Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1, MARCH 1996 39
(Invited Paper)
Abstract-Intelligence and flexibility are essential in a mecha- ultrasonic, linear variable differential transformer, etc., includ-
tronic product. To achieve the primary function of an integrated ing sensors which are useful in mechatronic systems such
system, it is essential that the functional interaction and spatial as silicon sensors, fiber-optic sensors, forcekorque sensors,
integration between mechanical, electronic, control, and informa-
tion technologies be accomplished in a synergistic way. Sensors and load cells. Furthermore, advances in the manufacturing
are as important in the mechatronic system as the senses are to of silicon chips which are able to integrate sensing devices
the human being. and signal-processing electronics have opened the world to
While the subject of sensors and the need of sensors are the development of microsensors on a scale approaching three
certainly important, it is also both pervasive and diffuse. This orders of magnitude smaller than the diameter of a human
paper cannot in any sense be exhaustive of such a wide range
of discussion, and will only attempt to discuss sensors related hair. A combination of microsensors and multisensors and
to mechatronics. In this paper, the role of sensors in the field of multisensor fusion will make possible a new range of appli-
mechatronicshas been identified,followed by the characterization cations. Continuing developments in microsensor technology
of different sensing technologies. The discussion of microsen- demonstrate that it may soon be practical to consider using
sor technologies, advantage of microsensors, and problems with
microsensorstogether with multisensor fusion applications is pre- very dense populations of highly redundant sensors in the
sented. An example of a capacitive micro proximity sensor using mechatronic products in much the same way that they appear
micromachining technology developed by the Center of Robotics in biological systems.
and Intelligent Machines at North Carolina State University is The most instructive example of mechatronic product is a
also described. car. A reasonable quality of a car is expected to be reliable,
functional, capable of trouble warning and indication, nonpol-
I. INTRODUCTION luting, etc. For all of these, there is a need for a number of
sensors, about 75 or more, for a car to do the proper job. A
M ECHATRONICS draws heavily on the concepts of
synergistic integration of mechanical engineering with
electronics, computers and control in the design and manufac-
modern appliance, too, is an example of mechatronic product.
For example, a washing machine, requires a number of sensors,
about 10 or more, to detect the level of water, the type of
turing of products and processes. The key spirit of mechatronic
materials to be washed, the degree of dirt, the concentration
products is to add intelligent components and systems which
of detergent, etc., so that it can provide the required immediate
combines an optimum use of multidisciplinary technologies to
shorten the development cycle with reduced cost and increased feedback for reliable, flexible operation.
The field of sensors is a continually developing technology
quality.
of sensing and measurement techniques which span a broad
Intelligence and flexibility are essential in a mechatronic
spectrum of disciplines. In this paper, an overview of major
product. To achieve the primary function of an integrated
current application areas which are more closely related to
system, it is essential that the functional interaction and
spatial integration between mechanical, electronic, control, mechatronic systems is discussed in Section 11. An overview
and information technologies be accomplished in a synergistic of sensing principles and their characterizations in terms of
way. Sensor technologies are as important in the mechatronic their electrical output impedance is discussed in Section 111.
system as the senses are to the human being. A more detailed description on sensors which related to
It has been estimated that 80% of all measurements made mechatronic systems is in Section IV. Due to the advancement
in industry are of displacement nature. Proximity distance of solid state technology and the great progress in material
measurement constitutes the largest group of measurements science, microsensors are now available that can measure
made in science and technology. Therefore, this paper focused force, pressure, dew point, or gas and flow rates in real time.
on the discussion on proximityhensors with different physical This new trend of future sensor development is included in
sensing principles such as inductive, capacitive, photoelectric, Section V.
