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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In this work the mechanism has been developed to stop the vehicle from rolling
backwards when the vehicle is moving in the hill roads. Ratchet and Pawl mechanism
has been identified to arrest the motion to the front axle. Anti-Roll Back mechanism
has been fabricated and tested on the front axle assembly. The mechanism works well.
Ratchet and pawl mechanism is used in many applications effectively where the one
side power transmission is required for example in (I) Giant wheel- It is the large
wheel used in the amusement parks to rotate along the horizontal axis to rotate in one
direction while carrying the number of passengers. (ii) Clocks- where the hands rotate
in clockwise directions only. (iii) Baffle gates- in the entrances of many buildings
which rotate about vertical axis in one direction. (iv) Shaping Machines – in the crank
and slotted arm. In the hill station, the most common problem to the drivers is to park
their cars in the slope and to start up the car. While waiting in the traffic, the cars have
to move on step by step very slowly; this situation is a difficult one for the drivers to
make their car not to roll back in the slope. So the mechanism has to be developed to
stop the vehicle from rolling back and it should not stop the vehicle in accelerating
forwards. This function can be achieved by using the ratchet and pawl mechanism.
The ratchet and pawl has to be designed and has to be fit in the front drive shaft in
case of the front drive vehicles. In order to design for the worst case the road
maximum slope is considered- Zoji pass Road Kashmir which has 21.80 o with
gradient 2/5.
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• The aim of the project is to design and construction of a module used for
vehicles in the hill stations. Auto breaking system is used when vehicle is
• The project was divided into two phases. The First phase is to demonstrate the
motors.
controller using I2c protocol, microcontroller receives the data from the
MEMS sensor and process it according to the data from the sensor appliances
are operated.
0.001 to 0.1 mm) and MEMS devices generally range in size from 20
a central unit that processes data, the microprocessor and several components
The MEMS sensor senses the acceleration of the vehicle and it is displayed in the
LCD screen. As the vehicle moves the MEMS sensor displays the difference in the
acceleration. As the vehicle climbs up the hill the speed of the motor speed changes as
there is a change in the acceleration of the values in the X and Y plane. This speed is
changed as it is already mentioned in the source code and accordingly the braking
system is applied by decreasing the speed of the vehicle when the given acceleration
values are reached. Thus automatically braking system is applied on the vehicle by
using MEMS
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On sloppy areas in hill station, the vehicle may roll back while driving or may be at
stationery position. While rolling the vehicle may collide with neighboring vehicle,
concept of automatic hill station braking system which will show the working of
Also we will fabricate the model of the same which will show the
1.3 OBJECTIVE
automatic hill station braking system while driving on slopes in hill stations
road conditions.
2. To fabricate the model of the same this will show the working desired by
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when a vehicle is negotiating a turn, the outside wheel travels a greater distance and
turns faster than the inside wheel. The ratchet gear is the device transmitting the
power to each wheel, allows one wheel to turn faster than the other.
Full automation.
Semi automation.
