Department Of Mechanical Engineering

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

In this work the mechanism has been developed to stop the vehicle from rolling

backwards when the vehicle is moving in the hill roads. Ratchet and Pawl mechanism

has been identified to arrest the motion to the front axle. Anti-Roll Back mechanism

has been fabricated and tested on the front axle assembly. The mechanism works well.

Ratchet and pawl mechanism is used in many applications effectively where the one

side power transmission is required for example in (I) Giant wheel- It is the large

wheel used in the amusement parks to rotate along the horizontal axis to rotate in one

direction while carrying the number of passengers. (ii) Clocks- where the hands rotate

in clockwise directions only. (iii) Baffle gates- in the entrances of many buildings

which rotate about vertical axis in one direction. (iv) Shaping Machines – in the crank

and slotted arm. In the hill station, the most common problem to the drivers is to park

their cars in the slope and to start up the car. While waiting in the traffic, the cars have

to move on step by step very slowly; this situation is a difficult one for the drivers to

make their car not to roll back in the slope. So the mechanism has to be developed to

stop the vehicle from rolling back and it should not stop the vehicle in accelerating

forwards. This function can be achieved by using the ratchet and pawl mechanism.

The ratchet and pawl has to be designed and has to be fit in the front drive shaft in

case of the front drive vehicles. In order to design for the worst case the road

maximum slope is considered- Zoji pass Road Kashmir which has 21.80 o with

gradient 2/5.

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• The aim of the project is to design and construction of a module used for

vehicles in the hill stations. Auto breaking system is used when vehicle is

moving upward direction.

• The project was divided into two phases. The First phase is to demonstrate the

application of MEMS. The second phase of the project attempts controlling

motors.

• MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical-systems) sensor is interfaced to micro

controller using I2c protocol, microcontroller receives the data from the

MEMS sensor and process it according to the data from the sensor appliances

are operated.

• MEMS are made up of components between 1 to 100 micrometers in size (i.e.

0.001 to 0.1 mm) and MEMS devices generally range in size from 20

micrometers (20 millionths of a meter) to a millimeter. They usually consist of

a central unit that processes data, the microprocessor and several components

that interact with the outside such as micro sensors.

The MEMS sensor senses the acceleration of the vehicle and it is displayed in the

LCD screen. As the vehicle moves the MEMS sensor displays the difference in the

acceleration. As the vehicle climbs up the hill the speed of the motor speed changes as

there is a change in the acceleration of the values in the X and Y plane. This speed is

changed as it is already mentioned in the source code and accordingly the braking

system is applied by decreasing the speed of the vehicle when the given acceleration

values are reached. Thus automatically braking system is applied on the vehicle by

using MEMS

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Fig1.1 Application of Brakes on Slopes

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

On sloppy areas in hill station, the vehicle may roll back while driving or may be at

stationery position. While rolling the vehicle may collide with neighboring vehicle,

this causes accidents and loss of assets.

Hence we are designing and developing a prototype model of showing the

concept of automatic hill station braking system which will show the working of

application of brakes in emergency conditions while driving on slopes in hill stations

road conditions, this will be useful in avoiding such accidents.

Also we will fabricate the model of the same which will show the

working desired by emergency braking on slopes in hill station roads.

1.3 OBJECTIVE

1. To Design and develop a prototype model of showing the concept of

automatic hill station braking system while driving on slopes in hill stations

road conditions.

2. To fabricate the model of the same this will show the working desired by

emergency braking on slopes in hill station roads.

3. To provide safety options while driving in hill stations.

4. To test the model under different conditions of speed and slopes.

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5. To automate the braking system by means of sensors and actuators.

1.4 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

A ratchet is a device which is used in vehicles over a few decades and

when a vehicle is negotiating a turn, the outside wheel travels a greater distance and

turns faster than the inside wheel. The ratchet gear is the device transmitting the

power to each wheel, allows one wheel to turn faster than the other.

Degrees of automation are of two types, viz.

 Full automation.

 Semi automation.

In semi automation a combination of manual effort and mechanical power is

required whereas in full automation human participation is very negligible.

1.4 METHODOLOGY

In this work, Ratchet and Pawl mechanism is identified to arrest the backward

motion to the car. The ratchet is placed in the front drive shaft and the Pawl is fitted

with the frame. When the vehicle is moved in the hill road, the lever has to make the

pawl to touch the ratchet. If the vehicle tends to move backward direction, the pawl

would stop the ratchet to move Counter Clock-wise direction with respect to front

wheel. As the vehicle is in neutral position, the pawl engaged the ratchet and the

vehicle did not move in.

