You are on page 1of 10

International Journal of Architectural Heritage

Conservation, Analysis, and Restoration

ISSN: 1558-3058 (Print) 1558-3066 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uarc20

The sustainability of adobe construction: past to


future

Cristiana Costa, Ângela Cerqueira, Fernando Rocha & Ana Velosa

To cite this article: Cristiana Costa, Ângela Cerqueira, Fernando Rocha & Ana Velosa (2018): The
sustainability of adobe construction: past to future, International Journal of Architectural Heritage,
DOI: 10.1080/15583058.2018.1459954

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/15583058.2018.1459954

Published online: 20 Apr 2018.

Submit your article to this journal

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at


http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=uarc20
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE
https://doi.org/10.1080/15583058.2018.1459954

The sustainability of adobe construction: past to future


a,b
Cristiana Costa , Ângela Cerqueiraa, Fernando Rocha a,b
, and Ana Velosa a,b

a
GeoBioTec, Geosciences Department, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal; bRISCO, Civil Engineering Department, University of Aveiro,
Aveiro, Portugal

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY


The Earth construction is the oldest building practice on the world. Around 30% of the world Received 13 October 2017
population lives in buildings made of earth materials. These materials offer economic and Revised 27 March 2018
environmental benefits, because of that the interest of these types of construction are being Accepted 28 March 2018
increased. The practice of earth construction is predominant in less developed countries, where KEYWORDS
lack of advanced technology and often the availability of labor and local materials encourage the Earth construction; adobe;
use of these building techniques that are quite simple. Nowadays, most of the earth buildings, cob; rammed earth;
both in Portugal and in the other countries are in a high stage of degradation. However, the sustainability; geopolymers
interest of preservation of these buildings is increased. So, this works pretends a global vision of
the earth construction on the past, and a new look at these materials in the future. It is important
developed new materials similar to these ones, with economic and environmental benefits, and
which are compatible for interventions in these same old buildings. A new generation of
materials, are geopolymers, these materials are alkaline activated and because of their properties
as well as their ecological footprint they are promising to be a “kind” of materials that will follow
the line of materials on land.

1. Introduction environmentally friendly technique with a social and cul-


tural contribution.
Earth construction is the oldest building practice known,
The costs are minimized in this type of construction
with documented cases of the use of earth bricks in
because local materials may be employed, and it is
Mesopotamia around 10,000 BC (Heathcote 1995).
relatively simple and easy to perform. Earth buildings
According to Houben and Guillaud (1994), the “true”
usually have a lower embodied energy and carbon
rammed earth technique was first developed during the
footprint than the other buildings with sophisticated
Three Kingdoms Period (221–581 AD). Approximately
processes, like concrete, steel, or masonry (Bui et al.
30% of the world population lives in buildings made of
2009b, 2009a). This is because the earthen raw materi-
earth materials; this type of construction exists through-
als that are used do not need any kind of firing treat-
out the world in many different cultures, and for some
ment before their use as a construction material,
countries it continues to be the main process of construc-
comprising only raw, sun-dried earth.
tion (Vega et al. 2011).
There are several earth construction techniques
Earth construction offers economic and environmental
employed worldwide such as cob, rammed earth
benefits especially when used in developing countries
(“pisé de terre”, “taipa”), “wattle and daub” (“tabique”),
where material costs overlap labor costs and where other
and adobe (Niroumand et al., 2013).
construction materials and technologies may not be avail-
able (Fratini, Pecchioni, and Tonietti 2011).
Earth construction is a type of sustainable architecture
with large application in vernacular buildings. Vernacular 1.1 Cob
architecture is based on localized requirements and build-
Cob is the simplest of earth-building technologies, it
ing materials and reflects local traditions (Niroumand
´s formed by the stacking of earth, usually with the
et al., 2013). Sustainable architecture, according to
addition of straw and posterior finishing of the sur-
UNCED Brundtland Comission (1987a, 1987b), is a con-
face. This technique makes use of a few tools and
struction that fulfills the requisites of contemporary
formwork and consists of piling and molding mud to
society without denying the future generation the ability
create walls (Niroumand et al., 2013).
to meet its needs. Earth construction is an

CONTACT Cristiana Costa cristianacosta@ua.pt Universidade de Aveiro, Geociências Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
2 C. COSTA ET AL.