The need for a mechatronic product capable of operating in
Manuscript received Novemner 6, 1995; revised December 25, 1995. an unstructured, dynamic environment has created a growing
The author is with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, demand for the use of multiple distributed sensors. While
Center for Robotics and Intelligent Machines, North Carolina State University,
Raleigh, NC 27695-791 1 USA. most research in multisensor fusion has revolved around ap-
Publisher Item Identifier S 1083-4435(96)02291-0. plications for object recognition, developments in microsensor
10834435/96$05.00 0 1996 IEEE
40 I1EEWASME TRANSACTIONS ON MECHATRONICS, VOL. 1, NO. 1, MARCH 1996
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Reference
Input
Fig. 4. Some transduction principles and examples The third type of equipment is the retroreflective type,
which also use the beam break detection method. In this
type, the receiver and the transmitter are also put in the same
proximity probes are prefemed in many applications because unit, but a reflective surface reflects the emitted light to the
of their high resolution capability, which permits accuracy in receiver. The disadvantage is that it provides the light beam
the microinch range. They can also be used for vibration and to pass through four lens surfaces, so if the lenses or the
displacement measurements in dynamic deformation testing. reflective surfaces get dirty, optical sensing ability is lost faster
A more detailed description of an innovative capacitive than in other photoelectric sensors. Retroreflective sensors are
based proximity sensor which was developed at North Carolina used in conveyer applications, code-reading applications, and
State University is discussed in Section VI. automatic storage and retrieval systems to detect location of
products.
Developments in laser technology are allowing the emitted
C. Photoelectric Proximity Sensors
light to travel in a very narrow beam, permitting long-range de-
Photoelectric sensors detect presence, absence, position, or tection. Laser-based proximity sensors are used in bar coding,
character of objects by the interruption or completion of a gauging, and web inspection applications.
beam of light. Photoelectric sensors allow detection of objects
that cross the sensor’s beam of light and can sense objects
at much greater distances than inductive or capacitive sensors. D. Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors
Photoelectric sensor can also detect very small parts or objects. Ultrasonic proximity sensors detect objects without actu-
This ability is very critical in automated manufacturing. ally coming into contact with them. An ultrasonic proximity
There are two commonly used methods of photoelectric sensor deals with the propagation of sound waves above the
detection-beam break detection and diffuse scan detection. In frequency range of human hearing. Ultrasonic vibrations are
the beam break detection method, an interruption-completion generally produced by the electronic stimulation of crystals
of a light beam occurs between the emitting and receiving called piezoelectric transducers. The signal is presented to the
elements. The diffuse scan method utilized diffuse reflective object to be measures. Then, the signal is either reflected as a
photoelectric sensors. In these sensors the light source and measure of the object’s surface distance or is modified in some
receiver are in the same unit, while the target object is required measurable way by the object’s presence. This modification is
to reflect the emitted light to the receiver. This particular sensed and is related to whatever variable is being measured.
type of photoelectric sensors are able to sense only short Variables of interest include displacement, thickness, and
sensing ranges but are useful where space for mounting the distance. Unlike photoelectric sensors, ultrasonic sensors do
device is limited. Other photoelectric sensors are based on not discriminate as to color and material. In some processes,
the through beam type, which has the light transmitter and such as in thickness measurement, this difference is of critical
receiver in separate units and which has the longest sensing importance. Ultrasonic proximity devices are not affected by
range capabilities. corrosion, abrasion, or highly viscous material.
LUO: SENSOR TECHNOLOGIES AND MICROSENSOR ISSUES FOR MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS 43
E. Linear Variable Differential Transformer versa. The piezoresistive sensor, more widely used than the
Displacement Sensors capacitive, is an outgrowth of the first solid-state pressure
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) displace- gauge, the strain-gauge sensor. When pressure is applied to
ment sensors are used for contact displacement measurements the silicon a change in resistance is sensed and measured in
and have direct contact with the object to be measured. a Wheatstone bridge arrangement. One disadvantage seems to
LVDT devices are capable of measuring displacements of be a greater dependence on temperature.
a few microinches up to several inches. The LVDT is a b ) Temperature sensing: In temperature sensing with
electromechanical device, demonstrates infinite precision, and solid-state devices, the general method is to use a forward-
provides very precise, accurate repeatable measurements. The biased transistor connected as a diode, and to sense changes
frictionless core movement results in no mechanical wear and in the base-emitter voltage. These devices cost more
a nearly infinite mechanical life for this sensor. It is typically than standard temperature-measuring equipment such as
used for position indication applications. LVDT’ s are superior thermocouples, but offer a more linear response, stronger
to potentiometer displacement devices for industrial control. output signals, and the potential for low cost.
