Earth Bund PDF

217
83 IR
SWD
STEERING COMMITTEE P.O. BOX 85
WINDEIMERGY 3800AB AMERSFOORT
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES THE NETHERLANDS
Irrigation water storage tanks

made of earth bunds
with various linings
A manual for design and construction
_v "'•'J
Maart 1983
13 HV TWO
DHV Consulting Engineers Technical Working Group
for Developing Countries
Ml&lt-^^
CONTENTS PAGE
PREFACE
INTRODUCTION
3. GENERAL 5
3.1. Design criteria 5

3.2. Location 5
3.3. Soils and rock 5
3.4. Soil improvement 9
3.5. Permeability 9
3.6. Execution - Site clearance 9
Levelling 10
Preparation of foundations 11
Bunds 12
Crowns of the bunds 12
Construction 12
Maintenance 12
3.7. Fencing 12
4. MATERIALS 13
4.1. General 13
4.2. Sheets Polythene 13
PVC 13
4.3. Bentonite 14
4.4. Chemicals 14
4.5. Bitumen 15
4.6. Brickwork/concrete 15
5. TESTING 17
5.1. Introduction 17
5.2. Simple field identi fication tests soil 17
Vibration test 17
Setting test 18
Cohesion test 18
Permeability test 19
6. TOOLS 21
2
CONTENTS (Continue)
7. STABILITY CONDITIONS 23
7.1. General aspects 23

7.2. Causes of failure 23
8. TYPES OF TANKS 27
8.1. Type I Clay bund 27

8.2. Type II Coffer dam 36
8.3. Type III PVC lining 45
8.4. Type IV Sand-bentonite lining 55
8.5. Type V Bitumen lining 64
8.6. Type VI Lining of bricks or concrete 73
8.7. Type VII Sand-cement sausages 83
9. RELATIVE COMPARISON AND SUMMARY 98
9.1. Water impermeability 98

9.2. Execution/quality of workskill 99
9.3. Frost resistance 99
9.4. Resistance against changes in humidity,
temperature and light intensity 99
5. Area required 99
6. Chances of pollution by the lining material used 99
7. Dependability/reliability/durability 100
8. Possibilities for repair 100
9. Cleaning possibilities/need for maintenance 100
10. Resistance against use and damage by animals 100
11. Resistance to vegetation 100
12. Summary 101
Annex 1 Sizes of wires and steel rods 102

Annex 2 Conversion of common units 103
Annex 3 Bibliography 104
3
1. PREFACE
The SWD (Steering Committee on Wind-Energy for Developing Countries) has

designed and built windmills for irrigation purposes in several develop-
ing countries. One of the essentials for achieving properly regulated
irrigation with windmills is water storage.
Experience has shown that the cost of water storage tanks involved can
equal the cost of a windmill. Also some types of storage tanks are liable
to become damaged during use, sometimes due to lack of knowhow.
Discussions in TWO (a non profit organization set up by employees of DHV)
about the technical problems of water storage tanks resulted in a con-
tract between SWD and DHV. Under this contract DHV has prepared designs
and construction manuals of irrigation water storage tanks in various
types constructed of different materials.
A design and construction manual for brickwork tanks was prepared in
December 1981 and in October 1982 a similar manual for ferrocement and
ferrocement-brickwork tanks.
The tanks described in the present manual have walls consisting of earth
bunds. These tanks which can be constructed by several methods and with
various types of linings or construction, will have storage capacities of
30 m 3 - 60 m 3 - 90 m 3 and 150 m 3 like the brickwork and ferrocement
tanks.
The authors are grateful for the support and criticism, received from the
SWD.
The authors:
J. Costa
C. Pieck
J. Tromp
4
2. INTRODUCTION
Watertanks for storage of irrigation water are liable to have some losses
due to the permeability of the walls. In certain circumstances a 10% loss
of water per day may not be a problem. If such losses are not acceptable,
more care has to be taken with the impermeability of bottom and bunds. In
some cases this will mean applying other linings or a combination of
linings such as a clay bund with plastic sheet lining.
Due to the slopes at the perimeter of some of the described tanks shallow
water remains standing; this may be a breeding place for mosquitoes.
The area needed for a bund tank is larger than for a brickwork, concrete
or ferrocement tank.
A summary of the several types of tanks reads as follows:
Type I clay bund
Type II coffer dam
Type III PVC lining
Type IV sand-bentonite lining
Type V bitumen lining
Type VI lining of concrete or bricks
Type VII sand-cement sausages lining
The choice of a type depends largely on the availability of the materials

and the costs involved.
Bills of quantities are made for each type of tank to facilitate making
cost estimates for specific situations.
A comparison of these bills of quantities will make clear that bund tanks
are often much cheaper than other types of tanks.
The main chapters in this manual are:

a general description of design criteria, location, site clearance
and execution of the tanks
construction materials
tools
types of tanks including construction sequences, bills of quanti-
ties, drawings and other instructions
methods for testing materials, to obtain an impression of the
quality and suitability of the materials to be used
calculation methods to be used for the user who is sufficiently
knowledgeable and experienced to adapt the tank dimensions if a
smaller tank is required.
Annexes contain data on construction materials, and conversion of units,

and a bibliography.
5
3. GENERAL
3.1. Design criteria
The United States Water Conservation Laboratory in Arizona has listed the
desired characteristics of an artificial catchment. They are:
1. Run off must be non-toxic
2. Surface should be smooth and impermeable
3. The surface should have a high resistance to weathering and have no
internal chemical or physical deterioration
4. The surface need not have great physical strenght but should be able
to withstand hail, intense rain, wind, occasional amimals, moderate
water flow, plant growth, insects, birds and borrowing animals
5. The treatment should be inexpensive on an annual cost basis. Site
preparation and construction costs should be as low as possible
6. Maintenance requirements should be simple and cheap
This manual describes several types of cheap linings, for water storage
tanks made of bunds, that satisfy these conditions and require a minimun
of skilled labour to construct.
3.2. Location
For irrigation from the tank by means of gravitational flow, the tank has
to be situated at the highest part of the field.
If the land is rather flat, the base of the tank has to be constructed
about 0.50 m above ground level.
Points to be considered are:
location in the highest part of the field that has to be irrigated
site as close as possible to the windmill to reduce the cost of the
delivery line
no obstructions to other field operations
avoid damage by roots or falling branches by choosing the site away
from trees
it is advisable to choose the site near a road or track, but not one
on which a lot of heavy traffic passes
3.3. Soils and rock
Ground materials are usually divided into three types.
These are:
1. Granular : Silts, sand, gravels and boulders which are not
cemented together
2. Cohesive : Clays, or materials which have sufficient clay
minerals in them for them to act as clays
3. Lithified : Rock
A simple grain size classification for soils is given in the following

table:
Grainsize classification of soils

6
grain diameter (mm) term
> 200 Boulder

60 - 200 Cobble
20 - 60 Coarse Gravel
6 - 20 Medium Gravel
2 - 6 Fine Gravel
0.6 - 2 Coarse Sand
0.2 - 0.6 Medium Sand
0.06 - 0.2 Fine Sand
0.02 - 0.06 Coarse Silt
0.006 - 0.02 Medium Silt
0.002 - 0.006 Fine Silt
< 0.002 Clay
The name of the soil is given by its grain size-distribution. A full

description may include such physical properties as relative density (for
sands) or strength (for clays) and a description of geological structure.
Other features such as colour may be added to help distinguish one
stratum of material from another. A description might be "Dense thinly
bedded grey fine Sand".
Strength is one of the most important parameters for engineering purposes
and so scales of strength have been devised. One such scale is given in
the following table which also indicates how a very approximate indica-
tion of strength may be obtained by hand.
This strength and also the relative density can be lost by excavating and
be improved by compacting.
Extrudes Very Moderate Moulded Cannot Brittle

between easily finger only by be or very
Field fingers moulded pressure strong moulded tough
Definition when with required finger with
squeezed fingers to mould pressure fingers
Descrip- Very Soft Firm Stiff Very Hard

tion soft Stiff
10 20 40 80 160
Strength Shear Strengths of Clays (kN/m2)
Categories
7
Crumbles Thin Thin Lumps or Lumps or Lumps only Rocks ring

in hand slabs slabs core core chip by on hammer
Field break broken broken broken heavy blows.
defini- easily by by light by heavy hammer Sparks fly
tion in hand heavy hammer hammer blows.Dull
hand blows blows ringing
pressure sound
descrip- Very Weak Moder- Moder- Strong Very Extremely
tion Weak ately ately strong strong
weak strong
1.25 5 12.5 50 100 200
Unconfined compressive Strengths of Rocks (MM/m2)
Strength
Point Load Strengths o f Rocks (MM/m 2 )*
Categories 0.075 0.3 0.75 3 6 12
"Based on the approximate relation: Corap. Strength =
16 Point Load Comp. Strength
We may use these terms for description. A typical soil description might
be "Stiff laminated brown sandy CLAY".
Permeability depends on the kind of soil and the compaction (see 3.5.).
Sand is a good compactible soil.
8
Important cngineermg properties Relative desirability for

(No. I is considered the best)
earthftl) dams
Shear strength Compressibility Workability Homo-

Permeabtlhy when when as a
Group when compacted compacted conuructioa embank*
Typical names of toil croups symbols compacted and saturated and saturated material
Well-graded gravds, gravel-

wnd mixtures, little or no
Tines Excellent Negligible Excellent
Poorly-graded gravels, gravel-
\»nd mixtures, little or no
fines GP Very pervious Good Negligible Good
Silly gravels, poorly-graded Semipcrviou*
gravel-tand-stlt mi»lures CM to impervious Good Negligible Good
Clayey gravels, poorly-graded
gravel-und-clay mixtures GC Impervious Good to fair Verjlow Good
-Well-graded sands, gravelly
sands, little or no fines SW Pervious Elect lent Negligible Excellent
Poorly-graded sands, gravelly
sands, little or no fines SP Pervious Good Very low Fair
Silly sands, poorly-graded
Scmipcrvjous
<and-«ilt mixtures SM Good Low Fair
to impervious
Clayey sands, poorly-graded
sand -clay mixtures
sc Impervious Good to fsur Low Good
Inorganic silts and very fine
sands, rock flour, silly or
clayey fine sands with slight
Scmipervious
plasticity ML to impervious Fair Medium Fair
Innrgank clays of low to
medium plasticity, gravelly
clays, sandy days, silty clays,
lean clays CT Impervious Fsir Medium Good to fair
Organic sills and organic silt- Scmipervious
clays of low plasticity OL to impervious Poor Medium Fair
Inorganic silts, micaceous or
diatomaceous fine sandy or Scmipervious
ulty soils, elastic sihs to impervious Fair to poor High Poor
Inorganic days of high

plasticity, fat clays CH Impervious Poor High Poor 7
Organic clays of medium to
high plasticity OH Impervious Poor High Poor 10
Peat and other highly organic
soils Pi
Source: Untied Stales Bureau of Reclamation (1974).