1.2 Rammed earth their mechanical performance the inclusion of lime or


natural fibres, such as straw, was frequent. Adobe is an
Rammed earth is a mixture of sand, gravel and soil (and
extremely simple form of earth construction and with this
sometimes lime is used to improve mechanical resistance)
technique the shrinkage associated with the construction of
and construction is performed by using the rammed
large structures is avoided. The bricks can be cast from a
material and compacting it in layers between formworks
great variety of soils and can be of two kinds: earth adobe
(Jaquin et al. 2009). The soil in these constructions is
and lime adobe. However, the clay content influences the
normally found in mountainous areas and rivers, where
humidity intake and swelling of adobe blocks as well as the
it is possible to find sand, silt, and clay together (Jaquin
continuous presence of moisture in the walls. In this sense,
2012). This technique is based on the experience of local
the clay content should be sufficient to promote work-
practitioners (Beckett and Augarde 2012), and it has been
ability but should not be very abundant because the asso-
in use for thousands of years. There are therefore many
ciated swelling and shrinking may damage the walls
historic structures constructed with rammed earth, such
(Burroughs 2008). Adobe construction was performed in
as the Potala Palace in Tibet and the Alhambra (rammed
the ancient world, as recorded in the Old Testament, and
earth with lime) in Granada, Spain (Jaquin et al. 2009).
archaeologists have discovered surviving examples in many
places around the world (Quagliarini, Lenci, and Iorio
1.3 Wattle and daub 2010). An adobe building can last hundreds of years (if
the materials used are the most appropriate), it is totally
“Wattle and Daub” or “tabique” consists in placing recyclable and it is executed with low energy consumption.
earth in its plastic state, on a support cane wooden or It is possible to find adobe buildings around the world,
wicker. According to Niroumand et al. (2013), the hundreds of years old, that only need small interventions.
wattle and daub technique consists of two parts. A This increases the present interest in adobe as an environ-
wattle is a woven structure of small plant elements mentally friendly material for sustainable construction
held together in a stiff frame Common materials used (Calabria, Vasconcelos, and Boccaccini 2009).
to create wattle are reeds, bamboo, branches, and twigs. In Portugal, earthen materials have been used in
Daub or mud adheres to the irregularities and over- load-bearing walls, in the form of both adobe and
hangs off the organic matrix. This mud mixture is rammed earth, for the construction of buildings espe-
similar to the one used for mud brick but with smaller cially in the southern and central areas (see Figure 1).
aggregate size, and dung is often the organic binder.

1.4 Adobe 2. Historical background


Adobe bricks were made with humid sandy soil which, There is no consensus regarding the origin of earth
once mixed and molded, is dried in the sun. For improving buildings. According to Minke (in Torgal et al. 2012),

Figure 1. Earth construction in the world with heritage UNESCO (Daudon et al. 2014).
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 3