The IR TRANSMITTER circuit is to transmit the Infra-Red rays. If any

obstacle is there in a path, the Infra-Red rays reflected. This reflected Infra-Red rays

are received by the receiver circuit is called “IR RECEIVER”. The IR receiver
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circuit receives the reflected IR rays and giving the control signal to the control

circuit. The control circuit is used to activate the solenoid valve.

If the solenoid valve is activated, the compressed air passes to the Single

Acting Pneumatic Cylinder. The compressed air activates the pneumatic cylinder and

moves the piston rod. If the piston moves forward, then the breaking arrangement

activated. The breaking arrangement is used to break the wheel gradually or suddenly

due to the piston movement. The breaking speed is varied by adjusting the valve is

called “FLOW CONTROL VALVE”.

The technology of pneumatic has gained tremendous importance in the field of

workplace rationalization and automation from old-fashioned timber works and coal

mines to modern machine shops and space robots. It is therefore important that

technicians and engineers should have a good knowledge of pneumatic system, air

operated valves and accessories. The air is compressed in an air compressor and from

the compressor plant the flow medium is transmitted to the pneumatic cylinder

through a well laid pipe line system. To maintain optimum efficiency of pneumatic

system, it is of vital importance that pressure drop between generation and

consumption of compressed air is kept very low.

The aim is to design and develop a control system based an intelligent

electronically controlled automotive braking system is called “AUTOMATIC

BRAKE FOR HILLS STATION”. This Braking system is consists of IR transmitter

and Receiver circuit, Control Unit, Pneumatic breaking system. The IR sensor is used

to detect the hills obstacle. There is any obstacle in the path, the IR sensor senses the

hills obstacle and giving the control signal to the breaking system. The pneumatic

breaking system is used to break the system.

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Fig 1.2 Three Dimensional Of Ratchet and Pawl Mechanism

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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 BREAKING CHARACTERISTICS AND GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF

SPILLING BREAKERSOVER SLOPES

Mayilvahanan Alagan Chella, Hans Bihs, Dag Myrhaug, Michael Muskulus

A two-phase flow CFD model based on the Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes

(RANS) equations coupled withthe level set method (LSM) and k −ω turbulence

model is used to simulate spilling breakers over a slopingbed. In order to validate the

present numerical model, the simulated results are compared with the

experimentaldata measured by Ting and Kirby (1996). The simulated horizontal

velocities and free surface elevations are ingood agreement with the experimental

measurements.

Moreover, the present model is able to model the prominent features

associated with the breaking process such as the motion of air pockets in the water,

formation of a forward moving jet, the splash-up phenomenon and the mixing of air

and water in the breaking region. The numerical model has been utilized to study the

influences of three important environmental parameters; water depth, offshore wave

steepness and beach slope on the characteristics and geometric properties of spilling

breakers over slopes. A total of 39 numerical experiment cases are performed to

investigate the characteristics of breaking waves such as breaking location, incipient

breaker height and water depth at breaking, incipient breaker indices and geometric

properties with different offshore wave steep nesses at different water depthsover a

wide range of beach slopes. The geometric properties associated with breaking waves

in shallow water are described using the wave steepness and asymmetry factors

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introduced by Kjeldsen and Myrhaug (1978).The computed results appear to give

reasonable predictions and consistency with previous studies.

2.2 ANTI-CREEP AND HILL HOLDER BRAKE SYSTEM

2.2.1 Cook George

Suggested a hill holder mechanism holds the vehicle in slope for 2 seconds by using

the brake pressure. A device operable in a transmission of a vehicle for substantially

preventing vehicular rollback on an incline, comprising: a shaft rotatable which is

supported in a transmission housing; a gear selectively connected for common

rotation with the shaft, wherein the gear is rotatable in a first rotary direction and a

second rotary direction.

2.2.2 Improved release mechanism for a hill holder device

Utilized a load sensor connected with a wheel brake to sense a change in wheel

braking torque and communicate responsively with a mechanical brake control

device. If a car is stopped on an incline while the motor is still running, there's a good

chance that some kind of hill-start control will be needed. A sensor that detects an

incline of more than a certain amount, three degrees or more, can send a signal to the

hill-start control indicating that the vehicle has the potential to start rolling. The

disadvantage of incline detection is that sometimes a car maybe on an incline without

needing the hill-start control - for instance, when a tire slips into a pothole.

2.2.3 Improved release mechanism for a hill holder device

Stated that the use of piston cylinder device, controlled by an electronic unit which is

coupled to a hydraulic pressure system and acts on the brake pedal for two seconds.