Technological advances include LVDT devices which are
based on solid state technologies and measure displacement G. Fiber-optic Sensors
utilizing a silicon chip. The oscillator-modulator signal con- Optical fibers offer the same advantages to transducer
ditioning electronics are either incorporated on the chip as an systems that they offer in telecommunications-including low
integrated circuit or arranged as discrete hybrid circuit com- signal attenuation, high information-transfer capacity, elimina-
ponents. The latest advances include devices which contain tion of electromagnetic interference problems, and flexibility.
on-chip signal conditioning electronics. Further, fiber optic equipment is lightweight, compact, rugged,
The LVDT displacement measuring devices which contain potentially inexpensive, and inherently safe in explosive en-
a chip built into the transducers tube are considered as solid vironments. The sensing elements can be as small as the
state dc-dc LVDT’s since they convert a dc power input to an fibers themselves, or less than 0.1 mm diameter [ 5 ] . Optical
ac signal, amplify the signal, and reconvert it to dc for output. fibers typically consist of a glass or plastic core 0.14.2 mm
The sensing element and the signal conditioning electronics diameter, surrounderd by a cladding. The cladding, which has
are typically contained in a single housing. a lower index of refraction than the core, keeps the light from
escaping.
F. Solid-state Sensors In its various forms, optical sensing can be made sensitive
to a wide variety of phenomena-including acoustic, mag-
Solid-state sensing elements are made from a variety of
netic, pressure, temperature, acceleration, rotation, displace-
materials, including single crystals of semiconducting material,
ment, fluid level, torque, photoacoustics, electrical current, and
pressed polycrystalline, and sputtered (thin) films of inorganic
strain, etc. Fiber-optic sensors can be grouped in many ways.
semiconductors. Some of the newer materials and devices, as
A useful division is into intrinsic and extrinsic. In the first,
they relate to the basic solid state sensors themselves, are
the measured parameter causes a change in the transmission
discussed herein.
properties of the fiber itself; in the second, the fiber acts as a
1) Silicon: Silicon has been central to the development
conduit to carry light signals to and from a sensor.
of microelectronics and computers. Fortunately, it also has
a number of sensitivities that make it useful for sensing
purposes. In combination with piezoelectric materials it is H. Force-Torque Sensors and Load Cells
sensitive to pressure and acceleration. Finally it can be “micro- Majority of forcekorque sensors are derived from strain
machined” in such a way that mechanical as well as electronic gauges piezoelectric and other displacement sensing. The
components can be built into the same substrate. Sensors made strain gauge load cell accounts for considerably more than
from silicon and silicon-compatible materials promise small 90% of the weight sensors used in the industry.
size and low cost. In addition, the signals may be linearized,
preprocessed, and conditioned in the sensor itself.
a ) Pressure sensing: A wide variety of characteristics v. MICROSENSORS
AND MULTISENSOR
FUSION
can be measured with solid-state sensors by far the greatest The miniaturization of electronic components is currently
application has been in detection of pressure and temperature. making it possible to use multiple milliscale sensors in con-
One of silicon’s useful characteristics, for example, is a near sumer electronics. The same principles of system architec-
perfect elasticity (high fatigue strength), which has made it ture, sensor fusion, and decision making that have been
useful for pressure sensing. Two basic types of pressure sensor developed for military application systems can be applied to
are the capacitive and piezoresistive. these consumer products. This convergence of developments
The capacitive type involves a flexible diaphragm that is in parallel-system architectures and in the manufacture of
used as one plate of a variable air-gap capacitor. Pressure microsensors, coupled with the demand for improvements
on the diaphragm creates a change in the capacitance of the in intelligent systems for consumer products as well as for
device, which induces a frequency shift in the circuit. manufacturing, presents a strong motivation for continued
A piezoresistive material is one whose electrical resistance research in multisensor integration and fusion for machine
changes with a change in pressure on the material, and vice intelligence and automated manufacturing [6], [7].