the first adobe buildings discovered in Turkmenistan present in countries with climates that are totally differ-
are aged from between 8000 and 6000 BC. Other ent, due to thermal properties of soils.
authors refer that in Europe this technique appears The practice of earth construction is predominant in
during the Iron Age (Chazelles 1995; Daudon et al. less developed countries, where lack of advanced tech-
2014). The use of adobe construction in Cyprus is nology and often the availability of labor and local
dated to the Neolithic Era (Illampas et al. 2014; materials encourages the use of these building techni-
Christoforo et al. 2016). The authors that discovered ques that are quite simple. However, this type of con-
adobes in the Tigris River affirmed that the oldest struction occurs in some developed countries like
adobe bricks found have an age that ammounts to Portugal, Germany, France, or even the UK (Varum
7500 BC, and they concluded that the earth construc- et al. 2015).
tion could have been used for over 10,000 years (Torgal The earth construction in Europe appears essentially
and Jalali 2012). It is not possible to date the beginning in less developed countries; however, it is possible to
of adobe construction; however, it is known that this find earth buildings throughout other European coun-
type of construction appears in a period between 6000 tries such as Germany, UK, and France (Pacheco-
and 10,000 BC. Torgal 2015). In Europe, earth building traditionally
The earliest use of adobe in Europe can be dated at takes many forms; it can be found buildings made in
around 5300 BC in the settlement of Sesklo in Greece, adobe and rammed earth in southern Europe, while in
with small homes built on stone foundations. The use northern Europe, earth is used in conjunction with
of earth with timber in northern Europe means that timber in wattle and daub and half-timbered techni-
many archaeological sites have decayed and only foun- ques. In Spain, earth construction can be found in the
dations remain, making assessment of the building whole country (see Figure 2), being predominant in the
materials difficult. In central Turkey, remains of central area, especially in small towns. As in Portugal,
adobe buildings have been found as far back as 1600 Spain’s earth construction is present in all kind of
BC (Torgal 2015). buildings, such as: urban and vernacular architecture;
The use of adobe construction is spread all over the monuments; public buildings; walls, wells; and other
world, especially in countries where the raw material is construction elements. The tradition of earth construc-
easily available. This happens because this is the sim- tion in Spain was considered by UNESCO as world
plest and easiest form of construction. However, what cultural heritage, because the country hosts five earthen
occurs over time with scientific and technological monuments such as the historic center of the city of
developments is that there is a certain abandonment Córdoba, or the Alhambra, Generalife, and Albaicín in
of this technique, especially in more developed coun- Granada (Delgado et al. 2006). There are few new earth
tries despite the advantages that this constructive tech- buildings in Spain but the majority are residential
nique offers in terms of sustainable development. buildings using compressed earth blocks. In terms of
There are studies that report the existence of adobe rehabilitation and conservation works, this is still an
buildings from South America to North America, area in need of expertise but some historic monuments,
Africa, and Europe. In the Iberian Peninsula this con- such as the Alhambra, have been intervened in close
struction arose under the influence of the Phoenicians, link with research work and using compatible materials
Carthaginians, Romans, and Muslims. However, it was and techniques. However, it still happens that as in
mainly Muslims who had greater influence and disse- Portugal, in Spain demolition is the most common
mination in terms of these constructive techniques choice instead of rehabilitation of these buildings.
(Torgal and Jalali 2010). In Italy, according to Pagliolico et al. (2010), it is
normal to find earthen buildings. The adobe construc-
tion is mainly found in Sardinia, whereas cob is present
in Marche and Abruzzo, and rammed earth, together
3. Adobe construction in the world
with some adobe, constructions in Piedmont. However,
Several authors report that almost 30% of the world’s most of these buildings are in a high state of degrada-
population lives in earth-based dwellings (Costa, Rocha, tion because oftentimes the used soils used aren´t ade-
and Velosa 2016; Parisi et al. 2015; Silveira et al. 2012; quate for this type of constructions, and sometimes the
Varum et al. 2015). Considering the information on the soil/sediments proportions adopted may not be the best
global variations of precipitation and temperature, there (Pagliolico et al. 2010).
is no correlation between these parameters and the There are some authors (Daudon et al. 2014, Obafemi
implementation earth construction; it’s possible to visua- and Kurt 2016) that refer the importance of earth construc-
lize in the map of Figure 1 that earth construction is tion in Greece where there is availability of the materials
4 C. COSTA ET AL.

Figure 2. Map of Earth Construction in Spain (adapted from Delgado et al, 2006).

which prevailed in this type of construction. It has been 4. Adobe construction in Portugal
reported that the city of Athens was being constructed
In Portugal, earthen materials have been used in load-
entirely from adobe (Jaquin 2012). The vernacular archi-
bearing walls in the form of adobe or rammed earth for
tecture reveals Greek lifestyle and cultural values of the past
the construction of buildings especially in the southern
and the buildings can be studied as models of environmen-
and central coast. Earth construction was extensively used
tally responsive and sustainable architecture. Some exam-
in Portugal during the Islamic domination period
ples are in Sernikaki and Cyprus (Obafemi and Kurt 2016).
(between 7th and 13th centuries), both to build military
Cyprus is one of the oldest islands in the Mediterranean
and civil constructions. The military constructions are
Sea. Obafemi and Kurt (2016) studied the building materi-
mainly constituted by fortresses, which were firstly built
als from Louroujina, in Cyprus, that are adobe and mortars
between the 7th and 9th centuries. From then on, earth has
of the same material as the adobe units. Like in Portugal,
often been employed in both rural and urban buildings,
the earthen blocks are usually produced manually and are
and the various building techniques associated to earth
called “adobe” or “sun-dried block.”
construction are present throughout the country, with
In the UK around 60% of monuments and arche- distinct regional expression. Most of the adobe buildings
ological sites were built using earth materials or have are confined mainly to the central coast. The adobe con-
earthworks associated. Nowadays, just 2% of earth struction in these locations has economic and environ-
buildings are found in the UK, because earth became mental benefits, because the raw material (soil) is sourced
regarded as a material of limited durability and thus in situ (Ciancio, Jaquin, and Walker 2013). In Portugal,
inferior to more permanent materials, such as stone or earth construction was also a very common technique
fired clay bricks (http://www.earthstructures.co.uk/his used in the past and widespread throughout the territory
tory.htm). In the developed countries like UK, the with the employment of different techniques (see
preservation and rehabilitation of earth buildings has Figure 3). Locally, it is divided into three different types
fallen into disuse, not only by the development of or building techniques: rammed earth, “taipa”; wattle-and
building materials but also by a lack of awareness of -daub, “tabique”; and “adobe”. In the present work, adobe
the preservation of heritage. construction type will be emphasized.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 5