1.4 METHODOLOGY
In this work, Ratchet and Pawl mechanism is identified to arrest the backward
motion to the car. The ratchet is placed in the front drive shaft and the Pawl is fitted
with the frame. When the vehicle is moved in the hill road, the lever has to make the
pawl to touch the ratchet. If the vehicle tends to move backward direction, the pawl
would stop the ratchet to move Counter Clock-wise direction with respect to front
wheel. As the vehicle is in neutral position, the pawl engaged the ratchet and the
obstacle is there in a path, the Infra-Red rays reflected. This reflected Infra-Red rays
are received by the receiver circuit is called “IR RECEIVER”. The IR receiver
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circuit receives the reflected IR rays and giving the control signal to the control
If the solenoid valve is activated, the compressed air passes to the Single
Acting Pneumatic Cylinder. The compressed air activates the pneumatic cylinder and
moves the piston rod. If the piston moves forward, then the breaking arrangement
activated. The breaking arrangement is used to break the wheel gradually or suddenly
due to the piston movement. The breaking speed is varied by adjusting the valve is
workplace rationalization and automation from old-fashioned timber works and coal
mines to modern machine shops and space robots. It is therefore important that
technicians and engineers should have a good knowledge of pneumatic system, air
operated valves and accessories. The air is compressed in an air compressor and from
the compressor plant the flow medium is transmitted to the pneumatic cylinder
through a well laid pipe line system. To maintain optimum efficiency of pneumatic
and Receiver circuit, Control Unit, Pneumatic breaking system. The IR sensor is used
to detect the hills obstacle. There is any obstacle in the path, the IR sensor senses the
hills obstacle and giving the control signal to the breaking system. The pneumatic
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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE SURVEY
(RANS) equations coupled withthe level set method (LSM) and k −ω turbulence
model is used to simulate spilling breakers over a slopingbed. In order to validate the
present numerical model, the simulated results are compared with the
velocities and free surface elevations are ingood agreement with the experimental
measurements.
associated with the breaking process such as the motion of air pockets in the water,
formation of a forward moving jet, the splash-up phenomenon and the mixing of air
and water in the breaking region. The numerical model has been utilized to study the
steepness and beach slope on the characteristics and geometric properties of spilling
breaker height and water depth at breaking, incipient breaker indices and geometric
properties with different offshore wave steep nesses at different water depthsover a
wide range of beach slopes. The geometric properties associated with breaking waves
in shallow water are described using the wave steepness and asymmetry factors
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Suggested a hill holder mechanism holds the vehicle in slope for 2 seconds by using
rotation with the shaft, wherein the gear is rotatable in a first rotary direction and a
Utilized a load sensor connected with a wheel brake to sense a change in wheel
device. If a car is stopped on an incline while the motor is still running, there's a good
chance that some kind of hill-start control will be needed. A sensor that detects an
incline of more than a certain amount, three degrees or more, can send a signal to the
hill-start control indicating that the vehicle has the potential to start rolling. The
needing the hill-start control - for instance, when a tire slips into a pothole.
Stated that the use of piston cylinder device, controlled by an electronic unit which is
coupled to a hydraulic pressure system and acts on the brake pedal for two seconds.
The load cell with electrical control for braking system. But it requires continuous
electric energy for the production and display of signals. It also requires an
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amplification circuit for the generation of output display because the signals produced
by the gauge itself are of very much low voltage almost in milli-volts. In a vehicle
having a clutch pedal and a brake pedal, a hill holder device is utilized to maintain the
brake pedal in the applied position so that the vehicle operator's foot is free to operate
the accelerator pedal. A mechanical brake control device may be disposed between
the clutch and brake pedals, with the clutch pedal connected by a linkage to the brake
control device so that release of the clutch pedal will cause deactivation of the brake
control device and result in release of the brake pedal from the applied position. The
release mechanism should be usable with either a mechanical brake control device or
A one-way clutch when engaged it prevents rolling of the vehicle. A device operable
a shaft, a gear, a one-way clutch, and a pawl member. The gear is selectively
connected for common rotation with the shaft. The gear is rotatable in a first rotary
direction and a second rotary direction. The one-way clutch has an inner race and an
outer race, where the inner race is connected to the gear and the outer race has an
outer surface having a plurality of engaging teeth. The pawl member has a first end
and a second end, where the first end is pivotal mounted to a transmission housing.
The second end of the pawl has a first angled portion configured to release and
engage at least one of the plurality of engaging teeth of the outer race as the outer race
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The aim of the project is to design and construction of a module used for vehicles in
the hill stations. Auto breaking system is used when vehicle is moving upward
direction. The project was divided into two phases. The First phase is to demonstrate
the application of MEMS. The second phase of the project attempts controlling
microcontroller receives the data from the mems sensor and process it according to
the data from the sensor appliances are operated. Application are like refrigerators,
microwave ovens, Theaters hospitals etc. I2C protocol is used for interfacing MEMS
sensors with micro controller, Micro controller main functionality is to receive signals
for sensors and process information by taking desired decision. Applications which
use this technology are refrigerators, operation theaters and microwaves. MEMS-
based sensors are a class of devices that builds very small electrical and mechanical
phones, PDAs, and hard disk drives, computer peripherals, and wireless devices.
