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To cite this article: Cristiana Costa, Ângela Cerqueira, Fernando Rocha & Ana Velosa (2018): The
sustainability of adobe construction: past to future, International Journal of Architectural Heritage,
DOI: 10.1080/15583058.2018.1459954
a
GeoBioTec, Geosciences Department, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal; bRISCO, Civil Engineering Department, University of Aveiro,
Aveiro, Portugal
CONTACT Cristiana Costa cristianacosta@ua.pt Universidade de Aveiro, Geociências Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
2 C. COSTA ET AL.
Figure 1. Earth construction in the world with heritage UNESCO (Daudon et al. 2014).
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 3
the first adobe buildings discovered in Turkmenistan present in countries with climates that are totally differ-
are aged from between 8000 and 6000 BC. Other ent, due to thermal properties of soils.
authors refer that in Europe this technique appears The practice of earth construction is predominant in
during the Iron Age (Chazelles 1995; Daudon et al. less developed countries, where lack of advanced tech-
2014). The use of adobe construction in Cyprus is nology and often the availability of labor and local
dated to the Neolithic Era (Illampas et al. 2014; materials encourages the use of these building techni-
Christoforo et al. 2016). The authors that discovered ques that are quite simple. However, this type of con-
adobes in the Tigris River affirmed that the oldest struction occurs in some developed countries like
adobe bricks found have an age that ammounts to Portugal, Germany, France, or even the UK (Varum
7500 BC, and they concluded that the earth construc- et al. 2015).
tion could have been used for over 10,000 years (Torgal The earth construction in Europe appears essentially
and Jalali 2012). It is not possible to date the beginning in less developed countries; however, it is possible to
of adobe construction; however, it is known that this find earth buildings throughout other European coun-
type of construction appears in a period between 6000 tries such as Germany, UK, and France (Pacheco-
and 10,000 BC. Torgal 2015). In Europe, earth building traditionally
The earliest use of adobe in Europe can be dated at takes many forms; it can be found buildings made in
around 5300 BC in the settlement of Sesklo in Greece, adobe and rammed earth in southern Europe, while in
with small homes built on stone foundations. The use northern Europe, earth is used in conjunction with
of earth with timber in northern Europe means that timber in wattle and daub and half-timbered techni-
many archaeological sites have decayed and only foun- ques. In Spain, earth construction can be found in the
dations remain, making assessment of the building whole country (see Figure 2), being predominant in the
materials difficult. In central Turkey, remains of central area, especially in small towns. As in Portugal,
adobe buildings have been found as far back as 1600 Spain’s earth construction is present in all kind of
BC (Torgal 2015). buildings, such as: urban and vernacular architecture;
The use of adobe construction is spread all over the monuments; public buildings; walls, wells; and other
world, especially in countries where the raw material is construction elements. The tradition of earth construc-
easily available. This happens because this is the sim- tion in Spain was considered by UNESCO as world
plest and easiest form of construction. However, what cultural heritage, because the country hosts five earthen
occurs over time with scientific and technological monuments such as the historic center of the city of
developments is that there is a certain abandonment Córdoba, or the Alhambra, Generalife, and Albaicín in
of this technique, especially in more developed coun- Granada (Delgado et al. 2006). There are few new earth
tries despite the advantages that this constructive tech- buildings in Spain but the majority are residential
nique offers in terms of sustainable development. buildings using compressed earth blocks. In terms of
There are studies that report the existence of adobe rehabilitation and conservation works, this is still an
buildings from South America to North America, area in need of expertise but some historic monuments,
Africa, and Europe. In the Iberian Peninsula this con- such as the Alhambra, have been intervened in close
struction arose under the influence of the Phoenicians, link with research work and using compatible materials
Carthaginians, Romans, and Muslims. However, it was and techniques. However, it still happens that as in
mainly Muslims who had greater influence and disse- Portugal, in Spain demolition is the most common
mination in terms of these constructive techniques choice instead of rehabilitation of these buildings.