obtain a better connection between the materials,


since it keeps the same level of shrinkage, thus avoiding
the appearance of fissures or posting of material.
Portugal has favorable weather conditions for earth
construction. However, with the evolution of building
materials, this construction technique was almost aban-
doned. Despite this, in recent years there has been an
increased interest on earth construction in order to
preserve the cultural heritage focused in the rehabilita-
tion and conservation of this type of buildings.
Most adobe buildings are confined to the central
coast, particularly to the Aveiro district. In Aveiro,
there has been an obvious degradation and abandon-
ment of many buildings; however, some of these old
buildings can be rehabilitated with minor maintenance
and repair works. Over recent years, particular atten-
tion has been given to rehabilitation in order to pre-
serve and protect this heritage (Costa et al., 2013).
Adobe has been used in several types of construc-
tion: rural and urban buildings, many of which are still
in use; walls for the boundary of properties; water wells;
churches; warehouses. The use of adobe construction in
the Aveiro district reflected the properties of the exist-
ing available raw materials applied, which were sand,
clay sediments, and soils and lime (Silveira et al. 2012),
and there is an evident heterogeneity of the adobes
linked to the geographic distribution of the available
resources. In Aveiro there was a semi-industrial pro-
duction of adobe, some small companies employing
“adobeiros”, for the manufacture of blocks of adobe,
along with a domestic self-production (Costa, Rocha,
and Velosa 2016).
Figure 3. Earth construction in Portugal (Martins, 2009).

5. Composition and properties of adobes


The term “adobe” is derived from the Arabic “attob” Adobe is associated with a very simple technique of
which means sun-dried brick. This constructive techni- manufacturing and building. For this reason many
que is one of the oldest; the adobe bricks have been used ancient adobe buildings are still inhabited today.
in ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations. This In Aveiro, due to the lack of raw materials, lime
indicates that this technique will have reached the Iberian adobes were mostly used. There are many different
Peninsula during the Arab occupation. In southern and formats and several dimensions of adobe blocks,
central Portugal there are many buildings with adobe depending on the intended application. In Portugal,
masonry, due to the existence of sandy soils and the common adobe blocks dimensions, despite the exis-
presence of lime, used as a stabilizing agent. Some of tence of numerous typologies depending on use, are
these buildings date from the 20th century and are still approximately 0.45 × 0.30 × 0.12 m, when used in
in a reasonable conservation state (Varum et al. 2015). houses, and 0.45 × 0.20 × 0.12 m, when used in the
The manufacture of adobes consists in forming small construction of boundary walls (Silveira et al. 2012).
blocks normally using wooden molds, which are The adobe building technique requires the use of a
demolded in the fresh state and left to dry at natural plastic soil and clay, being mainly used in places
environmental conditions. How to build adobe is sim- where it is possible to find water. The use of clay soil
ple, similar to the placement of the conventional brick leads to the appearance of cracks during the drying
forming a masonry. The settlement of the adobes is stage due to shrinkage of the material. For this reason
accomplished with earth-based mortar in order to straw or other plant fibers are usually mixed in the
6 C. COSTA ET AL.