9
For rocks we have similar descriptions. However, an important addition to

a rock description is the state of weathering of the rock. We must say if
the rock is fresh (un-weathered) and thus at its greatest strength or has
been weakened by weathering to, say, a highly weathered condition. A
typical description for rock might be "Highly weathered thinly bedded red
coarse weak micaceous SANDSTONE".
It is very difficult for engineers to give an accurate geological identi-
fication of a rock type. The geological classifications of rocks are not
uniform throughout the world and description often comes only from
examination using a microscope. For engineering purposes it is also often
considered more important to give an accurate description of the proper-
ties of the rock than to give an exact name.
Accordingly, when engineers must name a rock, the name need not be as
accurate as a geologist would give but should be not too far from the
truth.
3.4. Soil improvement
The locally available clay or silt can be improved by chemical treatments

and additives.(see also 4.4.)
Three different types of chemical treatment are known:
hydrophobic; i.e. a treatment which increases the contact angle
between soil particles and any water on them so that water infil-
tration will be reduced
dispersing; i.e. a treatment which causes any clay in the soil to
disperse or swell and partially seal the soil pores
stabilisers; i.e. a treatment that improves all properties of the
soil like strenght, resistance to weathering and to erosion.
Another type of treatment is mixing the soil with bentonite, which swells
when fully saturated and forms a more or less impermeable blanket.
3.5. Permeability
Permeable materials have interconnections between solid particles, which

allow the passage of fluid through the material. If the material does not
have these passages through it, it is impermeable. The size of the
passages governs the permeability and may make the material permeable to
one fluid e.g. gas but not to another e.g. water.
For flow to take place through a saturated material there must be a
pressure head. In this case we are concerned mostly with water and with
its flow through materials and mass.
3.6. Execution
Site clearance
The site chosen for the tank should be cleared.

The soil layer is to be excavated to a depth of approx. 0.20 m to be
sure that all vegetation, loose surface soil, black soil, stones and
roots should be removed.
10
Levelling
When the s i t e is cleared i t s surface is levelled with a layer of
sand or soil u n t i l the required height i s reached.
The setting out can be done by driving a post into the ground at the
centre point of the tank s i t e and describing a c i r c l e , while marking
the ground with pegs at approx. 1 meter core to core.
WATER WATER
LEVEL " LevEu "LEVEL
MARK MARK
± JUNGLE JUNGLE
STICK. STICK
o
TRANSPAReMT
PLASTIC TU8e
u^
LEVELLING TOOL
Levelling can be done by means of a levelling tool. Put one pole of

the levelling tool on top of the centre peg and the other pole on a
peg on the circumference. Hammer the peg on the circumference till
the water level in the tube is at the desired mark. Repeat this for
all pegs on the circumference.
See figure.
MARK-
LEVELLING
C T P A N & P A R E N T TU8E"
RCLE PCG6
\»/Ay O F - u«e,iKiG O F L e v E U - l N G P O L E S F'olZ A.

Oyi_lW D R K A U T A K K .
The setting out for rectangular tanks (see chapter 4.2.) can be done
by putting one pole of the levelling tool on top of a peg on the
edge and the other pole on the next peg on the edge. Repeat this for
all pegs on the rectangle.
See figure next page.

11
AT
MARK-
-JQJ^T — — .vffL J T ^ J I J V ^ 1 ^ *Al*K->!fj
LEVEL -1=»3(_E.
fOCE
PEG PEG PBC^—yjT
\</A.y O F l>SlKCi O F - U£.V/El_L.lNKo F t o L E S p"0«. A
+
The levelling tool can be made very easily with about 15 m of
transparent plastic tube.
This tube is fixed with some binding wire to two wooden poles - one
on each side of the tube - of equal length (about 1.5 m ) .
Fill the tube with water to about 0.15 m from the top. Mind that no
air is enclosed in the tube filled with water. Stand the poles
vertically next to each other on a flat surface and make a mark on
the poles at the water levels. Then the levelling tool is ready for
use.
Preparation of foundations
On some sites (see chapter 3.2.) the base of-the tank has to be
constructed about 0.5 m above ground level.
The earth fill required has to be executed in maximum layer thick-
nesses of 0.2 m to 0.3 m. These layers need to be compacted by
ramming and possibly water sprinkling, if sand is used. If the fill
material used is clay, this must be crumbled, compacted and remol-
ded. Oxen can be used for this work. Using sand for bund fill a
toefilter at the outside toe of the bund is necessary to catch the
seepage and prevent instability of the bund (see figure). For filter
material one can use locally available gravel.
TO CATCH T+K&. S £ A P A Q £ A*JO TO

P R E V E M T iN*-STVMiiuiTy.
12
Bunds
The bunds forming the walls of the tank have to be constructed by

heaping up soil. Water must be added to each layer of sandy soil
(0,2 m thick) after which it should be compacted with tampers (own
manufacture). Clay should be compacted by treading with bullocks,
sheep or human feet, untill the heights, sizes and slopes as indi-
cated on the drawings have been reached.
After finishing the bunds and the base the surface has to be dug and
trimmed to shape.
Stones, roots and other large objects should be removed.
It is advisable in general to cover the outside of the bunds with
rockfill to prevent erosion. Do not use vegetation, it may puncture
the sheet if used.
Crowns of the bunds
The crown of the bund should be about 1.00 m wide (from the point of
view of stability, easy reach and maintenance) and consist of a thin
layer of sand, paved with bricks or rockfill.
To prevent the crown being washed away if the tank overflows, a PVC
or concrete overflow has to be made (for detail see type VII details
and dimensions).
Construction
Tanks and the impermeable layers are constructed differently for

each type. For more information it is advisable to read the work
sequences for the various types.
Maintenance
Maintenance is very important for these newly constructed water

tanks. The maintenance should consist of regulary checking of the
tank wall and base for erosion.
If necessary the wall should be repaired immediately.
3.7. Fencing
Before starting the works it is advisable to fence the whole site ade-
quately because goats or other cattle can be a tremendous nuisance around
the area and damage the storage tank or even drown in the water. Espe-
cially goats find polythene extremely appetising, in addition to which
they may pierce it with their sharp hoofs.
13
4. MATERIALS
4.1. General
In general the choice to be made between the materials described in the

manual depends on local availability.
The bills of quantities are not given completed with prices because these
may differ from place to place/country to country.
Plastic sheeting materials such as polythene and polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
are not manufactured in all countries, but it may be possible to obtain
it locally or to import it in large quantities, if a substantial number
of storage tanks is to be constructed.
Transport costs of plastic sheeting materials are low because this

material has a rather small volume.
4.2. Sheets
Polythene
Polythene sheeting is flexible. During its manufacture a black

pigment is added to combat rapid degradation on exposure to light.
Chlorosulfonated polythene has a better resistance to degradation by
light.
Polythene is not termite-proof. However, if it is used on the base
of the tank in the form of a blanket of two layers with a layer of
mud between them, any holes made in the polythene layers, by ter-
mites will be sealed by the mud between the layers.
This mud will also seal the joints between two parts of polythene
sheeting provided the overlap is at least 1.50 m.
If polythene is used on the inside of the tank, the tankbase and its
slopes must be smooth and the polythene sheeting must be covered as
soon as possible to prevent degradation of the liner.
It does not matter if polythene tubing that forms the skin of the
sand/cement sausages (described in type VII) is exposed to sunlight
and damaged because this tubing is only needed to act as a water-
tight form of shuttering for the first four weeks.
Polythene is the cheapest prefabricated sheet material and is
available in thicknesses between 0.025 mm and 0.25 mm.
Whether it is economical to use polythene sheetings often depends on
the maximum width of sheeting available.
The rolls are available in widths of:
12.00 m in the USA and
7.50 m in the UK.
PVC
PVC (Poly Vinyl Chloride) is not naturally flexible and plasticisers

are incorporated to give the sheet flexibility.
The properties of the plasticisers used in a particular type of PVC
sheeting should be checked to see that they are conform the health
requirements before the sheet is adopted for use in irrigation water
storage tanks.
14
PVC is not termite-proof and also has only a short life when it is
exposed to light; therefore it is generally used in water storage
tanks as a hurried membrane.
PVC is easier to join than polythene. PVC can be heat joined by
means of a flat or soldering iron with an overlap of about 0.20 m
and cold joined with glue-cement.
PVC is more resistant to puneture and can be repaired more easily
than polythene.
The subgrade which should be compacted and structurally stable must
be sterilized (see 4.5.) before installation of PCV lining. The PVC
then must be covered as soon as possible to prevent degradation.
PVC is available in thicknesses between 0.25 mm and 0.80 mm. Rolls
with widths of upto 20.00 m are available (USA) and in any lenght
that is suitable for handling.
For economical reasons a rectangular tank is preferred by using PVC
or Polythene sheeting.
4.3. Bentonite
Bentonite is a naturally occurring clay, which contains a high proportion

of the mineral sodium montmorillonite. Depending on its exact make up
bentonite will expand to between ten and fifteen times its dry volume
when fully saturated. So it will crack extensively when it dries out.
To prevent drying out the bentonite layer can be covered by a layer of

sand mixed with a small amount of bentonite (10 : 1 ) . The layer itself is
a mixture of sand with 25% bentonite. A thickness of 20 cm will give a
good watertightness.
Bentonite should not be used on calcareous soils. The calcium carbonate
reacts with the sodium montmorillonite and this results in calcium
montmorillonite, which does not posess the swelling properties of sodium
montmorillonite.
Bentonite in granular form can be added to the water in a storage tank
(sprinkling) that is known to be leaking through cracks or seams. The
bentonite may be drawn into them and seal them as it swells.
4.4. Chemicals
Chemical treatment of permeable soil is only possible for soils which

won't crack on drying out. In § 3.4. the different kinds of chemical
treatments are given. The chemicals must be used as a lining.
With sodium methyl silanolite the most effective chemical treatment,
which produces hydrophobic soil, is given. A 30% solution at a rate of
500 lb of this chemical per acre will produce a 0.01 m (0,4 inch) thick
layer of hydrophobic soil.
The combination of a solution of aluminium chloride and distilled water
has a good resistance against erosion, whereafter a solution in dis-
tilled water of potassium stearate was applied. The double application is
considered a disadvantage.
The use of sodium polyphosphate needs very skilled labourers. The subsoil
must be especially prepared and protected from light.
15
Sprayable liquid vinyl polymer has excellent properties for stabilising

sandy soils. At high concentrations it has been tested for the control of
seepage on highly compacted subsoils.
4.5. Bitumen
Bitumen is a product obtained from the distillation of crude oil and has
often been used to create waterproof membranes in water storage tanks.
It may be used in combination with a reinforcement like glass fibre or
polypropylene.
Generally reinforced bitumen membranes are more durable than unreinforeed
bitumen membranes.
The subgrade must be thoroughly sterilized to prevent puncture by the
growth of vegetation. Diesel fuel at the rate of 4-6 liter per m 2 will be
sufficient, but a sterilizer may be harmfull, pollution of groundwater
and so on.
Before applying the bitumen the subgrade must be compacted to achieve
structural stability. Especially when bitumen is locally available, a
cheap method is spraying of the bitumen membrane.
A hot bitumen (350-400 degrees F) can be applied to the wetted subgrade
by pouring it with cans untill a membrane with a thickness of 0.06 m has
been achieved.
Pouring is started at the base of the storage tank and is continued up
the slope. When the bitumen has hardened it should be inspected for thin
areas or holes which can be locally patched.
The sand or gravel covering layer should be placed as soon as the bitumen
membrane has been completed and should be lightly rolled into the surface.
To prevent damage to the bitumen membrane the covering layer should not
be pushed down the slope or allowed to slide down.
Prefabricated bitumen rolls and panels as waterproof linings for water
storage tanks are also available.
4.6. Brickwork/concrete
The bricks must be of good quality in order to obtain a watertight

structure. Prior to laying, the bricks must be moistened with water. To
prevent cracking caused by shrinkage and high temperatures the layer
should be moistened during the first four weeks or protected by means of
a cover (plastic foil).
The cement to be used in the mortar should be an ordinary Portland cement
(in accordance with BS 12 or similar specification). In the case of
aggressive soil due to a high salinity, Portland cement 5 or blast
furnace cement must be used.
Lower strength cements are not recommendable. The cement must be stored
in a dry place.
The first requirement for sand is that it should be free from organic and
chemical impurities which may weaken the mortar.
A coarse silica sand is probably the best for the purpose. The use of
coarse sand will lessen the workability of the mortar but its resistance
to shrinkage will be greater than that of a mortar made with fine sand.
16
The water must be clean and free from acid chemicals, salt and organic
matters.
Salt water should never be used.
Mortars for brickwork are a mixture of cement, sand and water, each
ingredient having the correct proportion. For a maximum brickwork resis-
tance to water pressure the following cement mortar mixes are advisable:
a. 1 volume part of Portland cement
2 volume parts of sand (fine aggregate)
b. 1 volume part of Portland cement

