Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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CAROL VORDERMAN
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HELP YOUR KIDS WITH
m ths a
HELP YOUR KIDS WITH
Designers Editors
Nicola Erdpresser, Riccie Janus, Nicola Deschamps, Martha Evatt,
Maxine Pedliham, Silke Spingies, Lizzie Munsey, Martyn Page, Laura Palosuo,
Rebecca Tennant Peter Preston, Miezan van Zyl
2 4 6 8 10 9 7 5 3 1
001–263995 – Jul/2014
BARRY LEWIS (Consultant Editor, Numbers, Geometry, Trigonometry, Algebra) read mathematics
at university and graduated with a first class honours degree. He spent many years in publishing, as
an author and as an editor, where he developed a passion for mathematical books that presented
this often difficult subject in accessible, appealing, and visual ways. Among these is Diversions
in Modern Mathematics, which subsequently appeared in Spanish as Matemáticas modernas.
Aspectos recreativos.
He was invited by the British Government to run the major initiative Maths Year 2000, a
celebration of mathematical achievement with the aim of making the subject more popular and
less feared. In 2001 Barry became the President of The Mathematical Association, and for his
achievements in popularizing mathematics he was elected a Fellow of the Institute of Mathematics
and its Applications. He is currently the Chair of Council of The Mathematical Association and
regularly publishes articles and books dealing with both research topics and ways of engaging
people in this critical subject.
ANDREW JEFFREY (Probability) is a maths consultant, well known for his passion and enthusiasm
for the teaching and learning of mathematics. A teacher and inspector for over 20 years, Andrew
now spends his time training, coaching, and supporting teachers and delivering lectures for various
organizations throughout Europe. Andrew’s previous books include Magic Maths for Kids, Top 20
Maths Displays, 100 Top Tips for Top Maths Teachers, and Be a Wizard With Numbers. Andrew is
also better known to many schools as the Mathemagician, delivering his “Magic of Maths” shows
to young and old! www.andrewjeffrey.co.uk.
MARCUS WEEKS (Statistics) is the author of many books and has contributed to several
encyclopedias, including DK’s Science: The Definitive Visual Guide and Children’s
Illustrated Encyclopedia.
SEAN MCARDLE (Consultant) was a headteacher in two primary schools and has
a Master of Philosophy degree in Educational Assessment. He has written or co-written
more than 100 mathematical textbooks for children and assessment books for teachers.
Contents
F O R E W O R D b y C a ro l Vo rd e r m a n 8
I N T R O D U C T I O N b y B a r r y Le w i s 10
1 NUMBERS 2 GEOMETRY
Introducing numbers 14 What is geometry? 80
Addition 16 Tools in geometry 82
Subtraction 17 Angles 84
Multiplication 18 Straight lines 86
Division 22 Symmetry 88
Prime numbers 26 Coordinates 90
Units of measurement 28 Vectors 94
Telling the time 30 Translations 98
Roman numerals 33 Rotations 100
Positive and negative numbers 34 Reflections 102
Powers and roots 36 Enlargements 104
Surds 40 Scale drawings 106
Standard form 42 Bearings 108
Decimals 44 Constructions 110
Binary numbers 46 Loci 114
Fractions 48 Triangles 116
Ratio and proportion 56 Constructing triangles 118
Percentages 60 Congruent triangles 120
Converting fractions, decimals, Area of a triangle 122
and percentages 64 Similar triangles 125
Mental maths 66 Pythagoras’ theorem 128
Rounding off 70 Quadrilaterals 130
Using a calculator 72 Polygons 134
Personal finance 74 Circles 138
Business finance 76 Circumference and diameter 140
Area of a circle 142 The quadratic formula 192
Angles in a circle 144 Quadratic graphs 194
Chords and cyclic quadrilaterals 146 Inequalities 198
Tangents 148
Arcs
Sectors
150
151
5 STATISTICS
Solids 152 What is statistics? 202
Volumes 154 Collecting and organizing data 204
Surface area of solids 156 Bar charts 206
Pie charts 210
4 ALGEBRA 6 PROBABILITY
What is algebra? 168 What is probability? 230
Sequences 170 Expectation and reality 232
Working with expressions 172 Combined probabilities 234
Expanding and factorizing expressions 174 Dependent events 236
Quadratic expressions 176 Tree diagrams 238
Formulas 177
Solving equations 180 Reference section 240
Linear graphs 182 Glossary 252
Simultaneous equations 186 Index 258
Factorizing quadratic equations 190 Acknowledgements 264
Foreword
Hello
Welcome to the wonderful world of maths. Research has shown just how
important it is for a parent to be able to help a child with their education.
Being able to work through homework together and enjoy a subject,
particularly maths, is a vital part of a child’s progress.
We wanted this book to guide parents through some of the methods in early
arithmetic and then for them to go on to enjoy some deeper mathematics.
Over nearly 30 years, and for nearly every single day, I have had the privilege
of hearing people’s very personal views about maths and arithmetic.
Many weren’t taught maths particularly well or in an interesting way. If you
were one of those people, then we hope that this book can go some way to
changing your situation and that maths, once understood, can begin to excite
you as much as it does me.
CAROL VORDERMAN
At the start of the new millennium I had the privilege of being the Director of
Maths Year 2000, a celebration of mathematics and an international effort
to highlight and boost awareness of the subject. It was supported by
the government and Carol Vorderman was also involved. Carol championed
mathematics across the British media, but is well known for her astonishingly
agile ways of manipulating and working with numbers – almost as if they were
her personal friends. My working, domestic, and sleeping hours are devoted to
mathematics – finding out how various subtle patterns based on counting items
in sophisticated structures work and how they hang together. What united us
was a shared passion for mathematics and the contribution it makes to all our
lives – economic, cultural, and practical.
The danger is, despite all the numbers and our increasingly numerate world, maths
gets left behind. I’m sure that many think the ability to do the numbers is enough.
Not so. Neither as individuals, nor collectively. Numbers are pinpricks in the fabric of
mathematics, blazing within. Without them we would be condemned to total
darkness. With them we gain glimpses of the sparkling treasures otherwise hidden.
This book sets out to address and solve this problem. Everyone can do maths.
BARRY LEWIS
2 Introducing numbers
COUNTING AND NUMBERS FORM THE FOUNDATION OF MATHEMATICS.
1
1 –2 3
0.4 ▽ First number
One is not a prime number.
It is called the “multiplicative
▽ Even prime number
The number 2 is the only
even-numbered prime
identity”, because any number number – a number that
△ Types of numbers multiplied by 1 gives that is only divisible by itself
Here 1 is a positive whole number and -2 is a number as the answer. and 1 (see pp.26–27).
negative number. The symbol 1⁄3 represents a
fraction, which is one part of a whole that has
been divided into three parts. A decimal is
1 2
another way to express a fraction.
LOOKING CLOSER
Zero
The use of the symbol for zero is considered an
important advance in the way numbers are written.
Before the symbol for zero was adopted, a blank space
was used in calculations. This could lead to ambiguity
and made numbers easier to confuse. For example, it
was difficult to distinguish between 400, 40, and 4,
6 7
since they were all represented by only the number 4.
The symbol zero developed from a dot first used by
Indian mathematicians to act a placeholder.
◁ Easy to read
The zero acts as
Number symbols
Many civilizations developed their own symbols for numbers, some of which
are shown below, together with our modern Hindu–Arabic number system.
One of the main advantages of our modern number system is that arithmetical
operations, such as multiplication and division, are much easier to do than
with the more complicated older number systems.
Modern Hindu–Arabic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Mayan
Ancient Chinese
Ancient Roman I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X
Ancient Egyptian
Babylonian
3 4 5
8
△ Fibonacci number
9
△ Highest decimal
10
△ Base number
The number 8 is a cube The number 9 is the highest The Western number system
number (23 = 8) and it is single-digit whole number is based on the number 10.
the only positive Fibonacci and the highest single-digit It is speculated that this is
number (see p.171), other number in the decimal because humans used their
than 1, that is a cube. system. fingers and toes for counting.
16 NUMBERS
Subtraction 17
Positive and negative
NUMBERS ARE ADDED TOGETHER TO FIND THEIR TOTAL. move three
▷ What it means
The result of adding 3 to
the start number of 1 is
4. This means that the
sum of 1 and 3 is 4.
+ =
1+
FIRST
3
NUMBER
= 4
TOTAL, RESULT,
NUMBER TO ADD OR SUM
928 space at
foot of
928 928 the first 1 of 11
goes in the thousands 928
+ 191 column
for sum
+ 191 + 191 column, while the
second goes in the
hundreds column
+ 191 the answer
is 1,119
9 19 1,119
1 carry 1 1
First, the numbers Next, add the units 1 As the sum of the tens Then add the hundreds
are written with their and 8 and write their has two digits, write and the carried digit. As
units, tens, and sum of 9 in the space the second underneath this sum has two digits,
hundreds directly underneath the units and carry the first to the first goes in the
above each other. column. the next column. thousands column.
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION 17
16 Addition
Positive and negative
A NUMBER IS SUBTRACTED FROM ANOTHER NUMBER TO
FIND WHAT IS LEFT. THIS IS KNOWN AS THE DIFFERENCE.
numbers 34–35
◁ Use a number line
Taking away
A number line can also be used to show
how to subtract numbers. From the
–1 –1 –1 start at 4, then move
three places to left
To subtract 3 from 4,
start at 4 and move
three places along the
first number, move back along the line number line, first to 3,
the number of places shown by the 0 1 2 3 4 5 then 2, and then to 1.
second number. Here 3 is taken from 4.
sign for equals sign
subtraction leads to answer
– =
▷ What it means
The result of
subtracting 3 from 4
is 1, so the difference
4
FIRST
– 3
NUMBER TO
= 1 RESULT OR
between 3 and 4 is 1. NUMBER SUBTRACT DIFFERENCE
7 37 737 is 737
First, the numbers Next, subtract the In the tens, 9 cannot In the hundreds
are written with their unit 1 from 8, and write be subtracted from 2, column, 1 is
units, tens, and their difference of 7 in so 1 is borrowed from subtracted from the
hundreds directly the space underneath the hundreds, turning new, now lower
above each other. them. 9 into 8 and 2 into 12. number of 8.
18 NUMBERS
13 people
in each row
9
8
11
10
7
9
6
multiplication sign
8
7
5
6
9 × 13
4
5
4
3
9 × 13 = 13 + 13 + 13 + 13 + 13 + 13 + 13 + 13 + 13 = 117
product of 9
and 13 is 117
M U LT I P L I C AT I O N 19
Works both ways
It does not matter which order numbers appear in a multiplication sum because the answer
will be the same either way. Two methods of the same multiplication are shown here.
4 × 3 = 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 12
3 added to itself
four times is 12
3 4
= + + +
2 3
2
1 1
3 × 4 = 4 + 4 + 4 = 12
4 added to itself
three times is 12
4
3
= + +
2 3
2
1 1
MULTIPLES
When a number is multiplied by any whole number the result (product) is called a
multiple. For example, the first six multiples of the number 2 are 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12.
This is because 2 × 1 = 2, 2 × 2 = 4, 2 × 3 = 6, 2 × 4 = 8, 2 × 5 = 10, and 2 × 6 = 12.
3×1= 3 8×1= 8 12 × 1 = 12
3×2= 6 8 × 2 = 16 12 × 2 = 24
first five first five first five
3×3= 9 multiples
of 3
8 × 3 = 24 multiples
of 8
12 × 3 = 36 multiples
of 12
3 × 4 = 12 8 × 4 = 32 12 × 4 = 48
3 × 5 = 15 8 × 5 = 40 12 × 5 = 60
Common multiples
Two or more numbers can have multiples in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
common. Drawing a grid, such as the one on the
right, can help find the common multiples of different
numbers. The smallest of these common numbers is 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
called the lowest common multiple.
24 of 3 and 8 is 24 because it is
the smallest number that
both multiply into
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
multiples of 3
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
multiples of 8
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
multiples of 3 and 8 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
▷ Finding common multiples
Multiples of 3 and multiples
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
of 8 are highlighted on this grid.
Some multiples are common
to both numbers.
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
M U LT I P L I C AT I O N 21
Short multiplication
Multiplying a large number by a single-digit number is called short multiplication. The smaller
number is placed below the larger one and aligned under the units column of the larger number. 1 written in
hundreds column
9 written in
6 written in tens column
196 units column
196 3 written in
196
× 7 2 written in
units column
× 7
7 written in
hundreds column;
1 written in
× 7 1,372 is
2 4 carried to
tens column
72 6 carried to
thousands column
1,372 final answer
4 tens column 64 64
hundreds column
To multiply 196 and 7, first Next, multiply 7 and 9, Finally, multiply 7 and 1.
multiply the units 7 and 6. the product of which is Add the product (7) to the
The product is 42, the 4 of 63. The carried 4 is added carried 6 to get 13, giving
which is carried. to 63 to get 67. a final product of 1,372.
Long multiplication
Multiplying two numbers that both contain at least two digits is called long
multiplication. The numbers are placed one above the other, in columns arranged
according to their value (units, tens, hundreds, and so on).
428 is
multiplied 428
428 is 428 is 428
by 100
× 111
multiplied by 1 428 multiplied by 10
× 111 428
428 × 111 428 add 00 when + 4,280
add 0 when
× 111 428 multiplying by 10
4,280 multiplying
by 100 42,800
428 4,280 42,800 = 47,508
First, multiply 428 by 1 in Multiply 428 by 1 in the tens Multiply 428 by 1 in the Add together the
the units column. Work digit column, working digit by digit. hundreds column, digit by products of the three
by digit from right to left so Remember to add 0 to the digit. Add 00 to the product multiplications. The
8 × 1, 2 × 1, and then 4 × 1. product when multiplying by 10. when multiplying by 100. answer is 47,508.
LOOKING CLOSER
There are two ways to think about division. The first is sharing a number
proportion 56–59
out equally (10 coins to 2 people is 5 each). The other is dividing a number
into equal groups (10 coins into piles containing 2 coins each is 5 piles).
D er tha ano
m d
I V t i the
÷ =
b by
ID s b r n
E N eing um
D div ber
id
ed
÷
4 SWEETS ÷2 PEOPLE =2 SWEETS PER PERSON
LOOKING CLOSER
3
D u m b e d to e n d
Th i n g e d
be th
I V er d
e us ivi
I S th ivid
O at i e
R s
d
Division is the direct opposite or “inverse” of multiplication, and the ◁ Back to the beginning
two are always connected. If you know the answer to a particular If 10 (the dividend) is divided by
division, you can form a multiplication from it and vice versa. 2 (the divisor), the answer (the
quotient) is 5. Multiplying the
quotient (5) by the divisor of the
original division sum (2) results
in the original dividend (10).
3IRLS
10 DIV
I S ION G
DIVISION TIPS
A number is If... Examples
3 divisible by
2 the last digit is an even number 12, 134, 5,000
3 1 AINING
3S EM
R EE T
3 the sum of all digits when added
together is divisible by 3
18
1+8 = 9
EE T 3 SW 4 the number formed by the last 732
SW ACH two digits is divisible by 4 32 ÷ 4 = 8
E
=
re
U O es io
together is divisible by 3
Th e d
m
T I ult of n
th
EN
ain
de
A I t le r c ot
v
divisible by 9 6+8+3+1 = 18
n t
N D f t o ann her
ER ver ot
LOOKING CLOSER
Short division Converting remainders
Short division is used to divide one number (the dividend) by remainder
another whole number (the divisor) that is less than 10. When one number will not divide
result is 132 exactly into another, the answer
start on the left with
the first 3 (divisor)
has a remainder. Remainders can 22 r 2
1
be converted into decimals, as 4 90
1 13 dividing line
132 shown below.
Remove the remainder, 2 in
start on
the left
divisor
divide 5 into
first 2 digits
of dividend 5 2 2
of dividend
LOOKING CLOSER
55 2 2 1
1 to next digit
of dividend 553
is 553
2 2 1
816÷2 = 408 408÷3 = 136
divide by first factor
of divisor
divide by second
factor of divisor
Long division
Long division is usually used when the The answer (or quotient) goes
the dividing line is used in the space above the
divisor is at least two digits long and the in place of ÷ or / sign dividing line.
dividend is at least 3 digits long. Unlike
short division, all the workings out are
written out in full below the dividing line.
Multiplication is used for finding
remainders. A long division sum is
presented in the example on the right. DIVISOR
52 754 The workings out go in the
DIVIDEND
number that is
divided by another
number
number is used to space below the dividing line. put result of
divide dividend second division
above last digit
being divided into
result is 1
1 1 14
divide divisor into 234
14 14 add a decimal
point then a zero 14.5
other one
18–21 Multiplication
PICK A NUMBER
FROM 1 TO 100
1 2 3 4 2
5
Is the number
NO
2, 3, 5, or 7?
YES
11 12 2 3
13 14 2 7
15
3 5
Is it divisible by 2?
THE 21
3 7
22 2
23 24 2 3
25 5
NUMBER
NO YES
IS NOT
PRIME 31 32 2
33 3
34 2
35
5 7
Is it divisible by 3?
41 42
2 3 7
43 44 2
45
3 5
NO YES
51 3
52 2
53 54 2 3
55 5
Is it divisible by 5?
NO YES 61 62 2
633 7
64 2
65 5
Is it divisible by 7? THE
NUMBER
71 72 2 3
73 74 2
75
3 5
NO YES IS PRIME
81 3
82 2
83 84
2 3 7
85 5
42
2 3 7
A yellow box denotes a composite
number, which means that it is
divisible by more than 1 and itself.
prime factor remaining factor
6
2 3
7 8 2
9 3
10 2 5
which needs to be broken down into prime numbers.
largest
prime factor
16 2
17 182 3
19 20 2 5
6 = 3 × 2
26 2
27 3
282 7
29 30
2 3 5
Next, take the remaining factor and find the largest prime
number that divides into it, and any smaller prime numbers. In
this case, the prime numbers that divide into 6 are 3 and 2.