These sensors began in the automotive industry especially for crash detection in
airbag systems. Throughout the 1990s to today, the airbag sensor market has proved
becoming pervasive in everything from inkjet cartridges to cell phones. Every major
market has now embraced the technology. Inertial sensors have been used in aircraft
and navigation systems for a long time. It is not until recently that new technology has
caused the price and size of gyroscopes and accelerometers to make them available in
mechanical-systems) technology that has allowed small, cheap and robust sensors to
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technologies have enabled inertial sensors to become available on the small size and
To convert this to a velocity this output would need to be integrated once and to
convert this to a position, integrated twice. Accelerometers can use several different
technologies.
Corporation (SVG). It was the world first aftermarket automatic braking system that
can be fitted to any vehicle. This system firstly fitted in Australian vehicles and has
been taken extensively trialed across the passenger vehicle market, road transportation
and taxi industries. This system begins with ultrasonic sensors that were fitted at rear
of the vehicle. These sensors detect an object at 1.6m a signal is sent to a solenoid
located at the front of the vehicle. The solenoid is attached to a flexible cable that runs
through the firewall and is attached to a universal brake pedal clamp that is fitted on
the brake pedal. Subsequently, when the solenoid is activated this pulls the brake
systems) and;
Two Hino Trucks (both equipped with the 1.6m system) – EWP and Line
Truck.
ABS (Anti-lock Braking System) which helps the rider gets a hassle free
braking experience in muddy and watery surfaces. It applies a distributed braking and
prevents skidding and wheel locking. In 1988 BMW sold for the first time electronic-
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hydraulic motorcycles. The first Japanese maker selling motorcycles with ABS was
With the ABS, if the rider only brakes with the front or rear wheel, the braked wheels
tends to lock up faster as if both brakes would have been applied. A Combined
Braking System (CBS) distributes the brake force also to the non-braked wheel to
lower the possibility of a lock up, increase deceleration and reduce suspension pitch.
Volvo is all set to launch its new XC60 SUV which will sport laser assisted braking
automatically.
MEMS-based sensors are a class of devices that builds very small electrical and
such as cell phones, PDAs, and hard disk drives, computer peripherals, and wireless
devices. These sensors began in the automotive industry especially for crash detection
in airbag systems. Throughout the 1990s to till today, the airbag sensor market has
proved to be a huge success using MEMS technology. MEMS-based sensors are now
becoming pervasive in everything from inkjet cartridges to cell phones. Every major
Inertial sensors have been used in aircraft and navigation systems for a long time. It is
not until recently that new technology has caused the price and size of gyroscopes and
available on the small size and price scales associated with such common place
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encountered due to their acceleration. To convert this into a velocity, this need to be
A prototype of Safety Auto Brake System is designed and tested. The prototype has
been developed by the integrating features of all hardware components used. Presence
of every component has been reasoned out and placed carefully thus contributing to
the best working of the unit. In future, the Safety Auto Brake System can be used in
many vehicles to avoid collisions and accidents. Regenerative braking can be used in
the vehicles and energy is saved and is stored in the batteries that can be used for
further purposes. This type of braking can be used in any type of hybrid vehicles and
The aim is to design and develop a control system based on pneumatic braking system
Based on this model, control strategies such as an 'antilock braking system' (ABS) and
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evaluated. There have been considerable advances in modern vehicle braking systems
in recent years. For example, electronically controlled ABS for emergency braking,
systems for saloon cars and electronically controlled pneumatically actuated systems
for heavy goods vehicles. The model is to be constructed in modular form thus
allowing the replacement / interchange of the various blocks and their associated
technologies. Upon completion of the full vehicle braking model, sensitivity analyses