2,5 volume parts of sand (fine aggregate)
c. 1 volume part of strong hydraulic powder-lime

0,25 volume part of Portland cement
2,5 volume parts of sand (fine aggregate)
A mortar for concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, aggregate and water,

each ingredient having the correct proportion.
A general mix is:
WATER. CEMeMT SAND AGGREGATE
o.M5 \ t> l.o 3.o
DRY - MIXED
1 volume part of Portland cement

2 volume parts of sand
3 volume parts of aggregate
0.45 weight parts of water
If bricks of a somewhat lower quality are used, the quality of the mortar
should also be lower (for instance 1 : 4%) in order to prevent shrinkage
differences between the brickwork and mortar. However, it should not be
forgotten that any such reduction in quality may result in a less water-
tight structure.
The mortar must be thoroughly mixed and workable although one should
remember that a dry mortar is stronger than a wet one.
In any event the weight ratio of water to cement must not exceed 0.5 : 1.
The Portland cement should be fresh. Old and/or wet bags with Portland
cement are to be removed.
Where tests can be carried out they should be in accordance with the
codes locally applicable. The aggregate (sand) should be free from
vegetable soil and black soil.
17
5. TESTING
5.1. Introduction
If possible it is recommended that the materials to be used and the

subsoil should be tested on site. This chapter gives some guidelines for
testing of available soil.
5.2. Simple field identification tests for soil
Preliminary
Look at the whole sample

Is it mainly a coarse or fine soil?
Are there any fibres or roots?
Is it dull or dirty?
a. Appearance
If the soil is fibrous or dirty in appearance, test for organic material.
b. Feel
Sands and gravel feel coarse and gritty. Silts and clay are hard or
floury when dry and soft or sticky when wet. Clay when wet will stain the
fingers and can only be removed by washing.
c. Composition
Estimate how much of each fraction is in sandy soil and separate coarse
from fine material by hand.
d. Organic (smell) test
Take a sample of the soil and smell it. If it has an earthy or vegetable
smell it is probably organic. Warm the sample and the odour will become
distinct.
Vibration test
(For particle size distribution). Place a dry sample on a board. Hold the
board at a slope and tap lightly with a stick. The finer material will
move up the slope or remain in place, the coarser will move down the
slope.
18
If there are many different sizes between the Largest and the smallest,
the sample is well-graded. This means it will compact well. If only a few
sizes can be seen, then it is single-sized or poorly graded.
Settling test
This test can also be used to determine the amount of soil (dirt) in
river sand used for masonry or concrete work.
Place a sample of sand in a bottle or a glass jar with straight sides.

Add water and shake well. Then put it down to allow the mixture to
settle. Gravel and coarse sand will settle immediately. Fine sand and
coarse silt will settle more slowly taking about 30 seconds. Clay and
fine silt fractions will not settle for several hours.
In the sample, the approximate quantities of each size can be seen as

layers, the finer materials being different in colour. For sand which is
used for masonry and concrete work, the amount of clay and silt must be
less than 6%, otherwise the sand has to be washed.
WATER.
• Fiwe
-MEDIUM
-coARse
•0 „
Cohesion test
(To show whether there is sufficient building material in the

soil).
Take a handfull of damp material and mould it into a ball.

a. With gravels the material will not stick together unless there are
fine materials present.
b. With sands the damp material will stick together, but if no fine
materials are present it will crumble at a touch.
c. If the ball stays together, even when placed on a sheet of paper,
silts or clays are present, which means the material is suitable for
bunds (see § 3.3.).
19
Permeability test
This test can give an impression of the permeability of a clay soil

compacted in a standard way. Take a large barrel (e.g. an oil drum),
perforate the bottom, and stand the barrel on some kind of frame, free of
the ground. Place the soil in small layers in the barrel and compact it
layer after layer. Try to imitate the future situation (fill to about
0.5 m ) . After compaction fill the rest of the barrel with water (upto
e.g. 1 m ) .
The water level must not decrease more than 10% per day.
If the water level does decrease more than 10% per day, it means that in
practice the soil layer will have to be thicker, or that another type of
soil must be used for the bunds.
If only smaller barrels are available the decrease of the water level can
be lower, f.i. a water layer of 0.8 m and a soil layer of 0.4 m requires
a decrease of water level of about 7%.
In general:
v < 0.033 x i in which
v = decrease of waterlevel in %
. _ , , ,. ,. hw water level
l = hydraulic gradient = T — = — n — , . . , so
hs soil thickness
v < 0.033 x ^ | = 0.067 m/day
i.e. about 7%
20
L.6V
A & O V 0 "Sent-J
OF -%«ni_.
•pe R.F=OR A T e.'p,

BoTToH.
,.,,v>rl(^fl^l^tl/<^
PERMEARlUiTy T E S T
21
TOOLS
Excavation wheelbarrow
marking out tools buckets
post
pegs
tape (measure)
2 kg string line
shovels
pickaxes for excavation
mattocks for groundlevelling
woodsaw
spirit level
plumbline, measuring tape
Tools to compact tampers (selfmade)
oxen/bullocks
Tools for driving piles heavy hammer or
drop weight with driving leads
and pulley
Tools for the frame work pins or wire
ladder
hammer
planks and stakes
Where needed tools to spray the bi tumen.
A roller to roll the sand into the bitumen,
Tools for the sand-cement sausages type (VII)
filling tool
perforating tools
flat board (wood)
Mixing mortar tools plastic sheeting
mixing box 70 x 120 x 35 cm
gauging/measuring box
50 x 50 x 40 cm
sieve 5 mm maximum openings for
sand
shovel for mixing
water container/bins
concrete mixer
Tools for placing the mortar mix plasterers steel hand floats
hand hawks
trowelling boards
wire brush
chisels
Tools for finishing plastic sheeting for curing
the mortar
22
WOODEN; MORTAR HOLDER

(HAWK)
2o .
T=X
FLOAT
MEASURING 60X S o X So X A o (
PlASTCRERi STEEL HAND

23
7. STABILITY CONDITIONS
7.1. General aspects
There are two kinds of stability: macrostability i.e. the stability of a

mass of earth along a plane of sliding and microstability i.e. the
stability of the small soil particles under the slope line.
The size of the designed bunds make extensive calculations of the macro-
stability unnecessary. Under normal circumstances, macrostability will be
ensured, if inclines of slope for clay are less than 45° and for sand
less than 38°.
The microstability may be affected by seepage because of an even small
permeability of a sand bund. For these bunds a toefilter can be a solu-
tion see § 3.6.).
The microstability of the outside slope can also be improved by a layer
of rockfill or clay with vegetation.
Seepage might cause transportation of small soil particles and piping
(see figure). This will disturb the stability.
7.2. Causes of failure
From the engineering point of view, there are a number of reasons, why
failures occur. Experience has shown that these causes can be divided
into five categories:
1. Site conditions not investigated
2. Errors in design
3. Poor construction
4. Inadequate maintenance
5. Statistically remote phenomena (extreme rainfall, tornado, earth-
quakes)
O V E R T O P P I N G - W.A.«SntM<3 OUT E N B A N k M C N T
24
SEEPAGE E R o S i o M O R p i P i N f i T H R o u G H
T H E C>AM \ N C > / o f t IT'S (="0Crt^C»A.Tlot>4
<3lbE E L E V A T I O N
FA.1 LUHE
B O E T o FO0V4OATTIOM S E T T U E M S N T
. . . " = ' ^••;>>>/^V/»{j«\V/J1^^
C « A C K I N 6 O F CX^VM OU€ To
I
I
25
•SUlTiE" p o e T O W e ^ W C FOUtslCiAX I O N
(JPSTBE*M «>uDe o u t : T O
6 U D O E H a R A ^ B o \ « / N OP TAN»</fte6KB>VO(R.
26
Particulary in our case for the narrow type of bunds the horizontal
equilibrium must be ensured.
An example of a check calculation of the coffer dam type is given in the
next paragraph.
27
8. TYPES OF TANKS
8.1. Type I: Clay bund Page
General layout 28
Details and dimensions 29
Work instructions 30
Capacity 30 m 3 : Bill of quantities 32
Short description:
A bund simply build up from clay, in small layers on an impermeable
subsoil.
28
PL-AM
*iwJmvM%-
SECTIOH
C o p o c ' > *d A
1 3
1^
"io £ . 0 0 i.a*
^ O |0.3fa l.-2«T
c ^ W.oo \.VS TYPE I CUAY &UND
l*50 \4.<=)C '.i*? ' « i i O I S I G M WAS fttAiiSCO U N D O »US«-K t S
D ( V l i O * i N C C O U N ' M i t S - SWD * D I O I »S
Ol 1 H ( SIfCOlMO
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• < ( ' H M I * N 0 1
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IRmGATION WATER STORAGE TANKS

TYPICAL DESIGN
EARTH BUND SWD

CONSTRUCTION
TYPEI
J
GENERAL'LAY OUT T WO 1 """ '
29
t-*>Ûr-7 oL A-\r->» \=3Ui-*A
V»/<=»-<-g,r- Ie v e
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TYPE. X CLAsV e>uKiO

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is c o o o m m o N * MM - • #o - *»i*s»oo«»"
IRRIGATION WATER STORAGE TANKS
S c a l e if? (-""><=-+e.r<3
TYPICAL DESIGN
EARTH BUND SWD
CONSTRUCTION
• tSszoîX
TYPE X
DETAILS AND DIMENSIONS TWO!
31
work sequence and description notes and recommendations
- cover the inside of the bund-side

and the base with a layer of a
clay-sand mixture of about 0.30 m
thick to prevent the clay from
drying out
- cover the outside of the bund - this side of the bund must have
with rockfill or vegetation a steep slope to prevent cattle
to prevent erosion from approaching the water
- cover the crown of the bund (being
about 1.00 m of wide) with a 0.15 m
sand layer paved over with bricks or
rockfill
- make a toefilter as described on
page 11
32
UNIT
ITEM UNIT QUANTITY PRICE PRICE.
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IRR1GATK DN WATER STORAGE TANKS