36 37 38 39 40 descending order
2 3 2 3 2 5
30 = 5 × 3 × 2
46 2
47 482 3
49 7
50 2 5
It is now possible to see that 30 is the product of multiplying
together the prime numbers 5, 3, and 2. Therefore, the prime
factors of 30 are 5, 3, and, 2.
56
2 7
57 3
58 2
59 60
2 3 5 REAL WORLD
Encryption
66
2 3
67 68 2
69 3
70
2 3 7
Many transactions in banks and shops rely on the Internet and other
communications systems. To protect the
information, it is coded using a number
76 2
77 7
782 3
79 80 2 5
that is the product of just two huge
primes. The security relies on the fact
that no “eavesdropper” can factorize the
fldjhg83asldkfdslkfjour523ijwli
eorit84wodfpflciry38s0x8b6lkj
qpeoith73kdicuvyebdkciurmol
wpeodikrucnyr83iowp7uhjwm
kdieolekdoripasswordqe8ki
number because its factors are so large.
86 2
87 3
88 2
89 90
2 3 5
▷ Data protection
mdkdoritut6483kednffkeoskeo
kdieujr83iowplwqpwo98irkldil
ieow98mqloapkijuhrnmeuidy6
woqp90jqiuke4lmicunejwkiuyj
96
2 3
97 982 7
99 3
100 2 5
mathematicians relentlessly
hunt for ever bigger primes.
SEE ALSO
Basic units
A unit is any agreed or standardized measurement of size. This allows
quantities to be accurately measured. There are three basic units: time,
LOOKING CLOSER
weight (including mass), and length.
this is the length Distance
these two units
this is the width of the building
are lighter this is
these three units of the building The distance is the amount of
are heavier the height
of the leng
space between two points. It
building h th expresses length, but is also
widt
used to describe a journey,
which is not always the
most direct route between
two points. B
height
plane flies set
distance between
two cities
Compound measures
A compound unit is made up of more than one of the basic units, including using
the same unit repeatedly. Examples include area, volume, speed, and density.
length
area = length × width volume = length × width × height
area is made up of two of the same volume is a compound of three of the same
units, as width is also a length units, as width and height are technically lengths
▷ Finding speed
Speed A van travels 20km in
Speed measures the distance (length) travelled in a given time. This means that the 20 minutes. From this
formula for measuring speed is length ÷ time. If this is measured in kilometres and information its speed in
hours, the unit for speed will be km/h. km/h can be found.
20km
distance divide 20 by 60 to find its
Speed = value in hours
time distance = speed × time
20 1
D 20 minutes = = hour
▷ Speed formula triangle 60 3
The relationships between
S T D=S×T First, convert the minutes into hours. To convert minutes into
speed, distance, and time can hours, divide them by 60, then cancel the fraction – divide the
be shown in a triangle. The top and bottom numbers by 20. This gives an answer of 1/3 hour.
position of each unit in the this line acts as
triangle indicates how to use a division sign time = distance ÷ speed
the other two measurements distance is 20km
to calculate that unit. D
D D D
D D S= = 60km/h
S= S T S T S T T= T
T S time is / hour
this line acts as a
speed = distance ÷ time multiplication
Then, substitute the values for distance and time into
sign the formula for speed. Divide the distance (20km) by the
time (1/3 hour) to find the speed, in this case 60 km/h.
Density
Density measures how much matter is packed into a given volume of a substance. It involves
two units – mass and volume. The formula for measuring density is mass ÷ volume. If this is density of lead is
measured in grams and centimetres, the unit for density will be g/cm³. constant, regardless
of mass
mass ▷ Finding volume
Density = mass = density × volume
volume Lead has a density of 0.0113kg/
M cm³. With this measurement,
the volume of a lead weight that g
▷ Density formula triangle D V M=D×V has a mass of 0.5kg can be found. 0.5k
The relationships between density,
mass, and volume can be shown in
a triangle. The position of each unit
of measurement in the triangle mass is 0.5kg
this line acts as
shows how to calculate that a division sign volume = mass ÷ density
M
unit using the other two M V= = 44.25cm
measurements. D
M M M M density is 0.0113kg/cm³
D= D V D V D V V=
V D △ Using the formula
Substitute the values for mass and density into the formula for
density = mass ÷ volume this line acts as a volume. Divide the mass (0.5kg) by the density (0.0113kg/cm³)
multiplication sign to find the volume, in this case 44.25cm³.
30 NUMBERS
TIME IS MEASURED IN THE SAME WAY AROUND THE WORLD. Units of measurement
28–29
1
minute
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1000 years is a millennium
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1
hour
2 3 4 5 6
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 7 8 9 10 11 12
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
13 14 15 16 17 18
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
1 hour 19 20 21 22 23 24
There are 24 hours in each day. 1 day
TELLING THE TIME 31
Reading the time The short hand indicates 12 The hands move in this
what hour it is. This hour direction. This is called
The time can be told by looking carefully 11 1
hand shows 11. the clockwise direction.
at where the hands point on a clock or watch.
The hour hand is shorter and moves around 10 2
slowly. The minute hand is longer than the Between each
number is The number of
hour hand and points at minutes “past” the 5 minutes. small marks are the
hour or “to” the next one. Most clock faces 9 3 number of minutes
show the minutes in groups of five and the or seconds.
in-between minutes are shown by a short line
or mark. The second hand is usually long and 4
The second hand 8
thin, and sweeps quickly around the face shows 40 seconds
every minute, marking 60 seconds. on this clock face.
7 5 The long hand shows
6 the minutes. On this
When the minute hand points clock face 20 minutes
to 12, the time is “on the hour” have passed.
as shown by the hour hand. △ A clock face
o’clock A clock face is a visual way to show
the time easily and clearly. There are
5 to 5 past many types of clock and watch faces.
12
11 1
10 to 10 past
When the minute hand
If the minute hand is
pointing to 9, the time 10 2 points to 3, the time is
“quarter past” the hour.
is “quarter to” the hour.
p
the hour
as
t the hou
12 12 12 12
11 1 11 1 11 1 11 1
10 2 10 2 10 2 10 2
9 3 9 3 9 3 9 3
8 4 8 4 8 4 8 4
7 5 7 5 7 5 7 5
6 6 6 6
Analogue time
Most clocks and watches only go up to 12 hours, but there are 24-hour clock
24 hours in one day. To show the difference between morning The 24-hour system was devised to stop
and night, we use AM or PM. The middle of the day (12 o’clock) confusion between morning and afternoon
is called midday or noon. times, and runs continuously from midnight
to midnight. It is often used in computers,
Before noon we say 12 noon After noon by the military, and on timetables. To convert
the time is AM we say PM from the 12-hour system to the 24-hour system,
you add 12 to the hour for times after noon.
For example, 11 PM becomes 23:00 (11 + 12)
6 AM 6 PM and 8:45 PM becomes 20:45 (8:45 + 12).
△ AM or PM 3:00 AM 03:00
The initials AM and PM stand for the Latin words ante meridiem (meaning 4:00 AM 04:00
“before noon”) and post meridiem (meaning “after noon”). The first 12 hours
of the day are called AM and the second 12 hours of the day are called PM. 5:00 AM 05:00
6:00 AM 06:00
7:00 AM 07:00
Digital time
8:00 AM 08:00
Traditional clock faces show time in an analogue format
but digital formats are also common, especially on electrical 9:00 AM 09:00
devices such as computers, televisions, and mobile phones.
Some digital displays show time in the 24-hour system, others 10:00 AM 10:00
use the analogue system and also show AM or PM. 11:00 AM 11:00
12:00 noon 12:00
1:00 PM 13:00
2:00 PM 14:00
3:00 PM 15:00
△ Hours and minutes △ 24-hour digital display
On a digital clock, the hours If the hours or minutes are 4:00 PM 16:00
are shown first followed by a single digit numbers, a zero
colon and the minutes. Some (called a leading zero) is 5:00 PM 17:00
displays may also show seconds. placed to the left of the digit.
6:00 PM 18:00
7:00 PM 19:00
AM
8:00 PM 20:00
PM
9:00 PM 21:00
14–15 Introducing
numbers
DEVELOPED BY THE ANCIENT ROMANS, THIS SYSTEM USES
LETTERS FROM THE LATIN ALPHABET TO REPRESENT NUMBERS.
Number Roman numeral
Understanding Roman numerals 1 I
The Roman numeral system does not use zero. To make a number,
seven letters are combined. These are the letters and their values: 2 II
3 III
I V X L C D M 4 IV
5 V
1 5 10 50 100 500 1000
6 VI
Forming numbers 7 VII
Some key principles were observed by the ancient Romans to 8 VIII
“create” numbers from the seven letters.
9 IX
First principle When a smaller number appears after a larger number,
the smaller number is added to the larger number to find the total value. 10 X
11 XI
XI = X + I = 11 XVll = X + V + l + l = 17 12 XII
13 XIII
Second principle When a smaller number appears before a larger number,
the smaller number is subtracted from the larger number to find the total value.
14 XIV
15 XV
lX = X – I = 9 CM = M – C = 900 16 XVI
17 XVII
Third principle Each letter can be repeated up to three times. 18 XVIII
XX = X + X = 20 XXX = X + X + X = 30 19
20
XIX
XX
30 XXX
Using Roman numerals 40 XL
Although Roman numerals are not widely used today, they still appear on some
50 L
clock faces, with the names of monarchs and popes, and for important dates.
60 LX
Time Names Dates 70 LXX
80 LXXX
Henry VIII MMXIV 90 XC
5 –– 2 = 7 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
––=+
move four places left △ Like signs equal a positive
start at –3 move four –4 –3 –2 –1 from -3 to -7 If any two like signs appear together,
places to left
the result is always positive. The result is
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5
8 is positive because
–×– =+
2×4=8 +×+=+
+÷+
–1 × 6 = –6
–6 is negative because
–×+=– –÷–
+× –
unlike signs mean
negative answer
–2 is negative because
–4 ÷ 2 = –2 –÷+=–
–8 is negative because
–×+=–
–×+ =–
–2 × 4 = –8 +÷ –
–2 × –4 = 8
8 is positive because
–×–=+ –÷+
5 is positive because △ Positive or negative answer
The sign in the answer depends on whether the
–10 ÷ –2 = 5 –÷–=+
signs of the numbers are alike or not.
36 NUMBERS
18–21 Multiplication
4
5
Introducing powers this is the power, which shows how
A power is the number of times a number is multiplied by itself. This many times to multiply the number
(5 means 5 × 5 × 5 × 5)
is indicated as a smaller number positioned to the right above the
number. Multiplying a number by itself once is described as “squaring” this is the number that
the number; multiplying a number by itself twice is described as the power relates to
“cubing” the number.
▷ Squared number
5×5=5
This image shows how many units
make up 5. There are 5
rows, each with 5
units – so
this is the power; 5 × 5 = 25.
= 25 5² is called “5 squared”
1
5
△The square of a number
2
4
Multiplying a number by itself gives the
3
3
square of the number. The power for a 5 rows with 5
4
2
square number is 2, for example 52, which units in each row
means there are 2 lots of 5 or 5 × 5.
5
1
3
5×5×5=5 this is the power;
= 125
△ The cube of a number
5³ is called “5 cubed” 1
2
Multiplying a number by itself twice
gives its cube. The power for a cube
number is 3, for example 5³, which
3
means there are 3 lots of 5: 5 × 5 × 5.
4
5 vertical rows
5
▷ Cubed number
1
1
POWERS AND ROOTS 37
once, equals a given number. For example, one square
25 125
root of 4 is 2, as 2 × 2 = 4. Another square root is –2,
as (–2) × (–2) = 4. The square roots of numbers can be
either positive or negative. A cube root is a number
which, multiplied by itself twice, equals a given
number. For example, the cube root of 27 is 3,
as 3 × 3 × 3 = 27. this is the number for this is the number
which the square for which the cube
root is being found root is being found
square root symbol this is the square
root of 25
25 is 52
25 = 5
△ The square root of a number
because 5 × 5 = 25
The square root of a number is the number
which, when squared (multiplied by itself ),
equals the number under the square root sign.
LOOKING CLOSER
COMMON SQUARE ROOTS
Square
Using a calculator
Answer Why?
root Calculators can be used to find powers and square roots. Most calculators have
1 1 Because 1 × 1 = 1 buttons to square and cube numbers, buttons to find square roots and cube roots,
and an exponent button, which allows them to raise numbers to any power.
4 2 Because 2 × 2 = 4
◁ Using exponents
Xy
3 =
9 3 Because 3 × 3 = 9
First enter the number
16 4 Because 4 × 4 = 16 △ Exponent 3 Xy 5 to be raised to a power,
25 5 Because 5 × 5 = 25 This button allows then press the
36
49
6
7
Because 6 × 6 = 36
Because 7 × 7 = 49
any number to be
raised to any power. = 243 exponent button, then
enter the power
required.
64 8 Because 8 × 8 = 64
◁ Using square roots
81
100
9
10
Because 9 × 9 = 81
Because 10 × 10 = 100
△ Square root
This button allows
25 = 25 On most calculators, find
the square root of a number
121
144
11
12
Because 11 × 11 = 121
Because 12 × 12 = 144
the square root of
any number to be
=5 by pressing the square root
button first and then
found. entering the number.
169 13 Because 13 × 13 = 169
38 NUMBERS
because
▷ Writing it out
Writing out what each of
these powers represents
shows why powers are
added together to
(6×6)×(6×6×6)
6² is 6 × 6 6³ is 6 × 6 × 6
= 6×6×6×6×6 6 × 6 × 6 × 6 × 6 is 6
multiply them.
because
4 is 4 × 4 × 4 × 4
▷ Writing it out
4×4×4×4 4×4×4×4
Writing out the division of
the powers as a fraction and
then cancelling the fraction
shows why powers to be
4×4 4×4 = 4×4
divided can simply be 4 is 4 × 4 cancel the fraction to 4 × 4 is 4
subtracted. its simplest terms
LOOKING CLOSER
Zero power
Any number raised to the power 0 is equal the first the second the power of the
to 1. Dividing two equal powers of the same power power answer is: 3 – 3 = 0
number gives a power of 0, and therefore
the answer 1. These rules only apply when
dealing with powers of the same number. 8³ ÷ 8³ = 8⁰ = 1 any number to
the power 0 = 1
because
▷ Writing it out
8×8×8
Writing out the division of two equal
powers makes it clear why any number
to the power 0 is always equal to 1. 8 is 8 × 8 × 8 8×8×8 = 512
512 =
1 any number divided
by itself = 1
POWERS AND ROOTS 39
32 = ? 1,000 = ?
25 = 5 and 36 = 6,so the answer must be 1,600 = 40 and 900 = 30, so the answer
somewhere between 5 and 6. Start with the midpoint must be between 40 and 30. 1,000 is closer to 900 than
between the two, 5.5: 1,600, so start with a number closer to 30, such as 32:
5.65 × 5.65 = 31.9225 Too low 31.5 × 31.5 = 992.25 Too low
32 = ? 800 = ?
3 × 3 × 3 = 27 and 4 × 4 × 4 = 64, so 9 × 9 × 9 = 729 and 10 × 10 × 10 = 1,000,
the answer is somewhere between 3 and 4. Start with the so the answer is somewhere between 9 and 10. 800 is closer to
midpoint between the two, 3.5: 729 than 1000, so start with a number closer to 9, such as 9.1:
3.5 × 3.5 × 3.5 = 42.875 Too high 9.1 × 9.1 × 9.1 = 753.571 Too low
3.3 × 3.3 × 3.3 = 35.937 Too high 9.3 × 9.3 × 9.3 = 804.357 Too high
3.1 × 3.1 × 3.1 = 29.791 Too low 9.27 × 9.27 × 9.27 = 796.5979 Too low
3.2 × 3.2 × 3.2 = 32.768 Too high 9.28 × 9.28 × 9.28 = 799.1787 Very close
Introducing surds
Some square roots are whole numbers and are easy to write. But some are irrational
numbers – numbers that go on forever after the decimal point. These numbers cannot
be written out in full, so the most accurate way to express them is as square roots.
5 = 2.2360679774... 4=2
△ Surd △Not a surd
The square root of 5 is an irrational number – it goes The square root of 4 is not a surd.
on forever. It cannot accurately be written out in full, It is the number 2, a whole, or
so it is most simply expressed as the surd √5. rational number.
Simplifying surds
Some surds can be made simpler by taking out factors that can be
written as whole numbers. A few simple rules can help with this.
▷ Square roots
A square root is the number
that, when multiplied by
a × a = a
itself, gives the number
inside the root.
3× 3 = 3
multiply the surd by itself
to give the number inside
the square root
▷ Multiplying roots
Multiplying two numbers
together and taking the
square root of the result
ab = a × b
√16 = 4, so this can
gives the same answer as
be written as 4 × √3
taking the square roots of
the two numbers and
mutiplying them together.
48 = 16 × 3 = 16 × 3 = 4 × 3
look for factors that 48 can be written the square root of 16 the square root of 3 is
are square numbers as 16 × 3 is a whole number an irrational number,
so it stays in surd form
SURDS 41
▷ Dividing roots √7 is irrational (2.6457...),
Dividing one number by
another and taking the
a = a 7= 7= 7 so leave as a surd
▷ Simplifying further √9 = 3
When dividing square (3 x 3 = 9)
roots, look out for ways to
simplify the top as well as
the bottom of the fraction.
