg e ri a ,, Ce n t ra l Asia , C hi n a , a p a n M o ro c c o J .

J f N
,

un e . Ca li o rn ia , O re g o
n , Mi s si ssipp i , Ala ba ma ,
Geo rg ia , o rth

Ca ro lin a , So ut h Ca ro lin a , Te n n e s see , Virg i n i a ,

Ke n tuc k y , Ka ns a s,
Ar k an sa s, ta U
h , C o lo ra d o , Mi sso uri , Turk e y Gre ec e , Ita ly , Sp a , in ,
Po rtug a l , So uth o f Fra nc e .

J
uly . N e w En g la n d , N e w Yo rk , Pe nn s y lv a
ni a , O h io , In d i ana ,

Mic hig a n , Illin o i s, Io w a, Wi s c ons in , So uthe rn Min n e so ta , e br sk a N a ,

U pp e r C a n ad a , R o u m an i a, u lg r i a ,
AB a
u stri a -H un
g y r , S o u th o f a
Ru ssi a , Ge
rm a n y , Sw itze rla n d , So ut h o f En g la nd .

Aug ust .C e n tra la nd N

o rth e m M in n e s ot k o t s, M ni to ba aD a a a
,

B B
,

Lo we r C a na da , ri ti sh C o lu m bi a , e lg i um , Ho lla n d , Gre a t Brita in ,

D en m a rk , Po la n d , Cen t ra l Ru ssia .

Se p te mbe r a n d Oc t o be r Sc o tl n d , Swe d e n ,
. aOrw y , o rt h of N aN
Ru ssi a .

No ve m be r Pe ru , So uth A ri c a
. f .

Dec e mbe r .urm a B

h , N e w So u th Wa le s .
422 Appe nd i x

PRICES O F WHEAT ( C HICAGO MARKET ) 1 863 —

1 9 10
( Co n ti n ue d )

Mo ur n s o r Lo wu '
r Y E ARL Y R AN G E Mo ur n s o r B re n ne r
Yn m
P RI C E S o r Pm c z s Pa wn s

1
Th e Le i te r c o rn e r fig ure a a a
Th e bo v e t b le w s c o m p ile d
a a a
by C h rle s B Murr y , e di to r o f th e C i n c i nn ti Pri c e C urre n t
.

. .
 Append i x 423

APPE ND IX L

C RO P STATISTIC S FO R CO NTINENTAL UNITED STATES 1

C O RN W HE AT Bu nny

1 0,

1 , 01 1 1 69

Av e ra
g e Yie ld B ush e ls B ush e ls B ush e ls B ush e ls B ush e ls
Pe r Ac re
1 8 67 1 8 7 6
—

18 7 7— 1 886
1 8 8 7 1 8 96
—

1 8 9 7 — 1 906

Pe r B u sh e l Pe r B ush e l Pe r B ush e l Pe r B ush e l Pe r B ush e l

C e n ts C e n ts C e n ts C e n ts C e n ts

a a a
C lcul te d fro m Y e rb o o k U ni te d St te s
1
a D a
e p rtm e n t o f
Ag ri c ul ture a a a a a
Th e v e r g e y i e ld s p e r c re n d v lue p e r b u sh e l
a a a a a a a a a
.

s h e re c lc u l te d re th e v e r g e s o f th e te n y e rly v e r g e s .
424 Appe nd i x

APPE ND IX M
N
F LO WI G AS AFFEC TE D BY S HAPE O F THE FIEL D
(8 in c h f urro w)

No u meao r T u m T AK E N T u m T AK E N
F u nn o ws I N TO T U RN AT R
TO T U N
LN Ac me E N DS So n
.
426 Appe n d i x

APPE ND IX 0

G LOSSARY

Alka
lo id Subst n c e s in p la
. a
nt s th a t sti mula te o r d e d e n n ervo u s a
a ct io n , suc h a ss try c hn in e , mo rp hi n e , a nd c a ffe in .

Ash . Min e ra l ma tt e r le t a t f f
e r burn in g ; a sh e s .

Awrw . ea rd s o n s Beed -c o a ts o r o n c h a ff .

Bac te ri a Ex tre m e ly sm a
. ll o n e -c e lle d p la n ts the sm lle stm e m
, a
be rs o f th e pla n t k in g d o m The y d e pen d o n o the r pl n ts o r
. a
a
ni m a ls, e ith e r li v in g o r d e d , fo r o o d a f .

a
B st . The fibro u s p a rt o f t h e ba rk .

a
Br c t s Le a
. fle ts n e a r th e b a se o f true le a , or o f
n ro o ts to c k s; a ny

le a v e s n o rm a lly m u c h red u c e d in size .

Ca lyx . O ute r e n ve lo pe o f th e flo we r ; if th e p a rts re s epa ra te , a

the y re c a a
lled sep ls; if n o t wh o lly se p a a r t e, t a
h e y re lo be s a .

Ca mbi u m Gro win g ti ssue u sua

. lly be twee n ba rk a nd w o od It .

lie s be twe e n th e p hlo em nd the x y le m o f the fibro v a a sc u l r a

bu n d le , a nd a s th e se bun d le s, whe n a ct ive , a re o n t he o utsid e
o f th e w o o d y c y lin d e r, th e c a m bi um see m s to lie be twee n th e
wo o d a n d ba rk .

Ca p il la r y w a te r A ll w at e. r th a t i s h e ld i n fi lm s a n d t h a t w i ll e v a p o

ra te wi tho u t h e a tin g , if e x p o se d to the a ir .

Ca rbo hyd ra t
es Substa nc esc o n s
. i stin g who lly o f c a rbo n , h y d ro g e n ,

a
n d o x yg e n , suc h a s sug a r, s ta rc h , a n d c e llulo s e Th e y c o n sti
.

tute the g re t e r pa rt o f t a he d ry we ig h t o f p la n ts .

Cell . Sm a lle st un it o f li vin g th in g s, c o n si sti n g o f c e ll-wa ll in

c lo s i n g j y
e l l -li k e c y pto l a sm a n d h e v i e r n a
uc le u s .

Cellul o s e M a te ri.a l c o m p o si n g c e ll- w a ll s C o t to n

.
, w o o d , w ln u t a
sh e ll, b a rk , st ra w, a nd c a bb a g e le av e s re c hi e a
fl y c e llu l o se .

Chlo rop hy ll Gree n c o lo ri n g m a

. a
tte r o f p l n ts, by th e u se o f whi c h

p la n ts m a n u c t u re th e ifa
r o o d f .

Coro lla The p e ta

—
. ls, o r th e i n ne r flo ra l e n ve lo pe , i n the flo we r
( usu a lly sh o wy ) .

Co rtex The ba
. rk All o f th e tissue s be twe e n th e c mbium a
. nd a
th e e p id e rm i s in wo o d y p la n ts, t he who le ex te rio r c o ve ri n g o f
the trun k o r bra n c he s .

Co rti c a l . a
Pe rt in in g to c o rte x ; o ute r la y e rs o f th e p o t t o t u b e r , a
e x c e pt e pi d e rm i s, o utsid e o f th e a f
in t y e llo wi sh-g re e n rin g .

Cro s s - e rt za
f ili t i o n F er t il i z.at i o n i s c a u s e d b y th e m le e le m e n t oaf
 Append i a
: 427

p o lle n u n itin g with th e f male e e le me n t o f th e o v ule . Th e

tr asf n a
er o f
no t he r p la n t is c a
p o lle n f
lle d c r ss p o llin a
ro m o - tio n .

Crud e fib r Fi bro us p a

e rt o f p la
. n ts h a rd to d ig e st; llulo se ce .

Cu n t met
rre An a pp a rat u s lerw e re.d in to a stre am to fi n d h w o o

fast the wate r fl ws o .

Den i trific a
ti on Cha n g in g o f n itra t sto a . le ssu sa ble f rm o f n itro e o

g en .

Dic otyledo ns Pl a n ts wi th two c o y le d

t o n s o r se ed le v e s o r w
- i th a
a
.

e ed s in tw
s o p a
rts . a
Th e se p l n ts g ro w ro m f
c m biu m nd aa
la y d ow n rin g sin t h e s tem Th e y o rm tw o o f three g re a. t d i vif
sio n s in hi g he r p la n ts Th e y a re subd ivid e d i n t . o g y mno s pe rm s
suc h a s p in e s, a nd a n g io sp e rm s su c h a s o a k tr ee s, p e a s , n d l l a a
p la n t s w i th s p li t se e d s S ee M ono c o t
y le d o n a . .

Ele me nts Va. rio u s c he mi c a l substa nc es t ha t c nn o t be se p a r t ed a a

by pre se n t m e a n s in t o tw o o r m o re o ther substa nc es .

Embryo . The p a rt o f the s e e d th a t be g in s g ro wth the g e rm .

End o d e rmis In n e r skin , u su a

. lly ric h in st rc h a .

End oepe m z The c o n te n ts o f asee d th a

. t lie s o utsid e the g e rm o r
e m bry o It supplie s o o d fo r the g ro win g se e d li n g
. f It i s the .

white p rt o f whe a t a .

Ento mo lo g y Th e sc i e n c e th a
. tdea ls wi th in se c ts .

Enzymes C he mi c a
. l sub sta n c e sw i thi n p la n tso r n i m a lsth a t id in a a
re a c tio n so r c h a n g e s, s uc h a sthe tra n s o rm a ti o n o f sta rc h t o s ug r f a .

Ep id e m i c An o u te r c o v e rin g ( ro m ep i , o u tsid e , a
. n d de rmi s, s f kin )
itis c a sto ff by tree s in e a rly y e a rso f g ro w th Th e o ute r c o v e r .

in g o f tre e s i s o te n c o rte x f .

Fe rmen t ti o na Th e bre ki n g d o wn o r c h a
. a
n g in g o f c o m p o un d s by

c h e m ic a l re a ct io n , suc h a s th e he a tin g o f m a n ure a nd t he

f o rm t a io n o f lc o ho l ro m su g a a
r by y e a st f .

a a
Fibro -v e c ul r bu ndle Bun d le o r bo d y c o n si stin g o f fibe rs, a
. nd o f

d uc ts whic h tra ns p o rt w a t e r u p th e s te m s a n d e l a b o r t ed a
f ood s do w n the s te m The y sho w in c o rn p ith a . s stra n d s, a nd

in wo o d a nd s a
qu sh vin e s a s V sh a
-
pe d bun d le s .

a
Flo c c ul ti o n Gro upin g o f the so il p rtic le s
. a .

Fo rma li n So lu ti o n o f o rm a
. ld e hy d e in wa f
te r, u su lly 40 pe r c e n t a .

Fu n g us, f u ng i A g ro u p o f pla . n tssuc h a sm ild e w, sm u t, m o ld , n d a

m u shro o m s c o n si sti n g mo stly o f thre d -lik e ti ssu e s n d d e v o id a a
o f c hlo ro p hy ll Th e y pro pa g a t e. b y m e a n s o f sp o re s (d e t c h e d a
c e lls) i n s te d o f se e d s a .

Ge mw . A g ro up o f c lo se ly re la
-
ted spec ie s o f pl n ts, a ll be a ri n g o n e a
g e n e ra l n m e, a a
s Tn fo li u m, the c lo ve rs; Po p ulus, the po pl rs a .
428 Append i x

Gra vit t a
imwl w te r Wa a
te r in e x c e sso f film wa
. te r Itp sse sd o wn . a
a
w rd thro ug h so il d ue to pull o f g ra v ity .

Hyyro sc op i c wa te r Wa te r he ld c lo se ly by so il p a
. rt ic le s s athi n ‘
a
film It c a n no t be e v a
.
p o r a te d w i th o u t h e a t i n g .

Le ntic els Po re s in p la
. n ts The e p id e rm i s i s o te n to rn by the
. f
g ro w t h b e n e a th Th e s e O p e n i n g s m .
yp e n e t r t e i n t o d ee p ti as s u e a .

Di m . C o tto n fibe r .

Li nte rs Sho rt fibe r o n c o tto n see d

. .

Med ull ry a Th e in n e r la
.
y e rs o f t h e p o t a to ,
in s i d e t h e in t y lo w
e l fa
i sh-g ree n rin g .