TYPICAL D E S I G N
*•» . . . .*.
EARTH
CONSTRUC
-! SWD
3UND j
TYPE X ~| dat« C»2 l O O U
TYPE H
TION
c a p a c ity 3 o m 3 BILL OF Q U A N T I T I E S TWO I OM,
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33
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ITEM UNIT Q U A N T I T Y PRICE FRICE.
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T O T A L CO£>T OF" <=i TORAGE T V^ N K
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IRR1GATKDN WATER STORAGE TANKS

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EARTH 13UND
SWD
CONSTRUC T I O N
TYPE X a.i. ,3^ iocc5
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3
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T O T A L C O S T O F " «=a TORAGE. T >^ N k L
i « . i of S I G N WAS A U U S I 3 UN D I P »u%<*<<•(«> 0» , H » S I l i a . x G C O M M i ' T f l MINDINING'

O l v K O ' i N G COUNKHS - S * 0 •- H I B O i * b »»€•& O0»' :«t t l ' H M i » S D 5
IRRIGATK DN WATER STORAGE TANKS

TYPICAL D ESIGN
EARTH 3UND
SWD
CONSTRUC TION
TYPE X j TYPE X
o«i. <32. u s o * 3 "
capac itycô m j B I L L OF Q U A N T I T I E S
I ' ' •
Two ; ""v
35
UNIT
ITEM UNIT QUANT IT Y PRICE PRICE.
c y c<=* v«=*4-i or? •V5* <£<£.
\ea^&\r-(<Scx+*±A**t*A mr,»
Cc(<*l*/\n>\u*A} W>*
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,
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TOTAL. C O S T O F " «=i T O R A G E T >^ N K L
• I H l S O I S I C N WAS REA|.i%E J U N O I a 4liS»tC f S O ' ' H I S T U P I N G ( . O M M i " t | * M N O ! N t « G *

DEVELOPING C O U N K i i S - swo - »o I O I «i t u t u s OO"I * « l Hf t H ( H t ANOS
IM C O O ' t R M l O M l W t T H - T W
0 - *Ml«$FOO"'
IRR1GATK STORAGE TANKS

DN WATER
TYPICAL D
EARTH
ESIGN
13 U N D
SWD
CONSTRUC T I O N
TYPE X TYPE Z L
3
capac ityi'som B I L L OF Q U A N T I T I E S TWO ' nMV
... T"
36
8.2. Type II: Coffer dam
General layout
Details and dimensions
Work instructions
Capacity 30 m 3 : Bill of quantities
Short description:
A dam of clay-layers between wooden stakes
37
-2»0 «.&a » ^ «
<£>o 7/=?° 1.1*5 T Y P E IC C O F F E R D>>&»M
<ô «?.6o l.f5 'H.& OC&iCN WAS RIAL'SfO JMOI* *US»lCf* O* THf STItHINO C O N M I ' K I <« i«OC MI HG>
Q(*(tOPlMC COUNMlfS - SWO — »0 80» *> *mt*%*00*1 ' " ( * I I ft Hi * NOS
• •« COOPIRAHON * H M - t * 0 - » « l l H F O O » 1
i « o 1-2 ^4o 1.1*5
. . . . . . . . . . . , •
TYPICAL DESIGN '
EARTH BUND SWD

CONSTRUCTION
o.t. t i ^ O ^ - Z l
TYPE I E .
GENERAL LAY OUT TWO !
36
• 1 looo,
o f *rc=> r=c^
1 "^
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f « 4 " d i i*-> nr->e=
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0
VERTICAL ^ £ TlONl• v L
TOP N/IEN*/ Ct=^.RT OF" T h E D A M )
T Y R E - 3T, COFFER DAM

•* . t s l.«, MAS M f » . >>L> .,•..•!"
. I i it Nk. : J U N ' H i t l • *• <» L
io IRRIGATION WATER STORAGE TANKS
TYPICAL DESIGN
EARTH BUND SWD

i c a i c i» r.-r e r ^
CONSTRUCTION
. cSJO^-21
TYPE IL
T W
DETAILS AND DIMENSIONS 0
40
fill the coffer dam and build up

the tank base in layers of max.
0.20 m crumbled clay
also these layers are to be com- the soil can also be improved
pacted with tampers and/or by if it is not of the necessary
letting sheep and/or oxen walk quality (see page 9)
over them
insert a PVC or concrete over- this overflow pipe is to
flow in the coffer dam at the prevent the top of the coffer
height of the highest water level dam being eroded by spillover
connect the overflow pipe with
an irrigation channel
control the height of the coffer
dam by a jungle-stick marked at the
height of the dam) on the already
hammered pegs
cover the base with a layer of a clay-
sand mixture of about 0.30 m thick to
prevent the clay from drying out
cover the crown of the coffer dam
with a 0.15 m sand layer paved over
with bricks or rockfill
41
UNIT
ITEM UNIT Q U A N T I T Y PRICE PRICE.
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1 <=a M O r - ("Sat-xi/^Hns^ ^ 7 *
dcloij/iû<i) ^ *
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l
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' M i S O l S i C M WAS M * l < & E 3 U N O t f t A U S ' l C t S OF f M t S T f f R - N C C O M M I T I f ( W I N O C N t R C *

0 t « U O » l N C C O U N T H i l S - i » D - 0 0 « O l B» AMIRS O O * ' "*E N t l M t R l t N O S .
>NC00O(«AtlON W I I H - I l0 -*Mt*S'0Oftt

TYPICAL D ESIGN
EARTH BUND
SWD
CONSTRUC T I O N
r
| TYPE TYPE I T -
3
: c a p a city 3»om B I L L OF Q U A N T I T I E S T W O f •'•*" •
42
UNIT
ITEM UNIT QUANTITY
PRICE PRICE
e x c<a v c a 4 - i QY-> \-nk
,
I <=a t-j S t - ^ 5 a > ^ d ^ * M f ^ ^
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TYPICAL DESIGN
EARTH BUND SWD

CONSTRUCTION
TYPE JX. TYPE HL
capacity ^«=>m3 Bl LL OF Q U A N T I T I E S TWO ! OHV ^
43
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ocvfiOPiNc; c o u N i m f s - SWO • BO l O l »J t U ( I I S r O O * t TMf H I I M t R L t M D S
•« C O O H B A T I O W w i i M - t w O - Ami B S F O O " *

TYPICAL D
:
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SWD
CONSTRUC 3 U N D
TION
T Y P E JXC- TYPE HI
3
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T H I S Q H I G N WAS H C A L ' S f > u N D I R A U & P ' C I S 0» 1*( S'EE*iMG COMMlTTEf WfMOENCMG*

DEVELOPING C O U N m i l S - W O - »0 101 • ) AMEIItrOOHT TM( NtTMlMtAKOS
IN C O O M f t & T l O N W i t n - i t 0 - AHENSf00»>
IRR1GATIC)N WATER STORAGE TANKS

TYPICAL D ESIGN _ .
EARTH 1 SWD
C O N S T R U C 3UND w
*"* •
1
TYPE I T TYPE J E T I O N
capac t y l f S O m 3 B I L L OF Q U A N T I T I E S
i 1
45
8.3. Type III: PVC-lining Page
General layout 46
Short description:
A bund of available soil with a lining of PVC over het base and the
inside of the bund wall.
46
PLA>4
W.'.',M>
SEcTtoM
/
COUSiCKC. VT Lj A. C
3 o £.-S© -4.5<3 l . ^ e
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T Y P E HE. PVC LlNlMG

!mS OtSlGN WAS R t * l i S t O UNUIP ftOSflCIS 0» ' H i SlttOiNd C O W * " » M WINQlHIIX.'
O f V l l O " N G COUNIRKS - SWD - 'O I O I I t AMIRS'OO*! ' " ( t | ' H [ » i 1NOS
iHCOO'IMIIiON » . f H - f v » o - » m « S r o o » '
TYPICAL DESIGN
EARTH BUND SWD

CONSTRUCTION
TYPEJJE
" ! ' '
GENERAL LAY OUT TWO : """
47
W o o q & n rs><gâ^v>S
«S*fve>r>^ «=>i
•••••• a. o
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TOR V I E W (COG.N E R . OFTHE e > U N b»)
T Y P E . HE PVC LIN IMG

T
'H'S 0 1 &iCN WAS Mf i K S f U UN0( M *UiPlL(S UF » « * St||«INCi ' 0*""» ' ' t t * • NO( N l H<, t
Otvl I O ' I N C ,Qu>i>*i(^ - S * 0 - »0 lOl 6i «<M(*S«00« ' ' H | •H'KtRMNOJ
r
IN COUPf R A l l O * * i l « - l#0 - «il»i'0O«

l<=>
TYPICAL DESIGN
^ceale no Kie4
EARTH BUND SWD
CONSTRUCTION n < i i u K t
„ . «3'ZOej2|
TYPE m :
DETAILS AND DIMENSIONS ; TWO : "'"'
48
TYPE III: PVC-lining
- fence the area of the site cattle can be a hindrance and

would damage the bund construc-
tion
clear the area of the site where test the quality of the local
it is proposed to construct the subsoil (see page 17)
tank
remove a layer of approx. 0.20 m to avoid settlements and under
of the top soil seepage under the earth bund
fill with a layer of soil of
approx. 0.20 m
the fill is to be compacted with tools are described in this
tampers (self made) and/or by manual (see page 21)
letting oxen walk over it
if necessary the surface is to be
levelled
mark the inner and outer circumference
of the bund with pegs
(pegs core to core 1 meter)
setting out can be done by putting for more information about
down the levelling tool on the top levelling and the levelling
of each peg tool see pagelO)
hammer the peg till the water level
in the tube reached the desired marks
build up the earth bund and the tank
base in layers of 0,20 m
these layers are also be compacted the base of the tank has to be
with tampers and/or by letting constructed 0.50 m above ground
oxen walk over them level to allow gravitational
flow
flow in the bund at the height prevent the top of the bund
of the highest water level being eroded by spillover
the groundwork is completed when depending on the kind of soil
the outlines and slopes have reached the slopes may deviate from the
the height, dimensions and gradients drawings
indicated on the drawings
control the height of the bund by
placing a jungle-stick (marked at the
height of the bund) on the already
hammered pegs.
49
the slope and the base have to be the soil may not contain
as smooth as possible gravel or other sharp objects
because these may damage the
plastic sheet
compact the surface of the soil
of the base and the slopes with
tampers
sterilize the soil with a sterilant a layer of soil 0.30 m thick
for instance diesel fuel on the base and on the slopes
will be sufficient
place a conserved wooden or bamboo conserving can be done by
beam at the top of the inside of singeing the surface slightly
the bund (see drawing) or saturing the wood with oil
fold the plastic sheet over this choose a type of plastic
beam and entrench the sheet sheeting and join the sheet
as described in the chapter
"materials".
Use a sheet with a high resis-
tance to puncture, great
flexibility, a high tear resis-
tance and easy to splice and
repair
it must be laid with some slack
to prevent stresses due to the
expansion or contraction of the
sheet
put another conserved wooden or
bamboo beam connected with a fibre
mat over the plastic sheet to protect
this sheet on the inside of the bund
wall
cover the plastic sheet on the
base with a layer of sand of about
0.25 m thick to protect the sheet
put stackable stones on the base
upto the waterline against the fibre
mat on the bund wall to assure the
stability; the slope of it depends
on the sizes of the stones
cover the outside of the bund do not use vegetation, it may
with rockfill to prevent puncture the sheet
erosion
50

rockfill
- make a toe-filter as described on
page 11
51
UNIT
ITEM UNIT Q U A N T I T Y PRICE PRICE
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Q ( V l l O » l N G COUNTHifl - SWD - »0 101 • * Atl«ftS'OOfti (MI N I T H I H U N O S
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TYPICAL D ES0N
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3
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52
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O f v [ i O » i M C COUNfRKS - SWO - » 0 a O l 8 1 AMIRS OOR' '"I » l ' H t « i ANOS
IN COORf R A T I O * * H H - ' * 0 - *»*( " S ' O O R )

