Professional Documents
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Abstract: As worldwide tourist arrivals in- clear waters, exotic landscapes, coral reefs,
crease, a significant share seek the pleasure of coral fish, and other wildlife which attract
tropical beach holidaying particularly in the tourists particularly interested in beach
Asia/Pacific Region. This leads to pressure on holidays (Smith, 1994). The governments
coastal environmental resources resulting from recognize this potential and are continuing
the attempts to accommodate increased arrivals. with their attempts to promote tourism as a
Various studies carried out recently have noted means of generating foreign exchange and
that unplanned and uncoordinated mass tourism employment opportunities, and for expand-
in the Asia/Pacific Region have caused degrada- ing economic activities. This outward look-
tion of coastal environmental resources which in ing policy will certainly attract more tour-
turn threaten the sustainability of tourism in the ists, out of which a significant part will seek
long run. Further expansion of tourism will in- beach holidays. However, most of the sites
evitably lead to further degradation and down- that they have to offer are already faced
turn of the benefits generated through tourism with problems resulting from ad hoc tour-
activities in these sites. Therefore, the need for ism development and improper manage-
management of coastal environmental resources
ment of resources. Further pressure without
to obtain the maximum benefits in the long run
paying attention to the proper management
with minimum harmful effects has become a key
of resources, will only aggravate the existing
issue to be addressed by planners, policy makers,
problems and the result will be further deg-
professionals, businessmen as well as academics.
radation of natural environmental resources.
This paper examines the implications of tourism
in relation to Hikkaduwa in Sri Lanka and Ca- If the peacefulness and natural beauty is
langute in the Goa State of India which are lost, tourism in such sites will not be sus-
known to be two of the most popular coastal tainable and these countries will no longer
tourism sites in Asia. These two sites also are the be able to promote their coastal sites for
victims of unplanned and ad hoc development of beach holidays. This calls for more attention
coastal tourism. The paper aims at identifying to be paid to the conservation aspects of the
key management issues and proposes a strategy attractive sites while making attempts to
for the development of coastal areas which are promote more tourist arrivals.
subject to adverse ecological, environmental,
physical, economic and socio-cultural implica- The present paper is an attempt to investi-
tions of tourism. gate the problems existing particularly in
Asian coastal tourism sites and identify is-
Keywords: Tourism Carrying Capacity, Sus- sues relating to the proper management of
tainable Coastal Tourism, Coastal Resource such sites to ensure sustainable tourism. The
Management, Special Area Management degree and the permissible limits of tourism
development have been examined using the
“carrying capacity” concept. The paper fo-
Introduction cuses on two coastal tourism sites as case
studies - Hikkaduwa, Sri Lanka and Ca-
The Asian region is endowed with extensive langute, Goa, India. Hikkaduwa is the most
coastal resources such as sandy beaches, popular coastal tourism site in Sri Lanka
92 Tantrigama
and Calangute is popularly known as the there are a variety of other attractions to
“Queen of Beaches”. These two sites have supplement the Marine Sanctuary. These
undergone similar paces of tourism devel- are: warm sunny climate, clear blue sea,
opment and become victims of mass- sandy beaches, shopping local handicrafts,
tourism and ad hoc tourism development. opportunities for diving, surfing and snor-
The peaceful environment and natural keling, interaction with friendly and helpful
beauty have already been affected and people, indigenous cultural performances
coastal resources are under threat by over etc.
development of tourism infrastructure. The
resident population looks at tourism with Hikkaduwa is visited by both foreign and
suspicion as it has brought more disadvan- domestic tourists. German nationals are the
tages than advantages to the local commu- most prominent foreign tourist category in
nity. The two sites also have historical and Hikkaduwa. Foreign tourists usually come
cultural links. The Western coastal belt of Sri for long beach holidays and the length of
Lanka where Hikkaduwa is located had stay is approximately 20 days which is
been under rule by the Portuguese in the greater than the national average which is
16th Century. The state of Goa in which Ca- approximately 10 days. The season starts for
langute is located had been a Portuguese foreign tourists in November and ends in
colony until the 1960s. While making a de- March which coincides with the winter sea-
tailed analysis of problems of resource man- son of the Western countries. Domestic tour-
agement in relation to the two sites, a com- ists are mainly day visitors to the Marine
parative assessment is carried out to arrive Sanctuary. Because their stay in Hikkaduwa
at more appropriate development strategies is limited to a few hours, their economic im-
in relation to other similar coastal tourism pact is not as significant as in the case of for-
sites in the region. eign tourists. The tourism business is com-
prised of accommodation, restaurants, rec-
The data for the study were collected from reation facilities and tourist shops. How-
primary sources as well as from secondary ever, there are two types of establishments:
sources. Primary data collection was based formal establishments and informal estab-
on field investigations, personal interviews lishments (Tantrigama, 1994). The formal
and questionnaire surveys. Four separate establishments are properly registered with
questionnaires were adopted to survey: (i) the tourism and local authorities and mainly
Foreign Tourists (ii) Domestic Tourists, (iii) comprise hotels which are located at the
Business community, and (vi) Local resi- south end of Hikkaduwa Beach. The north
dents. In order to make the comparative part of the coast is comprised of a large
analysis possible, attempts have been made number of guest houses, restaurants and
to adopt the same questionnaires in both shops which in most cases are run without
sites. proper licenses and are therefore classified
as informal establishments. Scale-wise also,
informal establishments are small when
Tourism in Hikkaduwa compared with formal establishments.