2.2.4 Release mechanism for a hill holder device

The load cell with electrical control for braking system. But it requires continuous

electric energy for the production and display of signals. It also requires an

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amplification circuit for the generation of output display because the signals produced

by the gauge itself are of very much low voltage almost in milli-volts. In a vehicle

having a clutch pedal and a brake pedal, a hill holder device is utilized to maintain the

brake pedal in the applied position so that the vehicle operator's foot is free to operate

the accelerator pedal. A mechanical brake control device may be disposed between

the clutch and brake pedals, with the clutch pedal connected by a linkage to the brake

control device so that release of the clutch pedal will cause deactivation of the brake

control device and result in release of the brake pedal from the applied position. The

release mechanism should be usable with either a mechanical brake control device or

a braking assistance servo-motor system.

2.2.5 Vehicle transmission hill holder

A one-way clutch when engaged it prevents rolling of the vehicle. A device operable

in a transmission for substantially preventing vehicular rollback on an incline includes

a shaft, a gear, a one-way clutch, and a pawl member. The gear is selectively

connected for common rotation with the shaft. The gear is rotatable in a first rotary

direction and a second rotary direction. The one-way clutch has an inner race and an

outer race, where the inner race is connected to the gear and the outer race has an

outer surface having a plurality of engaging teeth. The pawl member has a first end

and a second end, where the first end is pivotal mounted to a transmission housing.

The second end of the pawl has a first angled portion configured to release and

engage at least one of the plurality of engaging teeth of the outer race as the outer race

rotates in the second rotary direction.

2.3 SAFETY AUTO BRAKE SYSTEM FOR HILL STATION VEHICLE

USING MEMS SENSOR

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The aim of the project is to design and construction of a module used for vehicles in

the hill stations. Auto breaking system is used when vehicle is moving upward

direction. The project was divided into two phases. The First phase is to demonstrate

the application of MEMS. The second phase of the project attempts controlling

motors. MEMS sensor is interfaced to micro controller using I2c protocol,

microcontroller receives the data from the mems sensor and process it according to

the data from the sensor appliances are operated. Application are like refrigerators,

microwave ovens, Theaters hospitals etc. I2C protocol is used for interfacing MEMS

sensors with micro controller, Micro controller main functionality is to receive signals

for sensors and process information by taking desired decision. Applications which

use this technology are refrigerators, operation theaters and microwaves. MEMS-

based sensors are a class of devices that builds very small electrical and mechanical

components on a single chip. MEMS-based sensors are a crucial component in

automotive electronics, medical equipment, smart portable electronics such as cell

phones, PDAs, and hard disk drives, computer peripherals, and wireless devices.

These sensors began in the automotive industry especially for crash detection in

airbag systems. Throughout the 1990s to today, the airbag sensor market has proved

to be a huge success using MEMS technology. MEMS-based sensors are now

becoming pervasive in everything from inkjet cartridges to cell phones. Every major

market has now embraced the technology. Inertial sensors have been used in aircraft

and navigation systems for a long time. It is not until recently that new technology has

caused the price and size of gyroscopes and accelerometers to make them available in

consumer electronics. Of particular importance is the MEMS (micro-electro-

mechanical-systems) technology that has allowed small, cheap and robust sensors to

enter the market, ”recent advances in micro-electromechanical system (MEMS)

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technologies have enabled inertial sensors to become available on the small size and

price scales associated with such commonplace devices as consumer appliances,.

Accelerometers measure the transactional force encountered due to their acceleration.

To convert this to a velocity this output would need to be integrated once and to

convert this to a position, integrated twice. Accelerometers can use several different

technologies.

The Reverse Alert System is first developed by Surveillance Guard

Corporation (SVG). It was the world first aftermarket automatic braking system that

can be fitted to any vehicle. This system firstly fitted in Australian vehicles and has

been taken extensively trialed across the passenger vehicle market, road transportation

and taxi industries. This system begins with ultrasonic sensors that were fitted at rear

of the vehicle. These sensors detect an object at 1.6m a signal is sent to a solenoid

located at the front of the vehicle. The solenoid is attached to a flexible cable that runs

through the firewall and is attached to a universal brake pedal clamp that is fitted on

the brake pedal. Subsequently, when the solenoid is activated this pulls the brake

pedal -stopping the vehicle automatically.

The Reverse Alert Technology was installed on following vehicles:

 Two Ford Ranger Light Commercial Vehicles (1 x 1.6m and 1 x 2.5m

systems) and;

 Two Hino Trucks (both equipped with the 1.6m system) – EWP and Line

Truck.

ABS (Anti-lock Braking System) which helps the rider gets a hassle free

braking experience in muddy and watery surfaces. It applies a distributed braking and

prevents skidding and wheel locking. In 1988 BMW sold for the first time electronic-

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hydraulic motorcycles. The first Japanese maker selling motorcycles with ABS was

Honda ST1100 equipped optionally with electro-hydraulic ABS module in 1992.