TYPICAL 0 ESIGN
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SWD
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OI«ILO»ING COUNTRKS - swo - PO I O I «i t M i m 00*T 'Ml «|TH(RiAUDI
\H C O O P f R A T I O " W I T H — t w

TYPICAL 0 ESIGN
EARTH 3UND
SWD
CONSTRUC T I O N
TYPE HE TYPE TUT
capac t y ^ o m 3 BILL OF QUANTITIES TWO f "MV J
54
UNIT
ITEM UNIT QUANTITY PRICE PRICE-
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OIVILOPIMG couN<mis - SWO - o o I O > • ) *MCft$
m COOPfMAFion t i r M - m0 -»WIRS'OO"'

TYPICAL D E S I G N
EARTH BUND
SWD
CONSTRUC T I O N
TYPE TYPE T T C
3 r- • [ — - —r—
capac i t y l s o m Bl LL OF Q U A N T I T I E S 1 T W O ! """
55
8.4. Type IV: Saad-bentonite lining Page
General layout 56
Short description:
A bund of available soil with a lining of a sand-bentonite layer over the
base and in the bund.
56
SECX-ION
^50 <5.oo 1,2^5

6 0 l o k i c 1.2*5
9 0 l'2^>0 1^2'S -TVFB. TSZT S ^ M T 5 " B > E M T O N i T a LIMING
l«o K^ V»2« T H . S O f S t G h WAS " l i u S C D U N O M A u S P l C I S
O t v H O ' i N G C O U N T N U S - SWD ~ PO « O l 14
>H COO * t RATI ON W I T H - TWO - * M t * S F O O * T
Or TMl STEERING. C O M M t M t f
»ME*S*00»' *«€ NETMEAi*MOS
WlNOfhfftb*

TYPICAL DESIGN '
EARTH BUND SWD

CONSTRUCTION
1. «^"2de^2l
TYPE T V
GENERAL LAY OUT TWO
57
-0-
3-H %
0
it
0"
«=»«a»-»fi - k>c«->4-£?»--u-'-c f" »-^ (./i ; I \

VERTIC^sL SECTION
_Aî .. . _ L ^
ft ^lo c tovfired
S-C7C.U.-V- ill
It
_\^
"TlDP N / l E W CFV^T O F T H E E.UMCs)
T Y P E 3SI 3A.Nm-&£NiTQKH"E. LINING
o ''Z IRRIGATION WATER STORAGE TANKS

TVPlCAl DESIGN
<5'-.. rr. nr.<£.-~ <S r<=>

EARTH BUND SWD
CONSTRUCTION
< ^ C < ^ - , 11
TYPE TV1
T Wl
D E T A I L S AND D I M E N S I O N S 3
58
TYPE IV: Sand-bentonite lining
fence the area of the site cattle can be a hindrance and

tion
tank
remove a layer of approx. 0.20 m to avoid settlements and
fill with a layer of clay of
approx. 0.20 m
levelled
build up the earth bund in layers bentonite can be affected by
of 0.20 m - 0.30 m with (radial) calcareous soils
width 0.20 m of sand/bentonite
mixture (4:1) as indicated on the
drawing
cover the tank base with a try to keep the base wet to
0.20 m layer made up of the same prevent shrinkage cracks. The
mixture as described above base has to be constructed
0.50 m above groundlevel to
allow gravitation flow
cover the tank base with a a pure bentonite layer may be
following layer (thick 0.30 m) unstable
consisting of sand/bentonite
mixture of 10 : 1
compact these layers with bentonite in granular form can
tampers be added to water in a storage
tank which is known to be
leaking though cracks or seams.
59
Bentonite may be drawn into the

cracks and in swelling may seal
them, therefore it is advisable
to keep an extra quantity of
bentonite apart to be able to
repair cracks
hammered pegs.
cover the outside of the bund with this side of the bund must have
rockfill or vegetation to prevent a steep slope to prevent cattle
erosion from approaching the water
cover the crown of the bund (being
rockfill
make a toe-filter as described on
page 11
60
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64
8.5. Type V: Bitumen lining Page
General layout 65
Short description:
A bund of available soil with a lining of bitumen over the base and the
inside slopes of the bund.
65
PLAN
SECTION
|C«apaei-U-j
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I N COOPf h At ION n » i r H - f v » O - » » l « S » 0 O » 1
TYPICAL DESIGN
EARTH BUND SWD

CONSTRUCTION
rt*t» ,
TYPE 2 2 1
GENERAL LAY OUT TWO! m"v
66
0 0 0
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y p g "^r BITUKEKj LlNhMG

THIS D I S . C N * * & R f A l i S t O J N O t R A U S ' i C l S Of ' M l » T f f » " N C C O M M I T ' ! ! W I N O E N f K G f
D I v d O P l N C C O U N T O t t S ~ ^«*0 - " 0 i O » S* A M E H S t O O R ' 'H[ HttNtRitNDI
i * COOPERATION W l t M - ' K O - « K | K S ' O O "
TYPICAL DESIGN
^>o<=»i<=- iio rv7<s^"<s.rs EARTH BUND SWD

CONSTRUCTION
ntiiurti
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TYPE 3 1
om
DETAILS AND DIMENSIONS | TWO '
67
TYPE V: Bitumen lining

tion
tank
of the top soil seepage under the clay bund
fill with a layer of earth of
approx. 0.20 m
levelled
in the tube reached the disered marks
base in layers of 0.20 m - 0.30 m
flow
hammered pegs.
68
sterilize the soil with a sterilant, a layer of soil of 0.30 m thick

for instance diesel fuel on the base and on the slopes
will be sufficient
the soil has to have a struc-
tural stability, being well
compacted and smooth
make a water proof lining, by it is advisable to start with
creating a membrane by hand a layer of a prefabricated
pouring or spraying bitumen glass or polypropylene mat as a
with, if necessary a prime and reinforcement, before spraying
seal coating as a liner for the or pouring the bitumen layer
inside slope and the base
cover the bituminous lining on the for more information about
inside slopes with a layer of sand bitumen and the cover layer of
or gravel lightly rolled in to protect sand (see page 14)
the bitumen from oxidation
stones or rockfill to prevent a steep slope to prevent cattle
erosion from approaching the water
rockfill
make a toe-filter as described on
page 11
69
UNIT
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| SWD
CONSTRUCTION
TYPE 321 I « • • <S7. l o o ' S '
TYPE ~<s7"
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ITEM UNIT Q U A N T l T y PRICE PRICE.
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TYPE TYPE "*ZT i
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capac t y o , o m B I L L OF Q U A N T I T I E S | TWo| U M V . ... !
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EARTH BUND
SWD
CONSTRUCTION
TYPE a.i. <SZIOO^
TYPE 3 Z I
3
capac tylGOm B I L L OF Q U A N T I T I E S ! T W O j »HV f
-I 1 1
73
8.6. Type VI: Lining of bricks or concrete
General layout
Details and dimensions
Work instructions
Short description:
A bund of available soil with a lining of bricks o

base and inside slopes of the bund.
PLAJsl
3ECTIQKI
CopaclTtj ^ is
-*>o <3,o© 1,2>S

io l o / i © U'Z'S
<3o c2.oo 1.15 T Y P E "SL L I N I N G O F P>R\CK<S,
|*2»0 l ^ . ^ o 1.1/5 THIS O f S I C N WAS W f A H S E O U N O I * A U t P l C E S
D t V f L O P i N G C 0 O N I » K I - S " I > - » 0 I O I 9t
Of THE STEERING C O M t t l T T E l WlNOENERGV
A M C R S ' O O " ' ' H I N ( T ME PU AMOS
m C O O P E R A T I O N W I T H — T WO — * W E * S r O O f t T

- - • • - - r
TYPICAL DESIGN !
EARTH BUND SWD

CONSTRUCTION
TYPE 2 1 I
oH_ _ _ l
GENERAL LAY OUT
J
rTwor " * i L_
75
i
*=,-To\r> es. or tbricU- i
v*/«grfe.t- t<g,v<s.l L. — ^ k
?
IP
rrrrr 0^
I.
•o
.(-t-c^r
VEftllCAU SECTION
V'it >lA/^
T
TCP V I E W ( " P A R T o F T H E B»uUb)
Type yr LIKHKIG O F s>^>crt<r^>

••S U( S C H *»Ab > l i | ' S M > UMIltn «.iSP'l I I.NU (•)»»•<
TYPICAL DESIGN
«5c.«=ne- ir-> m<a-r«r'=, EARTH BUND SWD

CONSTRUCTION Tl* Jill ' »»
TYPE V T .iiâc^^l
DETAILS AND DIMENSIONS TWO1"""
76
TYPE VI: Lining of bricks or concrete

tion
tank
approx. 0.20 m
levelled
base in layers of maximally 0.20 m
thick with crumbled clay
flow
the outlines and slopes have reached the slopes may deviate from
the height, dimensions and gradients the drawings
hammered pegs.
77
- sterilize the soil with a sterilant - a layer of soil 0.30 thick on

for instance diesel fuel the base and on the slopes
will be sufficient
- compact the soil on the base and - the soil must have a structural
the slopes with self-made tampers stability and be well compacted
- start bricklaying - the bricks must be of good
quality in order to obtain a
watertight structure
- mix the mortar (1 part cement, 2 to
2\ parts of sand)
- add water to the dry mortar until - beware of too much water; the
the mortar can be handled well water must be clean and free
off acid chemicals, salt and
organic materials
- moisten the subsoil and the bricks - moistening is important because
before laying the soil and the bricks may not
transport water from the joints
- spread "a good and ample mortar - Such a process would result in
bed" on each brick to connect the cracks due to shrinkage
bricks; start at the base of the tank
- do not place the mortar too far "in - bricks are not to be moved or
advance", before the bricks are laid repositioned once the hardening
in their final positions process has begun
- fill all joints completely - no joints should be placed -
- make vertical joints in the slopes above each other; no "dead"
at 5.00 m intervals and fill them mortar retrieved from the
with tar ground or other surface must
be re-used
- cover the bricks with a layer of - the mix of the mortar for the
cementplaster, 0.015 m thick plaster has to be 1 part
cement, 1\ to 3 parts of sand
- cover the bricks/layer that has - it is important to prevent the
already been laid with plastic bricks/layer and the cement-
sheeting or wet sacking plaster from drying out; this
curing period should be take
place in the first week after
plastering
78
Note - instead of a lining of

bricks with cementplaster it is
possible to make a layer of concrete
with a minimum thickness of 0.06 m then a plastic sheet is to be
spread over the area and have a
reinforcement for the slab and
the slopes (05-200), mix cement
sand and gravel to a dry mortar
(1:2:3); level the surfaces and
cover them with a plastic
sheeting
for the first four weeks
rockfill to prevent erosion a steep slope to prevent cattle
from approaching the water

rockfill
make a toe-filter as described on page
11
79
UNIT
ITEM UNIT QUANT IT Y PRJCE PRICE
C-X o<a v <=*+1 o p ho: ^2>
1 ca «-j G.\c- (?=x3r*±/'3r*t*Al \m
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iNCOOPfB»T>ON <*iIM-t#0-*yf»S<00«'