8 = 8 = 8 = 2× 2
9 9 3 3
final, simplified form
8 = 4× 2 = 2× 2
8 is 4 × 2 4 is 2 squared
Surds in fractions
When a surd appears in a fraction, it is helpful to make sure it appears in the numerator (top of
the fraction) not the denominator (bottom of the fraction). This is called rationalizing, and is
done by multiplying the whole fraction by the surd on the bottom.
the surd √2 is now on
▷ Rationalizing top of the fraction
The fraction stays the
same if the top and
1 = 1× 2 = 2
bottom are multiplied
by the same number.
2 2× 2 2
multiply top and bottom
by the surd √2
▷ Simplifying further
Sometimes rationalizing a 12 and 15 can both be divided
fraction gives us another surd by 3 to simplify further
that can be simplified further.
12 = 12 × 15 = 12 × 15 = 4 × 15
15 15 × 15 15 5
multiply both top multiplying √15 by
and bottom by √15 √15 gives 15
42 NUMBERS
4×10
3
Standard Form SEE ALSO
18–21 Multiplication
4 × 10
Standard form makes very large or very small numbers
easier to understand by showing them as a number
multiplied by a power of 10. This is useful because the
3 This is how 4,000 is written as
standard form – it shows that
the decimal place for the
size of the power of 10 makes it possible to get an number represented, 4,000,
instant impression of how big the number really is. is 3 places to the right of 4.
▷ Take a number
Standard form is usually used
for very large or very small
numbers.
1,230,000 0.0006
▷ Add the decimal point add decimal point decimal point is already here
Identify the position of the
decimal point if there is one.
Add a decimal point at the
end of the number, if it does
1,230,000. 0.0006
not already have one.
23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
LOOKING CLOSER
E X A M P L E S O F S TA N D A R D F O R M
Decimals
SEE ALSO
18–21 Multiplication
1,234 . 56
△ Whole and fractional parts
The whole numbers represent – moving left from the decimal
point – units, tens, hundreds, and thousands. The fractional
numbers – moving right from the decimal place – are tenths
then hundredths.
decimal point separates the whole
numbers (on the left) from the
fractional numbers (on the right)
Multiplication
To multiply decimals, first remove the decimal point. Then perform a long
multiplication of the two numbers, before adding the decimal point back in
to the answer. Here 1.9 (a decimal) is multiplied by 7 (a whole number).
multiply
7 by 9 19 7 × 9 = 63, the 19 multiply 7 by 1
decimal point is
put back in
1.9 19 7 × 7
first digit, 6, is
× carried to the
tens column
decimal point
is removed 3 1 × 7 + 6 = 13,
which is written
133 133 13.3
6 across two columns 6
6 is carried to
the tens column
First, remove any decimal Then multiply the two Next multiply the tens. The Finally, count the decimal
points, so that both numbers, starting in the product is 7, which, added to digits in the original numbers –
numbers can be treated units column. Carry units to the carried 6, makes 13. Write there is 1. The answer will also
as whole numbers. the tens if necessary. this across two columns. have 1 decimal digit.
DECIMALS 45
DIVISION
Dividing one number by another often gives a decimal answer. Sometimes it is easier to
turn decimals into whole numbers before dividing them.
0 8 fits into 6
0.7 add decimal 8 6.0 8 6.0 0 bring
0 times, so
write 0 here
point
0 0 down a 0
LOOKING CLOSER
6 0 0 0 + 4 0 0 + 50 + 2 8
9
1000
1001
1 eight
1 eight + 1 one
= 6452 10 1010 1 eight + 1 two
11 1011 1 eight + 1 two + 1 one
Counting in binary
Each column in the binary system is worth two times more 12 1100 1 eight + 1 four
than the column to the right of it and, as in the decimal system, 13 1101 1 eight + 1 four + 1 one
0 represents zero value. A similar system of headings may be used
with binary numbers but only two symbols are used (0 and 1). 14 1110 1 eight + 1 four + 1 two
15 1111 1 eight + 1 four + 1 two + 1 one
×2 ×2 ×2 ×2 ×2 16 10000 1 sixteen
Thirty-twos Sixteens Eights Fours Twos Ones 17 10001 1 sixteen + 1 one
32 16 8 4 2 1
18 10010 1 sixteen + 1 two
= 57 written in the
decimal system
100 1100100 1 sixty-four + 1 thirty-two + 1 four
BINARY NUMBERS 47
Adding in binary
Numbers written in binary form can be added together in a similar
way to decimal numbers, and column addition may be done like this:
the answer is 12
Fours Twos in the decimal system
Ones 1+1=2 1+0+1=2 (8 + 4 + 0 + 0 = 12)
(this is 10 in binary) (this is 10 in binary)
111 (4 + 2 + 1
in decimal) 111 111 111
+ 101 (4 + 0 + 1
in decimal)
+ 101 + 101 + 101
0 00 1100
1 carry 1 1 carry 1 1 carry 1 and place
in the eights column
Align the numbers Add the ones column. Now the digits in the twos Finally, add the 1s in the
under their correct The answer is 2, which is column are added together fours column, which gives
place-value columns as in 10 in binary. The twos are with the 1 carried over from us 3, (11 in binary). This is
the decimal system. It may shown in the next column the ones column. The total is the end of the sum so the
be helpful to write in the so carry a 1 to the next 2 again (10 in binary) so a 1 final 1 is placed in the
column headings when column and leave 0 in needs to be carried and a 0 eights column.
first learning this system. the ones column. left in the twos column.
Subtracting in binary
Subtraction works in a similar way to the decimal system but “borrows”
in different units to the decimal system – borrowing by twos instead of tens.
0 2 0 2
1101 (8 + 4 + 1
in decimal) 1101 1101 1101
– 11 (2 + 1 in
decimal) – 0011 – 0011 the answer is 10 in
the decimal system
– 0011
0 10 (8 + 0 + 2 + 0 = 10)
1010
The numbers are Add zeros so that there are The lower 1 cannot be Now subtract the
written in their correct the same number of digits subtracted from the 0 above digits in the fours
place-value columns as in each column. Then begin it so borrow from the fours column, which gives
in the decimal system. by subtracting the ones column and replace it with a us 0. Finally, in the eights
column: 1 minus 1 is 0, 0. Then put a 2 above the column we have nothing
so place a 0 in the answer twos column. Subtract the to subtract from the
space. Now move on to the lower 1 from the upper 2. upper 1, so 1 is written
twos column on the left. This leaves 1 as the answer. in the answer space.
48 NUMBERS
22–25 Division
One thirty-
second One sixty-fourth
1
⁄32 (one 1
⁄64 (one
thirty-second) sixty-fourth) is
▷ Equal parts of a whole is 1 part out of 1 part out of 64
The circle on the right shows how parts 32 equal parts equal parts in
of a whole can be divided in different in a whole. a whole.
ways to form different fractions.
FRACTIONS 49
numerator has higher
numerator has lower value than denominator
Types of fractions value than denominator
A proper fraction – where the numerator is
smaller than the denominator – is just one 1 ◁ Proper fraction
In this fraction the number of
35 ◁ Improper fraction
The larger numerator
type of fraction. When the number of parts
is greater than the whole, the result is a
fraction that can be written in two ways
4 parts examined, shown on
top, is less than the whole. 4 indicates that the parts
come from more than
one whole.
– either as an improper fraction (also known whole number
as a top-heavy fraction) or a mixed fraction. fraction
1
10 3
◁ Mixed fraction
A whole number is
combined with a
proper fraction.
Depicting fractions
Fractions can be illustrated in many ways, using any shape
that can be divided into an equal number of parts.
1
◁ Split equally
The shapes show
that there is
1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 = 3 3
more than one
way of depicting
1 a fraction.
3
2 1
5
1
5
1
5
1
5
1
5 = 1 1 1 1 1
5 5 5 5 5
1 1 1
6 1
6 1 6 6
1 6 1 1
6 1 = 6 6
6 1 1 1
6 6 6
1
7 1
1 7 1 1
Half 7 1 1 7 7 1
1
⁄2 (one half ) is
1 7 = 7 7
1 part out of 2
7 1 1 1 1
equal parts in
a whole. 7 7 7 7
1
7
50 NUMBERS
whole number
1 2 5 6 9 10
numerator of 8 is produced
3 4 7 8 11 12 with 3 left over
35 is
4
13 14
15 16
25 26
17 18
19 20
29 30
21 22
23 24
33 34
is
8 3
4
35 = 35 ÷ 4 = 8 r3 =
4
denominator
8 3
4
27 28 31 32 35
1 2 3 4 5 6 multiply whole
number by
whole number denominator
7 8 9 10 11 12 add to
numerator
10 1 31
10 1 10 × 3 + 1 31
13 14 15 16 17 18
is is = =
3 19 20 21 22 23 24 3 3 3 3
25 26 27 28 29 30
denominator
31 each group of 3
parts represents
1 whole Multiply the whole number The result is the
1
⁄3 (one third) by the denominator – in this top-heavy fraction 31⁄3,
of a whole left over
case, 10 × 3 = 30. Then add with a numerator (31)
the numerator. greater than the
denominator (3).
Draw the fraction as ten groups of three
parts with one part left over. In this way it is
possible to count 31 parts in the fraction.
FRACTIONS 51
Equivalent fractions
The same fraction can be written in different ways. These are known as
equivalent (meaning “equal”) fractions, even though they look different.
3 highlighted 2 highlighted
sectors take up rectangles take
same space as up same space
= 9 highlighted
sectors in circle
on left = as 4 highlighted
rectangles on
left
9 3 numerator and
4 2 results in
12
= 4
denominator
by same
number
6
= 3
equivalent
fraction with
smaller
numerator and
denominator ÷3 ÷2 denominator
△ Cancellation
Cancellation is a method used to find an equivalent fraction
that is simpler than the original. To cancel a fraction divide
the numerator and denominator by the same number.
16 highlighted 2 highlighted
triangles take triangles take up
up same space same space as
as 4 highlighted highlighted
= triangles in
square on left = triangle on left
numerator ×4 ×2
4 16 multiply
1 2
8
= 32
numerator and
denominator
by same
number 3
= 6
denominator ×4 ×2
△ Reverse cancellation
Multiplying the numerator and denominator by the same
number is called reverse cancellation. This results in an
equivalent fraction with a larger numerator and denominator.
/ = / / / / / / / / /
/ = / / / / / / / / /
/ = / / / / / / / / /
/ = / / / / / / / / /
/ = / / / / / / / / /
/ = / / / / / / / / /
/ = / / / / / / / / /
/ = / / / / / / / / /
52 NUMBERS
▷ Comparing fractions
To work out the relative sizes
of fractions, it is necessary to
convert them so that they all
2 denominator
5 denominator
7 denominator
have the same denominator.
To do so, first look at the
denominators of all the
3 8 12
fractions being compared.
▷ Make a list
List the multiples – all the
whole number products of
3, 6, 9, 12, 8, 16, 24, 32, 12, 24, 36,
each denominator – for all
of the denominators. Pick
15, 18, 21, 40, 48, 56, 48, 60, 72,
a sensible stopping point
for the list, such as 100. 24, 27, 30… 64, 72… 84, 96…
+ = – =
1 2 3 7 4 3
4 + 4 = 4 8 – 8
= 8
To add fractions, add together only the numerators. The To subtract fractions, subtract the smaller numerator from
denominator in the result remains unchanged. the larger. The denominator in the result stays the same.
1 5 4×3+1 13 5 13 26 5 31
4 +
3 6 3 3
+
6 3
=
6
×2
+
6 6
31 ÷ 6 = 5r1 =
denominator goes into common denominator
5 16
denominator stays same 2 times, so multiply both sides by 2
First, turn any mixed It is not possible to add Convert the fractions In order to turn the resulting
fractions that are being fractions with different into fractions with top-heavy fraction back into a
added into top-heavy denominators, so find a common denominators mixed fraction, divide the
fractions. common denominator. by multiplying. numerator by the denominator.
13 3 13 26 3 23
6 12 – 34 6×2+1
2 2
−
4 2
=
4
×2
−
4 4
23 ÷ 4 = 5r3 =
denominator goes into common denominator
5 34
denominator stays same 2 times, so multiply both sides by 2
First, turn any mixed The two fractions have Convert the fractions If necessary, divide the
fractions in the equation different denominators, so into fractions with numerator by the denominator
into top-heavy fractions a common denominator common denominators to turn the top-heavy fraction
by multiplying. is needed. by multiplying. back into a mixed fraction.
54 NUMBERS
MULTIPLYING FRACTIONS
Fractions can be multiplied by other fractions. To multiply fractions by mixed fractions
or whole numbers, they first need to be converted into top-heavy fractions.
two equal
parts multiplying / by 3
is same as adding whole number a top-heavy fraction
/ to / to / with whole number as numerator
× 3= =
and 1 as denominator
+ + remainder becomes
numerator of fraction
×
1
2 × 3= 1
2 + 1
2 + 1
2 = 1 12 1
2 × 3
1 = 3
2 3÷2 = 1 r1 = 1 12
denominator
× stays the same
Imagine multiplying a fraction by a whole number as Convert the whole number Divide the numerator of
adding the fraction to itself that many times. Alternatively, to a fraction. Next, multiply the resulting fraction by the
imagine multiplying a whole number by a fraction as both numerators together denominator. The answer is
taking that portion of the whole number, here ½ of 3. and then both denominators. given as a mixed fraction.
=
as big by doubling sign means “of”
1
× 3
= 3 2 4 8 denominator decreases
value of fraction
3 2 5 3×5+2
×
5 6 5 add to
17
5
×
5
6 = 85
30 85 ÷ 30 = 2 r25 = 2 2530
numerator × denominator
stays the same
First, turn the mixed fraction Next, multiply the numerators Divide the numerator of the new top-
into a top-heavy fraction. and denominators of both heavy fraction by its denominator. The
fractions to get a new fraction. answer is shown as a mixed fraction.
FRACTIONS 55
DIVIDING FRACTIONS
Fractions can be divided by whole numbers. To do so turn the whole number into
a fraction, turn the fraction upside down, then multiply it by the first fraction.
1
⁄4 (one dividing by 2 means each part is 1⁄8 whole number first
quarter) splitting in half (one eighth) ÷ sign becomes
turned into around
i tc h × sign
top-heavy fraction sw
÷2 = 1÷2 1 1 1
× =
1
= 1 4 1 4 2 8
4 ÷ 2 8 denominator is doubled,
so value is halved sw
i tc h a
round
Picture dividing a fraction by a whole number as To divide a fraction by a whole number, convert the whole
splitting it into that many parts. In this example, ¼ is number into a fraction, turn the fraction upside down, and
split in half, resulting in twice as many equal parts. multiply both the numerators and the denominators.
1÷1 1 3 3
÷ is same
× = × =
as saying
same as 3⁄1 4 3 4 1 4
1 ÷ 1 1 × = 3
4 3
is same
as saying
4 3
Dividing one fraction by another is the same as turning the
4
sw
i tc h a
round
To divide two fractions use the inverse operation –
turn the last fraction upside down, then multiply
second fraction upside down and then multiplying the two. both the numerators and the denominators.
4÷9 4 4 16
1 2 1
3
÷
1
4
1×3+1
3
2×4+1
4
× =
3 4 3 9 27
add to
numerator sw
denominator i tc h a
round
First, turn both the mixed fractions into top-heavy Divide the two fractions by turning the second
fractions by multiplying the whole number by the fraction upside down, then multiplying both the
denominator and adding the numerator. numerators and the denominators.
56 NUMBERS
18–21 Multiplication
Writing ratios
Ratios are written as two or more numbers with a ◁ Supporters
colon between each. For example, a fruit bowl in This group represents fans
which the ratio of apples to pears is 2 : 1 means that of two football clubs, the
there are 2 apples for every 1 pear in the bowl. “greens” and the “blues”.
▷Forming a ratio
To compare the numbers
of people who support
the two different clubs,
write them as a ratio. This
makes it clear that for
every 4 green fans there
are 3 blue fans.
there are this is the symbol there are
4 : 3
4 green for the ratio 3 blue
supporters between the fans supporters
▽ More ratios
The same process applies to any set of data
that needs comparing. Here are more groups
of fans, and the ratios they represent.
1: 2
△1:2
1: △1:3
3 2 : △2:5
5
One fan of the greens and 2 fans of the One fan of the greens and 3 fans of the Two fans of the greens and 5 fans of the
blues can be compared as the ratio 1 : 2. blues can be shown as the ratio 1 : 3, which blues can be compared as the ratio 2 : 5.
This means that in this case there are twice means that, in this case, there are three There are more than twice as many fans
as many fans of the blues as of the greens. times more blue fans than green fans. of the blues as of the greens.
R AT I O A N D P R O P O R T I O N 57
Finding a ratio
20 minutes is /
Large numbers can also be written as ratios. For example, to find the ratio of an hour
between 1 hour and 20 minutes, convert them into the same unit, then ratios show information in the
cancel these numbers by finding the highest number that divides into both. same way as fractions do
= 750 m 18 cm ÷ 40 = 0.45 cm
the answer is converted into a more suitable
unit – there are 100cm in a metre
Comparing ratios
compare the
Converting ratios into fractions allows their size to be compared. To compare the numerators
ratios 4 : 5 and 1 : 2, write them as fractions with the same denominator.
5 × 2 is 10,
1 fraction that 2 × 5 is 10, the the common 5 8
1:2= 2
represents
ratio 1 : 2
common denominator
×5 ×2
denominator
10 is smaller than
10
and 1 so
4:5= 4
fraction that
represents
ratio 4 : 5 2 = 105 4
5 = 108 1:2 is smaller than 4:5
5 ×5 ×2
First write each ratio as a Convert the fractions so that they As the fractions now share a
fraction, placing the smaller both have the same denominator, denominator, their sizes can be
quantity in each above the by multiplying the first fraction by compared, making it clear which
larger quantity. 5 and the second by 2. ratio is bigger.