With the ABS, if the rider only brakes with the front or rear wheel, the braked wheels

tends to lock up faster as if both brakes would have been applied. A Combined

Braking System (CBS) distributes the brake force also to the non-braked wheel to

lower the possibility of a lock up, increase deceleration and reduce suspension pitch.

Volvo is all set to launch its new XC60 SUV which will sport laser assisted braking

which will be capable to sense a collision up to 50 mph and apply brakes

automatically.

2.3.1 Mems Sensors

MEMS-based sensors are a class of devices that builds very small electrical and

mechanical components on a single chip. MEMS-based sensors are a crucial

component in automotive electronics, medical equipment, smart portable electronics

such as cell phones, PDAs, and hard disk drives, computer peripherals, and wireless

devices. These sensors began in the automotive industry especially for crash detection

in airbag systems. Throughout the 1990s to till today, the airbag sensor market has

proved to be a huge success using MEMS technology. MEMS-based sensors are now

becoming pervasive in everything from inkjet cartridges to cell phones. Every major

market has now embraced the technology.

Inertial sensors have been used in aircraft and navigation systems for a long time. It is

not until recently that new technology has caused the price and size of gyroscopes and

accelerometers to make them available in consumerelectronics. Of particular

importance is the MEMS technology have enabled inertial sensors to become

available on the small size and price scales associated with such common place

devices as consumer appliances. Accelerometers measure the transactional force

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encountered due to their acceleration. To convert this into a velocity, this need to be

integrated once and to convert this to a position.

A prototype of Safety Auto Brake System is designed and tested. The prototype has

been developed by the integrating features of all hardware components used. Presence

of every component has been reasoned out and placed carefully thus contributing to

the best working of the unit. In future, the Safety Auto Brake System can be used in

many vehicles to avoid collisions and accidents. Regenerative braking can be used in

the vehicles and energy is saved and is stored in the batteries that can be used for

further purposes. This type of braking can be used in any type of hybrid vehicles and

we can reduce the use of fossil fuels.

Fig 2.1 Mems Sensors

2.3.2 Safety System

The aim is to design and develop a control system based on pneumatic braking system

of an intelligent electronically controlled automotive pneumatic braking system.

Based on this model, control strategies such as an 'antilock braking system' (ABS) and

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improved maneuverability via. Individual wheel braking is to be developed and

evaluated. There have been considerable advances in modern vehicle braking systems

in recent years. For example, electronically controlled ABS for emergency braking,

electronically controlled hydraulically actuated individual brake-by-wire (BBW)

systems for saloon cars and electronically controlled pneumatically actuated systems

for heavy goods vehicles. The model is to be constructed in modular form thus

allowing the replacement / interchange of the various blocks and their associated

technologies. Upon completion of the full vehicle braking model, sensitivity analyses

will be carried out. Once the preliminary simulation model has been thoroughly

benchmarked and existing control system strategies evaluated, an audit of the

technology used is to take place and this will provide a basis for comparison of

iterative technologies / techniques.

The final phase of the new modern vehicle shall include:

• Development of improved ABS controlcontrolling of machines and equipment.

Pneumatics has for some considerabletime between used for carrying out the simplest

mechanical tasks in more recent times has played a more important role in the

development of pneumatic technology for automation. Pneumatic systems operate on

a supply of compressed air which must be made available in sufficient quantity and at

a pressure to suit the capacity of the system supply of compressed air is by means

using reciprocating compressor.The compressibilityof the air was first investigated by

Robert Boyle in 1962 and that found that the product of pressure and volume of a

particular quantity of gas. The equation is given bellow,

i.e., PV = C (or) PıVı = P1V2

Where, P-pressure

V-volume

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In this equation the pressure is the absolute pressure which for free is about 14.7 PSI

and is capable of maintaining a column of mercury, nearly 30 inches high in an

ordinary barometer. Any gas can be used in pneumatic system but air is the mostly

used system now a days.

2.3.3 Types of Braking

1. With respect to application,

a. Foot brake

b. Hand brake

2. With respect to the number of wheels,

a. Two wheel brakes

b. Four wheel brakes

3. With respect to the method of braking contact

a. Internal expanding brakes

b. External contracting brakes

4. With respect to the method of applying the braking force.

a. Single acting brake

b. Double acting brakes.

5. With respect to the brake gear,

a. Mechanical brake

b. Power brake

6. With respect to the nature of power employed

a. Vacuum brake

b. Air brake

c. Hydraulic brake
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d. Hydrostatic brake

e. Electric brake

7. With respect to power transmission,

a. Direct acting brakes

b. Geared brakes

8. With respect to power unit,

a. Cylinder brakes

b. Diaphragm brake

The foot brake or service brake is always applied by a pedal, while

the parking brake is applied by a hand lever. The parking brake is intended

chiefly to hold the car in position. The parking brake can be set in the “ON”

position by means of a latch while the service brake remains on only as long as

the driver presses down on the pedal.