44 EEWASME TRANSACTIONS ON MECHATRONICS, VOL 1, NO 1, MARCH 1996
A. Highly Redundant Sensors and Multisensor Fusion occurs on the chip rather that having to amplify the raw signal
Advances in the manufacturing of silicon chips which so that it can be communicated to a remote location. This
are able to integrate sensing devices and signal-processing results in lower cost, because the connections that are required
electronics have opened the world to the development of can be placed by IC processing techniques such as thin-
microsensors on a scale approaching three orders of magnitude film or thick-film applications rather than by more expensive
smaller than the diameter of a human hair [8]. A combination techniques such as wire bonding.
of microsensors and multisensor fusion will make possible The use of fewer connections to an off-chip location offers
a new range of applications. Continuing developments in the additional benefits of improving the SNR ratio because the
microsensor technology demonstrate that it may soon be weak signal doesn’t suffer attenuation or excessive corruption
practical to consider using very dense populations of highly from noise due to traveling through long lengths of wire.
redundant sensors, in much the same way that they appear in Also, since micromachining can be performed as a batch
biological system. process, manufacturers will have the opportunity to recover
The human olfactory sensor cover an area of about five development costs in much the same as they have with IC’s.
square centimeters and have on the order of lo6 chemorecep- Thus, microsensors will tend to be less costly than conven-
tors; the tongue has over 10000 taste receptors; in the inner tional sensors and therefore more accessible for experimental
ear, the organ of Corti has 20000 hair cells that vibrate in research in multisensor integration and fusion.
response to sound [9]. Clearly, nature has adapted to a need for Giachino [13] suggests that a smart sensor should have the
highly redundant sensory data. In the same way that biological capability to perform one or more of the following functions:
systems are looked to for inspiration when modeling intelligent a) two-way communications-this allows sensor data to be
systems, evidence is easily found in nature for the benefits transmitted to the processing element and also the possibil-
of using sensor redundancy. Martin Brooks [lo] demonstrates ity of communication from the processing element to the
the function of redundant sensors in biological systems that sensor element, perhaps for the purpose of calibration; b)
use lateral inhibition to resolve closely spaced applications of self-calibration-a sensor may need to have the capability to
pressure on the skin, and he relates this action to competitive make adjustments to compensate for the time-varying nature
learning in self-organizing neural networks. of some sensor elements; c) computation-ihis is necesary
Future trends in multisensor fusion and integration must to determine the need and degree of recalibration that is
invariably include systems designed to incorporate the use of necessary. It is also necessary to perform signal-conditioning
microsensors. tasks and data processing; and d) multisensing-necessary if
Microsensors are sensors that are created on silicon chips more than one energy domain is to be measured. For example,
using the process known as “micromachining,” which is it may be necessary to measure both pressure and temperature
similar to the photolithographic process used in IC manu- to determine a change in volume. Also, it might be necessary
facturing. The main difference between the two processes is to monitor chip temperature to ensure proper calibration of a
that micromachining is a deep-etching process which gives pressure sensor. In other cases, multiple sensors that measure
the microstructures of the sensor more of a three-dimensional the same energy domain may be required. For example, the
quality than is found in IC’s [ll]. processing element may serve as an array of pressure sensors
As an example of a microsensor, Wise [12] developed where the sensing elements function as inputs to a neural
a smart microsensor which has a multichannel microma- network or some averaging-type of network that incorporates
chined recording array. The microsensor probe was designed redundant sensing.
to function as a neuroelectronic interface for the study of
signal-processing techniques in biological neural nets and
C. Problems with Microsensors
for applications in neural prostheses. It incorporates on-chip
amplifiers which provide a per-channel gain of 300 and One of the major obstacles faced by smart microsensors is
bandlimit the recorded signals to 10 Hz to 10 KHz, and require the lack of selectivity when exposing the sensors to severe
no off-chip components. A three-lead interface connects it to environments. Unlike an IC, whose packaging is designed
,the external world. to protect the circuitry from the elements, a sensor must
be exposed to what could be a severe environment if it is
to supply the correct information. Some examples of hostile
B. Advantages of Microsensors environments in which sensors are often used include: caustic
The advantages that microsensors have to offer over conven- gases or liquids, high temperatures and pressures, humidity,
tional sensors are due to their smaller size and to the potential electric and magnetic fields, mechanical impacts and abrasions,
for developing families of “smart” sensors. The advantages and very low temperatures. All of these can adversely affect
due to size include the following: the ability to use them in the electronic signal processing components on smart sensors.
