Engineering Geology 53 (1999) 311–325

Mechanism of creep movement caused by landslide activity and

underground erosion in crystalline schist, Shikoku Island,
southwestern Japan
G. Furuya a,*, K. Sassa a, H. Hiura b, H. Fukuoka a
a Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan
b Faculty of Agriculture, Kochi University, Nankoku, Kochi 783-0093, Japan
Received 3 April 1998; accepted 30 November 1998

Abstract

The mechanism of creep movement of the Zentoku landslide in crystalline schist has not been studied in detail
because of the steepness of the slope, very slow movement, low population density and complex topographic and
geologic characteristics. Sassa et al. (1980: Proc. INTERPRAEVENT 1, 85–106) and Sassa (1984: Proc. 4th
International Symp. on Landslides, Toronto, vol. 2, pp. 179–184; 1985. Geotechnical classification of landslides, Proc.
4th International Conference and Field Workshop on Landslides, Tokyo, pp. 31–40; 1989: Landslide News, Japan
Landslide Society, No. 3, pp. 21–24) monitored landslide movement and groundwater level at the Zentoku landslide
on Shikoku Island, southwestern Japan, and suggested that the mechanism may be caused by underground erosion.
To study the influence of underground erosion at this site, continual monitoring of suspended sediment and water
discharge from a groundwater outlet (i.e. a spring) was implemented. The locations of groundwater flow paths were
determined, as were the amounts of discharged sediment. Slope deformation was monitored by means of a borehole
inclinometer. The conclusions were as follows: (1) the flow paths were found to be on or above the shear zones in
which underground erosion has occurred; (2) in addition to being a result of precipitation and groundwater discharge,
sediment discharge is affected by landslide activity; and (3) the mechanism of creep movement is an interrelated chain
process that combines underground erosion caused by landslide activity with landslide activity caused by underground
erosion. Thus, landslide activity increases erosion susceptibility and transportation of soils within the mass, and
underground erosion causes instability of the landslide mass, in turn.
This mechanism can explain the observed phenomenon that the Zentoku landslide not only moves actively during
heavy rain, but also continues to creep throughout the year. © 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Crystalline schist; Erosion; Landslide activity; Monitoring; Sediment discharge

* Corresponding author. Fax: +81-774-384300.

E-mail address: furuya@landslide.dpri.kyoto-u.ac.jp (G. Furuya)

0013-7952/99/$ – see front matter © 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S0 0 1 3 -7 9 5 2 ( 9 8 ) 0 0 08 4 - 2
312 G. Furuya et al. / Engineering Geology 53 (1999) 311–325

Bonnard, 1983; Kronfellner-Kraus, 1980; Sassa

1. Introduction
Many landslides occur in areas of crystalline
schists distributed along orogenic zones in Circum-
Pacific and European countries (e.g., Baumer,
1988; Riemer et al., 1988; Oyagi, 1989; Gillon and
Hancox, 1992; Noverraz, 1996). Most studies in
these areas have been carried out as geologic
investigations (e.g., Zischinsky, 1966; Mahr and
Nemčok, 1977; Chigira, 1984, 1985), laboratory
tests ( Yagi et al., 1989), and monitoring (e.g.
et al., 1980; Sassa, 1984, 1985, 1989). However,
the mechanism of movement, especially in the case
of creep movement of landslides, is not yet well
understood. This is partly because landslides in
crystalline schists have more complex topographic
and geologic features than those in sedimentary
clays and shales. Many landslides in crystalline
schists have occurred on Shikoku Island, south-
western Japan (Ando and Ohkubo, 1970; Kato
and Hada, 1980; Fujita et al., 1973). The Zentoku
landslide (Fig. 1), which has a large number of

Fig. 1. Location map and plan of the Zentoku landslide.