The hand brake is normally used only after the driver has stopped the

car by using the foot brake. Its other use is as an emergency brake to stop the

car if the foot braked system should fail. The hand or parking brakes operates

on a pair of wheels, frequently the rear wheels. When drum type rear brakes

are used, the same shoes can be used for both hand and foot control.

The drum type of brake may either be a band brake or a shoe brake.

Both band brakes and shoe brakes may be either external or internal. The band

brakes generally are external and shoe brakes internal. In drum brakes the

drum is attached to the wheel and revolves with it. Friction to slow the drum is

applied from inside by the shoes which do not rotate but are mounted on a

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stationary metal back plate. There are different types of drum brakes such as a

two leading shoe arrangement – which gives an augmented response to pedal

effort because of its self applying arrangement. A leading-trailing shoe is a

cheaper and better alternative as it is equally effective whether the car is going

forward or backwards.

Manufacturers design drum brakes so that rain, show or ice or grit

cannot get inside and decrease braking efficiency for moisture greatly reduces

the friction between the linings and the drum.

The dissipate quickly the considerable amount of heat generated when

braking a fast moving heavy car large brake drums would be required. Disc

brakes do the job more efficiently, for the cooling air can get to the rubbing

between each piston and the disc, there is a friction pad held in position by

retaining pins, spring plates etc. Passages are drilled in the caliper for the fluid

to enter or leave the each housing. These passages are also connected to

another one for bleeding. Each cylinder contains a rubber selling ring between

the cylinder and the piston.

2.3.3.1 Mechanical Brake

In a motor vehicle, the wheel is attached to an auxiliary wheel called drum.

The brake shoes are made to contact this drum. In most designs, two shoes are used

with each drum to form a complete brake mechanism at each wheel. The brake shoes

have brake linings on their outer surfaces. Each brake shoe is hinged at one end by on

anchor pin; the other end is operated by some means so that the brake shoe expands

outwards. The brake linings come into contact with the drum. Retracting spring keeps

the brake shoe into position when the brakes are not applied.
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2.3.3.2 Hydraulic Brakes

The hydraulic brakes are applied by the liquid pressure. The pedal force is

transmitted to the brake shoe by means of a confined liquid through a system of force

transmission. The force applied to the pedal is multiplied and transmitted to brake

shoes by a force transmission system. This system is based upon Pascal’s principle,

which states that “The confined liquids transmit pressure without loss equally in all

directions”. It essentially consists of two main components – master cylinder and

wheel cylinder the master cylinder is connected by the wheel cylinders at each of the

four wheels. The system is filled with the liquid under light pressure when the brakes

are not in operation. The liquid is known as brake fluid, and is usually a mixture of

glycerine and alcohol or caster- oil, denatured alcohol and some additives.

2.4 Pneumatics

The word ‘pneuma’ comes from Greek and means breather wind. The word

pneumatics is the study of air movement and its phenomena is derived from the word

pneuma. Today pneumatics is mainly understood to means the application of air as a

working medium in industry especially the driving and controlling of machines and

equipment.

Pneumatics has for some considerable time between used for carrying out the

simplest mechanical tasks in more recent times has played a more important role in

the development of pneumatic technology for automation.

Pneumatic systems operate on a supply of compressed air which must be made

available in sufficient quantity and at a pressure to suit the capacity of the system.

When the pneumatic system is being adopted for the first time, however it wills

indeed the necessary to deal with the question of compressed air supply.

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The key part of any facility for supply of compressed air is by means using

reciprocating compressor. A compressor is a machine that takes in air, gas at a certain

pressure and delivered the air at a high pressure.

Compressor capacity is the actual quantity of air compressed and delivered

and the volume expressed is that of the air at intake conditions namely at atmosphere

pressure and normal ambient temperature.

The compressibility of the air was first investigated by Robert Boyle in 1962

and that found that the product of pressure and volume of a particular quantity of gas.

The usual written as

PV = C (or) PıVı = P2V2

In this equation the pressure is the absolute pressured which for free is about

14.7 Psi and is of courage capable of maintaining a column of mercury, nearly 30

inches high in an ordinary barometer. Any gas can be used in pneumatic system but

air is the mostly used system now a days.