spaces that are too small for the use of conventional sensors; Packaging sensors so that the electronics are protected while
increased durability due to an enhanced resistance to damage the sensor is exposed is a problem that must be addressed
from impact; and a better SNR ratio. individually for each application. The microsensor and its
Smart sensors are sensors that have signal-processing elec- packaging must be designed simultaneously [ 141.
tronics and sensing elements on the same chip. Fewer con- The integration of sensors and processing elements on the
nections are required because much of the signal-conditioning same chip creates a need for simpler fusion schemes. Using
LUO: SENSOR TECHNOLOGIES AND MICROSENSOR ISSUES FOR MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS 45
I
used for on-line monitoring of patients’ blood in operating
rooms and intensive care units, and as a way to check for
* the presence of important blood electrolytes. Optoelectronic
8
3
0
sensors have been used to measure vibrational amplitudes
of the middle ear to a resolution of 0.005 micrometers [18].
Sensor arrays have been implanted in the respiratory tract of
Distance exercising patients and have shown a substantial difference
between the temperature profiles of normal subjects and
(C) (d)
asthmatic patients [ 191. The monitoring of multiple variables
Fig. 6. Two types of capacitive proximity sensors. (a) Proximity sensor based is implicit in most biomedical applications, making this a rich
on the principle of parallel plates capacitor, the object to be measured is
acted as one of the parallel plates. (b) Typical response of the parallel plates field for the exploration of multisensor fusion applications
capacitor proximity sensor. (c) Proximity sensor based on the principle of the with microsensors.
fringe capacitance. (d) Typical response of the fringe proximity sensor.
a local processing element prohibits extensive access to large VI. AN EXAMPLEOF NCSU MICRO PROXIMITY
data bases that are available to conventional sensors. SENSOR USING MICROMACHINING
TECHNOLOGY
It has been estimated that 80% of all measurements made in
D.Applications of Microsensors industry are of displacement nature [20]. Proximity distance
Multisensor arrays are currently used in automotive mon- measurement constitutes the largest group of measurements
itoring and control systems, biomedical applications, instru- made in science and technology. For many practical ap-
mentation, and in many mechatronic consumer products such plications in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), it is
as microwaves, dishwashers, cameras, and washing machines. important to be able to measure small changes in distance
These are but a few of the possibilities for microsensor appli- between two parts. The range of measurement could be
cations. Huijsing [15] notes that consumers play a large part anywhere from micrometers to millimeters. In many cases,
in directing the market toward a need for ever-better sensors the measurement must be performed without making contact
by having a tendency to buy only those products that are the with the object, whether due to the object having a special
easiest to use by virtue of the fact that they have the most surface coating, or the object’s movement [21].
automated functions. Products with automated functions must, There are basically two types of capacitive proximity sen-
by necessity, incorporate many sensors-preferably smart sen- sors. One uses the principle of a parallel plates capacitor, the
sors. In the same paper, Huijsing discusses the conditions other uses the principle of fringe capacitance [20], [22]-[26].
necessary for the realization of integrated smart sensors and For the parallel plates type proximity sensor, the sensor forms
examines some of their desireable functions and possibilities. one plate and the object to be measured forms the other plate.