(Torgal and Jalali 2010). In Italy, according to Pagliolico et al. (2010), it is
normal to find earthen buildings. The adobe construc-
tion is mainly found in Sardinia, whereas cob is present
in Marche and Abruzzo, and rammed earth, together
3. Adobe construction in the world
with some adobe, constructions in Piedmont. However,
Several authors report that almost 30% of the world’s most of these buildings are in a high state of degrada-
population lives in earth-based dwellings (Costa, Rocha, tion because oftentimes the used soils used aren´t ade-
and Velosa 2016; Parisi et al. 2015; Silveira et al. 2012; quate for this type of constructions, and sometimes the
Varum et al. 2015). Considering the information on the soil/sediments proportions adopted may not be the best
global variations of precipitation and temperature, there (Pagliolico et al. 2010).
is no correlation between these parameters and the There are some authors (Daudon et al. 2014, Obafemi
implementation earth construction; it’s possible to visua- and Kurt 2016) that refer the importance of earth construc-
lize in the map of Figure 1 that earth construction is tion in Greece where there is availability of the materials
4 C. COSTA ET AL.
Figure 2. Map of Earth Construction in Spain (adapted from Delgado et al, 2006).
which prevailed in this type of construction. It has been 4. Adobe construction in Portugal
reported that the city of Athens was being constructed
In Portugal, earthen materials have been used in load-
entirely from adobe (Jaquin 2012). The vernacular archi-
bearing walls in the form of adobe or rammed earth for
tecture reveals Greek lifestyle and cultural values of the past
the construction of buildings especially in the southern
and the buildings can be studied as models of environmen-
and central coast. Earth construction was extensively used
tally responsive and sustainable architecture. Some exam-
in Portugal during the Islamic domination period
ples are in Sernikaki and Cyprus (Obafemi and Kurt 2016).
(between 7th and 13th centuries), both to build military
Cyprus is one of the oldest islands in the Mediterranean
and civil constructions. The military constructions are
Sea. Obafemi and Kurt (2016) studied the building materi-
mainly constituted by fortresses, which were firstly built
als from Louroujina, in Cyprus, that are adobe and mortars
between the 7th and 9th centuries. From then on, earth has
of the same material as the adobe units. Like in Portugal,
often been employed in both rural and urban buildings,
the earthen blocks are usually produced manually and are
and the various building techniques associated to earth
called “adobe” or “sun-dried block.”
construction are present throughout the country, with
In the UK around 60% of monuments and arche- distinct regional expression. Most of the adobe buildings
ological sites were built using earth materials or have are confined mainly to the central coast. The adobe con-
earthworks associated. Nowadays, just 2% of earth struction in these locations has economic and environ-
buildings are found in the UK, because earth became mental benefits, because the raw material (soil) is sourced
regarded as a material of limited durability and thus in situ (Ciancio, Jaquin, and Walker 2013). In Portugal,
inferior to more permanent materials, such as stone or earth construction was also a very common technique
fired clay bricks (http://www.earthstructures.co.uk/his used in the past and widespread throughout the territory
tory.htm). In the developed countries like UK, the with the employment of different techniques (see
preservation and rehabilitation of earth buildings has Figure 3). Locally, it is divided into three different types
fallen into disuse, not only by the development of or building techniques: rammed earth, “taipa”; wattle-and
building materials but also by a lack of awareness of -daub, “tabique”; and “adobe”. In the present work, adobe
the preservation of heritage. construction type will be emphasized.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 5
adobe raw materials in order to avoid cracking materials consuming, producing a significant environ-
(Christoforo et al. 2016). Adobe walls should also be mental impact.