will be carried out. Once the preliminary simulation model has been thoroughly
technology used is to take place and this will provide a basis for comparison of
Pneumatics has for some considerabletime between used for carrying out the simplest
mechanical tasks in more recent times has played a more important role in the
a supply of compressed air which must be made available in sufficient quantity and at
a pressure to suit the capacity of the system supply of compressed air is by means
Robert Boyle in 1962 and that found that the product of pressure and volume of a
Where, P-pressure
V-volume
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In this equation the pressure is the absolute pressure which for free is about 14.7 PSI
ordinary barometer. Any gas can be used in pneumatic system but air is the mostly
a. Foot brake
b. Hand brake
a. Mechanical brake
b. Power brake
a. Vacuum brake
b. Air brake
c. Hydraulic brake
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d. Hydrostatic brake
e. Electric brake
b. Geared brakes
a. Cylinder brakes
b. Diaphragm brake
the parking brake is applied by a hand lever. The parking brake is intended
chiefly to hold the car in position. The parking brake can be set in the “ON”
position by means of a latch while the service brake remains on only as long as
The hand brake is normally used only after the driver has stopped the
car by using the foot brake. Its other use is as an emergency brake to stop the
car if the foot braked system should fail. The hand or parking brakes operates
on a pair of wheels, frequently the rear wheels. When drum type rear brakes
are used, the same shoes can be used for both hand and foot control.
The drum type of brake may either be a band brake or a shoe brake.
Both band brakes and shoe brakes may be either external or internal. The band
brakes generally are external and shoe brakes internal. In drum brakes the
drum is attached to the wheel and revolves with it. Friction to slow the drum is
applied from inside by the shoes which do not rotate but are mounted on a
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stationary metal back plate. There are different types of drum brakes such as a
cheaper and better alternative as it is equally effective whether the car is going
forward or backwards.
cannot get inside and decrease braking efficiency for moisture greatly reduces
braking a fast moving heavy car large brake drums would be required. Disc
brakes do the job more efficiently, for the cooling air can get to the rubbing
between each piston and the disc, there is a friction pad held in position by
retaining pins, spring plates etc. Passages are drilled in the caliper for the fluid
to enter or leave the each housing. These passages are also connected to
another one for bleeding. Each cylinder contains a rubber selling ring between
The brake shoes are made to contact this drum. In most designs, two shoes are used
with each drum to form a complete brake mechanism at each wheel. The brake shoes
have brake linings on their outer surfaces. Each brake shoe is hinged at one end by on
anchor pin; the other end is operated by some means so that the brake shoe expands
outwards. The brake linings come into contact with the drum. Retracting spring keeps
the brake shoe into position when the brakes are not applied.
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The hydraulic brakes are applied by the liquid pressure. The pedal force is
transmitted to the brake shoe by means of a confined liquid through a system of force
transmission. The force applied to the pedal is multiplied and transmitted to brake
shoes by a force transmission system. This system is based upon Pascal’s principle,
which states that “The confined liquids transmit pressure without loss equally in all
wheel cylinder the master cylinder is connected by the wheel cylinders at each of the
four wheels. The system is filled with the liquid under light pressure when the brakes
are not in operation. The liquid is known as brake fluid, and is usually a mixture of
glycerine and alcohol or caster- oil, denatured alcohol and some additives.
2.4 Pneumatics
The word ‘pneuma’ comes from Greek and means breather wind. The word
pneumatics is the study of air movement and its phenomena is derived from the word
working medium in industry especially the driving and controlling of machines and
equipment.
Pneumatics has for some considerable time between used for carrying out the
simplest mechanical tasks in more recent times has played a more important role in
available in sufficient quantity and at a pressure to suit the capacity of the system.