I
TYPICAL DESIGN
EARTH BUND SWD

CONSTRUCTION
T Y P E rszi: TYPE 3 Z I -
<5lioo5"
capacity 5 o m 3 B I L L OF Q U A N T I T I E S TWO
80
UNIT
ITEM UNIT QUANT ITy PRICE PRICE.
e/cciv^-fioo \m- AS6,
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rncmcacH. r<=* -h-«s

o t=>ou r*
TOTAL C05T OF" STORAGE TAN<
r
HiS OCSlGh MAS ftlAnSIO UMDl « AUS»lC ( S O* IH( SHINING C O W M i ' H I *<NOIM(ftGT
O l V t l O U N C COWMKIIIJ - SWO - »Q I O I •» AMfRS'OORT " t i N | I N ( » K N D 1
<N COO^CKAf I0M * l 1 H - t i « O - « » l » S » 0 O « '

TYPICAL DESIGN
EARTH BUND
SWD
CONSTRUCTION
TYPE i n - a... d l l O O ?
TYPE
capacity 6 o m 3 B I L L OF Q U A N T I T I E S TWof""" T
81
U N I T
ITEM UNIT Q U A N T l T y PRICE
PRICE
C-X c<a v « - h i Qr~> »-o» <£>£,
1 <=a M e » - (%«avwd^n<r^ tnr,*
CcUatj/Hûtfl} >r,»
*-<-îll NA/J+IO * > o i 1 r^,* C*&
fc>oro«=i hv»» -^ O O
4=MS*«3C c**.ir4-l-> M 1 ^-4
<So*"»pea<=-V««l ^ o i 1 »no»
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vx/oool foj-tf-êt-vcrn* . • « »
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1a b o u r j
T O T A L CO ^ T OF" S T O R A G E "T>kN*<C
»HlS O I S ' C N WAS M t * t > S ( 0 u N O f l * U S P « C t S Of I H | S ' ! l « i N G COMMlUEl WlMDfMIMGt

O t v i l O O l N C COUN t * H S - SMO - » 0 B O l B i AHINl 00«' ' H | N(lHl«i*NOS
* IN C O O P E R A T I O N « r H M - ' « i 0 - A M C N S ' O O " '
IRR1GATKDN WATER STORAGE TANKS

i
TYPICAL D ESIGN
EARTH BUND
SWD
CONSTRUC TION
TYPE TYPE ^ V T
3
capac i t y « ^ o m BILL OF QUANTITIES 1
TWO n v
"
»
39
TYPE II: Coffer dam

tion
tank
remove a layer of approx. 0,20 m to avoid settlements and
of the top soil seepage under the coffer dam
approx. 0.20 m
levelled
of the coffer dam with pegs
build up the coffer dam by driving all the wooden piles have to
the retaining stakes (0 0.15 ra) in a be conserved by singeing the
radial distance of 1.00 m and a wooden surface or saturating
tangential distance of approx. the wood with oil
1.50 m about, till one third of the
necessary retaining height is driven A bamboo stake is a good alter-
in the subsoil native to a wooden pile
make a closed wall of horizontal
planks or piles (0 0.10 m) against the
the vertical framework and fill the
gaps between these with branches
or fibre mats
join the retaining stakes with
nails, ropes or wire
place the supporting stakes the supporting stakes on the
(0 0.15 m) against the retaining inner side of the tank are
stakes to support the coffer dam temporary. After filling of the
coffer dam and before making
the tank base they must be
taken away
82
UNIT
ITEM UNIT QUANTITY PRICE PRICE.
1
c y c<=» V « = V T - i o r ? HO» =9<^
1 <=a «-i S.\r- fe=xay*±/*yn«^ •••,»
<Ccl<acj/iû«sl) ^ *
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"TOTAL. C O S T O F " «=i T O R A G E T ;MMK-
I H I * O I S t G N WAS N t A i l S f a uNof« * U S » > C E S o» "«e S T I C K I N G C O M M U l f t wiNOCNCRG*

O t v E l O P I M G C O U N I H t l S ~ swo - »o I O I n ' A H t n s OORT T H f I t T H f H l . N O S
11 C O O M R A T l O N 4TITH — r # 0 - » » l t l t * 0 0 » '

TYPICAL DESIGN
EARTH BUND
SWD
CONSTRUCTION
TYPE «... «82..<=>0<S
2L
c a p a c ity I60H1
3
TYPE V
OM
BILL OF Q U A N T I T I E S i~TWo[ V. .. ]
83
8.7. Type VII: Sand-cement sausages Page
General description Polythene sheeting sausages 84

General layout 89
Short description:
A bund of available soil with a lining of polythene and sand/cement
sausages over the base and the inside slopes of the bund.
84
TYPE VII - Storage tank made of sand/cement sausages
General description
This system of storage of irrigation water has been developed by
Doxiadis Ionides Associates Ltd. of Ripley, Surrey (UK) in collabo-
ration with Doxiadis Associates International of Athens and is
employed by ITDG in Botswana and in Sudan.
For fencing, site clearance, levelling, preparation of foundations

and bund constructions see descriptions in chapter 3 and the work-
sequence of type VII.
Polythene sheeting
If the surface is free of all sharp objects and irregularities and

satisfactory sterilised (with dieselfuel) to prevent plant growth,
polythene (0.025-0.25 mm thickness) can be laid. It must be laid
with some slack to prevent introducing stresses due to the expansion
or contraction of the polythene. It is advisable to start laying two
layers at the top of the slope and to anchor the sheeting in a
trench after folding it over a preserved wooden beam.
Polythene expands on heating and it is best to lay at low tempera-
tures and protected from light. It should be laid at a time of day
when winds are not expected and as soon as the first layer is down a
layer of mud or clay of 0.15 m thick must be laid on the part
covering the base (see drawing).
DETAIL IB
85
A second layer of polythene of the same thickness and quality is

then laid on the layer of mud/clay.
The joints between the polythene sheeting can be formed:
by applying an overlap of 1.50 m
with a 1.00 m wide high quality tape
with special polythene sheeting glue, in case an overlap of
minimally 0.10 m must be available. It is advisable to glue
only when the weather is dry.
It is essential that the mud/clay layer between the two polythene

layers should be kept in a moist condition all the time to give body
and provide a cushioning effect for the sausages.
Sausages
The use of sand sausages and sand-cement sausages is an essential
part of the structure.
The sausages which are used as a lining for the base, consist of a
sand filling inside a polythene tube. The sausages used as a lining
for the sloping sides of the tank consist of a sand/cement mix
inside a polythene tube.
The sausages have to be made of thin polythene tubing (0.025-0.25 mm

thick) with a diameter of about 0.09 m. This tubing is to be cut
into lengths of about 0.80 m and tied at one end.
Filling of the tubing with a dry sand/cement mix (14:1) can then
start.
To make filling the tubing easier it is advisable to use a piece of
PVC piping of the same diameter as the tubing and cutting one end of
this pipe under 45°.
When this piece of piping is inserted into the tube, it is easy to
scoop up the dry mix. (see drawing).
Pvc F»iF>S
R3I_~/T>igME TuSlNS
After filling the tubing the other end can be tied.

The most satisfactory length of the sausages will be about 0.70 m
while the thickness should be about 0.09 m, in diameter.
86
ff\ <
-y"Voo
At the moment before use, the sausages have to be perforated with a

number of small holes in a line along the lengths after which they
are to be laid with the perforation downward in a tub or basin of
water and left there for five minutes.
<G L>
Perforating the sausages can be easily done by one of the following
tools:
loo, I |oo| I loql I lo<3]
FIG. A
M IN MM
The perforating tool as shown in fig. A is made of a wooden beam
with wire nails hammered into it at the intervals indicated on the
drawing. After that remove the heads of the wire nails and the tool
is ready. WIRE ^ ^ ,-»,
Another perforating tool is
easy to make by cutting a
piece of wire (gauge 13) and
shaping it as indicated in
figure B.
TiG/B
When the sausages are lying in the water, water will seep into the
sand/cement mixture by capillary action, moistening the mix tho-
roughly but not saturating it.
87
(Of course it is not necessary to perforate the sausages which are

filled only with sand).
The polythene skin of the sausages will prevent the contents from
drying out quickly (which is especially important in arid countries)
so the cement is able to cure fully, creating maximum strenght.
That is the reason why a much smaller proportion of cement can be
used than in brickwork mortar.
After moistening, the sausages have to be laid on the lining of the
slopes in a stretcher-bond (exactly the same way as bricks, but
with no mortar). Then they must be tamped down, using a flatboard
to compact the layer.
To bind the sausages together it is advisable to push 1.00 m lengths

of gauge 8 wire through the sausages, at intervals of 2.00 m as
reinforcing pins (see fig. C) or to attach them to one another
with wire gauge 20 as indicated on fig. D.
88
_PlW& G A U G E D v*Af%c o - ^ o c e . ^2o
F'G. I*
FIG. C
Before laying the sausages on the slopes of the tank, the surface
of the base (on the second layer of polythene) has to be covered
with a layer of sand sausages (i.e. those containing no cement) to
be laid in a stretcher-bond (exactly the same way as bricks, but
with no mortar).
Then the sausages have to be tamped down, using a flat board to
compact the layer.
89
E*LAN
c
\»»i>*ii>»)»Mr.9rujrt.»,*J!»»i>»>rn*»r,*i>jrTjA»m»F»ir-»>»l
SSGTHOH
4-U, ^^4-U o^4-U«.
cdp<K!l I y ^
ry e> C
»\-jee-Vu-)£
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6 0 eJ.Ô *,«*> l . l «
cô e?.<*o a.so l f <2*
iao Yifio l 0 . < e fr*3
• r v R g - "S7TT SAND-CEMES1T SAUSAGES

i H l l DFSlCN WAS fltAl'StO UMOIK AUS'ICIS O' I H I STIfDiNG COMM'Tlft WNDINftUG*
o t v H O ^ M b C O U N T R I I S - s * o - P O I O I «i * « m s » o o " ' t i t N f T N i m t N o s
IN COOFfDATlON OlTN - T * O - * « | O S r O 0 f l T

TYPICAL DESIGN
EARTH BUND SWD

CONSTRUCTION
m«*tw'« ft
TYPE ^l\\
GENERAL LAY OUT 1 TWol a"v
90
l00
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T V P E '•srrr «sA,Mb-cEHEKn" SAU^^GEC,