 G. Furuya et al. / Engineering Geology 53 (1999) 311–325
homes on it, and is one of the largest crystalline
schist landslides in Japan, was selected for this
study.
Since 1972, movement of the Zentoku landslide
has been monitored by extensometers, and water
levels have been monitored by borehole water
gauges (Sassa et al., 1980; Sassa, 1984, 1985, 1989).
From these monitorings, it was pointed out that
when the peak borehole water level reached a
certain critical level, large movement occurred,
while when the peak borehole water level did not
reach a certain critical level, small movement
occurred (Fig. 2). Sassa (1985, 1989) pointed out
that the large movement, residual-state sliding,
occurred when the stress on the slip surface reached
the residual-state failure envelope, while small
movement, creep, occurred when the stress on the
slip surface did not reach the failure envelope.
Sassa (1985, 1989) explained that creep was caused
by underground erosion and transportation of the
soils in the surrounding groundwater flow paths.
Hiura et al. (1991) and Matsunaga et al. (1993)
suggested that two types of sediment discharge
cause underground erosion:
Fig. 2. Relationship between the peak borehole water level and
landslide movement at the Zentoku landslide (Sassa, 1984).
313
(1) temporary discharge caused by heavy rain; and
(2) continuous discharge throughout the year.
Their studies were concerned only with the rela-
tionship between landslide activity and
underground erosion. Thus, they did not ade-
quately deal with quantitative considerations of
the mechanism of creep movement.
In this study, the authors have quantitatively
correlated landslide displacement, precipitation,
sediment and discharge at a groundwater outlet
(i.e. a spring). The existence of eroded soils result-
ing from factors other than precipitation (ground-
water discharge) also has been examined. On the
basis of these analyses, a mechanism for creep
movement of landslides in areas of crystalline
schists has been proposed.
2. Brief view of monitoring site
The Zentoku landslide is located in a crystalline
schist area south of the Median Tectonic Line on
Shikoku Island (Fig. 1). On the middle and lower
parts of slope, the landslide occurs mainly in pelitic
and partially green schist; on the upper slope, the
slide may be in psammitic schist ( Fig. 3). Deeper
shear zones (slip surfaces) have formed at depths
of 30–60 m and shallower ones at 15–20 m. The
shear zones are clayey, but include gravels and
sands. In these zones, rocks have been pro-
gressively crushed and oxidized (they are almost
brown in color). The dip of the bedding is nearly
parallel to the slope; the crushed zones and the
concave shape of the bedrock have been detected
by seismic exploration. The mean slope is ca 28°
the length of the landslide is approximately
1300 m; and the maximum landslide width is
approximately 500 m. Landslides in crystalline
schists on Shikoku Island are known to have a
high frequency of occurrence where the schist is
pelitic, the dip of bedding is nearly parallel to the
slope, and the mean slope is from 25 to 30° (Fujita
et al., 1973, 1976). The Zentoku landslide is one
such as this.
Sliding blocks (Block 1, 2, 3-1, 3-2, 3-3) are
shown in Figs. 1 and 3. The dimensions of these
blocks have been approximated by the following
means of monitoring and investigation:
314 G. Furuya et al. / Engineering Geology 53 (1999) 311–325
Fig. 3. Geologic cross-section through the Zentoku landslide along the line of extensometers.
(1) Installation of 29 long-span extensometers in
uninterrupted sequence.
(2) Installation of 100 three-dimensional shear
displacement meters transversely across the
Zentoku landslide to measure three-dimen-
sional slope movement (Hiura et al., 1992).
(3) Drilling of 11 boreholes for geologic investiga-
tion and six boreholes for installation of
inclinometers.
Blocks 1 and 2 have deeper shear zones, while
Blocks 3-1, 3-2, 3-3 have shallower shear zones
(Furuya et al., 1997). Sometimes these blocks have
become independently active, sometimes
dependently.
3. Monitoring of underground erosion and landslide
movement
3.1. Monitoring method for groundwater and
sediment discharge through groundwater outlets
In the Zentoku landslide, sediment discharge
caused by underground erosion has been moni-
tored at Springs 1 to 4 ( Fig. 1). In this paper, the
results of measurements at only Spring 1 are
presented for the following reasons:
(1) because Spring 1 is located at the toe of Block
1, it seems that sediment can be transported
along the slip surface (shear zone) of Block 1,
which must be related to the landslide activ-
ity; and
(2) because Spring 1 is located near the monitor-
ing points of B2 (extensometer S14) and 4-25
(point of borehole inclinometer measure-
ment), it is possible to compare landslide
displacement and sediment discharge at
Spring 1.
Fig. 4 shows the apparatus for monitoring sedi-
ment discharge at Spring 1. The initial type appara-
tus used from April 1984 to June 1995 is shown
in Fig. 4(a). In using this apparatus, the sediment
transported by groundwater flow through the land-
slide is collected by a stainless steel pipe and
accumulates in the bucket. The accumulated sedi-
ment is removed approximately monthly (except
during the winter), and is weighed after being
dried. Fig. 4(b) shows the improved apparatus,
 G. Furuya et al. / Engineering Geology 53 (1999) 311–325
Fig. 4. System for catching discharged sediment.
which has been used since 20 June 1995. Using
this apparatus, sediment, with grain size >1 mm
accumulates on the metal sieve and is automati-
cally weighed by a load cell; finer sediment
(<1 mm in size) accumulates in the bucket. Both
parts of the sediment are then combined. To detect
precise sediment data for periods of <1 month,
automatic records from a load cell were used.
Groundwater discharge is calculated by the
following V-notch weir (h=30°) conversion equa-
tion:
Q=0.233h2.5,
in which Q is the groundwater discharge
( l min−1) and h is the depth of water (cm) mea-
sured on the V-notch weir.
Precipitation is monitored by means of a rain
315
gauge located near the line of three-dimensional
shear displacement meters shown by 6 in Fig. 1.
3.2. Monitoring methods for landslide displacement
Displacement of the landslide was monitored by
means of a bolehole inclinometer at bolehole 4-25
(70 m depth; strainer treated) and long-span exten-
someters. The extensometers had automatic, con-
tinually recording systems. However, there was no
completely stable point along the line of extensom-
eters ( Fig. 1). Thus, absolute displacement value
could not be obtained. The left side of Fig. 5 shows
the geologic column and the middle graphs present
monitoring results from the borehole inclinometer
in borehole 4-25. Displacement of borehole 4-25
occurred only at depths shallower than 29.5 m.
Below 29.5 m, the mass was stable. The landslide
mass included three shear zones (shear zones 1–3).
Monitoring was not continuous, occurring at
intervals of one to a few months. Therefore, contin-
ual landslide movement was calculated using a
combination of information obtained from exten-
someters and inclinometers by means of the
following procedure:
(1) Search for the point of minimum movement
along the line of extensometers (Fig. 1) from
the results of cumulated records of 29 sets of
extensometers.
(2) Calculate the relative displacement at S14 near
point B2 by using accumulated movement
values between the point of minimum move-
ment and point B2.
(3) Calculate the composite displacement of shear
zones 1–3 at borehole 4-25 by determining the
square root of the A-axis and B-axis displace-
ment for each monitoring day (see Fig. 5) by
borehole inclinometer.
(4) Calculate the displacement of borehole 4-25
by summing the composite displacements of
these shear zones.
(5) Because monitoring of borehole 4-25 incli-
(1) nometer occurs only at intervals of one to a
few months, the displacement value at bore-
hole 4-25 was calculated by interpolation
based on the assumption that movement of
the inclinometer is always proportional to that
of point B2 as measured by the extensometers.
316 G. Furuya et al. / Engineering Geology 53 (1999) 311–325
Fig. 5. Shear zones and groundwater flow paths in borehole 4-25.
4. Relationship between underground erosion and
displacement of the landslide mass
4.1. Estimation of groundwater flow paths
Slope failures caused by underground erosion
have been noted by Crozier (1986) and Selby
(1993); however, these authors focused mainly on
erosion of the surface soil layer. In a deep shear
zone of a landslide mass, groundwater plays an
important role in landslide movement and
underground erosion. Hence, a study was con-
ducted to detect the depth of groundwater flow
using seismic detection. The method of investiga-
tion was to measure the vibration caused by