When the pneumatic system is being adopted for the first time, however it wills
indeed the necessary to deal with the question of compressed air supply.
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The key part of any facility for supply of compressed air is by means using
and the volume expressed is that of the air at intake conditions namely at atmosphere
The compressibility of the air was first investigated by Robert Boyle in 1962
and that found that the product of pressure and volume of a particular quantity of gas.
In this equation the pressure is the absolute pressured which for free is about
inches high in an ordinary barometer. Any gas can be used in pneumatic system but
IEEE802.16 Networks
IEEE 802.16 standard was designed to support the vehicle tracking system
applications with quality of service(QOS). Tracking system is used for tracking the
vehicles in hill stations with quality of service(QOS). With the help of subscriber
station(SS) can track the vehicles. Subscriber station’s will provide signals to the
mobiles and vehicles .In this paper, we propose a scheme, named vehicle tracking
system, to track the vehicles without any interrupt in hill stations with quality of
service(QOS). The idea of the proposed scheme is to track the vehicles in the roads of
the hill stations which is coming in opposite direction and back of the vehicle.
Analysis and simulations are used to evaluate the proposed scheme. Simulation and
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analysis results confirm that the proposed can track the vehicles with the help of
proposed to improve the overall throughput. The simulation results show that our
2.6 The New In-Depth, At- The-Scene, Accident Investigation Database in India
understand, and mitigate, the factors involved in these crashes. But understanding
relies on having quality, in-depth data available for analysis. To provide such data, a
consortium of vehicle manufacturers and researchers, with support from the police,
developed a methodology for investigating and recording crash and injury details for
road traffic accidents occurring on South Indian highways. This paper describes key
techniques to make it compatible with studies in countries such as the USA, UK, and
Germany while addressing issues unique to India. The paper also offers recent
findings from this ongoing study. A total of 377 accident investigations carried out in
Coimbatore District (Tamil Nadu) over a period of two years involved analysis of 150
fatal crashes (with 167 rider/occupant and pedestrian fatalities), 147 serious-injury
crashes (219 injuries), 45 minor-injury crashes (65 injuries), and 35 no-injury crashes.
Of the 377 accidents investigated, 40% were fatal, 39% were serious, and the majority
of the impacts were head-on frontals (31%) followed by front-side collisions (15%).
Significantly, motorcycle collisions with trucks, cars and buses constituted 34% of the
accidents.
An automotive brake disc or rotor is a device for slowing or stopping the motion of a
wheel while it runs at a certain speed. The widely used brake rotor material is cast
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iron which consumes much fuel due to its high specific gravity. The aim of this paper
is to develop the material selection method and select the optimum material for the
application of brake disc system emphasizing on the substitution of this cast iron by
any other lightweight material. Two methods are introduced for the selection of
materials, such as cost per unit property and digital logic methods. Material
among cast iron, aluminium alloy, titanium alloy, ceramics and composites.
resistance, thermal conductivity and specific gravity as well as cost, were used as the
key parameters in the material selection stages. The analysis led to aluminum metal
matrix composite as the most appropriate material for brake disc system.
For material selection there are small numbers of methods that have evolved to a
lead to several possible solutions to the same problem. This can be illustrated by the
fact that similar component performing similar function, but produced by different
manufacturers, are often made from different materials and even by different
and process is not a simple task rather gradually evolved processes during the
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disc are developed. Functions properties of the brake discs or rotors were considered
for the initial screening of the candidate materials using Ashby’s materials selection
chart. The digital logic method showed the highest performance index for AMC 2
material and identified as an optimum material among the candidate materials for
brake disc. In the digital logic method, the friction coefficient and density were
considered twice for determining the performance index and the cost of unit property.