However, these informal establishments
Hikkaduwa is situated approximately 100 play a major role by providing meals and
km from Colombo - the capital of Sri Lanka accommodation facilities, and other ameni-
and about 150 km from the Katunayaka In- ties such as shopping, sports, recreation etc.
ternational Airport. The total length of the at significantly lower prices than the formal
beach is about four km. The Marine Sanctu- establishments. For this reason, these infor-
ary which is endowed with beautiful coral mal establishments have been able to satisfy
reefs and marine life is the focal point of the the needs of foreign tourists who seek
tourist attraction of Hikkaduwa (CRMP, longer stays at a relatively lower cost (Tan-
1994). As revealed by questionnaire surveys, trigama and White, 1994).
Tantrigama 93
sible limits of development. In the context Hikkaduwa while the present number of
of tourism it refers to the level of visitor use arrivals is estimated to be approximately
an area can accommodate with high levels 15,000 (1996). Therefore, there is a capacity
of satisfaction for visitors and least impacts to further increase the number of arrivals to
on resources (WTO, 1992). The present Hikkaduwa.
analysis focuses on three aspects, namely:
(i) ecological, (ii) physical and (iii) envi-
ronmental carrying capacities (Tantrigama, Tourism in Calangute
1998). In the context of ecological carrying
capacity of Hikkaduwa, what has been Calangute is located approximately 16 km
taken into consideration is mainly the im- North of Panaji - capital of the state of Goa,
pact of tourism on the coral reef and marine India. It is the most popular beach in India
life. Physical carrying capacity refers to the and known to be one of the top ten bathing
availability of infrastructure and space for beaches in the world. It is visited by both
development. In assessing the environ- foreign and Indian (domestic) tourists.
mental carrying capacity the use of the Unlike at Hikkaduwa, length of stay of do-
beach by tourists and its implications were mestic tourists may not necessarily be lim-
taken into consideration. ited to a few hours. There are Indians origi-
nating from other states of India who come
Ecological Carrying Capacity to spend their holidays in Goan beaches
The assessment of ecological carrying capac- where a significant number select Calangute
ity revealed that the maximum number of for their stay. British nationals are the most
tourists allowed in glass bottom boats on the prominent among foreign tourists arriving
basis of 4 boats at a time with 9 adults or 12 in Calangute. The season falls between 1st
school children is approximately 38 adults October and 16th June while 20th December
or 48 children. The maximum number of to 5th January is considered to be high sea-
tourists to engage in snorkeling on the basis son (peak season). The off season is between
of allowing one third of the area for snorkel- 16th June to 1st October. The tourism facili-
ing is 86 persons at a time. Similarly the ties are spread in the countryside as well as
maximum number of tourists to engage in along the coast. There is no further space
sea bathing without damaging the coral or found in coastal area for providing accom-
marine life is expected to be 104 persons at a modation and other facilities.
time.
ready affected the natural coast as well as created by the increasing number of tourism
the scenic beauty of the area. As the ho- establishments. The use of such basic ameni-
tels/guest houses and other facilities are ties by residents has been severely affected
constructed very close to the sea, they dis- by this. Unavailability of power supply dur-
charge sewerage and other effluents to pits ing most of the peak hours is a common
and septic tanks by which the underground phenomenon in Calangute. Tourism busi-
water is contaminated. This again pollutes nessmen manage to obtain such services by
the seawater as it leaks out to the coast. various means. Ordinary citizens are help-
Over-development of tourism establish- less in this regard.
ments along the coast has also limited the
access to the beach by the resident popula- 5. Road traffic and congestion.
tion. Attempts by property developers to This is a result of the large number of vehi-
buy up the remaining coastal strip have cles found particularly during the peak sea-
caused intimidation of villagers out of their son. This creates congestion along the roads
homes. and has affected the peace and quiet of the
environment.
2. Danger of exhausting the underground wa-
ter through over-use. 6. Increasing prices of food-stuff and other
The present public water supply is inade- basic items due to heavy demand created by
quate to meet the demand created by the the tourism establishment.
large number of tourism establishments in This is a frequent complaint of residents.
the area. They have wells constructed on Not only items such as fish, vegetable and
their premises and underground water is fruits, but land prices and rents have also
used and discharged back to the ground. Re- increased excessively due to the excess de-
use of contaminated water creates a lot of mand created by tourists and tourism estab-
health hazards and other implications to the lishments. There is no compensatory reve-
tourists and to the residents of the area. nue generation for the benefit of local resi-
dents to increase their affordability. This has
3. Pollution by garbage and sewerage disposal. caused the standard of living of local resi-
Tourism establishments are located in close dents to go down as their cost of living is
proximity with the houses of villagers. going up with the development of tourism.