groundwater flowing through the landslide mass
by inserting a seismograph into a borehole (Sassa
and Sakata, 1977). The vibration was converted
into voltage by an amplifier with calibrated volt-
age. The output of the seismograph was calculated
by comparing the obtained voltage with the cal-
ibrated voltage.
The right-hand graph of Fig. 5 shows ground-
water flow on 15 August 1996. The seismograph
could not be inserted deeper than 40 m because of
a bend in the borehole. On 15 August, the borehole
water level was at a depth of 63.69 m. The water
level in the borehole was monitored at a constant
depth of approximately 63–64 m all year. It seems
that the borehole water level did not rise above a
depth of 64 m because of leaking of the water into
the bedrock fissures. The four peaks of seismic
output that are shown as G.W.F. 1–4 in the right-
hand graph of Fig. 5 occurred in borehole 4-25.
These zones of higher seismic output undoubtedly
were due to groundwater flow paths G.W.F. 1, 3
and 4, which were located in or above shear zones
1, 2 and 3. G.W.F. 2 was located above the void
(13.5–14.35 m). From the geological column, it
was found that the lower part of the shear zones
agreed with the depth of highly weathered rocks
(clayey sediment is abundant); the middle or upper
part of shear zones agreed with the depths of
moderately weathered rocks (sands and gravels are
abundant) caused by landslide movement. At
G.W.F. 1, 3 and 4, the bases of the groundwater
flow paths occurred at an impermeable layer of
highly weathered rock, because the material of
moderately rock is more permeable than the mate-
rial of highly weathered rock. Thus, at the perme-
able layer, the groundwater concentrates and flows,
and subsequently, erodes particles of rock material
 G. Furuya et al. / Engineering Geology 53 (1999) 311–325
that had been crushed by the landslide activity. At
G.W.F. 2, the groundwater flow was not found to
occur above the voids. Upon the drilling of bore-
hole 4-25 in 1992, the groundwater path was found
to at the location of the voids because they were
the result of underground erosion. However, the
paths of such interconnected voids can be shifted
upward. Because of the collapse of the void struc-
ture, the location of the groundwater path had
likely moved between the time of drilling borehole
4-25 in 1992 and the time of measurement on 15
August 1996.
4.1.1. Ratio of monitored sediment discharge to
that estimated from precipitation
The infiltration of rainfall causes a reduction of
shear strength of the landslide mass by raising the
groundwater level (i.e. increasing pore-water pres-
sure) and results in increased groundwater flow
and underground erosion. Thus, rainfall is an
important effective factor in both landslide move-
ment and underground erosion. The authors exam-
ined the relationship between landslide displace-
ment and amount of eroded sediment associated
with precipitation by means of monthly monitoring
from September 1993 to December 1995. Here, a
parameter D/D (displacement ratio, in which D
AV
is the monthly displacement and D is the average
AV
monthly displacement from September 1993 to
December 1995) is proposed to evaluate landslide
activity. In this examination, monthly displace-
ment, precipitation and sediment discharge are
taken as the mean amount that occurs in 30 days.
Fig. 6 shows the time series change of monthly
displacement and D/D from September 1993
AV
through December 1995. In this figure, D is
AV
2.6 mm month−1, and there are five peak values
of monthly displacement (A, B, C, D, E ), which
correspond to the peaks of D/D >1. These peak
AV
periods indicate that the landslide was active. The
other periods, when D/D <1, indicate that the
AV
landslide was inactive.
Fig. 7 presents the relationship of monthly sedi-
ment discharge (W ) to monthly precipitation (P)
on a logarithmic diagram. In this figure, open
circles represents all monitoring results from
September 1993 to December 1995. W is propor-
317
tional to P on the logarithmic diagram, in spite of
some scattering. Filled circles represents the results
from April to June 1995, the last part of the
longest inactive period between C and D. The
distribution of the filled circles data is nearly a
straight line, forming the lower boundary of all
plots. This suggests that sediment discharge in this
period is affected only by precipitation after a long
inactive period. Hence, the sediment discharge