58 NUMBERS
PROPORTION
Two quantities are in proportion when a change in one causes a change in the other.
Two examples of this are direct and indirect (also called inverse) proportion.
▷ Delivering parcels
1:8
The number of vans used to 1 van takes 8 days to
deliver parcels determines ×2 ÷2 8
deliver the parcels
how many days it takes to
deliver the parcels. Twice
6
as many vans means half as the line showing
2:4
TIME DAYS
3 in the ratio
2×4=8 ratio
3 in the
6 × 2 = 12 6 in the ratio
6 people
Proportional quantities
Proportion can be used to solve problems involving unknown quantities. For
example, if 3 bags contain 18 apples, how many apples do 5 bags contain?
total number apples
of apples bags apples per bag number of bags
per bag
total
18 ÷ 3 = 6 6 × 5 = 30
There is a total of 18 apples in 3 bags. To find out how many apples there To find the number of apples
Each bag contains the same number are in 1 bag, divide the total number in 5 bags, multiply the number
of apples. of apples by the number of bags. of apples in 1 bag by 5.
60 NUMBERS
0
0 Percentages SEE ALSO
44–45 Decimals
Any number can be written as a part of 100 or a percentage. Per cent means
proportion 56–59
“per hundred”, and it is a useful way of comparing two or more quantities.
Rounding off 70–71
The symbol “%” is used to indicate a percentage.
F
Parts of 100 TEAEMALE
CHE
The simplest way to start looking at percentages is by dealing 10 % RS
10 o
with a block of 100 units, as shown in the main image. These ut o or
100 units represent the total number of people in a school. f 10
This total can be divided into different groups according to 0
the proportion of the total 100 they represent.
100%
▷ This is simply
another way
of saying
“everybody” or
“everything”. Here,
all 100 figures –
100% – are blue.
1
2
50%
▷ This group
3
4
5
is equally
divided between 6
50 blue and 50 purple
TS
7
DEN
figures. Each represents 50
out of 100 or 50% of the total. T U 8
LE S or
19 % 2
This is the same as half.
MA 9
00 10
t of 1 RS
1
19 o
u
E A CHE
LE T or
MA 5%
1%
▷ In this group
5 ou
t o f 10
0 △ Adding up to 100
Percentages are an effective
way to show the component
parts of a total. For example,
there is only 1 male teachers (blue)
blue figure out account for 5% (5 out of
of 100, or 1%. 100) of the total.
P E R C E N TA G E S 61
◁ 25% of 24
The 6 people shown
in blue make up 25%
10
48
× 100 = 42.86
5
50
9 × 100 = 75% play instruments
6
5 40
PERCENTAGE (%)
what %
TOTAL NUMBER
12 4
3
30 of class
play an
Divide the known number by the
total number (9 ÷ 12 = 0.75).
Multiply the result by 100 to get
the percentage (0.75 × 100 = 75). 2
1
% 20
10
instrument?
PERCENTAGE (%)
35 6 30
%
NUMBER
Divide the known amount by the Multiply the result by 100 to get 4 20
TOTAL
REAL WORLD
Percentages
Percentages are all around us – in shops,
SALE
PERCENTAGE CHANGE
If a value changes by a certain percentage, it is possible to calculate the new value.
Conversely, when a value changes by a known amount, it is possible to work out
the percent increase or decrease compared to the original.
100 40
PERCENTAGE (%)
15
Divide the Multiply the result Add the original value to 22 to ? 10
30
known % by 100 by the original value find the % increase, or subtract % 20
VALUE
(55 ÷ 100 = 0.55). (0.55 × 40 = 22). 22 to find the % decrease. 5
10
original value (30 ÷ 99 = 0.303). the percentage (0.303 × 100 = 30.3), and 20 20
round to 3 significant figures. 10 10
40
245 80
30
ADON
ME
60
%
IT
Divide the decrease in value by the Multiply the result by 100 to find
VALUE
20
original value (36 ÷ 245 = 0.147). the percentage (0.147 × 100 = 14.7), 40
and round to 3 significant figures. 20 10
64 NUMBERS
44–45 Decimals
60–63 Percentages
48–55 Fractions
75%
an exam, this is the same as saying that 1/5 of the answers in an
exam need to be answered correctly to achieve a pass mark or
that the minimum score for a pass is 0.2 of the total.
0.75 75%
▷All change
0.75 × 100 = 75%
Decimal Multiply by 100 Percentage
The three ways of writing the same
number are shown here: decimal (0.75),
fraction (¾), and percentage (75%). They
look different, but they all represent
decimal point in 0.75 moved
two places to right to make 75 the same proportion of an amount.
0.75
Everyday numbers to remember
Many decimals, fractions, and percentages are used in everyday
life – some of the more common ones are shown here.
DECIMAL
FRACTION
0.75 4
highest
number that
goes into 75
and 100
÷25
75 3
0.75
3 Decimal
number with
two digits
after the
100
Count the decimal
places – if there is 1
digit, the denominator
is 10; if there are 2, it is
÷25
4
Cancel the
fraction down
into its lowest
possible terms.
4
decimal point.
FRACTION 100. The numerator is
the number after the
A fraction shows a number as part decimal point.
of an equally divided whole.
3 3
4
3 ÷ 4 = 0.75 0.75×100 = 75%
4 = 3 ÷ 4 = 0.75
Divide the Divide the numerator by
Fraction Multiply by 100 Fraction the denominator. Decimal
numerator by the
denominator.
66 NUMBERS
+
Mental maths SEE ALSO
18–21 Multiplication
◁ Finding the
t-shirt for sale 20 t-shirts for sale answer
▷ Multiplying by 20
First multiply the
A shop is selling price of 10 price by 10, here
t-shirts for the price
of $/£1.20 each. How
much will the price
1 1.2 × 10 t-shirts in $/£ 12 × 2
20 by moving the
decimal point one
place to the right,
be for 20 t-shirts?
1.20 ×10
12.0 ×2
24.0 and then double
that to give the
final price of $/£24.
athlete runs
athlete runs every day every day for 25 days
▷ Multiplying by 25 ◁ Finding the
An athlete runs 16km answer
16 × 100 1,600km run 1,600 ÷ 4 First multiply the
a day. If the athlete in 100 days
runs the same 16km for one day by
distance every day for 100, to give 1,600km
25 days, how far will for 100 days, then
he run in total?
2.9 ≈ 3 and
3 × 4 = 12
2 .9 m 4m close to real answer of 11.6
length of floor to
be covered
carpet to be cut
so 2.9 × 4 ≈ 12
to required size
width of floor to be covered
Top tricks
The multiplication tables of several numbers reveal patterns of multiplications.
Here are two good mental tricks to remember when multiplying the 9 and 11
times tables.
multipliers 1 to 10 multipliers 1 to 9
9 T I M E S TA B L E 11 T I M E S TA B L E
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99
DIVISION
Dividing by 10 or 5 is straightforward. To divide by 10, either delete a 0 or move the decimal
point one place to the left. To divide by 5, again divide by 10 and then double the answer.
Using these rules, work out the divisions in the following two examples.
75 7.5 15
tokens. How many ÷10 ×2 point in 75 one place
tokens are needed to the left) to give 7.5,
for 1 of the 5 and then double that
children to enter 75 ÷ 10 7.5 × 2 for the answer of 15.
the zoo?
75 (same as 75.0) tokens 15 tokens for
for group of 5 children decimal point moves
one place to left each child
LOOKING CLOSER
Top tips
There are various mental tricks to help with dividing larger or more complicated numbers. In the three examples below, there are
tips on how to check whether very large numbers can be divided by 3, 4, and 9.
54 ÷ 3 = 18, so the
original number is
▷ Divisible by 3 original number digits add up to 54 divisible by 3
Add together all of the digits in
the number. If the total is divisible 1665233198172 1 + 6 + 6 + 5 + 2 + 3 + 3 + 1 + 9 + 8 + 1 + 7 + 2 = 54
by 3, the original number is too.
56 ÷ 4 = 14, so the
5 and 6 seen as original number is
▷ Divisible by 4 original number one number: 56 divisible by 4
If the last two digits are taken as
one single number, and it is divisible 123456123456123456 56 ÷ 4 = 14
by 4, the original number is too.
add together all digits of 36 ÷ 9 = 4, so the
▷ Divisible by 9 original number number, their sum is 36 original number
is divisible by 9
Add together all of the digits in
the number. If the total is divisible 1643951142 1 +6 + 4 + 3 + 9 + 5 + 1 + 1 + 4 + 2 = 36
by 9, the original number is too.
M E N TA L M AT H S 69
PERCENTAGES
A useful method of simplifying calculations involving percentages is to reduce one difficult
percentage into smaller and easier-to-calculate parts. In the example below, the smaller
percentages include 10% and 5%, which are easy to work out.
original price
of bike
2.5% of 480 = 12 + 12
2.5% of 480 is half of
5% of 480, which is 84 is 17.5% of 480 84
half of 10% of 480
First, write down the percentage Next, reduce 17.5% into the easier The sum of 48, 24, and 12
price increase required and the stages of 10%, 5%, and 2.5% of is 84, so $/£84 is added to
original price of the bike. £/$480, and calculate their values. $/£480 for a price of $/£564.
Switching Progression
A percentage and an amount can both be “switched”, to A progression involves dividing the percentage by a number
produce the same result with each switch. For example, and then multiplying the amount by the same number. For
50% of 10, which is 5, is exactly the same as 10% of 50, example, 40% of 10 is 4. Dividing this 40% by 2 and
which is 5 again. multiplying 10 by 2 results in 20% of 20, which is also 4.
≈ Rounding off
THE PROCESS OF ROUNDING OFF INVOLVES REPLACING ONE
SEE ALSO
44–45
66–67
Decimals
Mental maths
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
if the last digit is below the if the last digit is at or above
midpoint, round down the midpoint, round up
LOOKING CLOSER
Approximately equal
≈
Many measurements are given as
approximations, and numbers are sometimes 31 ≈ 30 and 187 ≈ 200
rounded to make them easier to use. An △ Approximately equal to
“approximately equals” sign is used to show when The “approximately equals” sign shows that the two
numbers have been rounded up or down. It looks sides of the sign are approximately equal instead of
similar to a normal equals sign (=) but with wavy lines mean equal. So 31 is approximately equal to 30, and 187 is
curved instead of straight lines. “approximately” approximately equal to 200.
ROUNDING OFF 71
Decimal places
Any number can be rounded to the appropriate number of decimal
places. The choice of how many decimal places depends on what the
number is used for and how exact an end result is required.
original number with
9.2
1 decimal place (1 d.p.)
decimal place is 5 (9.15),
so round up
number. This table shows the accuracy that different
numbers of decimal places represent. For example, a
distance in kilometres to 3 decimal places would be
accurate to a thousandth of a kilometre, which is
the digit after the equal to a metre.
9.15
2 decimal places (2 d.p.)
second decimal place is
3 (9.153), so round down Decimal
places
Rounded to Example
1 ⁄ 1.1km
the digit after the third
2 / 1.14km
9.154
3 decimal places (3 d.p.)
decimal place is 6
(9.1536), so round up
3 / 1.135km
◁ Significant zeros
Significant figures 1 significant
figure
2 significant
figures
3 significant
figures The answer 200 could
A significant figure in a number is be the result of
a digit that counts. The digits 1 to 9
are always significant, but 0 is not.
However, 0 becomes significant when
it occurs between two significant
200 200 200
Real value anywhere Real value anywhere Real value anywhere
rounding to 1, 2, or 3
significant figures (s.f.).
Below each example is
the range in which its
figures, or if an exact answer is needed. between 150–249 between 195–204 between 199.5–200.4 true value lies.
100,000
1 significant figure (1 s.f.)
3 1 significant figure (1 s.f.)
these 0s are
not significant
this 0 is significant because it had
110,000
2 significant figures (2 s.f.)
3.0 numbers after it in the number it
was rounded from
110,010
5 significant figures (5 s.f.)
this 0 is not
significant
3.05
3 significant figures (3 s.f.)
72 NUMBERS
Using a Calculator
SEE ALSO
7 + 2 ) × 9 = 81
Not Decimal point
calculator does
7 + 2 × 9 = 25 sum 2 × 9 = 18,
then 18 + 7 = 25
This key works in the same way as a written decimal
point – it separates whole numbers from decimals. It is entered
in the same way as any of the number keys.
Estimating answers
Calculators can only give answers according to the keys that Cancel
have been pressed. It is useful to have an idea of what answer AC The cancel key clears all recent entries from the
to expect as a small mistake can give a very wrong answer. memory. This is useful when starting a new calculation, as it
makes sure no unwanted values are retained.
For example
2 0 0 6 × 1 9 8 Delete
this would give the DEL This clears the last value that was entered into the
must be close to answer 400,000
calculator, rather than wiping everything from the memory.
It is sometimes labelled “CE” (clear entry).
2 0 0 0 × 2 0 0
So if the calculator gives the answer 40,788 it is clear that
Recall button
the sum has not been entered correctly – the sum entered RCL This recalls a value from the calculator’s memory –
had one “0” missing from what was intended: it is useful for sums with many parts that use numbers or stages
from earlier in the working out.
2 0 6 × 1 9 8
U S I N G A C A LC U L AT O R 73
FUNCTION KEYS
Cube
This is a short cut to cubing a number,
without having to key in a number multiplied by
itself, and then multiplied by itself again. Key in the
number to be cubed, then press this button.
ANS
ANS Pressing this key gives the answer to
the last sum that was entered. It is useful for sums
with many steps.
x2 x log ln Square
A short cut to squaring a number,
“‘ without having to key in the number multiplied by
(−) o hyp sin cos tan itself. Just key in the number then this button.
4 5 6 × ÷ Negative
Use this to make a number negative.
It is usually used when the first number in a sum
is negative.
1 2 3 + −
0 . ×10
x
Ans = sin
sin, cos, tan
These are mainly used in trigonometry,
to find the sine, cosine, or tangent values of angles
in right-angled triangles.
Personal finance 90
TAX
KNOWING HOW MONEY WORKS IS IMPORTANT FOR
MANAGING YOUR PERSONAL FINANCES. 80
GOVERNMENT
Part of the cost of
Personal finance includes paying tax on income, 70
government spending
gaining interest on savings, or paying interest on loans. 60 is collected in the form
of income tax
SEE ALSO 50
34–35 Positive and
40 ◁ Income tax
TAKE HOME
negative numbers
Each person is taxed on
Business finance 76–77 30 what they earn – “take
Formulas 177–179 home” is the amount
of money they have
20
left after paying their
Tax 10 income tax and other
Tax is a fee charged by a government on a product, deductions.
income, or activity. Governments collect the money
they need to provide services, such as schools and TAXPAYER WAGE
defence, by taxing individuals and companies. Everybody pays tax – through This is the amount of money
Individuals are taxed on what they earn – income their wages or through the that is earned by someone
tax – and also on some things they buy. money that they spend in employment
FINANCIAL TERMS
Financial words often seem complicated, but they are easy to understand. Knowing what the important ones mean will enable you to
manage your finances by helping you to understand what you have to pay and the money you will receive.
This is the record of whatever a person borrows from or saves with the bank. Each account holder has a numeric
Bank account password called a personal identification number (PIN), which should never be revealed to anyone.
Credit is money that is borrowed – for example, on a 4-year pay-back agreement or as an overdraft from the bank.
Credit It always costs to borrow money. The money paid to borrow from a bank is called interest.
This is the money that comes to an individual or family. This can be provided by the wages that are paid for
Income employment. Sometimes it comes from the government in the form of an allowance or direct payment.
This is the cost of borrowing money or the income received when saving with a bank. It costs more to borrow
Interest money from a bank than the interest a person would receive from the bank by saving the same amount.
A mortgage is an agreement to borrow money to buy a home. A bank lends the money for the purchase and this
Mortgage is paid back, usually over a long period of time, together with interest on the loan and other charges.
There are many forms of savings. Money can be saved in a bank to earn interest. Saving through a pension plan
Savings involves making regular payments to ensure an income after retirement.
Break-even is the point where the cost, or what a company has spent, is equal to revenue, which is what the
Break-even company has earned – at break-even the company makes neither a profit nor a loss.
Companies make a loss if they spend more than they earn – if it costs them more to produce their product than
Loss they earn by selling it.
Profit is the part of a company’s income that is left once their costs have been paid – it is the money “made”
Profit by a company.
PERSONAL FINANCE 75
INTEREST
Banks pay interest on the money that savers invest with them (capital), and charge
interest on money that is borrowed from them. Interest is given as a percentage,
and there are two types, simple and compound.
Simple interest
This is interest paid only on the sum of money that is first saved with the bank. If £10,000
is put in a bank account with an interest rate of 3%, the amount will increase by the
same figure each year.
amount interest number invested
invested rate of years interest amount interest total
Compound interest
This is where interest is paid on the money invested and any interest that is earned on
that money. If £10,000 is paid into a bank account with an interest rate of 3%, then the
amount will increase as follows.
amount number of
interest rate as total after original
invested years interest
a percentage total first year amount
amount amount interest number
1
First year
after T years
3
) )
saved rate of years
10,000 × 1+ = 10,300 10,300 – 10,000 = 300
T 100
Amount = P 1 + R
100 ) ) Substitute the values in the
formula to work out the total
for the first year.
After one year the total interest
earned is the same as that earned
with simple interest (see above).
△ Compound interest formula
number total after total after
To find the compound interest of years second year first year interest
Second year
Business Finance
BUSINESSES AIM TO MAKE MONEY, AND MATHS PLAYS
AN IMPORTANT PART IN ACHIEVING THIS AIM.