adobe raw materials in order to avoid cracking materials consuming, producing a significant environ-
(Christoforo et al. 2016). Adobe walls should also be mental impact.
thick to obtain the best mechanical and thermal prop- Nowadays, there is a growing concern with the con-
erties. Consequently, there is a high risk of cracking sumption and production of materials due to the effects
during drying, and the axial shrinkages are significant. on the environment and economy. It is known that the
The particular aspects of the manufacture of adobes, construction industry is one of the largest consumers of
require skilled labor. According to literature, soils used materials with high CO2 emissions associated with the
for the manufacture of adobes must contain a percen- production process of these materials, especially when
tage of clay between 15–16% (Calatan et al. 2016). To it comes to concrete. One of the biggest problems of
obtain the best possible results, the employed soils must cement production is the temperature for the produc-
have adequate workability and plasticity. tion of this material, which implies high energy con-
The introduction of fibers in adobes is controversial, sumption. The use of the earth reduces energy
the opinions of different authors diverge; some claim consumption, what makes that material friend of the
that this can prevent cracking others understand that environment. In this context, there is an increase in the
degradation of the fibers may confer a decrease in the interest by developing and using more sustainable
mechanical strength of adobe blocks (Parisi et al. 2015; materials, and therefore earth construction has become
Calatan et al. 2016; Sharma et al., 2015). According to a subject of growing interest.
Calatan et al. (2016), the addition of 9–10% (by Earth construction was one of the most used types of
volume) of fibers is the optimum value to have benefits construction all over the world, by using simple tech-
on the properties of the adobe bricks. niques and locally available materials. This type of
The mechanical strength values mentioned in the construction is directly related to economic and envir-
literature vary between 0.6 and 8.3 MPa, however the onmental advantages. However, most of the buildings
frequent of resistance in adobes focuses on values that still exist are in a high degree of degradation which
between 0.8 and 3.5 MPa, (Illampas, Ioannou, and causes a growing concern with the preservation of this
Charmpis 2014; Coroado et al. 2010). specific kind of cultural heritage. For many, the solu-
The capillary water absorption varies between tion is to demolish these buildings rather than incorpo-
3–21 kg/m2/h1/2, and this heterogeneity is correlated rate rehabilitation actions in order to preserve the built
with the compositional differences of adobes and their heritage. It is important to introduce the subject of the
differential degradation due to exposure (Coroado et al. sustainability of these materials that are often ignored
2010). The mineralogical composition shows the occur- due to their supposed frailty. As such, an attempt must
rence of quartz and calcite as main phases with pre- be made in order to find materials that are compatible
sence of K-feldspars and phyllosilicates minerals (like for restoration purposes. Adobe is an eco-friendly, low-
kaolinite). In adobes, where there is an adequate energy, and cost-efficient construction material. The
amount of kaolinite, its properties such as water adobe material offers indoor thermal comfort and ade-
absorption and mechanical strength are improved. It quate sound insulation, and allows the economization
should be noted that the amount of clay minerals of carbon dioxide during its production (Christoforo
should be moderate to avoid cracking in the material. et al. 2016). The soils used for this type of construction
The adobe building technique is also simple and are usually located immediately below the soil top layer.
similar to the placing of the conventional brick, form- Often, this ground is located very close to the building
ing masonry. The settlement of the adobes is accom- and as such there is no pollution even in the transport
plished with earth-based or lime mortars in order to of materials, contrary to other materials such as cera-
obtain a better connection between the materials, since mic bricks or concrete. The waste of the earth construc-
it keeps the same level of shrinkage, contributing to tion can be deposited at the site of extraction in the
compatibility of materials and improved behavior of absence of any environmental hazard.
masonry. Conservation of buildings is, in itself, a sustainable
action and the development of compatible materials
and re-use of old materials should become a growing
concern. For this purpose, further characterization is
6. Sustainability
mandatory as well as the widespread of knowledge.
Sustainability deals with three key areas: environmen- However, the use of materials with improved properties
tal, economic and social. It’s known that sustainable may also have its role. There are some examples of
construction has become a significant factor in recent adobe buildings with cultural heritage relevance in
times, because this type of industry is one of the most Portugal, particularly in Aveiro district, which were
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 7