Med ull ry ra a y s u c ts o r p i
. th y re a Ds e x t e n di n g r d i ll y a ro m aa f
ba rk t o c e n te r o f ste m .

Mi c ro brg a n i snw Pla n ts o r a n im ls s

. o s m ll tha t the y c nn o t be a a a
see n wi th o u t a m ic ro sc o pe .

Mono c o tyledo ns Pla n ts h a vi n g o n ly o n e c o t

.
y le d o n o r s e e d -l
e ,
o r f
a
se ed in o n e p a rt The y u su lly h a ve pa. r lle l-v e in e d le a a v e s, a
a
nd s in c e the y h a ve n o c a m bi um , d o n o t la y d o w n r i n g s in
g r o w t h Th e y c o n s t
.i t u te o n e o f t h re e g re a t d i v i s i o n s o f hi h
g er
p la n ts A ll g r s se.s a n d c e re a l g r a a
in s, p al m s , l il i e s , a n d o r c hi d s
a re e x a mp le s See Di c o tyledo ns . .

a
N tu ra l selec ti o n Se le c tio n o r pe rsi ste n c e in n a
. ture o f th o se in
a
d iv id u ls mo st fit to surviv e , o ut o f the m a n y th a t be g in li e f .

N i trifioa tio n C ha n g i n g le ss a
. va ila ble n itro g e n to n itra te s whic h
a
re re dily u s a
ed by p la n ts Ba ct e ri c ha ng e a m mo ni a
.
, are e f
n it ro g e n , a n d n it ri te s to n itra te s by o x id i zin g the m .

N i tro g emfix a ti o n Ma k in g ree n itro g e n in to c o mpo un d s o f n itro

. f
g e n th a t a re so lid s o r c a n b e m d e i n t o so l i d s re d i ly a a .

N od ule s En la
. rg e m e n ts o n ro o ts o f le g um e s c o n t a in in g c o lo n ie s
of b ct e ri a a
wh ic h live o n o o d m d e by the pla f
n t, but w a hic h
a
t k e n itro g e n ro m the a ir f
Le g ume s re the o n ly a .
g r i c u l t ua r l a
p l a n ts k n o w n t o b e a r n o d u le s .

N uc leus Th e c e n te r o f c e ll c ti vity , u su a
. lly d rk e r th n the a a a
o the r c e ll c o n t e n ts

aa
.

Org a n i sm An y li v i n g th in g o r bo d y , a
. s ap la n t, a n a ni m l, mi
c ro be .

Osmo si s Pa .ssa g e o f w a t e r o r d i s s o lv e d m a te r i a l t h ro u g h a m e m
a
br n e to e qu a lize th e c o n c e n tra tio n o f th e so lu ti o n o n bo th
sid e s o f the m e m bra ne .

Ova ry Th e p a
. rt o f th e p i s til c o n ta ini n g the o v ule o r o v ule s the
se e d -c a se .

Ovule . Th e bo d y whic h , fte r ertiliz tio n , be c o m e s the see d a f a .

430 Append i x

Spec ie s O ne kin d o f p la
. nt a s l a lf a , , af
red c lo v e r, w hite c lo ve r,
sug a r ma p le , o a t A n y g ro u
.
p o r a s se m b la g e o f i n d i vi d u a ls
th a ta re s o mu c h a li k e asto s ee m to be the p ro g e n y o f o n e sim ila r

a n c e st o r, o r w hic h a re n o t s uffic i e n tly un lik e t o w a rra nt t he

g i v in g o f m o r e th a n o n e b o t a ni c al n a m e t o t h e m .

Sp erma to p hyt es Pla n ts t

. ha t p ro d uc e see d s, a s ll the so -c a lled a
hi g he r pla nt s .

Sp ike . Cluste r whe n se ed s o r flo we rs a re bo rn e o n s h o rt pe d ic e ls

o r bra nc he s bri n g in g the sp ik e le t s c lo se to g e the r a s in whe a t , .

Sp o n g e tis s u e L o o
. se ti ssu e i n le a , s o -c a lled bec a f us e o f la rg e

sp a c e s be tw ee n c e lls .

Sta mens The po lle n -be a

. ri n g o rg a n s o f flo w e rs; the e ss e nt ia l pa rt

is the a nt her o r p o lle n -c a se , a nd t his is u sua lly ho m e o n a sta lk

or fi la me n t .

Sti g ma The p a . rto f t he pi stil tha trec e i ve sthe po lle n i ti su sua lly
a tth e to p o f a sty le o r sta lk .

Sto lo n ifero us Spre a

. d in g by m e a n s o f ro o tin g bra n c he s, o r s to lo n s
w hi c h a pp e a r a t o r ne ar t h e su r ac e ; i n g r as se f
s s o d - o rm in g yb , f
ro o tsto c k s .

a
Sto m ta Mo uth-lik e o pe n in g s in le a
. v e s o f p la n ts The y pe rm i t .

a
th e in t k e o f c rbo n d i o x id e a a nd a llo w wa te r a n d o x y g e n to

p a s s o u t W h e.n p la n ts w i lt ,
tw o sm ll c e lls ll t o gae th e r , fa
p ar tl y
c lo s in g the o pe ni n g .

Style . The n ec k -lik e o r sta lk -lik e p a rt o f th e p i s til th t ho ld s the a

stig m a a
we ll o ut to w rd the o pe n i n g o f the flo wer .

Tiswe Gro up so f c e llsth a

. t d o the sa m e kin d o f wo rk ; spec i lize d a
p ar t s o f p la n t s o r a n i m a ls .

Tra c he a l tubes Cha n n e lso r tube si n w

. o od y pa rto f pl n t, fo r c a rry a
in g wa te r ro m ro o ts to le a f ve s Th e y a re .o u n d in t f
he x y le m
a n d ha ve t hic k a n d thi n p la c e s in th e ir wa lls .

Tra nslo c a tio n Mo ve m e n to f sto red o o d ro m o n e p a

. f f
rto f the p la nt

to a no t he r .

Tra ns p i ra ti o n Th e g i.v i n g o ff o f w a t er ro m t h e le a vfe s a n d o t h e r

p ar ts o f p la n ts T hi s w a t e r
. h as b e e n u s e d i n c r ry gin d i sso lv e a
d
ma te ri a l to the le a ve s E va p o r at i
. o n a ls o c o o ls th e le a v e s
in ho t we a th e r .

Va c u o les Bo d ie so f c e ll-sa
.
p n c lo se d i n the c y p to pla
i sm .

Wei r . A d e v ic e to m e a sure flo wi n g w te r a .

X ylem Th a
. t pa rt o f th e fibro -v a sc u la r bu n d le , t hro u g h whi c h
sa p p sse s upwa a rd It li e s wi thi n th e c mbiu m
. a
Wo o d in .

tree s i s a lmo st e n ti re ly x y le m .
 I ND EX
Ad v ant ag e s o f furro w irri g ati o n 1 03
Aera ti o n o f th e so il fa
.
,

c to rs i n flue n c ,

Abso rp ti o n se le c ti v e 46 i n g , 86
a a
. .

Ac c o u n ts fa
, ,

rm 403 Ag e o f p l n ts n d u se fu lne ss, 6 1

a
.
, ,

Ac i d o r so ur so ils Ag e n ts o f so il fo rm ti o n , 7 4 .

c a
u se o f, 1 57 Ag ri c ultu re :
a aa a
.

c o rre cti o n o f , 1 57 n d th e d v n c e o f c i vili z ti o n , 3

a
. .

h o w d e te c te d , 1 57 n d th e sc i e n c e s, 2

aa
. .

Ac re -fo o t d e fin e d , 1 03 s bu si n e ss, 2
a
. .

Ac ti o n o f e nzy m e s, 43 , 60 s a at 1
n r

aa sa
a
. .
,

Ad p t bili ty o f c ro p s, 1 2 , 2 1 s ie n e 1
c c

p ta
. .

Ad a
,

ti o of n d e fini ti o n o f , 1
alfa lfa2 6 2 3 90
.

d i vi si o n s o f 4
ba
. .
, ,

le y 2 1 6 3 8 9
r i ts 900 m 1
be as 2 7 8
. .
, , ,

n o p p o rtu n i t ie s i n 3
a a
. .
, ,

be e ts, 243 re l ti o n t o o th e r p ro fe ssi o n s nd

a
.

b ro m e -g r ss sm o o th , 297 i n d ustri e s 1 3
aa a aa
. .
, , ,

c o m , 1 9 8 , 38 9 . so c i l n d e d u c ti o n l sp e c ts of

c o tto n , 33 5 3 90 3
a
. .
,

co w p e s, 2 8 1 . Ag ro n o m y
c ro p s, 1 2 , 2 1 38 7 d e fini ti o n o f , 4
a a
. .
,

fie ld -p e s, 2 7 6 p h se s o f 4
a
. .

fi x 3 37 , .

h e m p , 240 di stri bu ti o n th ro u g h tissue s 41

K k a a
.
,

ent u c y blu e -g r ss i n th e so il , i m p o rt n c e o f 8 6
k
,

ma Ale u ro n e c e lls i n wh e a
.
,

n g e ls, 3 9 0 t e rn e l, 1 7 1
a a
Alf lf a
.

o ts 2 1 0 38 9 , 2 56

rd g ra
o rc h a a a
. .
, ,

ss 2 95 -
da p t ti o n , 262
p la a a
.
,

a
.

nts to e n v i ro n m e n t , 1 2, n d p e rm n e n t g ri c ulture , 2 56 .

1 49 c o mm o n , 2 6 1

a
. .

p o t to e s, 22 8 , 390 . c ulti v a tio n , 263 .

re d c lo v e r, 2 7 3 . d istri b u ti o n 2 6 2 , .

re d to p , 293 . e n e mi e s, 26 7 .

ri c e , 22 1 , 390 . flo we r 2 60
, .

ry e , 22 0, 3 9 0 . G ri m m 2 6 1
a
.
,

so rg h um , 3 2 3 h rv e sti ng , 2 64 26 9
a
. .
,

so y be n s, 2 8 3 hi sto ry , 257
a
.

a
.

su g r-be e ts, 243 , 390 i n o c ul ti o n 2 6 2

aa
.

a
.
,

su g r-c n e , 3 90 i rri g ti o n 2 64
a a
. .
,

to b c c o , 345 . le f-we e vil 2 6 9 , 3 7 0

a
, .

ti m o th y , 2 8 9 le v e s 260
ak
.
. .

v e tc h , 2 8 4 m r e ti ng 2 6 6
a
. . .

whe t, 1 7 3 , 390 . mi x ture s, 2 7 6 .

432 Imie n:

n a
me 2 56
a e ri a1 39
.
,

n o d ul e s, 259 B ct

ati o o o g a a
. .
,

n u rse c ro p s, 263 c ni n n r c m tte r , 1 41

a ad so il ni t o g e
. .

p stu re , 2 6 7 , 3 04 n r n, 1 42
c la
.

a
.

p l n ti n g , 2 63 sse s o f 1 3 9
a
. .
,

re l t i o n shi p s, 2 58 . d e sc ri p ti o n , 1 3 9 1 40 .

a
,

ro o t y e m , 258
-s st fo o d n d g ro wth 1 40
aa
. .
,

see d , 2 6 0 h o w th e fa rm e r m y ssi st 1 44
aa
. .
,

se e d -be d p re p r ti o n , 2 63 n u m be r o f i n so il s 1 39

a
. .
,

se e d p ro d u c ti o n , 2 69 B rle y 2 1 5
aa a
.

a
.
,

Si be ri n , 2 6 1 d p t ti o n , 2 1 6
aka a
. .

ste m s, d e sc ri p ti o n , 2 59 . l li re si st n c e 2 1 6
a a
.
,

sto r g e , 2 65 c ult i v ti o n , 2 1 7
a
. .

v lu e , 2 66 d e sc ri p ti o n , 2 1 5 .

a
.

v ri e ti e s, 2 6 1 . d i stri b u ti o n 2 1 6 , .

we e d s, 26 7 e n e m i e s, 2 1 8

ka
.

a
.