The aim of a business is to turn an idea SEE ALSO
or a product into a profit, so that the
74–75 Personal210–211
finance
business earns more money than Pie charts 1
it spends. Line graphs 212–213 INPUTS
Inputs are raw materials that are
What a business does ▷ Making cakes used in making a product. For
Businesses take raw materials, This diagram shows cake making, the inputs would
process them, and sell the end how a cake-making include the ingredients such as
product. To make a profit, the business processes flour, eggs, butter, and sugar.
business must sell its end product inputs to produce
at a price higher than the total an output.
cost of the materials and the
manufacturing or production.
△ Costs
This example shows the basic
◁ Small business Costs are incurred at the input stage,
stages of this process using a
A business can consist of as the raw materials have to be paid for.
cake-making business. just one person or a whole The same costs occur every time a new
team of employees. batch of cakes is made.
PROFIT
Profit = Revenue – Costs this line shows the
business’s total costs
2 PROCESSING
3 OUTPUT
Processing occurs when a Output is what a business
business takes raw materials produces at the end of
and turns them into processing, in a form that is
something else that it can sold to customers, for example,
sell at a higher value. the finished cake.
△ Costs △ Revenue
Processing costs include rent, wages paid Revenue is the money that is received by
to staff, and the costs of utilities and the business when it sells its output. It is
equipment used for processing. These costs used to pay off the costs. Once these are
are often ongoing, long-term expenses. paid, the money that is left is profit.
Staff costs
▷ Costs and profit
30%
Raw materials
This pie chart shows some costs 20%
that a business might meet.
Businesses that make different Rent, utilities,
products have different outgoings, and equipment
which reflect the make-up of their
products and the efficiency of the
18%
business. When all the costs have
been paid, the money left is profit.
size of angle
symbol indicates
parallel lines
vertex
REAL WORLD
c i rc Geometry in nature
um
Although many people think of geometry as a purely mathematical
fe
re
one of four
right-angles
one of four
equal sides
△ Triangle △ Square
A triangle is a three-sided, two- A square is a four-sided polygon, or
dimensional polygon. All triangles have quadrilateral, in which all four sides are the
three internal angles that add up to 180º. same length and all four internal angles are
right angles (90°).
radius of
sphere
length of edge
l
△ Cube △ Sphere
A cube is a three-dimensional polygon in A sphere is a perfectly round three-
which all its edges are the same length. dimensional shape in which every point
Like other cuboids, a cube has 6 faces, on its surface is the same distance from
12 edges, and 8 vertices (corners). the centre; this distance is the radius.
82 GEOMETRY
Angles 84–85
MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS ARE NEEDED FOR
Constructions
Circles
110–113
138–139
MEASURING AND DRAWING IN GEOMETRY.
arms of compass
Tools used in geometry can be adjusted to
length of radius use a pencil to draw
Tools are vital to measure and construct geometric shapes circles and arcs
accurately. The essential tools are a ruler, a compass, and a
protractor. A ruler is used for measuring, and to draw straight holds pencil
lines. A compass is used to draw a whole circle or a part of a circle – in place
called an arc. A protractor is used to measure and draw angles.
Using a compass
A tool for drawing circles and arcs, a compass is made up of
two arms attached at one end. To use a compass, hold the arm point held
tip of pencil is level
ending in a point still, while pivoting the other arm, holding a in place
with compass point
pencil, around it. The point becomes the centre of the circle.
▽ Drawing a circle when given the radius ▽ Drawing a circle when given its centre and
Set the distance between the arms of a compass one point on the circumference
to the given radius, then draw the circle. Put the point of the compass where the centre
is marked and extend the other arm so that the
tip of the pencil touches the point on the
drag pencil
around circumference. Then, draw the circle.
draw a circle
point on
measure centre circumference
radius on ruler
radius radius
Use a ruler to set the With the compass set to the Set the compass to the Hold the point of the
arms of the compass to radius, hold the point down distance between the compass down and draw
the given radius. and drag the pencil around. two points. a circle through the point.
▽ Drawing arcs
Sometimes only a part of a circle – an arc – is required. Arcs intersection is
the same
are often used as guides to construct other shapes. distance
(equidistant)
hold compass from points
in place A and B
centre
A A A
radius
point on
circumference compass
draw arc held steady
with pencil
B B B
Draw a line and mark the ends with a Set the compass to the length of the Draw a second arc by holding the point
point – one will be the centre of the arc, line – the radius of the arc – and hold it of the compass on the other point. The
the other a point on its circumference. on one of the points to draw the first arc. intersection is equidistant from A and B.
TOOLS IN GEOMETRY 83
14
50 40
0
140
40
A ruler is also used as a
150 20 10 0
30
30
straight edge when
0 1
160
20
drawing lines between straight line
180 170 16
170 180
0 10
two points.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
82–83 Tools in
geometry
AN ANGLE IS FORMED WHEN TWO LINES MEET AT A
COMMON POINT.
Straight lines 86–87
Bearings 108–109
Angles show the amount two lines “turn” as they extend in line rotated 45°
different directions away from a common point. This turn is anticlockwise
from start
measured in degrees, represented by the symbol °.
Measuring angles
The size of an angle depends on the
amount of turn. A whole turn, making
one rotation around a circle, is 360°.
All other angles are less than 360°. 90°
letter
identifies
180° 45° 0°
angle
sign for
point or
vertex
△ Parts of an angle
The space between these
two lines is the angle. An
angle can be named with △ Turn
a letter, its value in Here, the turn is
degrees, or the symbol ∠. anticlockwise, but a turn
can also be clockwise.
complete turn half turn
of circle
quarter turn
straight
line
turn is 55°
55° 90° 120° 180° 210°
△ Acute angle △ Right angle △ Obtuse angle △ Reflex angle
This angle is less than 90°. A right angle is 90°. This angle is more than A reflex angle is more
90° but less than 180°. than 180°.
Naming angles
Angles can have individual names and names that
reflect a shared relationship.
A 90° turn is 60° other angle 90° one angle of a pair
of supplementary
of a pair of
angles
supplementary
angle can have angles
three names
60° 60°
a 30°turn is 30° straight line
120°
B C 180°
△ One angle, three names △ Complementary angles △ Supplementary angles
This angle can be written as a, Any two angles that add up Any two angles that add up
or as ∠ ABC, or as ∠ CBA. to 90° are complementary. to 180° are supplementary.
b = 70°
all four angles
together make up
a half turn
a = 60° c = 90°
point, or vertex
a + b + c + d = 180° a + b + c + d + e = 360°
20° + 40° + 90° + 30° = 180° 60° + 70° + 90° + 60° + 80° = 360°
86 GEOMETRY
A STRAIGHT LINE IS USUALLY JUST CALLED A LINE. IT IS THE SHORTEST Angles 110–113
84–85
arrowheads mean
endpoints show
lines extend indefinitely
line segments
have fixed length
A
A B C D
symbol
indicates transversal
crosses both transversal
A D
parallel lines
lines
△ Parallel sides
The sides AB and DC are parallel, as are
△ Parallel lines △ Transversal sides BC and AD. The sides AB and BC,
Parallel lines are two or more lines that never Any line that intersects two or more and AD and CD are not parallel – shown
meet, even if extended. Identical arrows are other lines, each at a different point, by the different arrows on these lines.
used to indicate lines that are parallel. is called a transversal.
STRAIGHT LINES 87
Angles and parallel lines
Angles can be grouped and named according to their relationships with
straight lines. When parallel lines are crossed by a transversal, it creates
b=f a=e
pairs of equal angles – each pair has a different name.
b a
▽ Labelling angles
Lines AB and CD are parallel. The
angles created by the intersecting
transversal line are labelled with arrows indicate f e
lower-case letters. lines AB and CD
are parallel
b a △ Corresponding angles
A B Angles in the same position in
f e d=e c=f
C D
h g
all angles with two
d c
arcs in this diagram
are the same e f
b=c
▷ Vertically-opposite angles b △ Alternate angles
When two lines cross, equal angles c Alternate angles are formed
are formed on opposite sides of on either side of a transversal
the point. These angles are known between parallel lines. These
as vertically-opposite angles. angles are equal.
Draw a straight line with a ruler. Draw a line through the mark, Measure the same angle from the
Mark a point – this will be the intersecting the original line. This is transversal. Draw the new line
distance of the new, parallel line the transversal. Measure the angle through the mark with a ruler; this
from the original line. it makes with the original line. line is parallel to the original line.
88 GEOMETRY
Symmetry
SEE ALSO
▽ Lines of symmetry
86–87 Straight100–101
lines These are the lines of
Rotations symmetry for some flat or
THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF SYMMETRY – Reflections 102–103 two-dimensional shapes.
Circles have an unlimited
REFLECTIVE AND ROTATIONAL.
number of lines of symmetry.
A shape has symmetry when a line can be drawn that splits the shape
1
exactly into two, or when it can fit into its outline in more than one way.
Reflective symmetry 2
A flat (two-dimensional) shape has reflective symmetry when each half
of the shape on either side of a bisecting line (mirror line) is the mirror
image of the other half. This mirror line is called a line of symmetry.
Lines of symmetry of a rectangle
equilateral triangles have
▷ Isosceles triangle three lines of symmetry ◁ Equilateral triangle
This shape is An equilateral triangle 1 2
symmetrical across an isosceles triangle has a line of symmetry
a central line – the has a single line of through the middle of
sides and angles on symmetry through each side – not just 3
its centre
either side of this the base.
line are equal, and
the line cuts the
base in half at
4
right angles.
Lines of symmetry of a square
a rectangle-based
pyramid has two
planes of symmetry 3
▷ Equilateral triangle
An equilateral triangle has
rotational symmetry of
1 direction of
rotation
2 3
order 3 – when rotated, it
fits its original outline in
three different ways.
centre of
rotation
▽ Square
A square has rotational symmetry of order 4 – when rotated around its
centre of rotation, it fits its original outline in four different ways.
1 centre of
rotation
2 direction of
rotation 3 4
Axes of symmetry
Instead of a single point as the centre of rotation, a three-dimensional
shape is rotated around a line known as its axis of symmetry. It has
rotational symmetry if, when rotated, it fits into its original outline.
Vectors 94–97
COORDINATES GIVE THE POSITION OF A PLACE OR POINT
Linear graphs 182–185
ON A MAP OR GRAPH.
Introducing coordinates
▽ City map
Coordinates come in pairs of numbers or letters, or both. They are always
A grid provides a framework for locating
written in brackets separated by a comma. The order in which coordinates places on a map. Every square is identified
are read and written is important. In this example, (E, 1), means four units, or by two coordinates. A place is found
squares on this map, to the right (along the horizontal row) and one square when the horizontal coordinate meets the
down, or up in some cases, (the vertical column). vertical coordinate. On this city map, the
horizontal coordinates are letters and the
letters are used as horizontal vertical coordinates are numbers. On
numbers are used as vertical coordinates on this map other maps only numbers may be used.
coordinates on this map
A B C D E F G H I
E
1 H
LA
N Post office
AS
FIRST AVENUE
2 Shopping centre
D U E
3 R OA
ER
BL
K V
OA RI
SYCAMORE STREET
EW
VI
Fire station
4 LA Cinema V ER
RC
HL RI
AN
E
5 RE
E T
ST Hospital
OW
BI
L
IL
RC
6 W
H
AV
Leisure centre
EN
UE
7 ELM ROAD
C O O R D I N AT E S 91
◁ Town hall
Find the town hall using coordinates (J, 5).
J K L M N From square A, move 9 squares to the
right, then move 5 squares down.
◁ Leisure centre
School Library
Using the coordinates (C, 7), find the
location of the leisure centre. First, find
C. Next, find 7 on the vertical column.
◁ Library
FIRST AVENUE The coordinates of the library are (N, 1).
Find N first then move down 1 square
to locate the library.
◁ Hospital
The hospital can be found using the
coordinates (G, 7). To find the horizontal
coordinate of G, move 6 squares to the
right. Then go down 6 squares to find
MAPLE SQUARE
◁ School
The coordinates of the school are (L, 1).
First find L, then move down 1 square
to find the school.
◁ Shopping centre
Using the coordinates (D, 3), find the
location of the shopping centre. Find D.
Next, find 3 on the vertical column.
ELM ROAD
92 GEOMETRY
quadrant
3 4 △ Coordinates of a point
Coordinates give the position of a point on each
axis. The first number gives its position on the x
axis, the second its position on the y axis.
Plotting coordinates y 4
positive values
Coordinates are plotted on a set of axes. To plot a given on y axis are 3 positive values
point, first read along to its value on the x axis, then read above origin on x axis are to
up or down to its value on the y axis. The point is plotted 2 right of the
where the two values cross each other. the origin (0, 0) origin
1
is labelled 0 x
–5 – 4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
–1
A = (2, 2) B = (–1, –3) –2 negative values
negative values
C = (1, –2) D = (–2, 1) on x axis are to
left of origin
–3
of y axis are
below origin
–4
These are four sets of coordinates. Each gives Using squared paper, draw a horizontal line to form the x
its x value first, followed by its y value. Plot the axis, and a vertical line to be the y axis. Number the axes,
points on a set of axes. with the origin separating the positive and negative values.
y 4 y 4 point is at (2, 2)
D has a negative
3 x coordinate 3
2
A A
y coordinate 2
1
of A D 1
x x
–5 – 4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 –5 – 4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
–1 –1
x coordinate
–2 of A both coordinates –2
C
of B are negative
–3
B –3
C has a negative
y coordinate
–4 –4
To plot each point, look at its x coordinate (the first Plot each point in the same way. With negative coordinates,
number), and read along the x axis from 0 to this number. the process is the same, but read to the left instead of right for
Then read up or down to its y coordinate (the second number). an x coordinate, and down instead of up for a y coordinate.
C O O R D I N AT E S 93
Equation of a line y coordinate
x coordinate
The equation of a line can be found using only a The graph of the equation is of all the points where
few coordinates. This line passes through the the y coordinate is 1 greater than the x coordinate
coordinates (–1, 0), (0, 1), and (1, 2), so it is already (y = x + 1). This means that the line can be used to find
clear what pattern the points follow. other coordinates that satisfy the equation.
World map
Coordinates are used to mark the position of places on the Earth’s
surface, using lines of latitude and longitude. These work in the
same way as the x and y axes on a graph. The “origin” is the point
where the Greenwich Meridian (0 for longitude) crosses the
Equator (0 for latitude).
east from
North Pole North Pole Greenwich North Pole P can also
Meridian be shown
on a map
north from
lines of longitude degrees
Equator
Greenwich are like y axis P north
Meridian (latitude)
Equator
degrees east
Meridian
(longitude)
this is the “origin” Equator lines of latitude curved lines
are like x axis are flattened
out into a grid
South Pole
South Pole South Pole
Lines of longitude run from the The coordinates of a point This is how the surface of the
North Pole to the South Pole. Lines such as P are found by Earth is shown on a map. The
of latitude are at right-angles to lines finding how many degrees lines of latitude and longitude
of longitude. The origin is where the East it is from the Meridian work the same way as axes –the
Equator (x axis) crosses the and how many degrees vertical lines show longitude and
Greenwich Meridian (y axis). North it is from the Equator. horizontal lines show latitude.
94 GEOMETRY
Translations
90–93 Coordinates
What is a vector?
intended direction A vector is a distance in a particular
direction of current direction. Often, a vector is a diagonal
of travel horizontal distance, and in these cases it forms
direction the diagonal side (hypotenuse) of a
right-angled triangle (see pp.128–
129). The other sides of the triangle
determine the vector’s length and
actual direction end point direction. In the example on the left, a
starting
of travel swimmer is swimmer’s path is a vector. The other
point
aiming for two sides of the triangle are the
distance across to the opposite shore
from the starting point, and the
vertical distance down from the end point
direction that the swimmer was aiming for to
the actual end point where the
swimmer reaches the shore.
vector is
◁ Vector of a swimmer
determined by A man sets out to swim to the opposite
other two lines shore of a river that is 30m wide. A
current pushes him as he swims, and
he ends up 20m downriver from where
end
point he intended. His path is a vector with
dimensions 30 across and 20 down.
end point
Expressing vectors of vector
length of the
In diagrams, a vector is drawn as a line with an arrow on it,
showing its size and direction. There are three different
ways of writing vectors using letters and numbers.
line indicates
size of vector b
v=
A “v” is a general label for a vector, used
even when its size is known. It is often
arrow indicates
direction of vector v vertical units
of vector
◁ Equal vectors
angled triangle. Use Pythagoras’
both vectors
are equal
vertical
These two vectors theorem to find the length of a 6
are equal to one vector from its vertical (a) and
2 sides are
equal another, as they horizontal (b) units.
have sides of equal formula for
size and direction. Pythagoras’ theorem
4
2 vector
a + b = c 3
4
horizontal
sides are of
same size 4
( ) 2
given as units
across over
units down
b in
formula
and sign
▷ Equal vectors
6 + 3 = c–6 = –6 × –6 = 36
Put the vertical and horizontal
units of the vector into the formula.
c = 6.7
both vectors sides are equal The answer is the magnitude
(length) of the vector.
96 GEOMETRY
end
Adding and subtracting vectors second vector 2 (–1)
Vectors can be added and subtracted in two ways. The first is by using written
numbers to add the horizontal and vertical values. The second is by drawing the (2)
answer 4 is
from start of first
vectors end to end, then seeing what new vector is created. vector to end of
first vector 3 + (– 1) = 2 second vector
▷ Addition
second vector
Vectors can be
3 1 2 ( 3)
( )+( ) = ( )
added in two first vector 2
different ways. Both
methods give the
same answer.