2.5 Improving Quality Of Vehicle Tracking Systems In Hill Stations Using

IEEE802.16 Networks

IEEE 802.16 standard was designed to support the vehicle tracking system

applications with quality of service(QOS). Tracking system is used for tracking the

vehicles in hill stations with quality of service(QOS). With the help of subscriber

station(SS) can track the vehicles. Subscriber station’s will provide signals to the

mobiles and vehicles .In this paper, we propose a scheme, named vehicle tracking

system, to track the vehicles without any interrupt in hill stations with quality of

service(QOS). The idea of the proposed scheme is to track the vehicles in the roads of

the hill stations which is coming in opposite direction and back of the vehicle.

Analysis and simulations are used to evaluate the proposed scheme. Simulation and

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analysis results confirm that the proposed can track the vehicles with the help of

subscriber station by given quality of service(QOS). Scheduling algorithms are

proposed to improve the overall throughput. The simulation results show that our

proposed algorithm improves the overall throughput by 40% in a steady network.

2.6 The New In-Depth, At- The-Scene, Accident Investigation Database in India

India’s staggering record of traffic fatalities has created an urgent need to

understand, and mitigate, the factors involved in these crashes. But understanding

relies on having quality, in-depth data available for analysis. To provide such data, a

consortium of vehicle manufacturers and researchers, with support from the police,

developed a methodology for investigating and recording crash and injury details for

road traffic accidents occurring on South Indian highways. This paper describes key

features of the India-centric data collection methodology, which uses established

techniques to make it compatible with studies in countries such as the USA, UK, and

Germany while addressing issues unique to India. The paper also offers recent

findings from this ongoing study. A total of 377 accident investigations carried out in

Coimbatore District (Tamil Nadu) over a period of two years involved analysis of 150

fatal crashes (with 167 rider/occupant and pedestrian fatalities), 147 serious-injury

crashes (219 injuries), 45 minor-injury crashes (65 injuries), and 35 no-injury crashes.

Of the 377 accidents investigated, 40% were fatal, 39% were serious, and the majority

of the impacts were head-on frontals (31%) followed by front-side collisions (15%).

Significantly, motorcycle collisions with trucks, cars and buses constituted 34% of the

accidents.

2.7 Material Selection Method In Design Of Automotive Brake Disc

An automotive brake disc or rotor is a device for slowing or stopping the motion of a

wheel while it runs at a certain speed. The widely used brake rotor material is cast

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iron which consumes much fuel due to its high specific gravity. The aim of this paper

is to develop the material selection method and select the optimum material for the

application of brake disc system emphasizing on the substitution of this cast iron by

any other lightweight material. Two methods are introduced for the selection of

materials, such as cost per unit property and digital logic methods. Material

performance requirements were analyzed and alternative solutions were evaluated

among cast iron, aluminium alloy, titanium alloy, ceramics and composites.

Mechanical properties including compressive strength, friction coefficient, wear

resistance, thermal conductivity and specific gravity as well as cost, were used as the

key parameters in the material selection stages. The analysis led to aluminum metal

matrix composite as the most appropriate material for brake disc system.

2.6.1Stages Of Material Selection

For material selection there are small numbers of methods that have evolved to a

position of prominence. Material selection process is an open-ended and normally

lead to several possible solutions to the same problem. This can be illustrated by the

fact that similar component performing similar function, but produced by different

manufacturers, are often made from different materials and even by different

manufacturing processes. However,selecting the optimum combination of material

and process is not a simple task rather gradually evolved processes during the

different stages of material selection. In this investigation, the stages of material

selection method are shown using a flow chart in Fig. below.

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Fig 2.2 Flow chart of material selection method.

The material selection methods for the design and application of automotive brake

disc are developed. Functions properties of the brake discs or rotors were considered

for the initial screening of the candidate materials using Ashby’s materials selection

chart. The digital logic method showed the highest performance index for AMC 2

material and identified as an optimum material among the candidate materials for

brake disc. In the digital logic method, the friction coefficient and density were

considered twice for determining the performance index and the cost of unit property.

This procedure could have overemphasized their effects on the final selection. This

could be justifiable in this case as higher friction coefficient and lower density are

advantageous from the technical and economical point of view for this type of

application

2.7 Stress Analysis Of Ratchet Pawl Design In Hoist Using Finite Element Analysis

The ratchet and pawl mechanism plays a crucial role in providing one way

transmission and safety against heavy loading conditions. At the mechanical hoists

ratchet when locked, allows only one way motion explicitly lifting of masses and

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restricts its falling probability even if the tensions on counter sides are removed. The

paper considers ratchet of a 1.5 ton capacity of hoist. The mechanism constraints are

outlined and the modeling is exercised. The finite element analysis is carried to study

an assortment of stresses in ratchet wheel. The analysis results are concluded in detail.