Al li h rv e sti ng , 2 1 7
j a
.

in u ry d o n e to v e g e t ti o n , 1 56 hi sto ry 2 1 5
ak
. .
,

i nj u ry to p l n ts, 46 a m r e ti n g , 2 1 8
k
. .

i n d s o f 1 55 p e sts, 2 1 8 .

a
.

p e rm n e n t free d o m f ro m , 1 08 , se e d i n g , 2 1 7 .

1 56 . st a
n d ad v a
ri e ti e s r , 216 .

aa
re c l m ti o n o f , 1 56 u se s, 2 19
a
.

a
.

re s f
i st n c e o su g r-be e ts, 2 45 a vlu e 2 1 9
sa
.
. ,

so m e o f i ts p ro b le m s, 1 54 Ba lt 7 1
k Be a
. .
,

Alsi e c lo v e r 2 7 4 n s 2 7 8 3 49
, , .

a
.
,

Alum i n u m mi n e r ls 7 1 , 7 2 , . c ultu re , 27 8 .

Am e n d m e n ts, 1 2 6 d e sc ri p ti o n 2 7 8
a a
.
. ,

An ly sis o f so ils, 1 2 0 h rv e sti n g 2 8 0 .

a
. ,

h o w u se ful , 1 2 7 p l n ti n g , 2 7 9
a aa
. .

i n l n d v lu ti o n , 1 63 u se , 28 0
a a
. .

An i m l : B e e tle s, fle , 3 44 .

fibe r, 333 B e e ts 251

a
.
,

a
.

a
h u sb n d ry , i ts fie ld , 4 c ul t u re n d g o o d f rm i n g , 2 50

a
. .

a
p th o lo g y , 4 re l ti o n sh i p s, 2 41

a
.

a
.

Ani m ls: su g r , 251 .

aa
s g e n ts i n so il f o rm ti o n , 7 9 a B e n e fits
aa
.

d e p e n d e n c e o n p l n ts, 51 a o f d r i n g e , 1 08 .

a
.

a
Ap ti te , c o m p o si ti o n , 7 3 o f m n u re 1 32
a a
. .

aa
,

Ap hi s, c b b g e , 3 44 o f o rg ni c m tt e r, 8 8
a a a a a
. .

Ap p re n t n d re l sp e c i fic g r v i ty a B e rm u d -g r ss, 2 99 .

a c o m p re d , 8 6 . B e rse e m , 2 7 5 .

Ap p le s 3 49 Bi n d we e d s, 3 58 .

a a
.
,

Ari d n d h u m i d so ils c o m p re d , 8 1 Bir d s-f o o t tre fo il 2 8 4

’

ak a
.
,

1 20 Bl c le g o f p o t to , 23 8
a a a
. .

Ash B l d e o f g r ss le f , 1 7 0
m o u n t i n p la a
.

a n ts 56 B li g h t, e rly , 2 3 7
nim a
. .

n ts a a
,

u se s b y p la nd a ls 56 B lo wi n g o f so ils tre tm e n t fo r, 1 59 ,
g a
.

Astra
, ,

lu s 28 4 1 60
a a K k
. .
,

Atm o sp h e re i n so il fo rm ti o n 7 8 , . B lue -g r ss, e n tu c y , 304, 3 9 3 .

434 Ind e a
:

a
C lo v e rs n d o th e r le g um e s, 2 54, 2 7 1 C o rn
a
C o c i n e , 3 44 a
st te s p ro d u c i n g 1 97
k sto ra
.
.
,

C o c le bu r , 3 7 5 .
ge 205 , .

C o fie e , 3 51 . swe e t, 1 9 6 .

C o m p o si ti o n o f ty p e s, 1 95
a
.

a
c rbo hy d r t e s 55 . u se s, 2 04
a
.

aa
,

f ts n d o ils 56 v lu e , 2 05
a aa a
. .
,

fe ld sp rs, 7 1 wi th c o wp e s n d r p e , 2 03 .

a
.

g y p su m , 7 3 C o ro ll , 3 6
a a
. .

h o rn ble n d e , 7 1 C o rro si v e su b lim te fo r sp r y , 3 7 7 .

mi c , 7 1 a C o rte x , 2 9 .

p la
.

nt s, 6 1 , 1 22 C o st o f b ui ld i n g s, 398 .

aa
.

p ro te i n 56 , . C o st o f d r i n g e , 1 09 .

p y ro x e n e , 7 1 C o tto n , 333
aa a
. .

so ils, 6 7 7 0 8 1 , 1 1 9 , . d p t ti o n o f , 33 5 .

C o n se rva
,

tio n o f so il , 6 8 . c u lture , 33 6 .

C o n tro l o f d e sc ri p ti o n o f , 3 3 5
a
.

Ju n e -m s 29 7 , . di stri b u ti o n 3 3 6 .

a
,

m o isture 1 0 1 8 1 00 1 7 —1
h rv e sti n g 33 7
m u sta
. .
, , , ,

rd 18 1 hi sto ry , 333
ak
. .

a
,

p l n t-fo o d 10 m r e ti n g , 33 7
io n a
.

p la
.
,

n t c o m p o si t n d y i e ld 6 2 us e o f 33 7
k
. .
. ,

C o r c e lls, 29 3 2 , . a
v ri e t i e s, 3 34 .

C o rn 1 9 1 a
C o wp e s 2 8 0
a p ta aa a
. .

da
, ,

ti o n 1 9 8 , . d p t ti o n 2 8 1 .

a a
,

c u lm s 1 93 . c ul tu re n d v lu e , 2 8 2 .

i va
,

c ult ti o n 2 01 , . d e sc ri p ti o n , 2 8 0 .

d e n t 1 95 , . wi th c o m , 2 03 .

d i stri b u ti o n 1 9 7 . C ri m so n c lo v e r 2 7 5
a a
.
, ,

e a
r , 1 94 . a
C ri ti c l p e ri o d s o f p l n ts fo r w te r,
e n e m i e s, 2 04 1 05
a
.

a
.

f c to rs i n p ro d u c ti o n 1 98 , 1 9 9 , . C ri ti c l p o i n ts i n so il m o istu re ,
fli n t, 1 9 6 . 93 .

flo we r, 1 9 4 . C ro p p ro d u c ti o n li mi te d b y e le m e n ts,
a
h rv e sti n g 2 03 , . 1 22 .

hi sto ry o i 1 9 1 C ro p s
a
.
,

i rri g ti o n o f , 2 02 aa a
d p t ti o n o f 1 2 , 2 1 , 3 8 7
k
.

aa
.

a
,

e r n e l d e sc ri be d , 1 9 4 . d p te d to d ry -f rm i n g , 1 1 5 .

a
le v e s 1 9 3 as inc o m e 38 7
ak
.
, , .

m r e ti n g , 2 06 d i v e rsi fie d , 38 8
k
. .

p e sts, 2 04 . n o wle d g e of , 404

a
.

po d , 1 97 . m i sc e ll n eo u s 3 41 .

a
,

p o p , 1 96 re l t i o n to so il tex tu re , 8 2
a
. .

re l t i o n shi p s, 1 9 1 . a
st p le 38 2
, .

ro o t y te m ,
-s s 191 sto ra g e o f , 405
a a
. .

se e d nd p l n t i n g , 2 00 C ro ss-fe rtili z tio n 3 6 2 a

k
.

aa
.

a
,

se e d -be d p re p r ti o n , 1 99 . C ry st lli n e ro c , 7 1 .

se e d , se le c ti o n o f , 2 00 C u c u m be rs, 3 49
a
. .

sil g e , 2 03 . C ulm s
so f t o r flo u r , 1 9 7 o f c o r n , 1 93
aa a
. .

st n d r d v ri e ti e s, 1 9 7 . of w a
h e t, d e sc ri be d , 1 7 0 .
 Inde x 435

a
C ulti v ti o n De p re c i a ti o n i n m a c h i n e ry 3 9 6

j
.
,

and m a n uri n g , o b ec ts o f , 2 0, 1 46 De p th o f d ra i ns 1 1 0 , .

1 48 , 1 49 De p th o f so ils 8 1 , .

a
.

nd m o i stu re i n so il 1 46 1 49 De sc ri p ti o n o f
lf a
.
, ,

b e n e fits d e ri v e d fro m 1 45 , . a lfa2 58 , .

i m p ro v e m e n t o f so il struc ture flo we r , 2 6 0 .

1 45 a
le v e s, 26 0
k
. .

a
C ulti v to rs, i n d s o i , 1 51 . ro o t s 2 58 , .

C ultu re o f se e d s, 2 6 0 .

aaa
lf lf , 2 63 ste m s, 2 59 .

a a
.

b rle y , 2 1 7 . b rle y , 2 1 5 .

a
b e n s, 2 7 8 a
be n s, 2 7 8
a
.

aaa
.

be e ts, 245 C n d blu e -g r ss, 29 3 .

a
.

b ro m e -g r ss, sm o o th , 29 7 a . c rro t s, 2 54 .

c lo v e r 2 55 c lo v e r , 2 7 1

ak
. .
,

c o rn , 2 01 . lsi e , 2 7 4 .

c o tto n , 336 c ri m s o n , 27 5 .

a
.

c ow p e s, 2 8 2 re d , 2 7 2

a
. .

fie ld -p e s, 2 7 7 . swe e t, 2 7 4 .

a
fl x 338, . whi te , 27 4 .

h e m p , 341 . co m
a
,

m n g e ls 2 52 . c ulm s, 1 93 .

a
,

m ille ts 3 3 0 . e r , 1 94 .

a
,

o ts 2 1 2 flo we r , 1 9 4
k
. .

o rc h a d g ra
,

ss 29 5
r - 29 6 e rn e l, 1 94

p o ta
. .

a
, ,

to e s 22 4 234 , , . le v e s, 1 93 .

re d c lo v e r , 27 3 . ro o ts, 1 9 1 .

re d to p , 2 93 cot to n , 33 5 .

a
.

ri c e , 22 1 c o wp e s, 2 8 0 .

a g a a
.

ru t ba s 2 54 . fie ld -p e s, 2 7 5 .

a
,

ry e , 2 20 . fl x 338 .

g ra
,

so rg h u m , 3 2 5 ss 2 8 7
K k a
.

a
.
,

so y be n s 2 83 e n tu c y b lu e -
g r ss , 2 93 .

Su d an g ra
.
,

ss 3 2 9-
a
le f 3 4 .

su g a
.

a
, ,

r be e ts 245 247
-
, , . m n g e l-wurz e ls, 2 51 .

tim o th y , 2 8 9 . m ille t 33 0 , .

a
to b c c o , 3 46 oa ts 2 09
a a
. .
,

tu rn i p s, 2 53 o rc h rd -g r ss 2 9 5 , .

p o ta
.

a
wh e t, 1 7 5 1 7 8
—
t e s 22 5 o

a ae
.
,

C u rc uli o s c b b g 344 re d c lo v e r , 27 2 .

a
.
, ,

C y to p l sm , 2 5 . re d to p , 2 9 2 .

ri c e , 22 1

g a
.

D ru t a
ba s 253 , .

Da n d e li o n s 3 7 4 ry e , 219
a a a
. .
,

De c o m p o si ti o n of o rg ni c m tte r , m
s o o th b r o m e - r s
g s, 29 7 .

1 41 , 1 53 so rg h u m , 3 2 0
De fin i ti o n o f m i n e ra
.

a
.

l 70 so y b e n s 2 8 2 .

De n i tri fic a a
.
, ,

ti o n 1 44 , . su g r -be e ts 243 , .

De n t c o m 1 9 6 ti m o th y , 2 8 8 .

De p e n d e n c e o f m a ats a
.
,

n on pl nd
n tu rn i p s 253 .

ni m a
,

a ls , 51 , 53 , 58 . v e tc h 2 8 4 , .
436 Ind e x

De sc ri p ti o n of Di v e rsi ty of c rO p s, a
d v ata
ge n o f
wh e a
t , u nd er i rri g ti o n 1 06 a , .

c ulm , 17 0 Di vi si o n o f c e ll s 40
k
.

a
.
,

e rn e l, 1 7 0 Do lo m i te c o m p o si ti o n nd im p o r
a
.
,

ro o t, 1 6 8 t nc e 7 1
aa
. .

a a a
,

Di b se , 7 1 a
Do m e sti c ti o n o f p la n ts n d ni m ls,

ak
.

a
Di m o n d -b c m o th s, 3 44 . 53 , 54
aa
.