2 2 2+2=4
4 start
△ Addition by drawing vectors
△ Adding the parts Draw one vector, then draw the second starting
To add vectors numerically, add the from the end point of the first. The answer is the
two top numbers (the horizontal new vector that has been created, from the start
values) and then the two bottom of the first vector to the end of the second.
numbers (the vertical values).
to subtract
first vector, from second vector, which
vectors, second
▷ Subtraction which second vector is subtracted from first vector
( )
vector –12 is
Vectors can be is subtracted first vector 3 – (–1) = 4 ( 32 ) reversed, giving
subtracted in two ( )
1
–2
3 1 4
( ) ( ) = ( )
different ways. Both end
methods give the
same answer.
2 2 0 start answer ( )
4
0is from start of first
vector to end of second vector
2–2=0
△ Subtracting the parts △ Subtraction by drawing vectors
To subtract one vector from another, Draw the first vector, then draw the second
subtract its vertical value from the vector reversed, starting from the end point of
vertical value of the first vector, then the first vector. The answer to the subtraction is
do the same for the horizontal values. the vector from the start point to the end point.
Multiplying vectors
Vectors can be multiplied by numbers, but not by other vectors. The direction of a vector
stays the same if it is multiplied by a positive number, but is reversed if it is multiplied by a ▽ Vector a multiplied by –½
negative number. Vectors can be multiplied by drawing or by using their numerical values. To multiply vector a by –½
numerically, multiply each of its
▽ Vector a ▽ Vector a multiplied by 2
parts by –½. To multiply it by –½ by
Vector a has –4 horizontal units and To multiply vector a by 2 numerically, multiply each of its
drawing, draw a vector half the length
+2 vertical units. It can be shown as horizontal and vertical parts by 2. To multiply it by 2 by
and in the opposite direction to a.
a written vector or a drawn vector, drawing, simply extend the original vector by the same
as shown below. length again. –½ × –4 = +2
2 × –4 = –8 vector a
vector a
horizontal value
a =( 4
2a = 2×(42 ) = 8 – 12 a = – 12 × (42 ) = (+2
1 )
2 ) vertical value
2×2=4
( )4 –½ × 2 = –1
end
end 2 × –/ = –1
drawn vector vertical units
vector –½a is in the
2×2=4 opposite direction
vector a vertical vector 2a is twice
units as long as vector a 1
2 4
2 × –4 = –8 2
horizontal units
start
–4 × –/ = +2
4 start 8 horizontal units
VECTORS 97
First, choose 2 sides of triangle ABC, in this example AB Second, find the midpoints of the two sides that have
and AC. Mark these sides as the vectors a and b. To get been chosen (AB and AC). Mark the midpoint of AB as P,
from B to C, go along BA and then AC, rather than BC. BA and the midpoint of AC as Q. This creates three new
is the vector –a as it is the opposite of AB, and AC is just vectors: AP, AQ, and PQ. AP is half the length of vector a,
b. This means vector BC is –a + b. and AQ is half the length of vector b.
B 1 1
B
BC = – a + b AP = 2 AB = 2 a
this is negative
vector BC because BA is vector BC
can also be 1 1
opposite of AB
expressed AQ = 2 AC = 2 b
like this
P is the
midpoint of AB
vector AB is
a a+b P
labelled a
1 a
2
A C A C
b vector AC is
labelled b
1 b Q Q is the
midpoint of AC
2
Third, use the vectors ½a and ½b to find the length Fourth, make the proof. The vectors PQ and BC are in
of vector PQ. To get from P to Q go along PA then AQ. the same direction and are therefore parallel to each
PA is the vector –½a, as it is the opposite of AP, and other, so the line PQ (which joins the midpoints of the
AQ is already known to be ½b. This means vector PQ sides AB and AC) must be parallel to the line BC. Also,
is –½a + ½b. vector PQ is half the length of vector BC, so the line PQ
must be half the length of the line BC.
this is half BA this is half AC
1 1
PQ = – 2 a+ 2 b B B
1
PQ = 2 BC BC and PQ
are parallel vector BC
BC is –a + b, so PQ
is half BC a+b
this is negative
because BA is P a+b P
opposite of AB
PQ is half BC vector PQ
– 12 a 1
– a+ b 1
2 2
– 12 a + 1
2 b
A C A C
1
b Q Q
2
SEE ALSO
94–97 Vectors
A TRANSLATION CHANGES THE POSITION OF A SHAPE. Rotations 100–101
Reflections 102–103
A translation is a type of transformation. It moves an object to a new position. Enlargements
104–105
The translated object is called an image, and it is exactly the same size and
shape as the original object. Translations are written as vectors.
y
9
B₂
triangle ABC is
original object
before translation
8
each point on
triangle A₂B₂C₂ is
B B₁ 6 units right and
7 2 units up from
each point on
triangle A₁B₁C₁
6 ▽ T₁ ▽ T₂
Translation T₁ Translation T₂ A₂
moves triangle 6 moves triangle 6
5 units horizontally units to right and
to the right. 2 units upwards.
4 A A₁ T₂
T₁
3
each point on triangle A₁B₁C₁
is 6 units to the right of each
2
1
T₁ moves triangle T₂ moves triangle A₁B₁C₁ 6
C ABC 6 units right C₁ units right and 2 units up
0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Writing translations
translation distance moved translation distance moved
Translations are written as vectors. The top number horizontally number horizontally
number shows the horizontal distance an
object moves, while the bottom number shows
the vertical distance moved. The two numbers 6 6
are contained within a set of brackets. Each
T₁ = T₂ =
translation can be numbered – for example T₁,
T₂, T₃ – to make it clear which one is being
(( 0 distance moved
vertically
(( 2 distance moved
vertically
referred to if more than one translation is shown.
△ Translation T₁ △ Translation T₂
To move triangle ABC to position A₁B₁C₁ each To move triangle A₁B₁C₁ to position A₂B₂C₂ each
point moves 6 units horizontally, but does not point moves 6 units horizontally, then moves 2
move vertically. The vector is written as above. units vertically. The vector is written as above.
LOOKING CLOSER
Direction of translations Tessellations in action
The numbers used to show a translation’s vector are positive or
negative, depending on which direction the object moved. If it moves A tessellation is a pattern created using shapes to cover a surface
to the right or up, it is positive; to the left or down, it is negative. without leaving any gaps. Two shapes can be tessellated with
themselves using only translation (and no rotation) – the square and
▽ Negative translation
the regular hexagon. To tessellate a hexagon using translation
The rectangle ABCD, moves down and left,
requires 6 different translations; to tessellate a square requires 8.
so the values in its vector are negative.
–1
T T₄
1 B₁
A₁ moves
3 units
to left –3 –2 –1 T₅ T₃
0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6 T T₅
T₄ T₆
distance moved ◁ Translation T₁
horizontally (to The translation T1 moves △ Hexagons △ Squares
the left) Each of the hexagons around the Each of the squares around the edge
rectangle ABCD to the new
T₁ = –3 position A₁B₁C₁D₁. It is written outside is a translated image of the is a translated image of the central
distance moved
as the vector shown – both central hexagon. The tessellation square. The tessellation continues in
–1 ( ( vertically
(downwards) its parts are negative. continues in the same way. the same way.
100 GEOMETRY
84–85 Angles
angle of
rotation
centre of
distance from
rotation
centre of rotation
stays the same as
object moves
image –
centre of rotation is end position
centre of object
direction of
rotation
+ –
angle of
rotation
Positive angle Negative angle
of rotation of rotation
y 6 B B1
5
B
object triangle
triangle has rotated
C1 4 C
through –90°
3
2
C1
B1 A1 1 C A1
A measure the
A centre of rotation
x angle of rotation
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Label the new points A1, B1, and C1. Join them to form The centre of rotation is the point where the two
the image. Each point on the new triangle A1B1C1 has perpendicular bisectors cross. To find the angle of rotation,
rotated 90° anticlockwise from each point on the join A and A1 to the centre of rotation and measure the
original triangle ABC. angle between these lines.
102 GEOMETRY
88–89 Symmetry
A
axis of
reflection E
E1
A1
mountain reflected in
these two distances B1 water of a lake
are the same C1
D₁ is reflected point
corresponding to D; it is
D1 same distance from axis
of reflection as D
LOOKING CLOSER
Kaleidoscopes
A kaleidoscope creates patterns using mirrors and coloured beads. The patterns are
the result of beads being reflected and then reflected again.
this is one the final
reflection of the reflection, which
two mirrors
original beads completes image
A simple kaleidoscope contains two The beads are reflected in the Each of the two reflections is
mirrors at right angles (90°) to each two mirrors, producing two reflected reflected again, producing another
other and some coloured beads. images on either side. image of the beads.
REFLECTIONS 103
Constructing a reflection
To construct the reflection of an object it is necessary to know the position of the axis
of reflection and of the object. Each point on the reflection will be the same distance
from the axis of reflection as its corresponding point on the original. Here, the
reflection of triangle ABC is drawn for the axis of reflection y = x (which means that
each point on the axis has the same x and y coordinates).
3 3
axis of axis of
reflection y = x right angle reflection y = x
2 C 2 C
C is (3, 2)
1 triangle ABC 1
A B A B
0 x 0 x
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
A is (1, 0) B is (2, 0)
First, draw the axis of reflection. As y = x, this axis Second, draw lines from each point of the triangle
line crosses through the points (0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), ABC that are at right-angles (90°) to the axis of
(3, 3), and so on. Then draw in the object that is to be reflection. These lines should cross the axis of
reflected – the triangle ABC, which has the reflection and continue onwards, as the new
coordinates (1, 0), (2, 0), and (3, 2). In each set of coordinates for the reflected image will be
coordinates, the first number is the x value, and the measured along them.
second number is the y value.
A B A B
0 x 0 x
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Third, measure the distance from each of the Finally, join the points A₁, B1, and C1 to complete
original points to the axis of reflection, then the image. Each of the points of the triangle has a
measure the same distance on the other side of mirror image across the axis of reflection. Each
the axis to find the positions of the new points. point on the original triangle is an equal distance
Mark each of the new points with the letter it from the axis of reflection as its reflected point.
reflects, followed by a small 1, for example A₁.
104 GEOMETRY
102–103 Reflections
100–101 Rotations
enlarged image (a
Properties of an enlargement B₁ regular pentagon) has
sides that are twice the
When an object is transformed into a larger image, the size of the original object
relationship between the corresponding sides of that
object and the image is the same as the scale factor.
For example, if the scale factor is 5, the sides of the
image are 5 times bigger than those of the original.
B A₁ C₁
original object
(a regular pentagon)
centre of
enlargement
A C
scale factor 2
E D
△ Positive scale factor
If the object and the enlarged image
corresponding angles in
object and enlarged image
E₁ D₁
are on the same side of the centre of are equal, as object is
enlarged in proportion
enlargement, the enlargement has a
positive scale factor, here +2. B
centre of
enlargement
Constructing an enlargement
An enlargement is constructed by plotting the coordinates of
the object on squared (or graph) paper. Here, the quadrilateral
ABCD is measured through the centre of enlargement (0, 0) with
a given scale factor of 2.5. horizontal distance vertical distance of
of A from centre of A from centre of
enlargement enlargement
x coordinate
The coordinates of
y axis this polygon are:
A (1, 1) B (2, 3)
C (4, 2) D (4, 1)
A¹ = 1 × 2.5, 1 × 2.5 = (2.5, 2.5)
8 scale factor y coordinate
7
draw a line
6 through each The same principle is then applied to the other points, to
vertex (point) work out their x and y coordinates.
5 of shape
4
B
B¹ = 2 × 2.5, 3 × 2.5 = (5, 7.5)
3
C
2
A C ¹ = 4 × 2.5, 2 × 2.5 = (10, 5)
1
D
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x axis D¹ = 4 × 2.5, 1 × 2.5 = (10, 2.5)
centre of enlargement is 0, 0
Draw the polygon ABCD using the given coordinates. Then, calculate the positions of A₁, B₁, C₁, and D₁
Mark the centre of enlargement and draw lines from this by multiplying the horizontal and vertical distances
point through each of the vertices of the shape (points of each point from the centre of enlargement (0, 0)
where sides meet). by the scale factor 2.5.
y axis y axis
angles are same size
8 B₁ B₁ is point (5, 7.5)
8 B₁ as in original object
7 7
6 C₁ is point (10, 5) 6
C₁ C₁
5 5
A₁ is point
4 (2.5, 2.5) 4
3
B A₁ 3 B
C D₁ C D₁
2
A
2
A₁ new image has sides
1
D
D₁ is point 1 A D that are 2.5 times larger
(10, 2.5) than original
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x axis 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x axis
Read along the x axis and the y axis to plot the Join the new coordinates to complete the
vertices (points) of the enlarged image. For example, enlargement. The enlarged image is a quadrilateral with
B₁ is point (5, 7.5) and C₁ is point (10, 5). Mark and sides that are 2.5 times larger than the original object,
label all the points A₁, B₁, C₁, and D₁. but with angles of exactly the same size.
106 GEOMETRY
To make an accurate plan of a large object, such as a bridge, the object’s measurements
need to be scaled down. To do this, every measurement of the bridge is reduced by the
same ratio. The first step in creating a scale drawing is to choose a scale – for example,
1cm for each 10m. The scale is then shown as a ratio, using the smallest common unit.
length (in cm) length (in cm) ◁ Scale as a ratio
on scale drawing of real length A scale of 1cm to 10m 60m
can be shown as a ratio
1m
By converting this to a ratio of 1cm : 500cm, it is now possible
to work out the measurements that will be used in the drawing.
30m
real measurements changed
length for
from metres to centimetres to
scale drawing
make calculation easier
squares on graph
paper show
measurement in cm ◁ Scale drawing of a bridge
Every measurement of the bridge
is reduced in the same ratio. All
the angles in the scale drawing
are the same as those of the
convert real length to centimetres real bridge.
(3,500cm) and divide by converted
ratio value of 1,000 to get length
for drawing, in this case 3.5cm 35m
34m
110m 50m
measurements represent
those of real bridge
REAL WORLD
Scale: 1cm : 5m
Maps
1cm 1cm The scale of a map varies according to
the area it covers. To see a whole country
such as France a scale of 1cm : 150km
might be used. To see a town a scale of
radius is radius is
1cm : 500m is suitable.
0.2cm 0.2cm
6cm 6cm
1cm 1cm
3cm 3cm
Make a second rough sketch, Construct a final, accurate scale 0 km 100
this time marking on the scaled drawing of the basketball court. Use a 0 miles 100
82–83 Tools in
geometry
A BEARING IS A WAY OF SHOWING A DIRECTION.
000° 84–85 Angles
WSW ESE
247.5° 112.5°
WSW (west-south-
west) on compass is
bearing 247.5°
SW SE ESE (east-
south-east) on
225° SSW SSE 135° compass is
▷ Compass directions and bearings 202.5° 157.5° bearing 112.5°
This compass shows how specific numerical
bearings relate to specific compass points. S
180°
How to measure a bearing
Begin by deciding on the start point of the journey. Place a
protractor at this start or centre point. Use the protractor to N
draw the angle of the bearing clockwise from the compass position of
direction north. position of protractor for first
protractor measurement
compass direction for second
north measurement
N
bearings measured in measure angle
clockwise direction remaining 270° 090°
above 180°
bearing smaller
start at than 100° has 0 as
centre first of three digits
270° point 090° 225°
draw line at 180°,
180° measured clockwise
from north
m
bearing of 045°
2c
actual distance
3c m 3c m
new centre at
end of 3cm 200 ÷ 100 = 2cm
distance on
protractor placed
start point scale drawing start point
at new centre
2c
2c
82–83 Tools in
Constructions geometry
C A D C A D C A D
mark and label points
where arcs cross the line
Draw a line and mark a point on the line with a Place the point of a compass on point Now, draw a line from E through A.
letter, for example, A. Place the point of a C, and draw an arc above the line. Do the This line is perpendicular (at right
compass on point A, and draw two arcs of the same from point D. The arcs will intersect angles) to the original line.
same distance from either side of this point. (cross) at a point, label this point E.
Using a point above the line
Perpendicular lines can be constructed by marking a point above the
first line, through which the second perpendicular line will pass.
line AD is
perpendicular
to line BC
mark point draw two
arcs from A arcs from B and C
above line must be same
A A distance from point A A A
draw a line
B arcs from A cross
C B C B C
line at two points line must cross D
D through D
Draw a line and mark a point Place a compass on point A. With the compass on points B and C, Now, draw a line from
above it. Label this mark with Draw two arcs that intersect draw two arcs of the same length points A to D. This line
a letter, for example, A. the line at two points. Label beneath the line. The two arcs will is perpendicular (at
these points B and C. intersect at a point, label this point D. right angles) to line BC.
P Q P Q P Q P Q
Y
First, draw a line, and label Place a compass on point P and draw Draw another arc from point Q Label the points where the arcs
each end point, for example an arc with a distance just over half the with the compass kept at the same intersect X and Y. Draw a line
P and Q. length of line PQ. length. This arc will intersect the connecting X and Y; this is the
first arc at two points. perpendicular bisector of line PQ.
112 GEOMETRY
name of angle
arc crosses first side
of angle at point a a set compass to just over half
distance it was in previous step
a
size of angle
o o o
vertex point b is where
arc crosses second
side of angle b b
First, draw an angle of any size. Label Draw an arc by placing the point of a Place the compass on point a
the vertex of this angle with a letter, compass on the vertex. Mark and label and draw an arc in the space
for example, o. the points at which the arc intersects between the angle’s sides.
the angle’s sides.
o c o
set compass at same
length for arc a and arc b
c
b b
Keep the compass set at the same length and place Draw a line from the vertex, o, through
it on point b, then draw another arc. The two arcs point c – this is the angle bisector. The
intersect at a point, label this intersection c. angle is now split into two equal parts.