thick to obtain the best mechanical and thermal prop- Nowadays, there is a growing concern with the con-
erties. Consequently, there is a high risk of cracking sumption and production of materials due to the effects
during drying, and the axial shrinkages are significant. on the environment and economy. It is known that the
The particular aspects of the manufacture of adobes, construction industry is one of the largest consumers of
require skilled labor. According to literature, soils used materials with high CO2 emissions associated with the
for the manufacture of adobes must contain a percen- production process of these materials, especially when
tage of clay between 15–16% (Calatan et al. 2016). To it comes to concrete. One of the biggest problems of
obtain the best possible results, the employed soils must cement production is the temperature for the produc-
have adequate workability and plasticity. tion of this material, which implies high energy con-
The introduction of fibers in adobes is controversial, sumption. The use of the earth reduces energy
the opinions of different authors diverge; some claim consumption, what makes that material friend of the
that this can prevent cracking others understand that environment. In this context, there is an increase in the
degradation of the fibers may confer a decrease in the interest by developing and using more sustainable
mechanical strength of adobe blocks (Parisi et al. 2015; materials, and therefore earth construction has become
Calatan et al. 2016; Sharma et al., 2015). According to a subject of growing interest.
Calatan et al. (2016), the addition of 9–10% (by Earth construction was one of the most used types of
volume) of fibers is the optimum value to have benefits construction all over the world, by using simple tech-
on the properties of the adobe bricks. niques and locally available materials. This type of
The mechanical strength values mentioned in the construction is directly related to economic and envir-
literature vary between 0.6 and 8.3 MPa, however the onmental advantages. However, most of the buildings
frequent of resistance in adobes focuses on values that still exist are in a high degree of degradation which
between 0.8 and 3.5 MPa, (Illampas, Ioannou, and causes a growing concern with the preservation of this
Charmpis 2014; Coroado et al. 2010). specific kind of cultural heritage. For many, the solu-
The capillary water absorption varies between tion is to demolish these buildings rather than incorpo-
3–21 kg/m2/h1/2, and this heterogeneity is correlated rate rehabilitation actions in order to preserve the built
with the compositional differences of adobes and their heritage. It is important to introduce the subject of the
differential degradation due to exposure (Coroado et al. sustainability of these materials that are often ignored
2010). The mineralogical composition shows the occur- due to their supposed frailty. As such, an attempt must
rence of quartz and calcite as main phases with pre- be made in order to find materials that are compatible
sence of K-feldspars and phyllosilicates minerals (like for restoration purposes. Adobe is an eco-friendly, low-
kaolinite). In adobes, where there is an adequate energy, and cost-efficient construction material. The
amount of kaolinite, its properties such as water adobe material offers indoor thermal comfort and ade-
absorption and mechanical strength are improved. It quate sound insulation, and allows the economization
should be noted that the amount of clay minerals of carbon dioxide during its production (Christoforo
should be moderate to avoid cracking in the material. et al. 2016). The soils used for this type of construction
The adobe building technique is also simple and are usually located immediately below the soil top layer.
similar to the placing of the conventional brick, form- Often, this ground is located very close to the building
ing masonry. The settlement of the adobes is accom- and as such there is no pollution even in the transport
plished with earth-based or lime mortars in order to of materials, contrary to other materials such as cera-
obtain a better connection between the materials, since mic bricks or concrete. The waste of the earth construc-
it keeps the same level of shrinkage, contributing to tion can be deposited at the site of extraction in the
compatibility of materials and improved behavior of absence of any environmental hazard.
masonry. Conservation of buildings is, in itself, a sustainable
action and the development of compatible materials
and re-use of old materials should become a growing
concern. For this purpose, further characterization is
6. Sustainability
mandatory as well as the widespread of knowledge.
Sustainability deals with three key areas: environmen- However, the use of materials with improved properties
tal, economic and social. It’s known that sustainable may also have its role. There are some examples of
construction has become a significant factor in recent adobe buildings with cultural heritage relevance in
times, because this type of industry is one of the most Portugal, particularly in Aveiro district, which were
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 7
success stories after small interventions and rehabilita- compared to the high energy consumed during the
tion, such as the Art Nouveau Museum (in Aveiro city production of clinker in a traditional cement.
centre), or the Gandareza House (in Vagos).