Di c o ty le d o n o u s p l n ts, 3 5, 40 a Dr i n g e :
a aka
.

Di ff usi o n o f s lts, 45 a . nd th e l li p ro ble m , 1 08 ,

D i o ri te 7 1 1 56
a
.

Di se a
.
,

se p re v e n ti o n , B o rd e ux m ix be n e fits o f 1 08 , .

tu re , 33 7 c o st o f 1 09
a
. .

Di se a
se s o f re d u c e s h e v i n g 1 09 .

alf alfa2 6 7
,

sc o p e o f p ro ble m 1 09 .

ba a
.
, ,

rle y 218 , . Dr i n s :
be e ts, 248 . c o v e re d , 1 1 0 .

c o m , 2 04 d e p th to la y 1 10
a aa a
.

a
.
,

p o t to e s, 2 3 6 , 238 . o p e n d i tc h e s d v n t g es nd
a a a
,

su g r- b ee ts, 248 . d va nt g es 1 10 , .

wh e a
t 1 7 6 , 1 7 9 , 1 8 0, 1 8 1 p ro c e d u re i n i n sta lli ng 1 1 0
a
. .

a
, ,

D i stri b u ti o n o f D ro u th -re si st n t p l n ts, 1 6 2 1 .

a a
,

lfalfa2 6 2 Dry -f
rm :

aa
.
,

b ale y 2 1 6
r , . re s o f t he U S 1 1 2 . .

be a
n s 27 8 , . c ro p s 1 1 5 .

a
,

be e ts, 2 45 . m c hi n e ry fo r 1 1 7 .

a a
,

blue -g r ss, 29 4 till g e m e th o d s 1 1 6

a a
. .
,

b ro m e -g r ss, 39 4 Dry -f rm i n g
k a a a a
.

b u c wh e t 2 2 2 , . i n re l ti o n to r i nf ll 1 1 1 , .

c o rn , 1 9 7 , 1 9 8 . sc o p e o f p ro b le m 1 1 1 , .

c o tt o n , 33 5, 33 6 . so ils sui te d to 1 1 3 , .

c o wp e s, 2 8 1 a so rg h u m s fo r 3 1 9 .

a
.
,

m n g e ls 252 , . tilla g e ih , 1 1 6 .

m ille t 3 2 9 , 3 3 0 a
Dry m tte r , c o st o f 47
a
. .

a
, ,

n t a i v e g r ss, 3 04 . Dry -ro t of p o t to e s 2 3 8 .

a a
,

o ts 2 1 0, 2 1 1
, . Du ty o f m c hi n e ry 3 95 , .

a
o rc h rd -g r ss, 2 9 5 a D y e p la n ts 3 51 .

a
.
,

p o t to e s, 2 2 8 .

re d c lo v e r , 2 7 2 .

re d t o p , 29 3
a o f o d e s ri be d 1 94
.

ri c e , 2 2 1 E r c rn c

Ealy blig h t 23 7
.
. ,

ry e , 2 1 9 , 22 0 r

n u re o n p la
.

E fie c t o f m a
.
,

so rg h u m , 3 2 3 nts 131
Eff e c t o f wate o n d e v e lo p m e n t o f
.
.
,

Su d na a
- r
g ss, 3 2 9 r

p la
.

a a
su g r—c n e , 3 47 n ts 1 0

E m
. .
,

swe e t c lo v e r , 2 7 5 . le e n ts li m i ti n g c rO p p ro d u c ti o n ,
swe e t p o t to e s, 3 47 a 1 22
El ai e m p e ra
. .

ti m o th y , 2 8 9 ev a
to nnd t tu re 1 6
El a
.
,

a o rs g ra
.

to b c c o 345 ev t i n 1 36
a Em b ry o o f wh e a t ke rn e l d e sc ri be d
.
, .
, ,

wh e t 1 7 3 , .
,

whi te c lo v e r 2 7 4 7 1 1
a Em b
. .
,

Di v e rsi fic ti o n o f c ro p s, 3 8 3 , 3 8 8 . ry o o r g e rm , 3 7 .
438 I nde a
:

Fl a x

a
dap ta
ti o n, 33 8 .

c ulture , 3 38 . Ga rd e n s r o o f , 3 51
. .

d e sc ri p ti o n , 33 8 G e n us 26
a a
. .
,

fibe r 339 G e rm i n ti o n n d o x y g e n , 42
aa
. .
,

hi sto ry o f , 33 8 Gl c i l so ils 7 8
a a a
. .
,

se e d 3 3 9 Gl c i e rs c tio n i n so il fo rm ti o n , 7 7 .

a
.
, ,

us e o f 3 40 . G li d i n , 1 8 2 .

a
,

v lu e o i 3 40 . G lu te n 1 8 2
, .

F le a
,

e be e t le s 344 , . Glu te ni n 1 8 2 , .

o n be e t s 249 G n e i sse s 7 1 7 2
G ra
.

d e s o f wh e a
.
, , ,

Fli n t, 7 1 t, 1 8 8
a
. .

Fli n t c o m 1 9 6 . Gr i n
Flo ri d abe g g a
,

r wee d , d rilli n g 396

q a a aa a
.
,

F lo u r u li ty , 1 8 2 . h n d li ng o n l rg e sc le , 1 86 .

Flo we r : lo ss in sto r a g e 189

sp e c ula
.
,

d e sc ri be d 3 6 tio n , 1 8 9
G ra m i ne e p la a
. .
,

pa rt s o f 3 59 n tsi n c lu d ed un d e r, 1 6 8

a a
. .
,

F lu c tu a ti o n s i n y i e ld d ue to c li m te Gr ni te 7 0, 7 3 .

G ra
,

13 p e s, se e d le ss, 364
a
.

a
.

G r ss, B e rm u d 2 99
e ria140 a
.

a
,

of ctb bl d e o i , 1 7 0
n im a
s ad a a
le f sh e a
. .

re se rv e i n p lat
,

ls n n 59 th o f 1 7 0
a
.
, ,

60 G r sse s 2 8 6 .

a
. ,

a
sto r g e b y p l n ts, 1 85 d e sc ri p ti o n , 2 8 7 .

fo ra
.

a
sto r g e i n se e d , 6 0 g e 28 8
F o ra g e c ro p s c o m p a a
. .
,

re d 29 1 i m p o rt n c e o f 2 8 7
a
. .

F o ra g e g ra
,

sse s 2 8 8 m i x tu re s fo r p stu re , 305

F o rc e s i n tra na
. .
,

n sfe re n c e o f fo o d 49 ti v e 3 04
F o rm a li n fo r se e d d ise a re la
. .
, ,

se s 2 3 8 ti o n shi p s, 2 8 6
a a
. .
,

F o rm a ti o n o f c e llulo se b y p la nts 43 G r ssp e s 2 84

a a
.

F o rm a G ra l wa
, ,

ti o n o f h um u s 1 41 . vi t t io n a te r , i ts i m p o rt n c e
F o rm e r p la
, ,

nt s p ro d u c ts o f 52 , , . 9 1 , 92 .

F o x ta il 3 6 7 G re e n h o u se s, 351 .

a
.
,

F ro st: G re e n m n ure , 1 3 6
a aaa
.

c ro p s h rd y to w rd , 1 3a . G ri m m lf lf , 2 6 1 .

e ffe c t o n so m e c o m m o n c ro p s, 1 3 G ro wth i n hi g h e r p l n ts, 3 9 , 40 a

a
.

14 G u r , 2 84
a a
. .

f c to rs i n flue n c i n g 1 4 G y p su m , c o m p o si ti o n nd im p o r
j a a
.
,

i n u ry to c ro p s, n tu re o i , 1 4 . t nc e , 7 3 .

ti m e o f 1 4 .

F m i ts, 3 49 .

c i tru s, 3 49

Had li m a
.

a
sm ll , 3 49 n ng 1 34 n u re ,
a Had wh a i
. .

tro p i c l , 351 r e t re g o n s, 1 7 2

Ha ad a
. .

F u n c ti o n o f p l n t p rts, 2 7 a a l
r v e st c o n tro b y c ro p n m
aa
.

F u n c ti o n s, sp e c i liz ti o n o f 3 9 hi c n e ry 6
a a aa Ha i
.
, ,

F u rro w irri g ti o n , d v nt g es o f, rv e st n g o f

1 03 aaa
lf lf , 264, 2 69
a
. .

F u s ri u m o x y sp o ru m , 2 3 8 a
b rle y , 2 1 7
a
. .

F u s ri um w i lt, 23 8 . a
be n s, 2 8 0 .
 Inde x 439

Ha rve sti n g of Hy g ro sc O p i c wa
te r , 93 .

be e ts, 2 50 d e fin i ti o n , 9 2
a a
. .

bro m e -g r ss, sm o o th , 29 8 . i m p o rt n c e 93 , .

c o m , 2 03 .

c o tt o n 33 7 .

a
,

fie ld -p e s 2 7 7
a
.

a
,

m n g e ls, 252 I c e i n so il fo rm ti o n , 7 7 .

a
.

o t s 21 3 Im p le m e n ts:
a a a a
.
,

o rc h rd -g r s s 2 95 c l sse s o n f rm 1 50
a k
. .
, ,

p o t to e s, 23 5 . to i ll we e d s 1 48 , .

re d c lo v e r , 2 7 3 Im p ro v e m e n t o f c ro p s 3 53 .

a
. ,

ri c e , 2 2 1 b y b re e d i ng o f p l n ts 356 .

a a
.
,

so y be n s, 2 83 by c ulti v ti o n o f c ro p s, 357
a
. .

su g r-b ee ts 347 , 349 , . by se le c ti o n , 3 6 1 .

ti m o th y , 2 90 d e fin e d , 354
a
. .

wh e t 1 7 8 , 1 8 9 a
g i n s fro m , 3 53
a a a
. .
,

H y , o t, 2 08 i d e ls o f , 356
Ha
. .

e rt-ro t o f be e t s, 248 m e th o d s o f 3 53 , 3 57
H aa aa
. .

e t n d c o ld s g e n ts i n so il n e e d o i , 3 53

a a
.

m ti o n , 7 4 p stu re s, 308
He at
. .

se e d , c le n , 3 57 a
fa
.

cto rs i n flu e n c i n g 87 88 se e d i m p u ri ti e s i h , 358
i m p o rta a
. .
,

aa
,

nc e o f 8 7 . v ri e ti e s, d p te d , 3 56 .

of s o ils a n d m o i sture 9 18 I m p ro v e m e n t of so il stru c tu re ,

to ta
.
, ,

l 16 1 45
He avi n g o f so il red uc e d by d rai n ag e
. .
,

, a
I n c o m e , F rm e rs , 403
’
.

1 09 I n c o m e fro m c ro p s 38 7
H a
.

a a
.
,

em t a i te , 7 3 I n c re se i n si ze o f p l n ts, m e n s o f
H k
.

e m lo c , 37 1 40
H a
. .

e m p , 240 I n d i c to rs o f so il c i d i ty , 1 57 a
aa a
. .

d p t ti o n , 240 I n d i re c t fe rtili z e rs, 1 26 , 1 30

j
.

a
.

c u lt i v ti o n o i , 341 I n ury :
aa aka a
.

M nil , 341 by l li , n tu re o f 46 , 1 56 .

aa
.