associated with precipitation can be estimated by
the regression line in Eq. (2):
W =10−0.83P1.43, (2)
P
in which W is sediment discharge estimated from
P
precipitation (g month−1) and P is the monitored
monthly precipitation (mm month−1).
If the sediment discharge in other periods is
greater than the regression line, it is probable that
the discharge includes effects other than
precipitation.
In order to express effects other than precipita-
tion, a new parameter W/W [in which W is the
P
monthly sediment discharge (g month−1) and W
P
is the estimated sediment discharge according to
Eq. (2)], termed ‘‘sediment discharge ratio’’ has
been proposed. When W/W =1, the sediment
P
discharge is caused only by rainfall; when
W/W >1, the sediment discharge is also affected
P
by factors other than rainfall; and when
W/W <1, the discharge of eroded and transported
P
sediments caused by rainfall is not high enough.
Fig. 8 shows the time series of W/W for the
P
same monitoring period, including some peak
values of W/W >1. Examining the period of high
P
values of W/W , most of them were noted as
P
appearing after the period of peak displacement
ratio in Fig. 6. The authors compared the displace-
ments for the active periods (A–E in Fig. 6) with
the values of W/W for the same periods, and for
P
1, 2 and 3 months afterwards. The displacement
in the active period, A, is the sum of 2-month
displacements because activity continued for
2 months. The displacements in other active
periods (B, C, D, E) are 1-month displacements.
The W/W values that are plotted in Fig. 8 are
P
marked by arrows. The results of the comparison
are plotted in Fig. 9.
Fig. 9 indicates the relationship between the
displacement during a period of a high level of
318 G. Furuya et al. / Engineering Geology 53 (1999) 311–325
Fig. 6. Change in value of monthly displacement and D/D with time (September 1993–December 1995). Capital letters A–E
AV
represent the most active periods.
landslide activity and the sediment discharge ratio
(W/W ) in the following four periods: open
P
squares, for periods of a high level of landslide
activity; filled circles, for a period of 1 month after
a high level of landslide activity; crosses, for
2 months after a high level of landslide activity;
and filled upside-down triangles, for periods of
3 months after great landslide activity. According
to this figure, sediment discharge can be classified
into two groups:
$ Group A: the sediment discharge ratio is pro-
portional to landslide displacement during an
active period.
$ Group B: the sediment discharge is almost
independent of landslide displacement.
A high level of landslide activity is commonly
caused by heavy rain such as during a typhoon.
When heavy rain occurred on the Zentoku land-
slide, a lot of sediment discharge was monitored,
due to the high level of landslide activity. In the
periods of this activity, the sediment discharge was
more dependent on precipitation than on the land-
slide activity because these periods had more pre-
cipitation than normal periods. Hence, almost all
W/W values for periods of high levels of landslide
P
activity occurred in group B. In the first month
after a high level of landslide activity, the sediment
discharge affected by the precipitation considerably
decreased because the heavy rain had stopped.
However, sediment discharge caused by landslide
activity continued at a somewhat consistent rate.
The rate of sediment discharge caused by a high
level of landslide activity was relatively higher than
that caused by precipitation. Therefore, most
values of W/W in the first month after high levels
P
of landslide activity fell into group A. In the
periods of 2 and 3 months after a high level of
landslide activity, the sediment discharge caused
by landslide activity gradually decreased; thus, the
rate of sediment discharge caused by precipitation
increased relatively, and many W/W values are
P
plotted in group B. The intersection point of
W/W =1 and the inclination line of group A are
P
shown in Fig. 9. This point is called ‘‘critical
displacement’’ (D ). If the displacement is larger
cr
than D , the sediment discharge caused by land-
cr
slide activity can be noted.
4.1.2. Ratio of monitored sediment discharge to
that estimated from groundwater discharge
The correlation shown in Fig. 9 indicates that
landslide activity has an effect on sediment dis-
 G. Furuya et al. / Engineering Geology 53 (1999) 311–325 319