This procedure could have overemphasized their effects on the final selection. This
could be justifiable in this case as higher friction coefficient and lower density are
advantageous from the technical and economical point of view for this type of
application
2.7 Stress Analysis Of Ratchet Pawl Design In Hoist Using Finite Element Analysis
The ratchet and pawl mechanism plays a crucial role in providing one way
transmission and safety against heavy loading conditions. At the mechanical hoists
ratchet when locked, allows only one way motion explicitly lifting of masses and
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restricts its falling probability even if the tensions on counter sides are removed. The
paper considers ratchet of a 1.5 ton capacity of hoist. The mechanism constraints are
outlined and the modeling is exercised. The finite element analysis is carried to study
an assortment of stresses in ratchet wheel. The analysis results are concluded in detail.
A ratchet mechanism is based on a wheel that has teeth cut out of it and a pawl that
follows as the wheel turns. Studying the diagram you will see that as the ratchet wheel
turns and the pawl falls into the 'dip' between the teeth. The ratchet wheel can only
alternately turn and stop often employ ratchet mechanisms – in particular, free-play
ratchet mechanisms. They are used, for instance, in hoists, transport mechanisms,
systems for internal combustion engines and gas turbines, bicycle and helicopter
transmissions.
A ratchet is a form of gear in which the teeth are cut for one-way operation or
the inner edge of a ring. The pawl, which engages the ratchet teeth, is a beam member
pivoted at one end, the other end being shaped to fit the ratchet tooth flank. Ratchet
Gear Design. In the design of ratchet gearing, the teeth must be designed so that the
pawl will remain in engagement under ratchet-wheel loading. In ratchet gear systems,
the pawl will either push the ratchet wheel or the ratchet wheel will push on the pawl
and/or the pawl will pull the ratchet wheel or the ratchet wheel will pull on the pawl.
See Figs. 8.1a and b for the four variations of ratchet and pawl action. In the figure, F
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indicates the origin and direction of the force and R indicates the reaction direction.
This thesis proposes that compliant mechanism theory can be used to design
overrunning ratchet and pawl clutches with reduced part count, lower assembly and
micro regime is also briefly addressed. The results of the research show that the
ratchet and pawl type of over-running clutch is a good choice for the use of
compliance, and the clutch pawls should be loaded in compression to get the largest
amount of output torque. It was found that compliant mechanism theory can be used
to design ratchet and pawl clutches with fewer partsand lower manufacturing and
assembly costs, and that these clutches perform comparable to traditional rigid-body
ratchet and pawl clutches. Compliant ratchet and pawl clutches can replace traditional
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clutch. It was also found that these clutches function at the micro level.
designed using compliant mechanism theory. In this investigation the entire design
space for ratchet and pawl clutches was not completely explored, and several areas
exist in which further research may be done to strengthen and build on the
clutches, the tension design using small-length flexural pivots produced promising
results. This is an area where further research may be done to increase the output
2. In the determination of which clutch type is best for the use of compliance,
the spring type clutch was shown to be a possible candidate for the use of compliance.
Further research would be required. One possible idea is to use sprigs attached to
initially curved compliant segments that are attached to the hub and provide the spring
force to keep the sprigs in the proper position for friction engagement of the clutch.
compression where the pawls are attached to the ratchet instead of the hub. This may
be a way to reduce backlash and to reduce the overall size of the clutch.