N e w ! e l n d , 341 o f f ro st, 1 4

H a
. .

e rb i c i d e s, u se o i , 3 7 6 to wh e t b y c h i n c h -b u g , 1 80
H j aaa
.

a
.

e ssi a
n fli e s i n u ry to wh e t, 1 8 0 a
In o c u l ti o n fo r lf lf , 2 6 2
H
, . .

o m e -m i x i n g o f fe rtili ze rs, 1 3 0 I n se c t p e sts o f

H aaa
.

o p s, 351 lf lf 26 7
H a
. .

a
,

o rn b le n d e , c o m p o si ti o n nd im b rle y 2 1 8
a
.
,

p o rt n c e , 7 1 be e ts 249
H
.

aa
.
,

o rn sto ne , 7 1 c b b g e 344

H
. .
,

o rti c u ltu re , i ts fie ld , 4 c o rn 2 04

H a a
. , .

o us e -g rd e n s 351 o ts 2 1 4
H a p o ta
. .
, ,

o u si n g m c hi n e ry , 39 7 to e s 2 3 6
H a a su g a
. .
,

um i d nd ri d s o ils c o m p re d 1 20 a r b e e ts 249
-

H
. , .

a wh e a
,

u m u s fo rm t i o n 1 41 t 180
H aa Iro n m i n e ra
. .
, ,

u n g ri n c lo v e r 2 7 5 ls 7 1 7 2 7 3
H a te fo r sp ra
.

a Iro n sulfa
,
.
, , ,

y c i n th be n s, 2 8 4 y 37 7
H a a
.

a
.
,

y d ro u s si li c te s o f m g n e si , 7 2 us e by p la nts 43
a a I rri g a a n ta
d va
. , .

of lumi n 72 , . ti o n b y flo o d i n g g es , ,

o f lim e , 7 2 . 1 04 .
440 Ind ex

a
Irri g tio n o f La bli h f a
te g t o p o t to e s, 2 3 7
aaa L af d i i f
.

lf lf , 2 64 e e sc r p to n o , 3 4
L a fb
. .
,

c o m 202 e f-sp o t o e e ts, 248

a L af w il alfal a
.

a
, .

o rc h rd -g r s s, 3 49 e -
ee v f , 26 9 , 3 7 1
a La f
. .
,

p o t to e s, 2 3 4 e ves o c o rn , 1 93
L m 7 85
. .

ri c e , 2 2 1 eg u e s, 2 1 2 -

a a
.

ad
.

sug r-bee ts, 247 n ni t fix ti o n 1 42

ro g e n

a a
. , .

Irri g ti o n w t er: d e sc ri p ti o n , 2 58
a L
.

mo u n t to u se , 1 04 es p e d e za or J a pa n c lo ve r , 2 8 4
a L
. .

m e sure m e n t, 1 02 ife d e p e n d s o n su nshi n e 69

L
. .
,

m e th o d s o f p p ly i n g , 1 03 a i me :
aa
.

so ur c e s o f su p p ly 1 00 s fe rtiliz e r , 1 2 9
a a aa a
. .
,

sto r g e , d v n t g e s o i , 1 01 fe ld sp rs, 7 1 .

u se o f to o m u c h , 1 06 fo r so il a c i d i ty , 1 57
a a
. .

wh e n to p p ly , 1 05 h y d ro u s si li c te s o i , 7 2
a
. .

Istle , 3 41 sulf te o i , 7 3
L
. .

i m e sto n e 7 2
a
.
,

d i sso lv e d b y c rbo n d i o x i d e , 7 2
L
.

Ja
c k be a n s 2 84 i m o n i te , 7 3
Lq
.

i ui d m a
.

Ja
,

pa n c lo v e r 2 84 n u re 1 3 3
L aa a a
.
,

Ja i vi n g st nd rd o i , n d wh e t 1 8 4
, .

sp e r 7 1
L a a a
, .
.
,
,

Je th ro T ull 44 o c ti o n o f f rm st e d 38 3
L
. .

Jo h nso n —g ra
.
,

ss 300 o c o 37 1
L aa
.
. ,

Ju d g i n g v a
lu e o f la
.
,

nd o o p e rs, c bb g e 3 44
L a a
, .

Ju n e -g ra o ss i n w
,

ss 2 9 7 .
e ig h t o f pl n t s by re sp i r
,

c o n tro l o i , 18 1 ti o n , 42
L a
.

e s i n f rm m a
.

o ss n u re 1 33
Ju te 3 41
L
.
,
.

u p i n e s, 2 84 .

Kal e, 3 43 .

Ma
c h i n e ry
mi
e ne e so f, 3 43
K k a a
.

e n tu c y b lu g r ss, 29 3 , 304 e- c re m 89 10 015

1 11 8 394
ae
.

da a
a
.

r O f.
p t ti o n , 2 94
c

a
.

d e sc ri p ti o n , 2 93 c o hpe r to i n, 39 5 .

d e p re c 1 a
.

ti o n o i , 39 6
see d i n g 2 9 4 .

a a
,
,

v lu e n d u se 2 9 4
d u ty O f
a
.

K
.
,

a
e rn e l o f c o r n d e sc ri be d , 1 9 4
fo r d ry -f n m n g 1 1 7 , .

K
.

i n d s o f c ulti v a to rs 1 51 fo r f rmm s. 3 9 2 .

K
.
,

no w le d g e o f c ro p s, 404 11 9 11 8 1 11 8 . 3 9 7
K
.

a
o hlr bi , 3 42
m e . 3 95
a
.

a
M ggo c a
.

K ud j u , 2 8 4 t b b g e -ro o t 344 .

a
.

Ma a
.
.

g ne si mi n e r ls, 7 1 , 7 2
a
.

L Ma g n e si u m u se d by p l n ts, 43 .

Ma g n e ti te 7 3
Lab
.

aa
,

or of m nd n h o rse , 403 , 404 Ma g u e y 341

Lad
.

Ma
.
,

n : 1 llo w, 3 7 4
a
.

ff
e ec to f ve g e t ti o n on v a
lu e o f 161 Ma lt b a rle y , 2 1 7

jd
.

a Ma
.

u g i n g v lu e o f , 1 6 1 n

a ni m a
ats ad a
.

av a
lu e i n re l ti o n to p l n t-fo o d , 1 24 d epe nd e n c e on pl n ls n ,

wa
.

ste 3 8 6 51 , 53 , 58
Larksp ur 3 7 1 a
.
, .

, . to c o n tr o l th e e rth , 63 .
m [
min

Mo ve me n t o f c ap illa
ry w a e r 92
t
aie tie s
.
,

Mo ve me n ts o f so il mo isture 96 v r 212
Mu n g be a a
.
, , .

n s 28 4 y i e ld s by st t e s, 2 1 1

Musta aa
. .
,

rd 3 7 5 , . O c c u rre n c e o f f ts n d o ils. 56 .

c o ntro l o i , 18 1 O c h rus, 28 4
a
.

a
.

tum bli ng 3 59 O il fo rm ti o n by p l n ts 43
a
.
, , .

Op l 7 1 , .

O p p o rtu n i ti e s i n a
g ri c u lt
u re , 3
a a
.

N ti v e g r sse s, 3 04
a a a a a
.

N ti v e g r ss p sture s, 304 O rc h rd - r
g ss 295 304 —

a a
. .
,

N tur l se le c tio n 3 59 3 60
a a
.
, ,

N e g ti v e f c to rs i n c ro p p ro d uc ti o n , d e sc ri p ti o n 295 , .

1 2 20
aa
.
,

N e w ! e l n d he m p 341
a
.
,

N i tri fic ti o n 1 42 se e d i n g 29 5
a a
. .
, ,

N i tro g e n , 45 v lue n d u se , 296

a aq a a
. .

nd w h e t u li ty , 1 8 2 O rc h rd , so ils 349
a
. , .

c y c le , 1 43 c u lt i v ti o n , 349
a a
. .

fe rtili ze rs 1 27 , 1 2 8 O rg ni c m tte r :
a a
.
,

fix ti o n 1 2 8 1 42 c ti o n o n s o il , 1 41

a a a a
. .
, ,

i ts im p o rt n c e i n so ils 1 22 rid n d h um i d re g io n s c o m p re d ,

a a
.

e ri a
,

of s o il nd b c t 1 42 1 19
a a a a
.
, .

re st o r tio n by b c t e ri , 1 42 . be n e fic i l e fie c ts o n so ils 8 8 , .

so urc e s o f su p p ly , 1 2 7 d e c o m p o si tio n , 1 41 1 43
a a a
.
. ,

N o d e s o f g r sse s, 1 7 0 ho wm i n t in ed , 8 8
aaa a
. .

N o d ule s o f lf lf 259 , .
p l n t-fo o d c o n te n t o i , 1 24 .

N u c le u s 25 so urc e s o i 8 8
aaa
. .
, ,

N u rse c ro p s fo r lf lf , 2 63 a
O rg n i sm s o f th e so il
a a
.

N u ts, 3 51 b c te ri , 1 3 9
a
. .

i m p o rt n c e o i , 1 3 8
k
.

i n d s, 1 3 8 .

a a
O rg ni z tio n o f f rm i n g , 400 a
a a a a
.

O t—g r ss t ll m e d o w, 29 , 3 04 O ri g i n o f b r n c h e s, 3 7a .

Oa
, .

ts 208 O ri g i n o f b u d s, 3 7
a a
. .
,

da p t ti o n 2 1 0 a
O rth o c l se fe ld sp r , 7 2 a
a a
.

a
.
,

n d p e s fo r fo r g e , 2 7 6 2 7 7 O sm o sis, 46
a a a a a
. .
,

c ulti v t io n , O v e r-irri g ti o n , w ste c c o m p ny i n g

d e sc ri p ti o n o f p l n t, 2 09 a a
p r c ti c e , 1 06
k a
. .

d i stri bu ti o n 2 1 0 2 1 1 , , . O v e rsto c i n g p sture s, 3 09 .

e n e m ie s 2 1 4 O vu le , 35
a
.
,

ha
.

rv e st i n g n d sto ri n g , 2 1 3 Ox yg en :
a
.

h y 2 08 a n d life 1 0 41 42
g e t i n so il fo rm a
.

n a
,

sa
.
, , ,

hi sto ry 2 08 a n ti o n 78
ak
.
,

ti o n by p la
.
,

m r e ti n g 2 1 3 li be a r n ts 43 .

a
, ,

pa
.

n i c le o f o ts, 209 li mi ts g ro wth , 49 .

a
.

p e sts, 2 1 4 u se t o pl n t s, 42 .

a
.

re l t i o n sh i p s, 209 .

see d i n g 212 P
k aa
.

a
,

sp i e le ts o f o ts 2 10 P li s d e c e lls, 34 .

a
.
,

u se s, 2 1 3 . P ni c le , 3 7 .
 In dex

Pa ri s g re e n , 3 44 . Pla nt -f o o d

Pa r ts o f flo w e r 3 59 c o n tro l o f 1 0

a
.
. ,

i n o rg a
,

Pa stu re s ni c m t te r , 1 24 .

a lfa lfa , 2 67 304 i n so ils, 1 2 0 .

ma n ufa
.
,

d e fin i ti o n o i , 302 ct u re o i 43

m e th o d o f tra
.

a
,

fo r d iff e re n t n i m a
.

ls, 307 . n sfe rri n g 48 , .

g ra sse s u se d fo r 3 04 . o f th e s o il, o ld th eo ri e s 1 1 8 , .

i m p o rta
,

n c e o f 3 03 re m o v e d b y c ro p s 1 22 .

Pla n t i nd i c a to rs o f so il a
, . ,

i m p ro vi n g 3 08 c id i ty 1 57 .

nt pa
,

ma na Pla r ts a
.
,

g emento i 3 1 0 nd t h e ir fu n c ti o n s 2 7 , .

m i x e d g ra P la
.
,

ss 3 04 n ts

na a a p ta
.

da
,

ti v e g r ss 3 04 , . ti o n to e n v i ro n m e n t 1 2 2 1 , , ,

o n d ry -f a rm s 306 48 , 1 49 .

o rd i n a a
nd a
ni m a
.
,

ry c o n d i ti o n s, 3 08 . ls th e i r i n te rd e p e n d e n c e
, ,

o ri g i n , 3 02 51
k aa
. .

o v e r st o c ing 309 s ffe c te d b y su n li g h t, 1 8

aa
.

p e rm a a
.
,

n e n t 3 02 s g e n ts i n so i l fo rm ti o n , 7 9
q a a
. .
,

u li t i e s o f 3 03 sh o f , 56 .

a a a
.
,

te m p o r ry 303 c o nt e n t o f c rb o h y d r t e s, 55
wh e a t- g r a a a
. .
,

ss 3 04 c ont ro l o f by p l n ti n g n d p ru ni n g ,

a
P th o lo g y o f p la n ts n d a ni m a a
.
,

ls 4 62
Pe a a
. .
,

c h e s 3 49 3 8 5 d iffe re n c e i n fo o d d e m n d s 1 1 9 ,
a
.
, , ,

Pe n u ts 2 8 4 136
a j ak a
.
, .