LOOKING CLOSER
Congruent triangles
Triangles are congruent if all their sides and
interior angles are equal. The points that
joining a and c creates
first triangle
a a
are marked when drawing an angle
bisector create two congruent triangles
– one above the bisector and one below. o c o c
triangle obc is
▷ Constructing triangles
reflected image of
By connecting the points
made after drawing a bisecting
b triangle oac b
line through an angle, two Draw a line from a to c to make Now, draw a line from b to
congruent triangles are formed. the first triangle – shaded red here. c to construct the second
triangle – shaded red here.
CONSTRUCTIONS 113
label end
points of line label points P P this creates
a 90˚ angle
where arcs cross
A B A B A B
draw arcs above compass must be
and below line Q set to same size as
arcs from point A
Q
Draw a straight line (AB). Place a Then, draw two arcs with the compass Draw a line from point P to point
compass on point A, set it to a distance set to the same length and placed on Q. This is a perpendicular bisector
just over half of the line’s length, and point B. Label the points where the of the original line and it creates
draw an arc above and below the line. arcs cross each other P and Q. four 90° angles.
mark and label
label
points the
arc crosses
P arc from o P s
intersecion of arcs join o and s
with a
P s
f f straight line f this creates
a 45° angle
A o e B A o e B A o e B
Draw an arc from point o that crosses Keep the compass at the same length Draw a line from point o through
two lines on either side, this creates a as the last arc and draw arcs from points s. This line is the angle bisector.
90˚ angle. Label the two points f and e f and e. Label the intersection of these The 90° angle is now split into
where the arc intersects the lines. arcs with a letter (s). two 45° angles.
cm
2. 5
cm
C C all internal
angles are 60˚
2. 5
cm
cm
2. 5
cm
O c p O c
path of point p will be
plotted so that it is always
the same distance from point O
A compass and a pencil are needed to construct this The shape drawn when turning the compass a full
locus. The point of the compass is held in the fixed point, rotation reveals that the locus is a circle. The centre
O. The arms of the compass are spread so that the of the circle is O and the radius is the fixed distance
distance between its arms is the constant distance, c. between the compass point and the pencil (c).
A d B A d B A B
d d
Draw the line segment AB. A and B are Between points A and B, the locus is a straight This is the completed locus.
fixed points. Now, plot the distance of d line. At the end of these lines, the locus is a It has the shape of a typical
from the line AB. semicircle. Use a compass to draw these. athletics track.
LOCI 115
LOOKING CLOSER
Spiral locus
Loci can follow more complex paths. The example below
follows the path of a piece of string that is wound around a
cylinder, creating a spiral locus. points P₁, P₂, P₃,
and P₄ represent a smooth line joins
points P₁, P₂, P₃, and P₄
cylinder end of string P₃ P₂ positions through
which P moves as
starts off in string is wound
position P₁ around cylinder original
position
of string
P₁ P₁
P₄
The string starts off lying flat, As the string is wound around the When the path of point
with point P1 the position of cylinder, the end of the string moves P is plotted, it forms a
the end of the string. closer to the surface of the cylinder. spiral locus.
Using loci
Loci can be used to solve difficult
problems. Suppose two radio using the scale, 4cm
B
represents 200km
stations, A and B, share the same
frequency, but are 200km apart.
The range of their transmitters scale =
m 1cm : 50km
is 150km. The area where the
ranges of the two transmitters 4c
overlap, or interference, can be A
found by showing the locus of
each transmitter and using a scale To find the area of interference, first choose a scale,
drawing (see pp.106–107). then draw the reach of each transmitter. An
appropriate scale for this example is 1cm : 50km.
Construct the reception area for radio station A. Construct the reception area for radio station B.
Draw the locus of a point that is always 150km from This time draw an arc with the compass set to
station A. The scale gives 150km = 3cm, so draw an 3cm, with B as the centre. The interference occurs
arc with a radius of 3cm, with A as the centre. in the area where the two paths overlap.
116 GEOMETRY
84–85 Angles
A TRIANGLE IS A SHAPE FORMED WHEN THREE STRAIGHT LINES MEET. 86–87 Straight
Constructing
lines
A triangle has three sides and three interior angles. A vertex (plural vertices)
triangles 118–119
is the point where two sides of a triangle meet. A triangle has three vertices.
Polygons 134–137
Introducing triangles
A triangle is a three-sided polygon. The base of a triangle can
wh
int
be any one of its three sides, but it is usually the bottom one.
po
The longest side of a triangle is opposite the biggest angle. The
ere
shortest side of a triangle is opposite the smallest angle.
the
tw
The three interior angles of a triangle add up to 180°.
os
pe
x
ide
te
sm
A
rim
r
e et
ve
shortest side
et
longest side
er
▲ABC
the
len
C
gth
B
es
biggest smallest
sid
of
angle angle
ree
the
f th
ou
△ Labelling a triangle
eo
tsi
A capital letter is used
de
on
fra
A triangle with vertices
e
me
A, B, and C is known as
sid
nb
aig xed po
ht
et w
af
the
line
i
e en
amou
s ab o
two
base
int
nt
ut
◁ Equilateral triangle
A triangle with three
a a + b + c = 180°
equal sides and three 1
equal angles, each of
80
which measures 60°.
°
b c
b c a
equal angles are shown
as an arc or double arc
Proving that the sum of a triangle’s angles is 180°
◁ Isosceles triangle Adding a parallel line produces two types of relationships between
A triangle with two equal
angles that help prove that the interior sum of a triangle is 180°.
sides. The angles opposite
these sides are also equal. Draw a triangle, then add a Corresponding angles are equal
line parallel to one side of the and alternate angles are equal;
hypotenuse triangle, starting at its base, angles c, a, and b sit on a straight
(the longest side of a to create two new angles. line so add up to 180°.
right-angled triangle)
◁ Scalene triangle
A triangle with three
x + y + z = 360°
sides of different length,
and three angles of each exterior angle of a triangle is p z
equal to the sum of the two
different size. opposite interior angles, so y = p + q
y opposite interior
angle (to y)
SEE ALSO
4c compass set at 3 cm
3c
m place point of 4c
compass here
set compass
to 3 cm
37° 53°
A 5cm B A 5cm B A 5cm B
Draw the base line, using the longest length. Set the compass to the third length, Join the points to complete the triangle. Now
Label the ends A and B. Set the compass to the 3cm. Place the point of the compass on B use a protractor to find out the measurements
second length, 4cm. Place the point of the and draw another arc. Mark the spot where of the angles. These will add up to 180°
compass on A and draw an arc. the arcs intersect (cross) as point C. (90° + 53° + 37° = 180°).
Constructing a triangle when two angles and one side are known (AAS)
A triangle can be constructed when the two angles, for example, 73° and 38°, are given, along
with the length of the side that falls between them, for example, 5cm.
because interior angles of
point where two triangles add up to 180°, work
draw line from A lines cross is third C out angle C by subtracting
at 73° angle point of triangle use ruler to known angles from 180°: 180°
C measure sides – 73° – 38° = 69°
69° 5.1
cm
3. 3 c m
73° measure first measure
given angle from second given
base line angle from 38°
73° base line 73° 38°
A 5cm B A 5cm B A 5cm B
Draw the base line of the triangle, here 5cm. Label the Place the protractor over point B and mark Join the points to complete the triangle.
ends A and B. Place the protractor over A and measure 38°. Draw another side of the triangle from Work out the unknown angle, and use a
the first angle, 73°. Draw a side of the triangle from A. B. Point C is where the two new lines meet. ruler to measure the two unknown sides.
Constructing a triangle when two sides and the angle in between are known (SAS)
Using the measurements for two of a triangle’s sides, for example, 5cm and 4.5cm, and the angle
between them, for example 50°, it is possible to construct a triangle. measure
C unknown angles C
with protractor
point C is where arc
and line meet measure unknown
side with ruler
71°
m
m
c
c
98–99 Translations
TRIANGLES THAT ARE EXACTLY THE SAME SHAPE AND SIZE. 102–103 Rotations
100–101
Reflections
Identical triangles
Two or more triangles are congruent if their sides
are the same length and their corresponding R
interior angles are the same size. In addition to
sides and angles, all other properties of congruent
B this angle is same size
as angle with one arc
on ▲ABC
triangles are the same, for example, area. Like
other shapes, congruent triangles can be this angle is same size
translated, rotated, and reflected, so they may as angle with three
appear to look different, even if they remain the arcs on ▲PQR
same size and have identical angles.
P
this side is same length
as side with three
dashes on ▲PQR
▲PQR
this side is same
length as side
with two dashes
on ▲PQR
this angle is
same size as
angle with two
arcs on ▲PQR ▲ABC
ROTATION
reflecting an
object creates a
mirror image of it
A
REFLECTION
△ Congruent triangles
The triangle on the right is how
the triangle on the left would
appear if rotated clockwise
through 180° and reflected.
this side is same
length as side with
one dash on ▲PQR
C Q
CONGRUENT TRIANGLES 121
a c
A C
D A D D C
congruent triangles equal angles
Draw a line perpendicular (at right angles) The perpendicular line is common to both triangles.
to the base of an isosceles triangle. This The two triangles have equal hypotenuses, another
creates two new right-angled triangles. pair of equal sides, and right angles. The triangles
They are congruent – identical in every way. are congruent (RHS) so angles “a” and “c” are equal.
122 GEOMETRY
116–117 Triangles
AREA IS THE COMPLETE SPACE INSIDE A TRIANGLE.
Area of a circle142–143
Formulas 177–179
apex (point at top
What is area? of triangle)
The area of a shape is the amount of space that fits inside ◁ Area, base, and height
its outline, or perimeter. It is measured in squared units, The area of a triangle is found
such as cm. If the length of the base and vertical height using two measurements: the
of a triangle are known, these values can be used to find base of the triangle and the
the area of the triangle, using a simple formula, which vertical height of the triangle,
is shown below. which is the distance from its
base to its apex, measured at
right-angles to the base.
base
C A B C A
B
vertical height vertical height vertical height
at right-angles at right-angles at right-angles
to base to base to base
To calculate the area of a triangle, substitute the given values for the base Why the formula works
and vertical height into the formula. Then work through the multiplication
shown by the formula (½ × base × vertical height). By adjusting the shape of a triangle, it can be
converted into a rectangle. This process makes
the formula for a triangle easier to understand.
area is the space
inside the triangle vertical
vertical height
▷ An acute-angled triangle base
right
The base of this triangle is 6cm vertical height angle
and its vertical height is 3cm.
Find the area of the triangle
using the formula.
base = 6cm
base
First, write down the
Draw any triangle and label its base
area = 12 × base × vertical
formula for the area of
and vertical height.
a triangle.
height line through the
midpoint of
vertical height
Then, substitute the
area = 12 × 6 × 3
lengths that are known
into the formula.
area is measured
in squared units
Work through the base
multiplication in the area = 9cm² Draw a line through the midpoint of the
formula to find the vertical height vertical height, which is parallel to the base.
answer. In this example, can be measured
½ × 6 × 3 = 9. Add the outside the triangle
as long as it is the
units of area to the distance between
answer, here cm.
vertical height = 4cm
▷ An obtuse-angled triangle
The base of this triangle is 3cm and its vertical
height is 4cm. Find the area of the triangle base
using the formula. The formula and the steps This creates two new triangles. These can
are the same for all types of triangles. be rotated around the triangle to form a
base = 3cm rectangle. This has exactly the same area as
the original triangle. ½ the vertical height
area = 12 × base × vertical
First, write down the of the triangle
formula for the area of
a triangle.
height
Then, substitute the
lengths that are known area = 12 × 3 × 4 base
into the formula.
area is measured The original triangle’s area is found using the
½×3×4=6 in squared units formula for the area of a rectangle (b × h). Both
Work through the shapes have the same base; the rectangle’s height
multiplication to find the
answer, and add the
area = 6cm² is ½ the height of the triangle. This gives the area
of the triangle formula: ½ × base × vertical height.
appropriate units of area.
124 GEOMETRY
3cm
The formula for the area of a triangle can also be used to
find the length of the base, if the area and height are known.
Given the area and height of the triangle, the formula needs
to be rearranged to find the length of the triangle’s base.
First, write down the formula for the area of a triangle. base (?)
The formula states that the area of a triangle is equal to ½
multiplied by the length of the base, multiplied by the height. area = 12 × base × height
height
Area = 8cm
triangle using the area and base
The formula for area of a triangle can also be used to find its
height, if the area and base are known. Given the area and
the length of the base of the triangle, the formula needs to
be rearranged to find the height of the triangle.
4cm
First, write down the formula. This shows that the area of a
triangle equals ½ multiplied by its base, multiplied by its height. area = 12 × base × height
Substitute the known values into the formula. Here the
values of the area (8cm) and the base (4cm) are known.
8 = 12 × 4 × height height is
½×4=2 unknown
116–117 Triangles
U = U₁ PR = PQ and P = P₁
angle V₁ = V
V = V₁ V₁ P₁R₁ P₁Q₁
Q Q₁
PQ is in proportion
with P₁Q₁
angle V = V₁ P₁Q₁ is in proportion
V with PQ
angle at
angle P = P₁
U = U₁
U₁ angle U₁ = U W₁
P R
PR is in proportion
angle at
U W with P₁R₁
P₁ = P P₁ P₁R₁ is in R₁
proportion with PR
Side, side, side (S) (S) (S) Right-angle, hypotenuse, side R (H) (S)
When two triangles have three pairs of corresponding If the ratio between the hypotenuses of two right-angled
sides that are in the same ratio, then the two triangles triangles is the same as the ratio between another pair of
are similar. corresponding sides, then the two triangles are similar.
AB = AC = BC
A₁B₁ A₁C₁ B₁C₁ B₁
LN = ML or MN
L₁N₁ M₁L₁ M₁N₁ ( ) L₁
A₁B₁ is in
proportion L the hypotenuse,
L₁M₁ is in
proportion
AB is in N₁L₁, is in
to AB with LM
proportion C₁B₁ is in
proportion with
to A₁B₁ proportion
the other
to CB
hypotenuse, LN
B
AC is in
proportion BC is in A₁ N₁ M₁
to A₁C₁ proportion
to B₁C₁
LM is in
the hypotenuse, LN is in
A C₁ C₁A₁ is in
proportion
to L₁M₁
proportion with the
other hypotenuse, N₁L₁
proportion
C
to CA M N
SIMILAR TRIANGLES 127
▷ Similar triangles
Triangles ABC and ADE are
Finding the length of BC
similar (AA). The missing To find the length of BC, use the ratio between BC and its
values of AD and BC can be D corresponding side DE, and the ratio between a pair of
found using the ratios sides where both the lengths are known – AE and AC.
between the known sides. B
3cm
Write out the ratios
3c m
between the two pairs of
sides, each with the longer
DE = AE
A a E side above the shorter BC AC
side. These ratios are equal.
2.5cm C
4.5cm
AD = 3 × 4.5 BC = 3 × 2.5
to isolate AD. In this by rearranging the
example this is done by equation one more time
multiplying both sides of
multiply by 3
2.5 – divide both sides of the
divide both
4.5
the equation by 3. equation by 4.5.
to isolate AD sides by 4.5
1.6666.... is rounded
Do the multiplication to Do the multiplication to to 2 decimal places
find the answer, and add find the answer, add the
the units to the answer AD = 5.4cm units, and round to a BC = 1.67cm
that has been found. This sensible number of
is the length of AD. decimal places.
128 GEOMETRY
Formulas 177–179
If the lengths of two sides of a right-angled triangle are known, the
c2 is the area of the square
length of the third side can be worked out using Pythagoras’ theorem. formed from sides of length c
c
a
shapes. On the right, a square on each of the three
sides shows how the biggest square has the same c
area as the other two squares put together.
side a side b side c (hypotenuse)
b
▷ Squared sides
The squares of the shorter
b b = b × b
b
2
a + b = c sides are shown here with
the square of the longest side
(the hypotenuse). b2 is the area of the
formula shows that side a squared plus square formed from sides
side b squared equals side c squared of length b
area of larger
If the formula is used with values substituted for the sides a, b, and c, square is 52 (or 5
Pythagoras’ theorem can be shown to be true. Here the length of c × 5), which is 25
(the hypotenuse) is 5, while the lengths of a and b are 4 and 3. smaller squares
a + b = c2 4cm
2 25cm
4 + 3 = 5
16cm
5c m
4cm
16 + 9 = 25 5c m
squares of two square of each side of square
shorter sides hypotenuse is 5cm long
added
area of larger square
3cm
△ Pythagoras in action is 42 (or 4 × 4), which
In the equation the squares of the two is 16 smaller squares
9cm
3cm
5c m
3.5cm
se)
otenu
p
(hy this side 13cm (hypotenuse)
c missing side length
is known
13 – 5 = b
3.5 × 3.5 equals 7.2 × 7.2 equals subtracting 52 from
Work out the squares each side. This isolates
12.25 + 51.84 = c of each of the
triangle’s known sides
hypotenuse now at
start of formula
b2 on one side because
52 – 52 cancels out.
by multiplying them.
hypotenuse. equals
144 = b
sign means Subtract these squares
square root to find the square of
Use a calculator to the unknown side.
84–85 Angles
interior and
line extends △ Interior angles
to form exterior angle
▽ Types of quadrilaterals add up to 180° If a single diagonal line is
exterior angle
Each type of quadrilateral is grouped drawn from any one corner to
and named according to its properties. the opposite corner, the
There are regular and irregular quadrilateral is divided into
START two triangles. The sum of the
quadrilaterals. A regular quadrilateral
has equal sides and angles, whereas interior angles of any triangle
an irregular quadrilateral has sides is 180°, so the sum of the
and angles of different sizes. interior angles of a
Are all the interior quadrilateral is 2 × 180°.
angles right-angles?