Fig. 7. Relationship between monthly precipitation and sedi-

ment discharge for each period and assumed value of W . P, Fig. 9. Relationship between the displacement at high landslide
P activity and W/W . (A) Group affected by landslide activity
Monthly precipitation (mm month−1); W, monthly sediment P
discharge (g month−1); W , sediment discharge estimated from and precipitation; (B) group affected by precipitation; D , criti-
P cr
the above regression line (g month−1). cal displacement.

Fig. 8. Change in value of W/W with time (September 1993–December 1995).

P
320 G. Furuya et al. / Engineering Geology 53 (1999) 311–325
Fig. 10. Change in value of weekly displacement and D/D with time (20 June 1995–3 September 1996). Capital letters A–F represent
AV
the most active periods.
charge. The monitoring of groundwater discharge
has been carried out since 20 June 1995 to deter-
mine better the relationship between landslide
activity and underground erosion. During this
time, the monitoring system of sediment discharge
shown in Fig. 4(b) was improved to a semi-auto-
matic procedure. Semi-automatic monitoring of
groundwater discharge was carried out at Springs
1 and 4 ( Fig. 1). The monitoring data from Spring
1 were used for analysis because Spring 1 is located
close to the key borehole inclinometer 4-25 at the
center of landslide. Data from 20 June 1995 to 3
September 1996 were used. Almost the same
method of analysis to that described in Section 4.2
was employed substituting groundwater discharge
for precipitation. However, the time unit was
changed from months to weeks, that is, weekly
sediment discharge W (g week−1), and weekly
groundwater discharge Q ( l week−1).
Fig. 10 shows the time series change of landslide
displacement and displacement ratio, D/D (D is
AV
the weekly displacement and D is the weekly
AV
average displacement), from 20 June 1995 to 3
September 1996. This figure indicates that
D =0.7 mm week−1 and that two periods of high
AV
levels of landslide activity occurred:
(1) from 20 June to 25 July 1995; and
(2) on 26 September 1995.
A lesser amount of high landslide activity (the
value of D/D is nearly 2) occurred on 24 October
AV
1995 and 16 July 1996. Slow movement took place
during the other monitoring periods.
Fig. 11 shows the relationship between weekly
sediment discharge W (g week−1) ( logarithmic
value) and weekly groundwater discharge Q
( l week−1) ( logarithmic value). Open circles repre-
sents all monitoring results from 20 June 1995 to
3 September 1996 in Fig. 10. Filled circles are the
monitoring results for 28 May to 9 July 1996,
which was the inactive period that occurred over
a period of ca 8 months after the high level of
landslide activity of 24 October 1996 and before
the high level of landslide activity of 16 July 1996
shown in Fig. 10. The line in Fig. 11 presents the
regression of the data shown by the filled circles.
The sediment discharge correlates with ground-
water discharge as expressed by:
W =10−6.48Q2.00, (3)
Q
 G. Furuya et al. / Engineering Geology 53 (1999) 311–325
Fig. 11. Relationship between weekly discharge, sediment dis-
charge, assumed values of W . Q, Weekly groundwater