A ratchet mechanism is based on a wheel that has teeth cut out of it and a pawl that

follows as the wheel turns. Studying the diagram you will see that as the ratchet wheel

turns and the pawl falls into the 'dip' between the teeth. The ratchet wheel can only

turn in one direction - in this case anticlockwise. In engineering, machines that

alternately turn and stop often employ ratchet mechanisms – in particular, free-play

ratchet mechanisms. They are used, for instance, in hoists, transport mechanisms,

supply mechanisms for metal cutting machines, hydrodynamic transmissions, starting

systems for internal combustion engines and gas turbines, bicycle and helicopter

transmissions, pulsed mechanical transmissions, and continuous mechanical

transmissions.

2.7.1 Ratchets And Ratchets Gearing

A ratchet is a form of gear in which the teeth are cut for one-way operation or

to transmit intermittent motion. The ratchetwheel is used widely in machinery and

many mechanisms. Ratchet-wheel teeth can be either on the perimeter of a disk or on

the inner edge of a ring. The pawl, which engages the ratchet teeth, is a beam member

pivoted at one end, the other end being shaped to fit the ratchet tooth flank. Ratchet

Gear Design. In the design of ratchet gearing, the teeth must be designed so that the

pawl will remain in engagement under ratchet-wheel loading. In ratchet gear systems,

the pawl will either push the ratchet wheel or the ratchet wheel will push on the pawl

and/or the pawl will pull the ratchet wheel or the ratchet wheel will pull on the pawl.

See Figs. 8.1a and b for the four variations of ratchet and pawl action. In the figure, F

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indicates the origin and direction of the force and R indicates the reaction direction.

Fig 2.3 Variation Of Ratchet And Pawl Action (F = force; R = reaction)

2.8 An Investigation of Compliant Over-Running Ratchet and Pawl Clutches

This thesis proposes that compliant mechanism theory can be used to design

overrunning ratchet and pawl clutches with reduced part count, lower assembly and

manufacturing time while maintaining functionality. An extension of the theory to the

micro regime is also briefly addressed. The results of the research show that the

ratchet and pawl type of over-running clutch is a good choice for the use of

compliance, and the clutch pawls should be loaded in compression to get the largest

amount of output torque. It was found that compliant mechanism theory can be used

to design ratchet and pawl clutches with fewer partsand lower manufacturing and

assembly costs, and that these clutches perform comparable to traditional rigid-body

ratchet and pawl clutches. Compliant ratchet and pawl clutches can replace traditional

rigid-body clutches in some applications and now make it possible to be used in

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applications where it was once not economically feasible to use an over-running

clutch. It was also found that these clutches function at the micro level.

The purpose of this research was to investigate over-running clutches

designed using compliant mechanism theory. In this investigation the entire design

space for ratchet and pawl clutches was not completely explored, and several areas

exist in which further research may be done to strengthen and build on the

conclusions of this research. Some of these possible areas include:

1. In the preliminary design of different types of compliant ratchet and pawl

clutches, the tension design using small-length flexural pivots produced promising

results. This is an area where further research may be done to increase the output

torque of the clutch.

2. In the determination of which clutch type is best for the use of compliance,

the spring type clutch was shown to be a possible candidate for the use of compliance.

Further research would be required. One possible idea is to use sprigs attached to

initially curved compliant segments that are attached to the hub and provide the spring

force to keep the sprigs in the proper position for friction engagement of the clutch.

3. An investigation into inversion designs of ratchet and pawl clutches in

compression where the pawls are attached to the ratchet instead of the hub. This may

be a way to reduce backlash and to reduce the overall size of the clutch.

4. Further research is needed in the area of clutch fatigue. Full scale testing

would provide much needed information on polymer designs and clutch dynamic and

fatigue failure modes.

5. Because the field of MEMS is such a new and growing field, much research

can be done with micro compliant over-running clutches for possible applications in

indexing and actuation methods.

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CHAPTER-3

MANUFACTURING PROCESS

3.1 MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Manufacturing processes are the steps through which raw materials are

transformed into a final product. The manufacturing process begins with the creation

of the materials from which the design is made. These materials are then modified

through manufacturing processes to become the required part. Manufacturing

processes can include treating (such as heat treating or coating), machining, or

reshaping the material. The manufacturing process also includes tests and checks for

quality assurance during or after the manufacturing, and planning the production

process prior to manufacturing.

Fig 3.1 Manufacturing Process

3.2 METAL CUTTING

Metal cutting or machining is the process of by removing unwanted material from a

block of metal in the form of chips.

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Fig 3.2 Metal Cutting

Cutting processes work by causing fracture of the material that is processed. Usually,

the portion that is fractured away is in small sized pieces, called chips. Common

cutting processes include sawing, shaping (or planning), broaching, drilling, grinding,

turning and milling. Although the actual machines, tools and processes for cutting

look very different from each other, the basic mechanism for causing the fracture can

be understood by just a simple model called for orthogonal cutting.