* H . S ofS.GN « * s m * i - i i D U N O M » u 5 P i c i i <)' ' M I srim>*«f. C O M K I T ' H «IINO(NIKG«
DUllOHNli ilOU1l»Hi - 1 * 0 - » 0 BO« I ) AMI*&fOO"• in( Nt'HMttHOS
IN LOOP f RATtON W I 1 H - ' WO - A U t R S F O O P T
TYPICAL DESIGN
^cc=(l«. ir-> rne+«rs EARTH BUND SWD

CONSTRUCTION
TYPE "^TTT
DETAILS AND DIMENSIONS , TWO ! '""'
91
TYPE VII: Sand-cement sausages
- fence the area of the site cattle can be a hindrance and

tion
tank
approx. 0.20 m
levelled
base in layers of 0.20 m -0.30 m
with tampers and/or by letting constructed 0,50 m above ground
flow
the groundwork is completed when
the outlines and slopes have reached
the heights, dimensions and gradients
indicated on the drawings; remark: a
slope of 4 : 1 only for cohesive soil
putting a jungle-stick (marked at the
hammered pegs.
92
sterilize the soil with a sterilant, a layer of soil 0.30 m thick on

for instance diesel fuel the base and on the slopes will
be sufficient
compact the surface of the soil of the soil must have a structural
the base and the slopes with tampers stability and must be well com-
tampers pacted
place a conserved wooden or bamboo the beams can be conserved by
beam at top inside of the bund (see singeing the surface or satura-
drawing) ting with used oil
fold the plastic sheet over this choose a type of plastic
beam and anchor the sheet sheeting and join the sheets
provisional by entrenching as described in chapter
"materials".
It must be laid with some slack
to prevent stresses due to the
expansion or contraction of the
sheet
a layer of mud or clay (0.15 m thick)
has to be laid on the part of the sheet
of the base
fold another layer of the same plastic
sheet over this beam and entrench the
two sheets definitively
make sausages for the base and the it is advisable to use thin
slope by cutting polythene tubing polythene tubing (0.025 -
into lenghts of about 0.80 m 0.25 mm thick)
tying them at one end
fill the sausages for the base with to make filling easier use a
sand only and tie the other end PVC-pipe as described in the
chapter on "sausages",
the (sand) sausages for the base have - laid in the same way as bricks
to be laid in a stretcher bond but with no mortar
tamp the sausages down, using a flat
board to compact the layer
then fill the sausages for the to make filling easier use a
slopes with a dry sand/cement mix PVC-pipe as described in the
(14:1) and tie the other end chapter on "sausages",
perforate the sausages with a number perforating the sausages can be
of small holes. When a great number easily done with a perforating
of sausages has been filled and tool as described in the
perforated, moistening can be chapter on "sausages"
started
moisten the perforated sausages by
laying them downward in a tub or basin
of water and leaving them there for
five minutes
93
- after moistening the sausages have - laid in exactly the same way as
to be laid on the sheet of the bricks, but with no mortar
slopes in a stretcher-bond
- tamp the sausages down using a flat
board to compact the layer
- bind the sausages together by - binding the sausages together
pushing 1.00 m lengths of gauge can also be done with gauge 20
8 wires through the sausages every wire as indicated on the
2.00 m. drawing
- cover the outside of the bund - this side of the wall must have
with stones or rockfill to a steep slope to prevent cattle
prevent erosion from approaching the water
rockfill
- make a toe-filter as described on
page 11
94
»
UNIT
ITEM UNIT QUANTITY PRICE PRICE-
C/ccavo+ior? ^ 7 * 3 1
1 <=a M &.*- (5»atr*±/<fr<*i&L * • > - > »
Cc.\<=K-\/y*\u<&) KT,3 3
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iN C O O P t N AT I O N » I I H - ' » I - »Mt • S ' 0 O « '

TYPICAL DESIGN
EARTH BUND
SWD
CONSTRUCTION
TYPE V I I TYPE
3 p.- . . -
c a p a c ity 3 o m B I L L OF Q U A N T I T I E S TWO ""v
T
95
UNIT
ITEM UNIT Q U A N T I T Y PRICE
PRICE.
Vno J -4
eyc<avq4-i'oo
< a L J g.>r- ( * S a v » d / ^ H « r « ^
Cc.(<acj/w^) k-n
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-^=^
te»eto4-<=?t-n-T-- hrV
_Oi. of £
kiij"ur>o^jo
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-f/ e r i 0 _ i rr> <==^
rnafTcUayS OOUl-
I o b o u r*
TOTAL. COST OF" S T O R A G E TANK.
iN C U O P t d t l i O N * H N - - * u - «Ml"S«0t?<"

TYPICAL DESIGN
EARTH BUND
SWD
CONSTRUCTION
TYPE SZH TYPE " N M L .
3
capacity 6 o m B I L L OF Q U A N T I T I E S TWO ' "'"'
96
UNIT
c/coyo+ioo v-oJ j2>i_
«-J C\c- fear**./**)**^ m
Cc.{<2Hj/*V\yA) *r> ±Q_
refill s^/,-1-^ -^.oi | J^3_
fc»oo<di -A«=ô
b a < a (\s<at-4-U)
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,
roolij-^-{"?g» »g^4vtain«i) ^ I ^ ^ S o
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ct btoou t-
TOTAL COeiT OF" S T O R A G E T A N <
IM'S OfSlCM W * t » I * n S I O u N O f a * U S P i C ( S Or I N I S M f H i f c C * C O M M U T E ! * i M O ( t * t * G *
O I V t i O P i N G COut*r*i(s - S » 0 - »0 t O l •» A M t f t S F O O M ' TH( H<TMffU*hO$
IN COOP t N A T I O N W i T N - I W O - * M I » t F O O « '

TYPICAL DESIGN
EARTH BUND
SWD
CONSTRUCTION
TYPE-SIC <3 2 * Oo*5
TYPE 3 Z I E
capacity côm 3 BILL OF Q U A N T I T I E S TWO I
97
UNIT-
ITEM UNIT QUANT ITy
PRICE PRICE
e y c o y«a-H o r ? hoJ £,c5>
l«at:jgi>-^«a»-*iAH<r^ >»—
__Ua<j/»n.j<A)
t-Vs-Cj 11 N«/t'-Ho *>o>T
H-
IX.
<£<9
fc>or>—l
v=x*i' >r-i-lo
t-r»
r>-v
-F-3_B
S O
CO*v%p« *<_4<_a
pagv-t-nc q U e ^ o i l
Iw4-W> feWxrerl __2-
P^S
polij-Hrxs^gûlair^) >~ * ? £ <»<?
3fl^4 l^,g
—-a<v»_v-4^«
_nl
_°^_
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«H»It=at-> . _ *u»*i._r>
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-0-t-
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i O u r
a
TOTAL CO_T OF" S T O R A G E TANK-
'H.4 Of&iCH WAS I I A . I S I O UNOCR AUS»ICI* Of >H| S t d i . M C . C O M M ' " ( I WINOtNfKGV

D I V I L O ^ I M G COUNIRHI — SWO — »0 I O l a* AMfllSfOO*< I M | N | l H ( * U N D i
tH COO'CRATiOM WITH — f . O ' i M ( M I O O « f

TVPICAL DESIGN
EARTH BUND
SWD
CONSTRUCTION
TYPE ~ T T 0.1. «S2too^
TYPE ~ T T
capacity IÔm3 B I L L OF Q U A N T I T I E S TWoF™"' ... 1
98
9. RELATIVE COMPARISON AND SUMMARY
In this chapter a comparison is made between the several properties of

the different types not related to local conditions.
The following properties can be compared:
water impermeability
execution/quality of the skill
resistance required against changes in humidity, temperature and
light intensity
area
chances of polution by the lining material used
dependability/reliability/durability
possibilities for repair
cleaning possibilities/need for maintenance
resistance to use and damage by animals
resistance to vegetation
frost-resistance
Repetition of typenumbers:
Type I Clay bund
Type II Cofferdam
Type III PVC lining
Type IV Sand-bentonite lining
Type V Bitumen lining
Type VI Lining of bricks or concrete
Type VII Sand-cement sausages
9.1. Water impermeability
Water tanks for storage of irrigation water may suffer some losses
because of the permeability of the walls. Under some circumstances a
daily loss of 10% of the water may not be a great problem. In other cases
it may be of importance that some types are more waterproof than others.
The impermeability of type I depends very much on the quality of the
existing subsoil. If the quality is good, the impermeability will be
good.
The impermeability of type II also depends on the quality of the work.
Type III can become very impermeable, but this depends very much on the
construction. One crack is enough to destroy the impermeability.
In the beginning type IV will have a very good water impermeability. But,
bentonite is very sensitive to shrinkage when drying out. It is possible
that after rewetting of the bentonite, the permeability will be worse
than before shrinkage. As said, bentonite can be used for repair the
watertighness by sprinkling.
The impermeability of the bitumen lining of type VI depends very much on
the quality of the work, which should be carried out by skilled workers.
A brickwork or concrete lining (type VI) can give very good results. But
settlements and differential settlements may cause cracks, thus affecting
the permeability and the durability of the tank. If properly constructed
type VII can give a very good water impermeability. The lining is pro-
tected by the sausages and therefore less sensitive to cracks.
99
9.2. Execution/quality of the workskill
For type II to IV and VII relatively unskilled labour is sufficient, but

larger tanks of the these types require supervision of skilled labour
too.
9.3. Frost resistance
Types III, VI and VII are not frost resistant.

For types III and VII the foil will crack when frozen; for type VI the
brickwork or concrete may break.
Types I and IV will have the best frost resistance.
9.4. Resistance to changes in humidity, temperature and light

intensity
Type VI: Immediately after trowelling the tankwall (after each day) the
finished parts of the tank must be protected against weather influences.
Therefore, these parts should be moistened or covered during at least the
first week.
In tropical areas it is advisable to continue moistening for another
week.
All the tanks described have good resistance to changes in humidity and
temperature.
Type III+VII (foil) must be protected against powerful light.
Type III: Immediately after laying the PVC sheet on the base of the tank,
the PVC has to be covered with a layer of sand (thickness approx. 0.25
m ) . The PVC sheet on the slopes has to be covered with fibre mats.
Type VII: After laying the polythene sheets on the base of the tank, the
polythene has to be covered with a layer of sand sausages and the poly-
thene sheets on the slopes have to be covered with sand/cement sausages.
9.5. Area required
Types I, III and V demand the largest area. The circular form fits in
best with the type of earth bund.
Type II can be built on the smallest surface area in different forms (in
relation to its capacity) The size of the rectangular forms depends on
the width of the sheeting available.
9.6. Chances of pollution by the lining material used
Some kinds of foil may pollute the water.