success stories after small interventions and rehabilita- compared to the high energy consumed during the
tion, such as the Art Nouveau Museum (in Aveiro city production of clinker in a traditional cement.
centre), or the Gandareza House (in Vagos).
Several recent scientific articles concluded that the
characteristics of the adobe can be improved by adding
7. Conclusions
different natural additives. According to Corrêa et al.
(2015), the incorporation of bamboo particles and “syn- The earth construction, both in Portugal as in other
thetic saliva” allows the improvement of the physical countries where this is still a reality, is based on the use
and mechanical stabilization. These materials reduced of simple techniques that guarantee the sustainability of
linear shrinkage, water absorption, and loss of mass of buildings. This type of construction should be pre-
adobe when exposed to water. The bamboo particles served to ensure the legacy of this built heritage and
increased the compressive strength, interrupting the also due to its characteristics.
cracks that form during the compressive test of the For the rehabilitation of this type of building it is
adobes. Other authors such as Calatan et al. (2016) necessary to know the materials and to create new
stated that the addition of 9–10% (v/v) hemp fiber or materials that are compatible; these materials should
30–0% of straw can increase the mechanical behavior of ensure the longevity of the conservation and
adobes. Parisi et al. (2015) also concluded that the restoration actions. It is important that the materials
addiction of straw fibers can reinforce the adobe bricks. used have a low energy consumption and low CO2
Sharma et al. (2015) studied the improvement of release to the environment, because it is intended
mechanical strength in adobes with fibers and they that the developed materials needs to be environ-
concluded that this addition can increase the compres- mentally and economically sustainable. In construc-
sive strength between 50–225%. Sharma et al. (2015) tion due to excessive consumption of materials this
also concluded that the presence of fibers can improve concern becomes larger, mainly due to the produc-
the durability of adobes. There are several studies that tion of cement, in addition to consuming different
prove the efficacy of certain additives in improving the materials, carries an high energy expenditure and a
properties of adobes, as such, it is possible today to release of CO2, which corresponds to at least 5 of
obtain a sustainable material with adequate properties. the 7% of global emissions (McLellan et al. 2011).
Other sustainable materials have been studied as In Portugal, particularly in the Aveiro district,
potential resources for rehabilitation and even for the there has been an obvious degradation and aban-
construction of new buildings, in particular geopoly- donment of many adobe buildings; however, some
mers. A geopolymer is an inorganic polymer, obtained of these old buildings can be rehabilitated with
by the alkaline activation of an aluminosilicate, under minor maintenance and repair works. The materials
certain temperature and pressure conditions used in to the conservation actions should be com-
(Davidovits 2002). Its properties depend mainly on patible with the base materials. The compatibility of
the chemical structure. In addition to the replacement the materials used in the adobe buildings rehabilita-
of cements, these products can also be applied as other tion are the key point for the success of the pre-
materials, such as composites with fire-resistant fibers, servation of these buildings. These materials need to
bricks, anti-fire protection, in the ceramic industry, assure the sustainability offers by adobe and other
encapsulation of toxic and radioactive waste, among earth construction materials.
others. Geopolymers can be produced from naturally Nowadays, since there is a growing concern with the
high-strength natural phyllosilicates being cured at sustainability of building materials, the preservation of
room temperature. As such, they have good physico- earth buildings should be taken as a focus of preserva-
chemical characteristics, such as: high workability, fast tion of heritage and guarantee economic and environ-
hardening, surface finish, rapid development of mentally sustainable buildings. In addition to the
mechanical strength, surface hardness, good chemical development of new materials for the rehabilitation of
resistance, and heat and fire resistance (Davidovits adobe/earthen buildings, there is also a concern with
2015). These characteristics reveal the great potential the use of more sustainable materials for construction
for application in construction materials. Geopolymers of new buildings. The first approach of the geopolymers
will contribute decisively to increase sustainability in arises from this perspective, as most sustainable capable
the construction industry, because, compared to tradi- materials with potential to replace the usual concrete
tional cement, they have the advantage of reducing CO2 maintaining its properties and leading to lower energy
emissions, as well as lower energy embodiment when consumption and release of CO2 to the environment.
8 C. COSTA ET AL.

Funding Construction and Building Materials 98:250–256.


doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.06.009.
This work was supported by the Fundação para a Ciência e a Costa C. S., Rocha F., Varum H., Velosa A. 2013.
Tecnologia [SFRH/BD/102837/2014]. Influence of the mineralogical composition on the
properties of adobe blocks from Aveiro, Portugal.
Clay Minerals 48:749–758.
ORCID Costa, C. S., F. Rocha, and A. L. Velosa. 2016. Sustainability in
earthen heritage conservation. Sustainable Use of Traditional
Cristiana Costa http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4681-2605 Geomaterials in Construction Practice. Geological Society,
Fernando Rocha http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3636-3933 London, Special Publications 416. doi:10.1144/SP416.22.
Ana Velosa http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9604-2779 Daudon, D., Y. Sieffert, O. Albarracín, L. G. Libardi, and G.
Navrta. 2014. Adobe construction modelling by discrete ele-
ment method: First methological steps. 4th International
References Conference on Building Resilience. Procedia Economics and
Finance 18:247–54. doi:10.1016/S2212-5671(14)00937-X.
Beckett, C. T. S., and C. E. Augarde. 2012. The effect of Davidovits, J. 2002. 30 years of successes and failures in
relative humidity and temperature on the unconfined geopolymer applications. Market trends and potential
compressive strength of rammed earth. Unsaturated Soils: breakthroughs. Geopolymer Conference, Melbourne,
Research and Applications 1:287–92. Australia,, October 28–29.
Bui, Q.-B., J. C. Morel, S. Hans, and N. Meunier. 2009b. Davidovits, J. 2015. Environmental implications of Geopolymers.
Compression behaviour of non-industrial materials in Acedido. Accessed October 14, 2016. http://www.materialsto
civil engineering by three scale experiments: The case of day.com/polymers-soft-materials/features/environmental-
rammed earth. Materials and Structures 42:1101–16. implications-of-geopolymers/a.
doi:10.1617/s11527-008-9446-y. Delgado, M., I. Guerrero. 2006. Earth building in Spain.
Bui, Q. B., J. C. Morel, V. B. V. Reddy, and W. Ghayad. Construction and Building Materials. 20:679–690.
2009a. Durability of rammed earth walls exposed for 20 Fratini, F., R. L. Pecchioni, and U. Tonietti. 2011. The earth
years to natural weathering. Building and Environment in the architecture of the historical centre of Lanezia
44:912–19. doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2008.07.001. Terme (Italy): Characterization for restoration. Applied
Burroughs, S. 2008. Soil property criteria for rammed earth Clay Science 53:509–16. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2010.11.007.
stabilization. J. Materials Civil Engineering 20 (3):264–73. Heathcote, K. A. 1995. Durability of earthwall buildings.
doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2008)20:3(264). Construction and Building Materials 9 (3):185–89.
Calabria, A. J., W. L. Vasconcelos, and A. R. Boccaccini. 2009. doi:10.1016/0950-0618(95)00035-E.
Miscrostructure and chemical degradation of adobe and Houben, H., and H. Guillaud. 1994. Earthen architecture: A
clay bricks. Ceramics International 35:665–71. doi:10.1016/ comprehensive guide. London, England: Intermediate
j.ceramint.2008.01.026. Technology Development Group.
Calatan, G., A. Hegyi, C. Dico, and C. Nircea. 2016. Illampas, R., I. Ioannou, and D. C. Charmpis. 2014. Adobe bricks
Determining the Optimum Addition of Vegetable under compression: Experimental investigation and derivation
Materials in Adobe Bricks. Procedia Technology 22:259– of stress-strain equation. Construction and Building Materials
65. Engineering, INTER-ENG 2015, October 8–9, 2015, 53:83–90. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat2013.11.103.
Tirgu-Mures, Romania. doi:10.1016/j.protcy.2016.01.077. Jaquin, P. A. 2012. Influence of Arabic and Chinese Rammed
Chazelles, C.A. 1995. Les origines de la construction en adobe Earth Techniques in the Himalayan Region. Sustainability
en Extrê1lle-Occident Sur les pas des Grecs en Occident 2012 (4):2650–60. doi:10.3390/su4102650.
Collection Etudes Massalièles, 4 (1995), pp. 49–58. Jaquin, P. A., C. E. Augarde, D. Gallipoli, and D. G. Toll.
Christoforo, E., A. Kylili, P. A. Fokaides, and I. Ioannou. 2009. The strength of unstabilised rammed earth materials.
2016. Cradle to site Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Géotechnique 59 (5):487–90. doi:10.1680/geot.2007.00129.
adobe bricks. Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (Part 1, McLellan B. C., Williams R. P., Lay j., Riessen A., Corder G. D.
January 20):443–52. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.09.016. 2011. Costs and carbon emissions for geopolymer pastes in
Ciancio, D., P. Jaquin, and P. Walker. 2013. Advances on comparison to ordinary portland cement. Journal of Cleaner
the assessment of soil suitability for rammed earth. Production 19:1080–1090.
Construction and Building Materials 42:40–47. Niroumand, H., M. F. M. Zain, and M. Jamil. 2013. A guide-
doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.12.049. line for assenssing of critical parameters on Earth archi-
Coroado, J., Paiva H., Velosa A., Ferreira V. M. 2010. tecture and Earth building as a sustainable architecture in
Characterization of Renders, Joint Mortars, and Adobes various countries. Renewable and Sustainble Energy
from Traditional Constructions in Aveiro (Portugal). Reviews 28:130–65. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2013.07.020.
International Journal of Architectural Heritage 4(2):102–114. Obafemi, A. P. O., and S. Kurt. 2016. Environmental impacts
doi:10.1080/15583050903121877. of adobe as a building material: The north cyprus tradi-
Corrêa, R., M. Lourival, N. P. Barbosa, Thiago de Paula tional building case. Case Studies in Construction Materials
Protrásio, Nathalia de Aguiar Campos, Gustavo 4 (June):32–41. doi:10.1016/j.cscm.2015.12.001.
Henrique DenzinTonoli. 2015. Incorporation of bam- Pacheco-Torgal, F., and S. Jalali. 2010. A sustentabilidade dos
boo particles and “synthetic termite saliva” in adobes. materiais de construção, 460.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 9