4. Further research is needed in the area of clutch fatigue. Full scale testing
would provide much needed information on polymer designs and clutch dynamic and
5. Because the field of MEMS is such a new and growing field, much research
can be done with micro compliant over-running clutches for possible applications in
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CHAPTER-3
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Manufacturing processes are the steps through which raw materials are
transformed into a final product. The manufacturing process begins with the creation
of the materials from which the design is made. These materials are then modified
reshaping the material. The manufacturing process also includes tests and checks for
quality assurance during or after the manufacturing, and planning the production
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Cutting processes work by causing fracture of the material that is processed. Usually,
the portion that is fractured away is in small sized pieces, called chips. Common
cutting processes include sawing, shaping (or planning), broaching, drilling, grinding,
turning and milling. Although the actual machines, tools and processes for cutting
look very different from each other, the basic mechanism for causing the fracture can
In all machining processes, the work piece is a shape that can entirely cover
the final part shape. The objective is to cut away the excess material and obtain the
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final part. This cutting usually requires to be completed in several steps – in each step,
the part is held in a fixture, and the exposed portion can be accessed by the tool to
machine in that portion. Common fixtures include vise, clamps, 3-jaw or 4-jaw
chucks, etc. Each position of holding the part is called a setup. One or more cutting
operation may be performed, using one or more cutting tools, in each setup. To switch
from one setup to the next, we must release the part from the previous fixture, change
the fixture on the machine, clamp the part in the new position on the new fixture, set
the coordinates of the machine tool with respect to the new location of the part, and
try to do the entire cutting process in a minimum number of setups; the task of
minimum number of) setups, and determination of the fixture used for each setup, is
(ii) The orthogonal cutting model and tool life optimization and
3.3 SAWING
Cold saws are saws that make use of a circular saw blade to cut through
various types of metal, including sheet metal. The name of the saw has to do with the
action that takes place during the cutting process, which manages to keep both the
metal and the blade from becoming too hot. A cold saw is powered with electricity
and is usually a stationary type of saw machine rather than a portable type of saw.
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3.5 WELDING
by melting and fusing 1, the base metals being joined and 2, the filler metal applied.
Welding employs pinpointed, localized heat input. Most welding involves ferrous-
based metals such as steel and stainless steel. Weld joints are usually stronger than or
as strong as the base metals being joined. Welding is used for making permanent
wagons, machine frames, structural works, tanks, furniture, boilers, general repair
3.5.1 Operation
Several welding processes are based on heating with an electric arc, only a
few are considered here, starting with the oldest, simple arc welding, also known as
shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) or stick welding.In this process an electrical
machine (which may be DC or AC, but nowadays is usually AC) supplies current to
mixture of chemicals or flux. An earth cable connects the work piece to the welding
machine to provide a return path for the current. The weld is initiated by tapping
('striking') the tip of the electrode against the work piece which initiates an electric
arc. The high temperature generated (about 6000oC) almost instantly produces a
molten pool and the end of the electrode continuously melts into this pool and forms
the joint.
The operator needs to control the gap between the electrode tip and the work piece
In the shielded metal arc welding process (SMAW) the 'stick' electrode is covered
with an extruded coating of flux. The heat of the arc melts the flux which generates a
gaseous shield to keep air away from the molten pool and also flux ingredients react
with unwanted impurities such as surface oxides, creating a slag which floats to the
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surface of the weld pool. This forms a crust which protects the weld while it is
The SMAW process cannot be used on steel thinner than about 3mm and
widely used in jobbing shops and for onsite steel construction work. A wide range of
electrode materials and coatings are available enabling the process to be applied to
most steels, heat resisting alloys and many types of cast iron.
3.7 DRILLNG
Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole of
circular cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is a rotary cutting tool, often
multipoint. The bit is pressed against the workpiece and rotated at rates from hundreds
to thousands of revolutions per minute. This forces the cutting edge against the
3.7.1 Operation
The geometry of the common twist drill tool (called drill bit) is complex; it
has straight cutting teeth at the bottom – these teeth do most of the metal cutting, and
it has curved cutting teeth along its cylindrical surface. The grooves created by the
helical teeth are called flutes, and are useful in pushing the chips out from the hole as
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it is being machined. Clearly, the velocity of the tip of the drill is zero, and so this
region of the tool cannot do much cutting. Therefore it is common to machine a small
hole in the material, called a center-hole, before utilizing the drill. Center-holes are
made by special drills called center-drills; they also provide a good way for the drill
bit to get aligned with the location of the center of the hole. There are hundreds of
different types of drill shapes and sizes; here, we will only restrict ourselves to some
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