There is no concern by tourism businessmen
regarding the proper disposal of garbage 7. Socio-cultural effects.
and sewerage. In most of the cases, sewer- This is a very crucial issue to be addressed
age is diverted to the adjoining canals which as it has multiple impacts on the traditional
flow along the village, polluting the entire socio-cultural life style of the resident popu-
area. The problem of mosquitoes has now lation. From the survey carried out among
become a serious threat to the health of the the resident population, a significant num-
resident population (D'Souza, 1997). This ber of the youth population turns to drug
practice is not acceptable at all and is a se- trade with foreign counterparts as a result
vere injustice from the villagers' point of they themselves become addicted to drug
view. There is no proper system of garbage use and other evil habits. The school-going
disposal and items like plastic bottles and child population is affected as tourism es-
food discharges are found strewn every tablishments, and liquor shops are situated
where. near the schools. Partial nudism is prevalent
in the area which also has adverse social
4. Inadequacy of public infrastructure due to implications in a country like India.
overuse by tourism establishments.
The infrastructure facilities such as water
supply, electricity, and communication are
not planned to cater to the large demand
96 Tantrigama
An attempt has been made to apply the It is evident that both Hikkaduwa and Ca-
above three carrying capacity concepts i.e, langute have potential for further expanding
ecological, physical and environmental, to tourism activities provided that care is taken
tourism in Calangute too. But unlike in Hik- to make sure that resources are properly
kaduwa, there are no ecological resources managed to minimize harmful effects. Al-
such as coral or coral fish populations in though there are differences between the
Calangute. Therefore, the carrying capacity tourism activities in Hikkaduwa and Ca-
analysis is limited to physical and environ- langute, the following management issues
mental aspects in the case of tourism in Ca- are common in both sites.
langute.
1. Adverse impacts caused by tourism.
Physical Carrying Capacity Because of the unplanned nature of tourism
There are various occasions when the Goa development, a series of adverse ecological,
tourism authorities have been subject to se- environmental, physical, economic and
vere criticism for adopting a lenient policy socio-cultural impacts are found in these
in granting permission for new hotel and sites. Physical carrying capacity limits have
resort constructions in the Calangute area already been exceeded.
(Ecoforum, 1993). There is no proper as-
sessment of the requirement for new devel- 2. Conflicts among different user groups.
opments which has led to overuse of the
These coastal tourism sites are characterized
existing infrastructure which are meant to
by multiple resources and user groups.
cater to a small population. There is no need
These resources are interconnected and the
of any quantitative analysis to confirm that
use of one will have an impact on the other.
the physical carrying capacity of Calangute
This has inevitably led to conflicts among
is exceeded.
different user groups. For example, the
beach used by traditional fishers is now en-
Environmental Carrying Capacity
croached upon by hoteliers. This occasion-
With reasonable assumptions regarding ally leads to conflicting situations. Tourism
beach space per tourist, it has been esti- has to be considered as only one activity
mated that the maximum allowable number among a variety of activities existing at
of tourists at any given point of time in Ca- these sites.
langute beach is approximately 9,600 tour-
ists. 3. Low level of revenue generation from villag-
ers' point of view.
This leads to the conclusion that the total
The tourist business sector is owned by ho-
number of foreign tourist arrivals to be
tel groups and individuals originating from
38,400 and domestic tourists arrivals to be
outside the area. A significant part of the
460,800 per year. As the estimated number
inputs of tourism establishments are pur-
of current foreign tourists is approximately
chased from outside the area. A very minor
21,340 and domestic tourists is 240,000
percentage of employees are hired from the
(1996), there is still a potential for increasing
local community. Because of these reasons,
the number of both foreign and domestic
the financial and other benefits emanating
tourists arrivals to Calangute.
from among the tourism business to the lo-
cal community are very low.
Tantrigama 97
mented as it did not receive the required Town & Country Planning Department of
public support because of the reason that Goa. (1987). Master Plan for Tourism De-
public opinion had not been adequately velopment in Goa, Panaji, Goa.
sought at the planning stage. In the begin- Wickramaratna, H.J.M., and White, Alan T.,
ning of 1999, the Goa Department of Tour- (1992). Concept Paper on Special Area
ism started preparing the second Tourism Management for Sri Lankan Coasts, Work-
Master Plan. Once the report is prepared it ing Paper No. 10/1992, Coastal Resources
will be another macro plan for tourism in Management Project, Sri Lanka, Co-
the state of Goa. Calangute is an area which lombo.
has not been given any special focus in any White, Alan T., Barker, V., and Tantrigama,
kind of planning. But it is clearly evident G. (1997). Using Integrated Coastal
that Calangute requires special attention Management and Economics to Con-
which cannot be given in regional/national serve Coastal Tourism Resources in Sri
level planning. Lanka, AMBIO, Vol.XXVI, Number 6,
Royal Swedish Academy of Science.
Wilson, D. (1997). Strategies for sustainabil-
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