Pagliolico, S. L., S. Ronchetti, E. A. Turcato, G. Bottino, L. M. Construction and Building Materials 29:512–19.
Gallo, and R. DePaoli. 2010. Physicochemical and miner- doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.10.054.
alogical characterization of earth for building in North UNCED Brundtland Comission. 1987a. Sustainable Design of
West Italy. Applied Clay Science 50 (4, December):439– Research Laboratories, Planning, design, and operation.
54. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2010.08.027. Accessed October 10, 2016. https://books.google.pt/books?
Parisi, F., D. Asprone, L. Fenu, and A. Prota. 2015. id=yZQhTvvVD7sC&pg=PA8&lpg=PA8&dq=UNCED
Experimental characterization of Italian composite adobe +brundtland+commission+1987+sustainable+architecture&
bricks reinforced with straw fibers. Composite Structures source=bl&ots=Wp8PYk82Wt&sig=
122:300–07. doi:10.1016/j.compstruct.2014.11.060. WONSrRWSa6jKgu9J5E_nFdyrToU&hl=pt-PT&sa=X&ei=
Quagliarini, E., S. Lenci, and M. Iorio. 2010. Mechanical 5KfPVJbhHcWvUafZgtgC&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAg#v=one
properties of adobe walls in a Roman Republican domus page&q=UNCED%20brundtland%20commission%
at Suasa. Journal of Cultural Heritage 11:130–37. 201987%20sustainable%20architecture&f=false.
doi:10.1016/j.culher.2009.01.006. UNCED Bruntland Comission. 1987b. Sustainable Design of
Sharma V., Vinavak H. K., Marwaha B. M. 2015. Enhancing Research Laboratories, Planning, Design, and Operation.
sustainability of rural adobe houses of hills by addition of Accessed October 22, 2016. https://books.google.pt/books?
vernacular fiber reinforcement. International Journal of id=yZQhTvvVD7sC&pg=PA8&lpg=PA8&dq=UNCED
Sustainable Built Environment 4(2):348–358. doi:10.1016/ +Brundtland+Commission+%281987%29+in+Sustainable
j.ijsbe.2015.07.002. +Design+of+Research+Laboratories,+Planning,+Design,
Silveira, D., H. Varum, A. Costa, T. Martins, H. Pereira, and +and+Operation&source=bl&ots=Wp8QXf52Pq&sig=
J. Almeida. 2012. Mechanical properties of adobe bricks in yAc9P8iPe4tE-ZSzO3t-mVUqQhw&hl=pt-PT&sa=X&ei=
ancient constructions. Construction and Building Materials M5TcVNn5NMyuU8G_gKAE&ved=0CCQQ6AEwAA#v=
28:36–44. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.08.046. onepage&q&f=false.
Torgal, P.F. 2015. 1 – Introduction to eco-efficient masonry Varum, H., A. Costa, J. Fonseca, and A. Furtado. 2015.
bricks and blocks. Eco-Efficient Masonry Bricks and Blocks. Behaviour characterization and rehabilitation of adobe con-
Design, Properties and Durability 2015, pp 1–10. https:// struction. Procedia Engineering 114:714–21. doi:10.1016/j.
doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-78242-305-8.00001-2. proeng.2015.08.015.
Torgal, P., and S. Jalali. 2010. A sustentabilidade dos materi- Vega, P., A. Juan, M. I. Guerra, J. M. Morán, P. J. Aguado,
ais de construção, 460. and B. Llamas. 2011. Mechanical characterisation of tradi-
Torgal, P., and S. Jalali. 2012. Earth construction: Lessons tional adobes from the north of Spain. Construction and
from the past for future eco-efficient construction. Building Materials 25:3020–23. doi:10.1016/j.conbuil
dmat.2011.02.003.

You might also like