Speculative applications for the near future will also include The structure of a parallel plates type proximity sensor and its
the use of multiple microsensors in robot manipulators and in typical characteristic curve are shown in Fig. 6(a) and (b).
environmental monitors. Their utilization in robot manipula- Despite its wide applications, the parallel plates type prox-
tors will allow the employment of robots in areas that currently imity sensor inherits three major constraints: i) the object
require a high degree of dexterity, and the ability to work in being measured must be a conductor; ii) the inverse gap-
tight spaces. capacitance relationship is highly nonlinear and the sensitivity
Autonomous microminiature robots, such as those found in drops significantly in the case of larger gaps, as shown in Fig.
the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory at MIT [ 161, might some- 6(b); and iii) it is impossible to use this kind of sensor in
day be used to deploy multisensor platforms to form untethered applications when one part (of the pair whose separation is to
and highly mobile distributed sensor networks. They could be be measured) is inaccessible, for instance, the part is rotating
used as a way to inexpensively gather information in such or has a special coating.
applications as the environmental monitoring of contaminated The second type of the capacitive proximity sensor uses
reactor vessels, the development of miniature landrovers for the principle of fringing capacitance. Fig. 6(c) and (d) shows
planetary exploration, and for the nondestructive inspection of the principle and the typical characteristic curve of the sensor.
small enclosures such as pipes. The sensor has two live electrodes, El and Ea, separated by
46 IE.EE/ASME TRANSACTIONS ON MECHATRONICS, VOL. 1, NO 1, MARCH 1996
shaped sensing pattern with both a top view and a cross- 0 Sensor Surface r(radius)
sectional view. The ring-shaped structure consists of one inner Fig. 9. Cross section of the ring-shaped sensor model with cylindrical
circular and one outer annular electrodes separated by an coordinate system, two regions whlch specify the boundary conditions are
annular insulator. Note that there is no grounded metal screen shown.
between the two electrodes because the radii of the circular After detailed derivation described in [21], the integration
electrodes are much greater than their thickness and therfore of the potential gradient at z = 0 over the second electrode
the capcitance between the two electrodes is dominated by the give the total charge from which the fringing capacitance of
fringe Capacitance. the ring-shaped structure is obtained
The electric potential V ( x ,y, z ) describes the electric field
completely. Since the space charge density is zero between the
- fn.irR1)
Distance, pm Distance, pm
(a) (b)
Fig. 10. Simulation results of the ring-shaped proximty sensor. (a) Varying electrodes separation S only. (b) Varying both electrode separation S and
diameter of the inner electrode D1.
VII. CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents an,overview of major current application
areas which are more closely related to the application of
mechatronk systems. An overview of sensing principles, the
physical quantities sensed and their characterizations in terms
of their electrical outpuit has been discussed. The need for a
r-, mechatronic product capable of operating in an unstructured,
-
I
[13] J. M. Ganong, “Smart sensors,’’ Sensors and Actuators, vol. 10, pp. Ren C. Luo (M82-SM’87-F’92) received the B.S.
2 3 9 4 8 , 1986. and M.S. degrees from Feng Chia University in
[14] S. Middelhoek and A. C. Hoogenverf, “Smart sensors: When and Taiwan, ROC, in 1973 and 1975, respectively, and
where?’ Sensors and Actuators, vol. 10, pp. 1-8, 1985. the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from Technische Uni-
[15] H. H. Huijsing, “Integrated smart sensors,” Sensors and Actuators, vol. versitate Berlin in Germany in 1979 and 1982,
30, pp. 167-174, 1952. respectively.
[I61 R. A. Brooks, “Elephants don’t play chess,” Robot. Autonomous Syst., He is currently a Professor in the Department
vol. 6 , pp. 3-15, 1990. of Electrical and Computer Engineering and the
1171
. - J. C. Pearson et al.. “Neural network auuroach to sensorv fusion.” SPIE.
Director of the Center for Robotics and Intelligent
vol. 931 (Sensor Fusion), pp. 103-108 1988.
[I81 J. Van der Spiegel et al., SPIE, Microsensors, Catheter-Based Imaging Machines at North Carolina State University in
Raleigh, NC. He served as the Toshiba Endowed
Technol., pp. 6-12, 1988.
[19] J. M. Fouke and K. G. Saunders, “Catheter-based sensing in the Chair Professor at the University of Tokyo, Japan, during the 1992-1993
airways,” SPIE, Microsensors. Catheter-Based Imaging Technol., vol. year. His research interests include: sensor-based intelligent robotics systems,
904, pp. 92-97, 1988.
I -