P e rl m ille t, 3 3 1 h o w i n u re d b y l li , 1 56
a
.

a
.

P e rs 3 49, . i n re l ti o n to wi n d s, 1 9
a
.

P e s, 3 49 . m n s i n te re st i n 50, 52
’
a
a
.
,

Pe ri c y c le , 3 2 u se o f c rb o n d i o x i d e b y , 42 , 43 , 57
a a
.

a a a
.

P e rm n e n t g ri c u ltu re n d m i n e r ls P l n t st ru c tu re , n e c e ssi ty fo r stu d y ,

i n so il , 1 2 5 23
a
.

a a
.

P e rsi n c lo v e r , 2 7 5 P l sm m e m b r n e , 2 5
. a .

P e sts, 2 0 . P l sti d s, 2 5, 34 a .

P h lo em , 3 0, 3 2 , 33 Plo wi n g
a j
.

Ph o sp h te o f li m e , 7 3 i n u ry to we t l n d 84 a
j
. .
,

P h o sp h o ru s o b e c ts o f , 1 46 , 1 48

a
.

f e r tili ze rs, so u rc e s, 1 2 8 Plo ws c o m p re d , 1 50

a
. .
,

i ts i m p o r t n c e , 43 , 1 22 Po d c o rn , 1 9 7 . .

P h o sp h o ru s-lo v i n g c ro p s, 1 1 9 , 1 36 Po p c o m , 1 9 6 . .

P h o to sy n th e si s 42 . P o p p i e s, 351
a a
.
,

Pi g we e d s, 36 7 . P o t sh -c o n t i n i n g mi n e r ls, 7 1 a
a
.

P i sti l, 3 6 P o t sh fe ld sp r , 7 1 a
a a a
.

a a a
.

Pl n n i n g ro t t i o n , i m p o rt n t f c Po t ssi u m , 43
a a
.

to rs i h , 1 53 li mi ti ng f c to r , 1 2 3
a
.

a
.

a
P l n n i n g th e f rm , 3 8 1 s fe rtili z e r , 1 2 9
a k
. .

Pl n n i n g wo r , 39 1 fe rtili ze rs, so u rc e s, 1 29
a a a a a
.

a
.

P l n t n d n i m l p th o lo g y , 4 Po t ssi u m -lo vi n g c ro p s, 1 1 9 , 1 3 6
a
. .

Pl n t-b re e d i n g , d e v e lo p m e n t o f , 3 64 Po t to , 224, 36 1 a
a
.

a
.

Pl n t c o m p o u n d s u se ful to m n , 54 c re —y i e ld s, 2 2 8 a
a aa a
. .

P l n t-fo o d : d p t ti o n s 22 8
a
.
,

n d p ro d u c t i v i ty o f so ils, 1 2 4 b li g h t 2 3 7
aaa
. .
,

v il b ili t y o f, 1 2 1 c ult i v ti o n , 2 3 4 a
aa q
.

a
.

b l n c e n e e d e d , 1 25 c u lt ur l re ui re m e n t
. s, 2 24 .
444 Ind e x

Po ta to ma
Re c la ti o n o f a
l a
li la
n d s 1 56 k , .

d e sc ri p ti o n , 2 25 Re d c lo v e r 2 7 1
a
.

dap ta
.
,

d i g g e r 3 96 ti o n 27 3
a
. .
, ,

d i se se s 2 3 6 23 8, , . d e sc ri p ti o n , 2 7 2 .

d i stri b u ti o n 22 8 d i stri b u ti o n , 2 7 2
a a
. .

ea
,

rly c r p , 2 33 h rv e sti n g , 2 7 3
a
. .

h rve sti ng 2 3 5 , . hi sto ry , 2 7 1 .

histo ry , 2 24 a
i m p o rt n c e , 27 1
k
. .

”
i n se c ts 23 6 si c n e ss 2 7 1
a a
. . .
,

i n te rn l b ro wn sp o t, 238 v lu e , 2 7 3

ak
. .

m r e ti n g 2 3 5 Re d to p , 2 9 2 , 3 04
aa a
. .
,

p e sts, 23 6 . d p t ti o n , 2 9 2 .

a
p l n ti n g , 233 c ul ture , 2 9 3 .

re la
.

ti o n shi p s 2 25 d e sc ri p ti o n , 29 2
a a
. .
,

se c o n d g ro wth , 238 v lue nd us e , 2 93

a
. .

se e d -b e d , 2 3 0 Re g i o n s fo r h rd wh e t, 1 7 2 a
a a
. .

se e d c u tti ng , 23 3 Re l ti o n o f c o rn to o th e r c e re ls, 1 9 1
a a
. .

se e d se le c ti o n , 23 1 . Re l ti o n o f p l n ts to th e i r e n vi ro n
a
sto r g e , 235 me n t 9
Re la
. .

ti o n sh i p o f c e re a
,

u se s, 2 39 ls 1 6 8
a Re p ro d u c ti o n o f p la
. .
,

v ri e t i e s, 22 7 n ts 3 59
Re se rv e fo o d i n ni m ls a a a
. .
,

y i e ld , 22 8 . n d p la
nts ,

Pre v e n ti n g e ro si o n 1 58 59 , 6 0
aa a
. .

a
,

P ro d u c ti vi ty i n l n d v lu tio n , 1 6 3 Re sp i r ti o n , 41 , 42
aa a
. .

Pro fits, m n n d h o rse l bo r , 403 , 404 a Re sp o n se o f p l n ts to p e c u li r e n a

a
.

Pro p e r ti e s o f so ils ffe c te d b y te x tu re v i ro n m e n t, 49 .

81 . Rhi zo c to ni , 2 38 a .

P ro te i n c o m p o u n d s, 43 . Ri c e , 2 2 1 .

c o m po s i ti o n , 56 d e sc ri p ti o n , 22 1
a a a
.

a
.

c o nc en t r t i o n by ni m ls, 59 . h rv e sti n g , 2 2 1 .

o c c u rre n c e i n p l n t s, 56 , 60 a hi sto ry , 2 2 1
a a
. .

us est o n i m ls, 56 .
p ro d u c ti o n o f wo rld , 2 2 1 .

a
P ro to p l sm , 2 4 u se s, 2 2 1

a
. .

Pru n i n g , 6 2 Ri ve rs, th e ir i m p o rt n c e i n so i l fo r
a
.

Pte rid o p hy te s o r fe rn s, 2 6 m ti o n , 7 6
k k
. .

Pum p i n s, 3 49 Ro c
a
.

Py ro x e n e , c o m p o si ti o n nd im po r d e fin i ti o n o f 7 0
a
.
,

t nc e , 7 1 so il-fo rm i n g 7 3
we a th e ri ng a
. .
,

g e n ts, 7 4
Ro lli ng la
.

Q nd e ffe c t o n m o i stu re ,
Ro o f -g a
,

ck g a
rd e n s 351
Q a
.

ss 3 58
,
u - r
Ro ? 7
Qu a
li ty i n wh e a
.

fi2
,

t 182
’

li ty o f wh e a t ad c li m a
, .

511 ty 0 27 .

f
Qu a te 1 8 3 n
233328
p ro p o r t1 o n o f e ath m a
.

Qu a
,
3
de of
rt z,

71
r ,
c ro p s, pl a
nts i n c lu d e d
241 . .

d e v e lo p m e n t o f c o rn , 1 9 1
°

a
.

d e v e lo p m e n t o f wh e t, 1 68
a aa
.

Rap e 3 43
, .
g e n e r l c h r c te ri sti c s, 241 .

e n e m i e s o f 3 43 g ro wi n g se c ti o n o i , 2 8
a
. .

wp e a
,

or co s wi th c o rn , 2 03 h i r 27 44, 46
aaa
.

Re a a
.
, ,

l sp e c i fic g r vi ty , 86 . sy ste m , o f lf lf , 30, 2 58 .
446 In d ex

So i ls
aid i ty ad ro p p ro d u tio 1 57
c n c c n, fo rm e d by wi n d , 7 8
ai d i ty o te d by li m e 1 57
.

a
.

c c rre c fo r wh e t 1 7 4
j
.

a
, , .

é a ti o
r 86
n, ud g i n g o f, 1 6 1

a a
.

b ate ri a1 3 9
.

c , n m ed c c o rd i n g to si z e o f p r a
c lassifi a
.

ti o
c 79 n, . ti c le s, 8 2
a
.

c o n d i ti o n , e ffe c ton c ro p s, 68 . n o t i n e x h u st i ble , 1 2 5

a
.

d e fini ti o n o i , 6 7 n o t sui t e d fo r d ry -f rm i n g 1 13
a aa aa
. .

a
,

d e p th n d stru c ture i n l n d v lu o f g l c i l o ri g i n , 7 8

a
.

tio n , 1 6 2 . o ri g i n n d c o m p o si t i o n , 7 0, 8 1
a
.

e ro si o n , f c t o rs e ff e c ti n g , 1 58 a
se d e n t ry , 7 9
a
. .

e x h u st i o n b y c ro p s, 1 23 so u r so i ls 1 57
a
. .
,

f c to rs, i nfl u e n c i n g p la nt s, 1 9 . c o rre c t i o n o i , 1 57
a
fo rm ti o n , a ctio n o f tm o sp h e re a te x tu re o f , 8 1
a a
.
,

78 So lv e n t c ti o n o f w te r , 7 6
a aa
. .

fo rm ti o n by h e t n d c o ld , 7 4 So rg h u m
a aa a
.

fo rm ti o n b y i c e , 7 7 d p t ti o n , 3 23
a
,

a
.

fo rm ti o n , b y p l n ts 7 9 bro o m - c o rn 3 2 3
a
.
,

a
.
,

fo rm ti o n , by ri v e rs, 7 6 c ult i v ti o n , 3 2 5
a aa
. .

fo rm ti o n , sn o w n g e n t i h 7 6 d e sc ri p ti o n , 3 2 0
a
. .
,

fo rm i n g m i n e r ls, 7 0, 7 1 d i stri b u ti o n , 3 2 3
k
. .

fo rm i n g ro c s, 7 3 e n e m i e s, 3 28
aa
.

a a
.

m n g e m e n t n ee d o f u p -to -d te
, g r i n , 3 22
a
.

m e th o d s i n , 69 h rve sti n g 3 2 6
a a
. .
,

m o i stu re n d so il h e t, 9 1 8 hi sto ry , 3 1 9
a ak
. .
,

p r ti c le s si z e o f 8 2 m r e ti n g , 3 28
a a a
.
, .

p rti c le s, till g e fie c t e d by , 8 1
'

a
p l n ti n g , 3 2 5
a a
. .

p e rm n e n c e o i 68 , . re l t i o n shi p s, 3 2 0 .

sui t ed t o d ry -f a rm i n g , 1 1 3 swe e t, 3 2 2
a a a a a
. .

te x tu re n d su rf c e re a8 3 u se s n d v lu e , 3 2 7
k a
.
,

a a a
.

th i c n e ss n d c o m p o si ti o n o f 6 7 v ri e ti e s o f c l ss i fic ti o n , 3 22
a aa
. .
,

w te r s g e n t i n fo rm i ng , 7 5 .
y i e ld s 3 2 6
a
.
,

So i li n g , 3 02 So rg h u m s n d m ille ts 3 1 8
a aa a
. .
,

d v n t g es o f 3 1 3 a
i m p o rt n c e o n d ry -f rm s, 3 1 9
a a
. .

c o n d it i o n s f v o ri n g 3 1 2 So w-thi stle , Pe re n ni l, 3 58
aa
, . .

c r 0 p m n g e m e n t fo r 3 1 6 . a
So y be n s, 2 8 2
aa a
, .

d e fin i ti o n 3 1 2 d p t ti o n , 2 8 3
a aa
.
, .

d is d v n t g e s o i , 3 1 2 . c u lt u re 2 83
, .