Several recent scientific articles concluded that the
characteristics of the adobe can be improved by adding
7. Conclusions
different natural additives. According to Corrêa et al.
(2015), the incorporation of bamboo particles and “syn- The earth construction, both in Portugal as in other
thetic saliva” allows the improvement of the physical countries where this is still a reality, is based on the use
and mechanical stabilization. These materials reduced of simple techniques that guarantee the sustainability of
linear shrinkage, water absorption, and loss of mass of buildings. This type of construction should be pre-
adobe when exposed to water. The bamboo particles served to ensure the legacy of this built heritage and
increased the compressive strength, interrupting the also due to its characteristics.
cracks that form during the compressive test of the For the rehabilitation of this type of building it is
adobes. Other authors such as Calatan et al. (2016) necessary to know the materials and to create new
stated that the addition of 9–10% (v/v) hemp fiber or materials that are compatible; these materials should
30–0% of straw can increase the mechanical behavior of ensure the longevity of the conservation and
adobes. Parisi et al. (2015) also concluded that the restoration actions. It is important that the materials
addiction of straw fibers can reinforce the adobe bricks. used have a low energy consumption and low CO2
Sharma et al. (2015) studied the improvement of release to the environment, because it is intended
mechanical strength in adobes with fibers and they that the developed materials needs to be environ-
concluded that this addition can increase the compres- mentally and economically sustainable. In construc-
sive strength between 50–225%. Sharma et al. (2015) tion due to excessive consumption of materials this
also concluded that the presence of fibers can improve concern becomes larger, mainly due to the produc-
the durability of adobes. There are several studies that tion of cement, in addition to consuming different
prove the efficacy of certain additives in improving the materials, carries an high energy expenditure and a
properties of adobes, as such, it is possible today to release of CO2, which corresponds to at least 5 of
obtain a sustainable material with adequate properties. the 7% of global emissions (McLellan et al. 2011).
Other sustainable materials have been studied as In Portugal, particularly in the Aveiro district,
potential resources for rehabilitation and even for the there has been an obvious degradation and aban-
construction of new buildings, in particular geopoly- donment of many adobe buildings; however, some
mers. A geopolymer is an inorganic polymer, obtained of these old buildings can be rehabilitated with
by the alkaline activation of an aluminosilicate, under minor maintenance and repair works. The materials
certain temperature and pressure conditions used in to the conservation actions should be com-
(Davidovits 2002). Its properties depend mainly on patible with the base materials. The compatibility of
the chemical structure. In addition to the replacement the materials used in the adobe buildings rehabilita-
of cements, these products can also be applied as other tion are the key point for the success of the pre-
materials, such as composites with fire-resistant fibers, servation of these buildings. These materials need to
bricks, anti-fire protection, in the ceramic industry, assure the sustainability offers by adobe and other
encapsulation of toxic and radioactive waste, among earth construction materials.
others. Geopolymers can be produced from naturally Nowadays, since there is a growing concern with the
high-strength natural phyllosilicates being cured at sustainability of building materials, the preservation of
room temperature. As such, they have good physico- earth buildings should be taken as a focus of preserva-
chemical characteristics, such as: high workability, fast tion of heritage and guarantee economic and environ-
hardening, surface finish, rapid development of mentally sustainable buildings. In addition to the
mechanical strength, surface hardness, good chemical development of new materials for the rehabilitation of
resistance, and heat and fire resistance (Davidovits adobe/earthen buildings, there is also a concern with
2015). These characteristics reveal the great potential the use of more sustainable materials for construction
for application in construction materials. Geopolymers of new buildings. The first approach of the geopolymers
will contribute decisively to increase sustainability in arises from this perspective, as most sustainable capable
the construction industry, because, compared to tradi- materials with potential to replace the usual concrete
tional cement, they have the advantage of reducing CO2 maintaining its properties and leading to lower energy
emissions, as well as lower energy embodiment when consumption and release of CO2 to the environment.
8 C. COSTA ET AL.
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