The bentonite lining or the bitumen lining may also give pollution
problems (when the water is used as drinking-water).
100
9.7. Dependability/reliability/durability
The dependability and reliability of all the tanks described is reason-

able good, but depends on the construction methods. A well protected
lining against all kinds of influences will give a high durability.
9.8. Possibility for repair
Types III, V, VI and VII are not easy to repair (cracks or holes are
difficult to find). The protection layer must be removed.
Type IV (bentonite) is easy to repair (see "notes and recommendations").
Types I and II are hard to repair, because the permeability is no local
problem, but concerns the complete tank. One may try to improve the
complete ground surface as referred to in the "worksequence and descrip-
tion".
9.9. Cleaning possibilities/need for maintenance
The variants with a smooth surface offers the best cleaning possibilities.
In sharp corners dirt may stick together and attract snails, mosquitoes
and other disease-spreading insects.
A smooth surface can be found in type I and IV, while the protecting
toplayer in type I, II, III and IV can be cleaned or changed.
9.10. Resistance to use and damage by animals
The area around the tank has to be fenced to protect it against animals
(see chapter on fencing). Nevertheless the slopes of the clay walls of 1
: 1 give a reasonable protection against cattle. Where foil is used, it
may be eaten by goats.
The wooden framework may be demolished by termites.
9.11. Resistance to vegetation
Perforation of the lining by roots, weed, cane, etc. may affect the
impermeability, especially of thinner linings.
The linings of clay or bentonite have a good resistance to vegetation.
C-889/83
9.12.
Summary
Properties Type I Type II Type III Type IV Type V Type VI Type VII
Impermeability + + ++ ++ + ++ ++
execution
quality of work Q + + + + a +
resistance
changes in humidity, tem-
perature and light int. + + D + + a a
area required
little=++ much= + ++ D - a +
resistance to
pollution by the
lining material used ++ ++ D a a ++ •
dependability/
reliability + D D + + a a
durability
possibility for
repair a + D a •
cleaning possibilities
need for maintenance D D D D + +
resistance, use and

damage by animals ++ + + + +
resistance to
vegetation ++ ++ ++ - D
frost-resistance + • D + D
- = poor D = reasonable + = good ++ = very good

102
ANNEX 1
SIZES OF WIRES AND STEEL RODS
A. Gauge Numbers and Millimeter Equivalents of Wires
Wire diameter Wire diameter

Gauge no. Gauge no.
in. mm in. mm
1 0.300 7.620 16 0.065 1.651
2 0.284 7.214 17 0.0S8 1.473
3 0.259 6.579 18 0.049 1.245
4 0.238 6.045 19 0.042 1.067
5 0.220 5.588 20 0.035 0.889
6 0.203 5.156 21 0.032 0.813
7 0.180 4.572 22 0.028 0.711
8 0.165 4.191 23 0.025 0.635
9 0.148 3.759 24 0.022 0.559
10 0.134 3.404 25 0.020 0.508
11 0.120 3.048 26 0.018 0.457
12 0.109 2.769 27 0.016 0.406
13 0.095 2.413 28 0.014 0.356
14 0.083 2.108 29 0.013 0.330
15 0.072 1.829 30 0.012 0.305
B. Common Sizes of Steel Rods Used for Skeletal Steel
Cross-sectional Weight
Size Rod diameter area Perimeter per ft perm
in. in. mm in? mm2 in. mm lb ! tg
3/16 0.187 4.749 0.027 17.419 0.587 14.909 0.094; 0.042
0.200 0.200 5.080 0.031 19.999 0.628 15.951 0.1071 0.O48
1/4 0.250 6.350 0.049 31.612 0.785 19.939 0.1671 0.075
0.276 0.276 7.010 0.059 38.064 0.867 22.021 0.203 0.092
5/16 0.312 7.924 0.076 49.032 0.980 24.892 0.261 0.118
3/8 0.375 9.525 0.110 70.967 1.178 29.921 0.376 0.170
7/16 0.437 11.099 0.150 96.774 1.373 34.874 0.511 0.231
1/2 0.500 12.700 0.196 126.451 1.571 39.903 0.688 0.312
103
ANNEX 2
CONVERSION OF COMMON UNITS
Metric and SI (International Systta) Unto tor tana)
Length 1 lb in. (pound inch) 0.1129 Nm (Newton meter)

1 lb ft (pound foot) 1.3558 Nm (Newton meter)
I in. (inch) 25.4000 mm (millimeter) I ton ft (ton foot) . 3.0370 k Nm (kilo Newton meter)
I in. (inch) 2.3400 cm (centimeter)
I in. (inch) 0.02S4 m (meter) Maa
I ft (foot) 0.3048 m (meter) I I (gram) 28.35 oz (ounce)
1 yd (yard) 0.9144 m (meter) 1 lb (pound) 453.5929 g (gram)
I mile (mile) 1.6093 km (kilometer) 1 lb (pound) 0.4536 kg (kilogram)
I n mile (nautical mite) 1.8S31 km (kilometer) I ton (too) 1,000.00 kg (kilogram)
I kg (kilogram) 12046 lb (pound)
Am
Deastrr ( a n t Mr a n rotaw)
I in.2 (square inch) 645.1600 tnnr1 (square millimeter) 27.6799 g/cm2 (gram per cubic
1 lb/in? (pound per cubic inch)
I ft* (square foot) 0.0929 m' (square meter) centimeter)
I yd' (square yard) 0.8361 nr2 (squire meter) 1 lb/ft' (pound per cubic foot) 16.0185 kg/m2 (kilogram per
1 acre (acre) 4,046.8600 m2 (square meter) cubic meter)
I sq mile (square mile) 2.5899 km2 (square kilometer) 1 ton/yd1 (ton per cubic yard) 1,32894 kg/m1 (kilogram per
cubic meter)
Volume 1 lb/yd1 (pound per cubic yard) 0.5933 kg/m1 (kilogram per
cubic meter)
J
I in. (cubic inch) 16.3871 cm* (cubic centimeter)
I ft2 (cubic foot) 0.0283 nr1 (cubic meter) I of liquid
1 yd' (cubic yard) 0.7645 nr* (cubic meter) 11 (liter) 0.2200 Imperial gallon
1 1 (liter) 0.2642 U.S. gallon
Force 1 gal (gallon) 0.0038 cu m (cubic meter)
1 gal/min (gallon per minute) 0.0038 cu m/min (cubic meter per
I lb (pound) 4.4482 N (Newton) minute)
I kg (kilogram) 9.8066 N (Newton)
I ton (ton) 9.9640 kN (kilo Newton)
Force (»eighl)/unit length

1 lb/in. (pound per inch) 0.1751 N/nun (Newton per millimeter)
I lb/ft (pound per foot) 14.5939 N/m (Newton per meter)
I ton/ft (ton oer foot) 32.6903 kN/m (kilo Newton per meter)
Prctssre, stren, strength (force per unit area)

1 lb/in? (pound per square inch, psi) 0.6895 N/cm2 (Newton per
square centimeter)
1 lb/in? (pound per square inch, psi) 6,894.7600 N/m2 (Newton per
square meter)
1 lb/ft2 (pound per square foot, psf) 47.8303 N/m2 (Newton per
square meter)
I lb/ft2 (pound square foot, psf) 4.8820 kg/m2 (kilogram
per square meter)
1 ton/in? (ton per square inch) 15.4443« 10«N/m2(Newtonper-
square meter)
1 ton/ft2 (ton per square foot) 107.2520 kN/m2 (kilo Newton
per square meter)
1 N/m2 (Newton per square meter) I Pa (Pascals)
1 kg/cm2 (kilogram per square centimeter . 0.09S1 MPa (Mega Pascals)
104
ANNEX 3
Bioliography
Maddocks, David.
"Methods of creating low cost waterproof membranes for use in the construe
tion of rainwater catchment and storage systems"
ITDG London, 1975
"The introduction of rainwater catchment tanks and micro-irrigation to
Botswana.
ITDG London, 1969
Barneaud, J.C., and Martin, P.

"Recueil et stockage de l'eau de pluie".
TOOL Amsterdam, 1977.
Karunaratne, A.D.M., and Mueller, Alexander

"Ferro-soilcrete tanks, a construction manual"
Water Resources Board, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 1982
Costa, J., de Lange, J., Pieck, C.

"Irrigation water storage tanks made of brickwork"
A manual for design and construction.
SWD/TWO Amersfoort, 1981
Costa, J., de Lange, J., Pieck, C.

"Irrigation water storage tanks made of ferrocement"
A manual for design and construction.
SWD/TWO Amersfoort, 1982.
Figee, A.,
"Terrein verkennen"
Leergang civiele techniek in ontwikkelingslanden
TH Delft, 1978
Povel, H.
"Dammen"
Vraagbaak III, nr. 3 1975
New England College Henniker Hampshire

"Safety of small dams"
American Society of Civil Engineers
New York, 1975
105
Fowler, John P.,

"The design and construction of small earth dams"
Appropriate Technology Vol. 2 no. 4 1977
"Ingenieursgeologie voor Ingenieurs"

Deel II
TH Delft, 1978

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217

Irrigation water storage tanks

A manual for design and construction

3.1. Design criteria 5

7.1. General aspects 23

8.1. Type I Clay bund 27

9. RELATIVE COMPARISON AND SUMMARY 98

9.1. Water impermeability 98

Annex 1 Sizes of wires and steel rods 102

The SWD (Steering Committee on Wind-Energy for Developing Countries) has

The choice of a type depends largely on the availability of the materials

The main chapters in this manual are:

Annexes contain data on construction materials, and conversion of units,

3.1. Design criteria

3.3. Soils and rock

Ground materials are usually divided into three types.

A simple grain size classification for soils is given in the following

Grainsize classification of soils

grain diameter (mm) term

> 200 Boulder

The name of the soil is given by its grain size-distribution. A full

Extrudes Very Moderate Moulded Cannot Brittle

Descrip- Very Soft Firm Stiff Very Hard

Crumbles Thin Thin Lumps or Lumps or Lumps only Rocks ring

Important cngineermg properties Relative desirability for

Shear strength Compressibility Workability Homo-

Well-graded gravds, gravel-

Inorganic days of high

Source: Untied Stales Bureau of Reclamation (1974).

For rocks we have similar descriptions. However, an important addition to

3.4. Soil improvement

The locally available clay or silt can be improved by chemical treatments

Permeable materials have interconnections between solid particles, which

The site chosen for the tank should be cleared.

Levelling can be done by means of a levelling tool. Put one pole of

\»/Ay O F - u«e,iKiG O F L e v E U - l N G P O L E S F'olZ A.

See figure next page.

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\</A.y O F l>SlKCi O F - U£.V/El_L.lNKo F t o L E S p"0«. A

TO CATCH T+K&. S £ A P A Q £ A*JO TO

The bunds forming the walls of the tank have to be constructed by

Crowns of the bunds

Tanks and the impermeable layers are constructed differently for

Maintenance is very important for these newly constructed water

In general the choice to be made between the materials described in the

Transport costs of plastic sheeting materials are low because this

Polythene sheeting is flexible. During its manufacture a black

PVC (Poly Vinyl Chloride) is not naturally flexible and plasticisers

Bentonite is a naturally occurring clay, which contains a high proportion

To prevent drying out the bentonite layer can be covered by a layer of

Chemical treatment of permeable soil is only possible for soils which

Sprayable liquid vinyl polymer has excellent properties for stabilising

The bricks must be of good quality in order to obtain a watertight

b. 1 volume part of Portland cement

c. 1 volume part of strong hydraulic powder-lime

A mortar for concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, aggregate and water,

1 volume part of Portland cement

If possible it is recommended that the materials to be used and the

5.2. Simple field identification tests for soil

Look at the whole sample

If the soil is fibrous or dirty in appearance, test for organic material.

d. Organic (smell) test

Place a sample of sand in a bottle or a glass jar with straight sides.

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