So ils : d e sc ri p ti o n 2 8 2
a a a a
.
,

g e n ts c ti v e i n fo rm ti o n o f 7 4 h rv e sti n g 2 83
a a a a
.
, , .

m o u n t o f p l n t-fo o d i h , 1 2 0 v lu e s fee d 2 83
aa aa
. .
,

n ly si s o i , 1 1 9 Sp e c i li z ti o n , 38 3
aa
. .

b lo wi n g o f , 1 6 0 Sp e c i li z ti o n o f c e lls, 2 6 ‘

a aa
. .

c l ss i fic a ti o n o f , 7 9 . Sp e c i li z ti o n o f fu n c ti o n s i n hi g h e r
c o m p o si t io n o f 1 1 9 ap l n ts, 3 9
a a
. .
,

d e p le ti o n o f fe rtili ty b y le c h i n g , Sp e c i lti e s, 38 9 .

1 23 Sp e c i e s d e fin e d , 2 6
a
. .

d e te rm i n i n g fe rtili z e r n e e d s o f 1 2 7 Sp e c i fic g r vi ty o f so ils 8 6
a a a
. .
,

e c h o ne p ro ble m 1 54 Sp e rm to p h y te s o r see d p l n t s, 2 6 a
a k
.
, .

e v p o ra ti o n fro m 9 5 Sp i e 3 7
k
. .
, ,

ex ha u sti o n o i , 1 2 3 . a
Sp i e o f wh e t d e sc ri be d , 1 7 0 .
 In de x

Sp ra
y s 37 6 Su g ar bee t
-
s 241
a p ta
.

rb o li c a da
.
,

a
,

c c id 37 6 ti o n 243
a lk a
. .

li re si sta
,

c o p p e r sulf a
,

te 3 7 6 . nce , 245 .

i ve su b li m a
,

c o rro s te 3 7 7 bli g h t 248

ir o n su lf a a
. .
, ,

te 37 7 c u lt i v ti o n , 247
sa
. .
,

lt 3 7 6 d e sc ri p ti o n 2 43
S qu a
, .

di se a
.
,

sh 3 49 se s 2 48
S ta ha
. .
, ,

me s 36 n rv e st i n g 3 47 , 3 49
rd o f li vi n g a he a
. .
,

Sta nd a he a
,

nd w t 184 . rt-ro t 2 48 , .

Stac h
,

r hi sto ry , 241
ma n uf a
.

c ture by p lat s 43 n i n se c t p e sts, 2 49

i rri g a
. .
,

p ro d u c e d b y su n li g h t, 1 9 . ti n g 247 , .

us e by p l n t s, 60 a le a f-sp o t 248
k
.

a ma
.
,

St b le c ro p s, 3 8 2 . r et i n g , 2 50 .

Ste m , 3 0 33 p e sts, 2 49
a a
.

a
.
,

S ti g m 36 re l t i o n to g o o d f rm i ng 2 50
k a
.
, .
,

Sti n i n g o r c lo se d sm u t, 1 7 9 se e d nd s e e d i ng , 2 47
k aa
.

Sto c o n f rm , 3 8 1 a se e d -be d p re p r ti o n , 245 .

aa
.

Sto m t , 34 sto ri n g , 250

a
. .

Sto o li n g o f wh e t, 1 7 0 thi n n i n g 247

nd va
a
,

a
.

Sto r g e : use lu e 2 50
aaa
, .

lf lf 2 65 we e d tro u ble s, 248 , 249

a a
. .
,

be e ts, 2 50 Su g r-c n e , 3 56
a
.

aa
.

c o m , 2 05 . n ly si s o f su g r fro m , 347 .

c rO p s 405 . d e sc ri p ti o n , 3 47 .

a
,

fo o d by p l n ts, 6 0 d istri b u ti o n , 3 47
a a
. .

a
o f g r i n fro m p e sts, 1 8 5 Su g r i n p l n ts, 6 1 , 2 50
a
.

a
.

o f m n u re , 1 33 wh e t, 1 84, 1 8 5
a a
. .

p o t to e s, 2 35, 2 36 Sulfur u se s by p l n ts, 43

a
.

a
.

Stru c ture Su n li g h t, n d st rc h p ro d u c ti o n , 1 9
a
.

c o m p le x i ty o f i n s o ils, 8 4 e fie c t 0 11 p l n ts, 1 8
a
.

a a a
.
,

f c to rs ff e c ti n g 8 4 , . Su n sh i n e , th e m e n s o f ll li fe , 59 .

'
o f c e lls, 2 4 2 5 Swe e t c lo v e r, 2 7 4
a
.

a
.
,

of s o il n d c u lti v ti o n 1 45 . c o n tro l o f , 1 8 1 .

a a a
,

o f so il n d l n d v lue , 1 6 2 Swee t c o m , 1 96
a
. .

o f so ils d e fin i t io n 8 3 Swee t p o t to e s, 347

aa a
.

a
.
, ,

Str uc tu re n d tilth 8 4 d p t ti o n , 347 .

a
, .

S tru c tu re o f p l n t 23 , . d i stri bu tio n , 3 47 .

Stru g g le fo r e x i ste n c e , 50 . u se , 3 47 .

Sty le 36
a
.
,

Su b—i rri g ti o n 1 04
a a
.
,

Su b-so il o f ri d n d h u m i d re g i o n s

a
c o m p re d 81 a
T lc , c o m p o si ti o n , 7 2
a a a a a
. .
,

Su c c e ssf ul f rmi n g 406 T ll m e d o w o t-g r ss, 299 ,

a a a a
, .

Su d n -g r ss d e sc ri p ti o n , 3 29 T n g i e r p e s, 2 8 4 .

a
.
,

c ultu re 3 2 9 T p —ro o ts, 3 0

a
, .

a
.

Su g r T e , 351
aa a
.

n ly si s o f i n su g r-c n e , 3 46 a a T e m p e r ture
a a
.

c h ng e t o st rc h 43 a a n d e le v t io n , 1 6
a a a a
. .
,

m n u f c tu re 251 d ily flu c tu ti o n s 1 6
a
. .

a
, ,

sto r g e i n p l n ts 6 1 a , . re l t i o n to wi n d s, 1 9 .
448 Imic a
:

a a
T e m p o r ry p sture s, 3 03 T urn i p s
a a
.

Te rr c i n g to p re v e n t w shin g of se e d i n g , 2 53
a a
.

so ils, 1 59 us e n d v lu e , 2 54
a a a
. .

Te x tu re o f so il n d w te r re te n ti o n , Ty p e o f f rmi n g 402! ,

9 2 , 93 . Ty p e s o f c o m , 1 95 .

T e x tu re o f so ils, 8 1 , 8 2
a
.

T h llo p hy te s, 26
a
.

T h e o ri e s o f p l n t-fo o d , 1 1 8 .

T hi stle : Und e rg ro u n d ste m s, 37

aaa
C n d , 358 U se o f
a aaa2 66
.

Ru ssi n , 358 , 359 lf lf

m e n d me n ts fo r a lka
. .

a
,

li 1 26
a
sa a blue g a
.
,

fi ec te d b y si ze of so il p rti c le s , ss 2 94
- r .

b om g a
,

81 r ss sm o o th 2 9 8
e- r

j arb h y d a te s b y p la
. .
,

a
,

o b ec ts o f i n d ry -f rm i n g 1 16 c o nts 55 r 56
a
. .
, , ,

T ilth nd stru c ture , 8 4 . c lo v e r , 2 55 .

Ti m be r c ro p s, 36 1 c o tton, 33 7
aa
. .

Ti m o th y , 2 8 8 , 304 f ts n d o ils 57
aa a a
. ,

d p t ti o n , 2 8 9 . fie ld p e s, 2 7 7 .

c ultu re , 2 8 9 .

d e sc ri p ti o n , 2 8 8 h e r bi c i d e s 3 7 6
a
. .
,

e n e m i e s, 292 li m e fo r c id so il, 1 57
a
.

a
.

h rv e st, 2 90 m n g e ls, 2 52
a
. .

o ri g i n , 2 88 o ts, 2 1 3

a a a
. .

p l n ti ng , 2 90 o rc h rd -g r ss 2 9 6

a a
. .
,

st te s p ro d u c i n g , 2 8 9 p o t to e s 2 39
a a a
. , .

v l u e , 29 1 .
p ro te i n s to ni m ls, 56 .

Ti ssu e , d e fini ti o n o f 2 5 re d c lo v e r 2 7 3
a
. , .

To b c c o , 344 . re d t o p 2 93 , .

c ulture o i , 346 ri c e 22 1

aaa
.
.
,

c u ri ng , 3 46 . ru t b g s 2 54 , .

d istri bu ti o n , 3 45 ry e , 2 2 0

ak aa
. .

m r e ti ng , 346 so il n ly si s, 1 2 7
a aa a
. .

a
T o p o g r p h y i n l n d v lu ti o n , 1 6 1 su g r-be e ts, 2 50
a a a
. .

T o t l h e t, 1 6 swee t p o t t o e s, 347
a a
. .

T r c h e l tu be s, 2 9 , 3 0, 48 turn i p s, 2 54 .

a a
.

T r n sfe rri n g p l n t-fo o d 48 v e tc h , 2 84

a a a a
. .

a
,

T r n slo c ti o n o f fo o d i n p l n ts, 38 w te r by p l n ts 47 , 96 .

a a
. ,

T r n sp i r ti o n , 46 a
wh e t, 1 8 3 , 280
a
.

a a a
.

T r n sp o rt ti o n wi th i n p l n ts, 48 Use ful p ro d uc ts o f fo rm e r p l nts ,

a
.

T r n sp o rte d so ils, 7 9 .

Tre fo il, bi rd s-fo o t, 2 8 4

’
.

y e llo w, 2 7 5
a Va
.

T ro p i c l frui ts, 3 51 c u o le s, 25
k Val
. .

T ru c c ro p s, 3 49 ue o f
alfa lfa2 6 1 26 6
.

T u ll, J e th ro 44
na
.
,

a
, .

Tum b le wee d , 3 7 1 ly si s f so il 1 2 7 o

e ria1 42
.

a
,

ba
.

T u m b li n g m ust rd , 3 59 ct .

b ale y 2 1 9
. ,

T urn i p s : r , .

c ult u re , 2 53 b e as 28 0 n

b me g a
.
.
,

d e sc ri p ti o n , 2 53 . ro ss sm o o th
- r , ,
450 Ind e a
:

Wee d s Wh e a
t
a
bi e n n i l , 3 6 7 . q u a
li ty ih , 1 8 2 .

c o n tro l, 3 7 2 re g i o n s fo r so f t 1 7 1
iva a
. .
,

c u lt ti n g fo r d e stro y i n g 3 7 3 , . re l t i o n shi p s, 1 6 8 .

d e fin i ti o n , 3 6 6 , 36 7 ro o t d e v e lo p m e n t, 1 6 8
e ra d i c ta
. .

io n o f 37 3 . ru st, 180
aa
.

hi sto ry 366 se e d -be d p re p r ti o n , 1 7 5

j
. .
,

i n u ri o u s to wh e a t 18 1 sm u t, 1 7 6 , 1 7 9 , 1 8 0
j
. .
,

i n u ry d o n e by , 1 47 3 7 1 , . so ils fo r , 1 7 4 .

i n tro d u c ti o n o f 3 69 a
sp e c ul ti o n , 1 8 9
k
. .

la ws 3 7 3
, . sp i e d e sc ribe d , 1 7 0 .

lo sse s fro m , 3 7 0 a
sto r g e o f , 1 8 4, 1 85
k
. .

m e th o d s o f d e stru c ti o n , 3 7 5 T ur ey re d 3 62
a
. .
,

o c c u rre n c e , 368 . use n d va lu e , 1 8 3 .

of va
ri e tie s 1 7 1
a
lfa
lf a2 6 7
.

. we e d s i mu ri o u s to 18 1
a a
.
, ,

be e ts 248 Wh e t-g r ss, 3 01 , 3 04

a a a a
. .
,

p o t to e s, 2 3 6 Wh e n to p p ly irri g ti o n w te r, 1 05 .

a
.

su g r-b e e ts, 2 48 , 249 Whi te c lo v e r , 2 7 4

wh e a a a
. .

t 18 1 Wi n d , c tio n i n so i l fo rm ti o n , 7 8
p e re n n i a
. .

a
,

l 3 68 Wi n d i n re l tio n to p l n ts, 1 9 a
a a
. .
,

p o i so n o u s, 3 7 1 Wi n d re g ul te s te m p e r tu re , 1 9
aa
.

a a
d ic a
.

ro t ti o n o f c ro p s h e lp s er te , Wo rm s, c bb g e , 3 44 .