Fig 3.3 Lathe Machine

In all machining processes, the work piece is a shape that can entirely cover

the final part shape. The objective is to cut away the excess material and obtain the

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final part. This cutting usually requires to be completed in several steps – in each step,

the part is held in a fixture, and the exposed portion can be accessed by the tool to

machine in that portion. Common fixtures include vise, clamps, 3-jaw or 4-jaw

chucks, etc. Each position of holding the part is called a setup. One or more cutting

operation may be performed, using one or more cutting tools, in each setup. To switch

from one setup to the next, we must release the part from the previous fixture, change

the fixture on the machine, clamp the part in the new position on the new fixture, set

the coordinates of the machine tool with respect to the new location of the part, and

finally start the machining operations for this setup.

Therefore, setup changes are time-consuming and expensive, and so we should

try to do the entire cutting process in a minimum number of setups; the task of

determining the sequence of the individual operations, grouping them into (a

minimum number of) setups, and determination of the fixture used for each setup, is

called process planning.

These notes will be organized in three sections:

(i) Introduction to the processes,

(ii) The orthogonal cutting model and tool life optimization and

(iii) Process planning and machining planning for milling.

3.3 SAWING

Cold saws are saws that make use of a circular saw blade to cut through

various types of metal, including sheet metal. The name of the saw has to do with the

action that takes place during the cutting process, which manages to keep both the

metal and the blade from becoming too hot. A cold saw is powered with electricity

and is usually a stationary type of saw machine rather than a portable type of saw.

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Fig 3.4 Sawing Cutting Machine

3.5 WELDING

Welding is a process for joining similar metals. Welding joins metals

by melting and fusing 1, the base metals being joined and 2, the filler metal applied.

Welding employs pinpointed, localized heat input. Most welding involves ferrous-

based metals such as steel and stainless steel. Weld joints are usually stronger than or

as strong as the base metals being joined. Welding is used for making permanent

joints. It is used in the manufacture of automobile bodies, aircraft frames, railway

wagons, machine frames, structural works, tanks, furniture, boilers, general repair

work and ship building.

Fig 3.5 Weld

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3.5.1 Operation

Several welding processes are based on heating with an electric arc, only a

few are considered here, starting with the oldest, simple arc welding, also known as

shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) or stick welding.In this process an electrical

machine (which may be DC or AC, but nowadays is usually AC) supplies current to

an electrode holder which carries an electrode which is normally coated with a

mixture of chemicals or flux. An earth cable connects the work piece to the welding

machine to provide a return path for the current. The weld is initiated by tapping

('striking') the tip of the electrode against the work piece which initiates an electric

arc. The high temperature generated (about 6000oC) almost instantly produces a

molten pool and the end of the electrode continuously melts into this pool and forms

the joint.

Fig 3.6 Welding Operation

The operator needs to control the gap between the electrode tip and the work piece

while moving the electrode along the joint.

In the shielded metal arc welding process (SMAW) the 'stick' electrode is covered

with an extruded coating of flux. The heat of the arc melts the flux which generates a

gaseous shield to keep air away from the molten pool and also flux ingredients react

with unwanted impurities such as surface oxides, creating a slag which floats to the
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surface of the weld pool. This forms a crust which protects the weld while it is

cooling. When the weld is cold the slag is chipped off.

The SMAW process cannot be used on steel thinner than about 3mm and

being a discontinuous process it is only suitable for manual operation. It is very

widely used in jobbing shops and for onsite steel construction work. A wide range of

electrode materials and coatings are available enabling the process to be applied to

most steels, heat resisting alloys and many types of cast iron.

3.7 DRILLNG

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole of

circular cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is a rotary cutting tool, often

multipoint. The bit is pressed against the workpiece and rotated at rates from hundreds

to thousands of revolutions per minute. This forces the cutting edge against the

workpiece, cutting off chips (swarf) from the hole as it is drilled.

Fig 3.7 Drilling

3.7.1 Operation

The geometry of the common twist drill tool (called drill bit) is complex; it

has straight cutting teeth at the bottom – these teeth do most of the metal cutting, and

it has curved cutting teeth along its cylindrical surface. The grooves created by the

helical teeth are called flutes, and are useful in pushing the chips out from the hole as

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it is being machined. Clearly, the velocity of the tip of the drill is zero, and so this

region of the tool cannot do much cutting. Therefore it is common to machine a small

hole in the material, called a center-hole, before utilizing the drill. Center-holes are

made by special drills called center-drills; they also provide a good way for the drill

bit to get aligned with the location of the center of the hole. There are hundreds of

different types of drill shapes and sizes; here, we will only restrict ourselves to some

general facts about drills.

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