Q 7 weeks after high levels of landslide activity. When
discharge (l week−1); W, weekly sediment discharge
(g week−1); W , sediment discharge estimated from above
Q log(W/W )>0, the displacements of high levels of
regression line (g week−1).
in which W is the sediment discharge estimated
Q
from the groundwater discharge (g week−1) and
Q is the groundwater discharge ( l week−1) moni-
tored weekly. Thus, the effect of the landslide
activity can be evaluated by W/W , as well as by
Q
W/W .
P
Fig. 12 shows the time series change of W/W
Q
( logarithmic value). In this figure, large values of
log (W/W ) occur in the left side of the figure for
Q
the first half of all monitoring periods (i.e. from
18 July to 19 December 1995). In the right half of
the figure, the values of log(W/W ) occuring from
Q
13 February to 3 September 1996. It seems
that some unknown factor causes sediment dis-
charge to a greater amount than groundwater
discharge does in the first half of all monitoring
periods. From 26 December 1995 to 9 January
1996 and from 23 January to 13 February 1996,
321
we could not calculate W/W because the bucket,
Q
the water tank and the V-notch weir were frozen.
To check whether or not the unknown factor
was a result of the landslide activity, a comparison
was made between the displacement during active
periods and the value of W/W . The high landslide
Q
activity periods in Fig. 10 occurred from 20 June
to 25 July 1995 and on 26 September 1995. Activity
from 20 June to 25 July 1995 was caused by heavy
rain during the rainy season. Usually a period of
landslide activity due to heavy rainfall terminated
within 2 weeks after the rain ended. Each fortnight
for A, B, C, D and E are regarded as one group
of landslide activity. On 26 September 1995, F was
caused by the typhoon No. 24 ( T9524). The arrow
from A in Fig. 12 is an example of the comparison
between the displacement of period A (see Fig. 10)
and log(W/W ). The serial numbers (0–7) in this
Q
figure are the number of weeks after landslide
activity ‘‘A’’ from 20 to 27 June 1995.
Fig. 13 shows the distribution of log(W/W )
Q
from 5 to 7 weeks after high landslide activity
against its displacement. In this figure, the open
circles are for 5 weeks, the filled diamonds are for
6 weeks and open upside-down triangles is for
the displacement is larger than D and
cr
Q
landslide activity (A–F ) are proportional to
log(W/W ) from 5 to 7 weeks. Notably, the scatter
Q
of data for 6 weeks after high levels of landslide
activity is very small. These results mean that,
when the displacement exceeded a certain critical
value, the sediment discharge was caused by land-
slide activity. These considerations correspond to
the presumption presented in Section 4.2. Thus, it
has been proved that the eroded and transported
sediments are mainly the result of landslide
activity.
5. Mechanism of landslide movement caused by
landslide activity and underground erosion
Sassa (1984, 1985, 1989) has proposed that
creep movement at the Zentoku landslide is caused
by underground erosion. It would be expected that
if underground erosion were to continue for a long
322 G. Furuya et al. / Engineering Geology 53 (1999) 311–325