37 6 .

a
sp r y i ng fo r , 3 7 6
a
.

su m m e r-f llo wi n g fo r , 3 7 6
X
.

a a
We ste rn wh e t-g r ss, 301 y le m , 2 9 , 30, 33
a
. .

Wh e t
a aa
n d st n d rd o f li vi n g , 1 84

a
.

m o un t to so w, 1 7 6
Y ll w
.

d i stri b u tio n , 1 7 3 e o tre fo il, 2 7 5

Yi ld f
. .

Durum , 3 6 2 e o

lfa
.

a
ex c h ng e d , 1 89 a lfa2 6 2 2 6 3
a q a lfa
,
. .

a
,

f c to rs d e te rm i n i n g u li ty , 1 83 lfa se e d 2 63 .

ba
.
,

flo ur , 1 7 1 , 1 8 2 . rle y 216 .

a a be a
,

g e o g r p hi c l o ri g i n , 1 6 7 n s 28 0 .

a B e rm u d a - ra
.
,

g r d e s o f, 1 8 8 .
g ss 300 .

a
,

g ro wth b o v e g ro u n d , 1 7 0 blu e g ra
-
ss 294
a a b u c kwh e a
. .
,

h rd i n e ss, re g i o n s ff e c ti n g , 1 7 1 , t 2 23 , .

172 . ca b ba g e 3 43 .

a ca
,

h rv e sti n g , 1 7 8 . rro ts 255 , .

h i sto ry o f c ulti v ti o n , 1 6 7 a . co m 1 9 7 , 1 9 8 , 1 99 , 2 01 .

a
,

i m p ro v e d v ri e ti e s, 1 7 2 . c o tto n , 3 3 5, 33 6 .

i n se c t p e sts o f , 1 8 0 cow a
p e s, 2 8 2
j
. .

o in t w o rm , 1 8 1 c ro p s re la
ti o n to so il c o nd i ti o n ,
k
.

e rn e l d e sc ri b e d , 1 7 0 e mm e r , 2 22
a
. .

lo ss by n o t g r d i n g , 1 8 9 a fie ld - p e s, 2 7 1
ak
. .

m r e ti n g , 1 8 7 . a
fl x , 338 .

o ri g i n o f wo rd 1 67 . a
fo r g e c ro p s, 2 9 1 .

a
,

p e sts, 1 8 0 Jo h n so n -g r ss, 301

aa ka
.

a
.

p re p r i n g fo r p l n ti n g , 1 7 5, 1 7 6 . le , 3 43 .
 In de x 451

Yi ld
e of Yi ld
e of

le sse n e d by we e d s 3 7 0 Su d a a
n -g r ss 3 2 9

a
. .
, ,

m nga e l-w u rz e ls, 2 52 . su g r-be e ts 2 45

a a
.
,

m ille t, 3 3 0, 3 3 1 su g r-c n e 347

a a
. , .

o t - r s
g s 2 99 swee t c lo v e r , 2 7 5 .

a
.
,

o t a s 210 21 1 , 212 . swe e t p o t to e s, 349 .

a a
, ,

o rc h rd -g r ss 2 9 5, 2 96 , . te o si n te , 3 3 1 .

a
p e rl m i lle t 3 3 1 , . ti m o th y 2 8 9 , 2 90, 2 9 1
, .

aa
p e n i c ill ri 33 1 , . a
to b c c o 3 45. .

poo r a nd g oo d 353 355, 358 , tu rn i p s 2 54

, .

a
, ,

r p e , 3 54 . ve t c h , 28 4 .

re d c lo v e r 2 7 2 , 2 7 3
, . whi te c lo ve r 2 7 4 , .

re d t o p 2 93
, .

ri c e , 2 2 1 .

aaa
ru t b g s, 2 54

a
n d im p o ta
.

ry e , 2 1 9 . ! e o li te s, c o m p o si ti o n r nc e ,

so ili n g c ro p s 3 1 2 , 3 1 3 , 3 1 4 72 .

a
.
,

so y be n s, 2 8 3 .

Pri n te d i n the a
e s o f Am e ri c
e d St t
Un it a
.
Te a
chi ng o f Agricul tu re i n the Hi gh Scho o l
BY GA RLAN D A . BRIC KER
De pa
rtme n t o f Ag ri c ultu ra
l E x te n sio n , Co lle g e of Ag ric u ltu re , O hio Sta
te U n i ve rsi ty

With a
n In tr o d u c tio n by DR . W . C . BAGLEY
2 02 pag es ,

A skilfu l ex p o i
s tio n of th e p l a c e of a g ri c u l t u re i n th e h i g h
sc ho o l c o u rse o f stu d y whic h first d e h u e s th e n a tu re o f se c
o nd a ry a g r i c u l tu r e , a n d th e n p ro c e e d s to d i s c u ss t h e ri se a nd

d e v e lo p m e n t o f se c o n d a ry a r ic u l tu re in th e U n ite d Sta t e s;
g
th e so c i a l re su l ts o f te a c h in g s ec o n d a ry a g ric u l tu re ; t h e s
p y
c ho lo g ic a l a n d the se a so n a l d e te rm i n a tio n o f se q u e n c e ; th e
o rg a n iz a ti o n o f th e c o u rse ; th e a im a n d m e tho d s o f p re se n

ta tio n ; a n d fin a lly th e e d u c a tio n a l a i m s, v a lu e s, a n d id e a ls

in te a c hin g a g r i c u l tu re i n hi g h sc h o o l s .

Ma l s ad M th
t ia er n e o ds in
Hi gh Scho o l Agricul ture
BY WILLIAM G HUMMEL M S
d
.
, . .

a
Assist nt Pro fe sso r o f Ag ri c u ltura
lE uc a
ti o n , U n iv e rsi ty of Ca
lifo rn i aad
, n

BERTHA R HU MMEL , BLS .

a
. . .

0
38 5 P g es,

Thi s bo o k h a s b e e n p re p a re d fo r th e u s e o f p e rso n s i n te r

e ste d i n th e i n tro d u c tio n o r i n th e te a c hi n g o f a g ri c u l tu r e i n

h ig h sc ho o l so f to wn s, c i ti e s, o r ru ra l c o m m u n itie s wh e re la rg e

n u m b e rso f stu d e n ts a re d r a wn fro m th e fa rm i n

g p p o u l a t i o n,

o r wh e re th e p ro s e ri ty o f t h e h i h s h o l m m u i ty i s
p g c o c o n

la rg e l y d e p e n d e n t u o n a g ric u l tu re
p
a a a
.

T h e first c h a p te rs g i v e a g e n e r l t re t m e n t o f t h e re s o n s
fo r p la c in g a g ric u lt u re i n th e hi g h s c h o o l c o u rs e an d th e a u

tho rs the n p ro c e e d to d i sc u ss th e m e th o d , th e e q u i p m e n t, a nd

th e su bj e c t m a tte r o f th e c o u rse .

THE MAC MI L LAN CO MPAN Y

Pub li sh e r s 6 4 66
— F i f th Ave n u e New Y o rk
 BOOK S OH AGRICULT U RE

TILLAGE
a
B i le y s Prin c i p le s o f Ag ric u ltu re
’

a '
H ilg rd s So i ls
Ki n g s T he So il
’

K ing s Irri a
'
n d Dr i n a a a
g tio n
F d
Li vm g sto n 5 ie l C ro p Pro uc tio n
Ly o n a
'
g e
d na
Ma
F
.

n d F tp p i n s T he Pri n c i le e o f So il g e me n t

d
Ro he rts s The e rtili ty o f the
’
ti d
Sn y e r s So ils a
Fa
n d Fe rti li ze rs
’

Vo o rhee s s e rtilize rs
F
’

W h e e le r s M n u re s n d e rti lize rs
’
a
Wid sto e s Dry Fa
’
rmi n g

OR GARDEN— MAKIN G
a
B i le y s G r e n -M k in
a
'

B i le y s Ve g e ta
'
a d a
a
F b le G e n in g
re n c h s H o w to G ro w Ve g e t ble s
'
a
O R F RUIT GROWIN G, e tc
F
.

a
B ile y s ru i t O to wi
’

a
B il
d s T he Pru n in g
F
’
It
a
C r 3 Bush ru i ts

OH r m; CARE OF LIVE STOCK

Ha rpe r s An i ma
o rd an e T he
’
l H usba n ry
ee i n g o f An i m a F d d
i
’
ls
o n s H o w to Kee p Be e s fo r Pro fit
'

ea se s o f An i ma
'
3 o s Di s ls
’
Phi lipe s Be e k ee p in
a
V len tin e s H o w to e e p He n s fo r Pro fit k
Fa
’

Wa t
'
so n s rm Po u ltry

OR DAIRY WORK
Ec ld e s s Da
dd
'
i ry C a
She l o n s The a
tt
rm
’
le n d Mi ll: Pro
n d the Da iry F a
a
d uc tion

Sny e r s Da i ry C h e m ist
’

n
Wt g s Mill: a
'
n d its Pr s
ct o
ON PLANT DISE ASE S

Ma
sse e
a
'
s Di se se s o f Cu lti v te a
Pl n ts n d a d a a Tre e s

dF
O K n e s Inj u rio u s In se c ts
’ ’

Sli n g e rl n a a
n d C ro sby s F m tt I n se c ts
’

Ste ve n ss u ng i o f Pl n t Dise se
'
a a
OH ECONOMI CS Al“) ORGANI! ATION
Fa d aw aW a
irc hi l s Ru r l
'
Gre e n s L
e lth a
’
nd
fo r th e Ame ric a
e lfa
a
re W
F
d a
'
O g e n s Ru r l H y g ie n e
Fa'
Ro be rtss T he
n rm e r

rme r s Bu sin e ss H a
'
n bo o k d

TH E MAC MI L LA N C O MPA N Y
6 66 Fi fth Aven u e ,
4-
Ne w Yo rk
B OSTON CHICAGO ATLANTA DALLAS SAN FRANCISCO
So i l s a
nd Pl a
nt Li fe a
s

Re l a
te d to Agricul tu re

BY J . c . CU N N I N GHAM

Pro fe sso r o f H o rti c ulture a

nd a a
Bo t n y i n T wo —Ye
r C o urse i n Ag ri c ulture a nd

Tea
c h e r o f Ag ri c ultu re to Rura
la de T e a
n d G ra c h e rs I o waS ta te C o lle g , e

Ame s Io wa . .

AND

BY W . H . LAN C ELO T

In stru c to r i n C h e m i stry , Two -Ye a

r C o urs e in Ag ri c ulture Io w S t te C o ll e g aa e.

Clo th , 1 2 m , 3 48 p g es, 3 a

A bo o k a
th t pre se n tsafi st stud y i n a g i ur lt u b as e d o so u d d u
r c re n n e

ca tio n al p i i ple s I t sti m ul a

r nc . te s ad d i e ts th e p upils i n su c h a n mar cn n er

th a t th e i m e n ta
r l p o we s a e d e e lo pe d b y t
r r h e i r o wn o lun ta
v ry e ffo t s v r .

Th e m a te i al i n th e b o o k d a
r ls a l e wi th so i ls ad plats Th e
e on n n .

stud i e s a re ut i t h e fo m
n f e pe i me t
r s t ob e w k e d o ut c a fully b y
r n o or re
p x

th e stu d e t i th sc h o o lro o m
n n e at h m e th e sults e c o d e d i n syste m
or o ,
re r r

a ti c f m i a te bo o k
or n no .

May sug g e sti s ae g iv th ug h ut th e b k a

n on r en rond a t th e e d i
o an oo n n

Ap pe d i
n x eg ar d i n g th e su c e ssful m aa
r g m c t o f th e c o u se na d th
e en r n e

b o k i s f m stat to fi ish ad e li g h tful c mb i a

o ro r n tio n o f p a ct ic al a g oi n r r

c ultu e a
r n d g o o d pe d a g og y .

TH E MAC MI LLAN CO MPAN Y

Pu b li sh e r s 6 66 Fif th Aven ue
4— Ne w Y o rk