Fig. 12. Change in value of log(W/W ) with time (20 June 1995–3 September 1996). W/W , Sediment discharge ratio for ground-
Q Q
water discharge.

period of time, the amount of erosion-prone mate-

Fig. 13. Relationship between displacement during periods of
high levels of landslide activity and log(W/W ) for the period
Q this study. The fine-grained materials are produced
of 5–7 weeks after this activity. W/W , Sediment discharge ratio
Q by disturbance and mechanical weathering of geo-
for groundwater discharge; D , critical displacement; r, correla-
cr
tion coefficient.
rial being removed would decrease and the creep
movement would gradually terminate. However, it
has been shown that creep has continued at the
Zentoku landslide (Sassa, 1984; Furuya et al.,
1997). It is insufficient to explain this movement
alone as an effect of the underground erosion.
Consequently, it can be hypothesized that the
movement mechanism is not the only process of
underground erosion that causes landslide activity,
but also that there is some other process.
Fig. 14 illustrates the overall mechanism of a
landslide in crystalline schist as studied at the
Zentoku landslide; this mechanism includes two
interrelated processes. On the left of this figure the
process of landslide activity caused by
underground erosion is shown, which has been
previously proposed by Sassa (1984, 1985, 1989).
The soils and other fine materials surrounding the
groundwater flow path are eroded and transported
by groundwater flows. Thus, the voids tend to
enlarge there, which makes the landslide mass
unstable. Hence, landslide activity (creep move-
ment) occurs. On the right in Fig. 14 is shown the
process of underground erosion caused by the
landslide activity, as indicated by the results of
logic materials in the shear zone due to the land-
 G. Furuya et al. / Engineering Geology 53 (1999) 311–325
Fig. 14. Chain interrelationship of processes of erosion and
landslide movement in the Zentoku landslide.
slide activity. Erosion susceptibility inside the
landslide mass increases. The latter process is
supported by the following facts:
(1) Fukuoka (1991) carried out ring-shear tests
on samples of material from the Zentoku
landslide under a normal pressure of 294 kPa.
These tests indicated that, as shear displace-
ment increases, the degree of grain crushing
also increases. The depth of the shear zone at
the Zentoku landslide (Block 1) is >20 m. It
is reasonable to believe that crushing of the
rocks due to the weight of the landslide mass
occurs in the shear zone.
(2) Seismic investigation has revealed that
groundwater flow paths exist in and above the
shear zones. The rocks have been crushed into
fine-grained particles due to the landslide
activity and these particles were eroded from
the mass along the groundwater paths.
(3) Sediment discharge from an outlet of the
groundwater path (i.e. at a spring) included
323
the sediment affected by high levels of land-
slide activity. Especially, the sediment dis-
charge ratio in the period of 1–2 months (from
5 to 7 weeks) after a high level of landslide
activity is proportional to the landslide dis-
placement. Greater landslide activity caused
greater sediment discharge.
Therefore, creep movement of this landslide in
crystalline schist has occurred over a long period
of time as the result of two interactive processes:
(1) landslide activity that produced fine-grained
materials; and
(2) underground erosion of these materials by
groundwater, which in the landslide mass
helped to cause the landslide activity.
6. Conclusions
The mechanism of creep movement caused by
landslide activity and underground erosion in crys-
talline schist is proposed; the Zentoku landslide,
Shikoku Island, serves as an example. This mecha-
nism is based on the results of:
(1) measurements of sediment discharge from
groundwater outlets (springs);
(2) measurement of landslide activity; and
(3) investigation of the groundwater flow (paths)
within the landslide.
The conclusions are as follows:
(1) Groundwater flow exists in and above shear
zones in the landslide because the bases of
these zones are highly weathered, clayey and
impermeable. Because of this groundwater
flow, underground erosion occurs in and above
the shear zones.
(2) Erosion and transportation of sediments are
caused not only by the effects of precipitation
and resulting groundwater discharge, but also
by the effects of landslide activity. In particu-
lar, there is a proportional relationship
between landslide displacement during high
levels of landslide activity and the sediment
discharge ratio (W/W or W/W ) for periods
P Q
of 1–2 months (from 5 to 7 weeks) after high
levels of landslide activity. This relationship
indicates that erosion susceptibility is
increased by landslide activity.
324 G. Furuya et al. / Engineering Geology 53 (1999) 311–325
(3) Active landslide movement causes disturbance
and crushing of rocks into erodible and trans-
portable material in the shear zones.
(4) The mechanism of creep movement in this
landslide in crystalline schist is an interrelated
chain process consisting of underground ero-
sion caused by landslide activity and landslide
activity caused by underground erosion. The
interrelationship of these two processes is the
reason why landslides of this type have contin-
ued to move for many years, and are not
easily stabilized.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the Yoshino River
Sabo Work Office of the Ministry of Construction
Japan for its cooperation in monitoring the
Zentoku landslide. The efforts of Mr Kin-ichiro
Mukai and Mr Michifumi Mukai, who have been
engaged in this monitoring and the maintenance
of the monitoring apparatus for several years, are
especially appreciated.
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