YES NO
opposite side is
Rhombus opposite Parallelogram opposite angle
is equal of equal length
angle is equal
All sides of a rhombus opposite The opposite sides of
are of equal length. angle is a parallelogram are
equal
The opposite angles parallel and are of equal
are equal and the length. Adjacent sides
opposite sides are are not of equal length.
parallel. The diagonals The opposite angles
bisect each other at are equal and the opposite
right angles. diagonals bisect each side is of
other in the centre of equal
this symbol shows length
parallel sides the shape.
this symbol
one of four equal sides indicates
opposite angle
parallel sides
is equal
opposite angle
Trapezium Kite is not equal adjacent
side is of
A trapezium, also A kite has two pairs equal
known as a trapezoid, of adjacent sides that length
has one pair of are equal in length.
opposite sides that are Opposite sides are not
parallel. These sides are of equal length. It has
not equal in length. one pair of opposite
angles that are equal
one pair of and another pair of
parallel sides angles of different opposite
adjacent
values. angle is equal
side is of
equal length
132 GEOMETRY
height = 26m
this side is the
same length as the
side = 5.2m
side opposite
side
units of
area = side2 area, square area = base × height units of area,
centimetres square metres
▷ Vertical height
A D
formula can also be
Finding the area of a rhombus depends base = 9cm written area = bh
on knowing its vertical height. In this
example, the vertical height measures
8cm and its base is 9cm.
area = base × vertical height
9 × 8 = 72cm 2
Q UA D R I L AT E R A L S 133
this single dash indicates that this
Finding the area of side is equal to the opposite side
a parallelogram B C
vertical height = 5m
Like the area of a rhombus, the area of
a parallelogram is found by multiplying
the double dash symbols
the length of its base by its vertical show that this side is equal
height. to the side opposite
8 × 5 = 40m 2
X W X W X W
W angle X is X
angle U is angle W is equal to
equal to equal to angle V
angle W angle U
one of four angle V is
equal sides U equal to
V angle X
U V U V U V
All the sides of a rhombus are Divide the rhombus along the diagonals Dividing along the other
equal in length. To show this a to create two isosceles triangles. Each diagonal creates another pair
dash is used on each side. triangle has a pair of equal angles. of isosceles triangles.
congruent
opposite side A triangle
A D is equal
A D A D
one of two pairs
of parallel sides
Opposites sides of a parallelogram The triangles ABC and ADC are congruent. The triangles are congruent, so
are equal in length. To show this a Angle BCA = CAD, and as these are alternate angle BAC = ACD; as these are
dash and a double dash are used. angles, BC is parallel to AD. alternate angles, DC is parallel to AB.
134 GEOMETRY
84–85 Angles
triangles
Congruent
◁ Equilateral
A rhombus is
△Regular △Irregular an equilateral
All the sides and all the angles of In an irregular polygon, all the quadrilateral. All its
regular polygons are equal. This sides and angles are not the same. sides are equal, but
hexagon has six equal sides and This heptagon has many different- all sides the same all its angles are not.
six equal angles, making it regular. sized angles, making it irregular.
P O LY G O N S 135
Naming polygons
Regardless of whether a polygon is regular or irregular, the number of sides it
has always equals the number of its angles. This number is used in naming both
kinds of polygons. For example, a polygon with six sides and angles is called a
hexagon because “hex” is the prefix used to mean six. If all of its sides and angles
are equal, it is known as a regular hexagon; if not, it is called an irregular hexagon.
3
Sides and
angles
4
Sides and
angles
5
Sides and
angles
6
Sides and
angles
7
Sides and
angles
8
Sides and
angles
9
Sides and
angles
10
Sides and
angles
11
Sides and
angles
12
Sides and
angles
15
Sides and
angles
20
Sides and
angles
136 GEOMETRY
PROPERTIES OF A POLYGON
There are an unlimited number of different polygons that can be drawn using
straight lines. However, they all share some important properties.
Convex or concave
Regardless of how many angles a polygon has, it can be classified as either
concave or convex. This difference is based on whether a polygon’s interior
angles are over 180° or not. A convex polygon can be easily identified because at
least one its angles is over 180°.
acute angle
all vertices
point outwards
acute angle
◁ Concave polygon
obtuse angle At least one angle of a
reflex angle concave polygon is over
◁ Convex polygon 180°. This type of angle is
A convex polygon has no known as a reflex angle.
interior angles greater The vertex of the reflex
than 180° – its angles are vertex angle points inwards,
either acute or obtuse. All points towards the centre of
acute angle obtuse angle its vertices point outwards. inwards the shape.
acute angle
obtuse angle acute angle
convex
diagonal splits shape
1
quadrilateral
into two triangles
This quadrilateral is convex – all of its angles are A quadrilateral can be split into two triangles.
smaller than 180°. The sum of its interior angles can be The sum of the angles of each triangle is 180°,
found easily, by breaking the shape down into triangles. so the sum of the angles of the quadrilateral is
This can be done by drawing in a diagonal line that the sum of the angles of the two triangles
connects two vertices that are not next to one another. added together: 2 × 180° = 360°.
triangle 5
triangle 2
triangle 1 triangle 1
108 °
(5 – 2) × 180° (9 – 2) × 180°
108 ° 108 °
= 540° sum of its = 1,260° sum of its
interior angles interior angles
82–83 Tools in
geometry
A CIRCLE IS A CLOSED CURVED LINE SURROUNDING A CENTRE Circumference
POINT. EVERY POINT OF THIS CURVED LINE IS OF EQUAL and diameter 140–141
DISTANCE FROM THE CENTRE POINT. Area of a circle 142–143
Properties of a circle
A circle can be folded into two identical halves, which
ound the ce a r
means that it possesses “reflective symmetry” (see p.88).
e the distan c i rc l e
The line of this fold is one of the most important parts
e n c
of a circle – its diameter. A circle may also be rotated
about its centre and still fit into its own outline,
fe r
giving it a “rotational symmetry” about
m segment the space
its centre point.
u between a chord and an arc
c
cir
chord a str
the cir aight line
cumferen linking tw
ce o points o
n
diam
of the circumference
eter
a line
that c
uts a
sector the space entre circle
exac t
ly
enclosed by two radii c in hal
e to f
g
ed centre point
m of circle
fro
ion
e
anc
tan st
sec t
di
ge us area the total space
i
a
ra
ar
a li
ne
tha
t to
uch
▷ A circle divided es
This diagram shows the the
many different parts of a circ
circle. Many of these parts le a
to
will feature in formulas ne
over the pages that follow. po
int
CIRCLES 139
Parts of a circle
A circle can be measured and divided in various How to draw a circle
ways. Each of these has a specific name and Two instruments are needed to draw a circle – a compass
character, and they are all shown below. and a pencil. The point of the compass marks the centre of
the circle and the distance between the point and the pencil
attached to the compass forms the circle’s radius. A ruler is
Radius needed to measure the radius of the circle correctly.
Any straight line from the centre
of a circle to its circumference.
The plural of radius is radii.
Set the compass. First,
decide what the radius of
Diameter “x” stands for the circle is, and then use a
Any straight line that passes distance in cm ruler to set the compass at
between compass this distance.
through the centre from one
point and pencil
side of a circle to the other. or length of radius
Segment
The smaller of the two parts of
a circle created when divided
by a chord.
keep moving
pencil round to Decide where the
Circumference
complete circle centre of the circle is
The total length of the outside
and then hold the point
edge (perimeter) of a circle.
of the compass firmly in
this place. Then put the
pencil to the paper and
Arc move the pencil round to
Any section of the circumference draw the circumference
of a circle. of the circle.
centre of
circle
Sector
A “slice” of a circle, similar to the
slice of a pie. It is enclosed by two
radii and an arc.
All circles are similar because they have exactly the same shape. This means
that all their measurements, including the circumference and the diameter,
are in proportion to each other.
symbol for pi
π
◁ The value of pi
The number pi The numbers after the
= 3.14
The ratio between the circumference and diameter of a circle decimal point in pi go
is a number called pi, which is written π. This number is used on for ever and in an
in many of the formulas associated with circles, including the unpredictable way. It starts
formulas for the circumference and diameter. value to 2 decimal places 3.1415926 but is usually
given to two decimal places.
π is a constant π is a constant
Circumference (c) circumference
radius
circumference
diameter
The circumference is the distance around the edge of a ◁ Formulas
circle. A circle’s circumference can be found using the
diameter or radius and the number pi. The diameter is
always twice the length of the radius.
c = 2πr c = πd There are two
circumference
formulas. One uses
value of diameter and the
c)
ce (
circumference other uses radius.
is unknown
en
fer The formula for d is the same as 2 × r,
circumference shows
c = πd the formula can also
m
be written C=2πr
cu
3 c (r )
equal to pi multiplied by
= ius
d = 18
into the formula for diameter.
(d )
π
ter
circle is 18cm.
dia
LOOKING CLOSER
Why π ?
All circles are similar to one another. This means that corresponding
lengths in circles, such as their diameters and circumferences, are always
in proportion to each other. The number π is found by dividing the
circumference
circumference of a circle by its diameter – any circle’s circumference
divided by its diameter always equals π – it is a constant value. c
circumference
2
▷ Similar circles
As all circles are enlargements of each
c
1
O
142 GEOMETRY
SEE ALSO
m ) =
4 c s (r
The area of a circle is measured in square units. It can be found
using the radius of a circle (r) and the formula shown below. If the
diu
diameter is known but the radius is not, the radius can be found
ra
by dividing the diameter by 2. π is a fixed value the value of the
area of
radius is given
a circle radius
In the formula for the area of
a circle, πr means π (pi) ×
radius × radius.
area = π r
Substitute the known values
into the formula, in this
example the radius is 4cm.
area = 3.14 × 42
π is 3.14 to 3 significant
figures; a more accurate value this means
can be found on a calculator 4×4
LOOKING CLOSER
LOOKING CLOSER
of the shape. In this example, the two of the shape measurements given here.
different parts are a semicircle, and a
rectangle. The total area is 1,414cm
the height of the the width of the rectangle is the
(area of the semicircle, which is ½ × πr², rectangle is same as the diameter of the circle.
half the area of a circle) + 5,400cm (the 120 – 30 = 90cm This can be be found by multiplying
area of the rectangle) = 6,814cm. the radius by 2, 30 × 2 = 60cm
144 GEOMETRY
84–85 Angles
Circles
If angles are drawn to the centre and the circumference from the same
two points on the circumference, the angle at the centre is twice the
circumference
angle at the circumference. (edge of circle)
Subtended angles
Any angle within a circle is
R
“subtended” from two points on
P Q
its circumference – it “stands” on
the two points. In both of these
examples, the angle at point R is
the angle subtended, or standing
on, points P and Q. Subtended R is the angle
angles can sit anywhere within subtended
the circle. from points P
and Q R is the angle
subtended
from points P
and Q
▷ Subtended angles
These circles show how a point is
Q
subtended from two other points on P
the circle’s circumference to form an
angle. The angle at point R is
subtended from points P and Q.
circumference
(edge of circle)
R
R
Angles at the centre and circumference
(edge of circle)
at the circumference
When angles are subtended from the
same two points to both the centre of the
circle and to its circumference, the angle angle at
circumference
at the centre is always twice the size of
the angle formed at the circumference.
centre of
In this example, both angles R at the circle
circumference and O at the centre are
subtended from the same points, P and Q. O
angle at 2 × angle at
= circumference
centre
the angle at
centre is twice
▷ Angle property angle at
The angles at O and R are both circumference
subtended by the points P and Q both angles are
at the circumference. This means P Q subtended from
same points on
that the angle at O is twice the size circumference
of the angle at R.
ANGLES IN A CIRCLE 145
these angles are all
equal, as they are all
subtended from A and
B in the major segment
Proving angle rules in circles
Mathematical rules can be used to prove that the
angle at the centre of a circle is twice the size of
the angle at the circumference when both the
angles are subtended from the same points.
R, P, and Q are 3 points
on the circumference
R
Draw a circle and and
chord across circle mark any 3 points on its
splits it into a major circumference, for centre
(larger) segment and example, P, Q, and R. Mark
a minor (smaller) O
the centre of the circle, in
segment
this example it is O.
A B P Q
angle R subtended
from P and Q
these angles are R
circumference equal, as they are Draw straight lines
(edge of circle) both subtended
from A and B in the from R to P, R to Q, O to P,
minor segment and O to Q. This creates
△ Angles subtended from the same points two angles, one at R
Angles at the circumference subtended from (the circumference of O
the same two points in the same segment are equal. the circle) and one at O
Here the angles marked with one red line are equal, (the centre of the circle).
as are the angles marked with two red lines. Both are subtended from
these are all right
angles subtended
P Q
points P and Q.
from diameter, CD angle O
dividing line creates 2 subtended from
isosceles triangles P and Q
R
Draw a line from R through
O, to the other side of the
circle. This dividing line
creates two isosceles
triangles. Isosceles triangles
O
diameter is the line have 2 sides and 2 angles
through centre of circle which are the same. In this
case, two sides of triangles
P Q
C D POR and QOR are formed
from 2 radii of the circle.
the angle at O
is twice the
R angle at R
For one triangle the two
angles on its base are
Chords vary in length – the diameter of a circle is also its longest chord. Chords SEE ALSO
of the same length are always equal distances from the centre of the circle. The
corners of a cyclic quadrilateral (four-sided shape) touch the circumference of a circle.
130–133 Quadrilaterals
138–139 Circles
Chords
A chord is a straight line across a circle. all chords touch
The longest chord of any circle is its the circumference
diameter, as the diameter crosses a circle at at two points
its widest point. The perpendicular bisector
of a chord is a line that passes through these two chords are equal
its centre at right-angles (90º) to it. The lengths, so they are equal
distances from the centre
perpendicular bisector of any chord passes of the circle
through the centre of the circle. The distance centre of circle
of a chord to the centre of a circle is found diameter is the longest
by measuring its perpendicular bisector. chord, it passes
through the centre
If two chords are equal lengths they will
always be the same distance from the
centre of the circle.
right angle
distance of chord from
centre is found by chord
measuring its
perpendicular bisector
▷ Chord properties
This circle shows four chords, the
longest of which is the diameter.
There are two chords that are equal this is perpendicular
bisector of chord
in length, while the other one is
shown with its perpendicular circumference
(edge) of circle
bisector (a line that cuts it in half
at right angles).
LOOKING CLOSER
Intersecting chords
When two chords cross, or “intersect”, they gain
an interesting property: the two parts of one two parts of one two parts of other
chord, either side of where it is split, multiply to chord multiplied chord multiplied
by each other by each other
the same value as the answer found by
multiplying the two parts of the other chord. C
▷ Crossing chords
This circle shows two chords, which
A D
B A×B=C×D
cross one another (intersect). One
chord is split into parts A and B, the
other into parts C and D.
C H O R D S A N D C YC L I C Q UA D R I L AT E R A L S 147
perpendicular
Finding the line is at
right-angles
bisector
Cyclic quadrilaterals
Cyclic quadrilaterals are four-sided shapes made from chords. Each corner of
the shape sits on the circumference of a circle. The interior angles of a cyclic
quadrilateral add up to 360º, as they do for all quadrilaterals. The opposite interior
angles of a cyclic quadrilateral add up to 180º, and their exterior angles are equal to
the opposite interior angles.
points (vertices) of
cyclic quadrilateral
x is exterior angle
A + B + C + D = 360°
are on circumference △ Interior angle sum
of cyclic quadrilateral;
of circle
it is equal to its opposite The interior angles of a cyclic quadrilateral
interior angle, D always add up to 360º. Therefore, in this
A x example A + B + C + D = 360º.
Tangents point of
SEE ALSO
110–113 Constructions
m
tangent
of the circle, and the
1. 5 c
A tangent is at right-angles to the radius at the point
of contact, so a right-angled triangle can be created line connecting the
centre of the circle to
using the radius, the tangent, and a line between O P
them, which is the hypotenuse of the triangle.
radius 4cm hypotenuse point P form a
Pythagoras’ theorem can be used to find the length of right-angled triangle.
any one of the three sides of the right-angled triangle,
square of square of square of the
if two sides are known. one side other side hypotenuse
Find the square root of both sides of the equation to find the value
of AP. The square root of AP is just AP. Use a calculator to find the AP = 13.75
square root of 13.75. 3.708... is rounded
to 2 decimal places
Find the square root of the value on the right, and round the answer to a
suitable number of decimal places. This is the length of the missing side. AP = 3.71cm
TA N G E N T S 149
Constructing tangents
To construct a tangent accurately requires a compass and a straight edge.
arc drawn from
This example shows how to construct two tangents between a circle with point P
centre O and a given point outside the circle, in this case, P. x
draw circle mark point
outside circle
centre point of circle
P M P
O O the midpoint of OP
is labelled M
Set the compass to distance OM (or MP which is the same Finally, join each point where the circles intersect (cross),
length), and draw a circle with M as its centre. Mark the A and B, with point P. These two lines are the tangents from
two points where this new circle intersects (crosses) the point P to the circle with centre O. The two tangents are
circumference of the original circle as A and B. equal lengths.
angle at the
Tangents and angles circumference
these angles are equal
Tangents to circles have some special angle drawn from either D chord drawn from
end of the chord point of contact with
properties. If a tangent touches a circle at B, and
the tangent
a chord, BC, is drawn across the circle from B, an
angle is formed between the tangent and the
chord at B. If lines (BD and CD) are drawn to the two lines from the C
circumference from the ends of the chord, they ends of the chord to
create an angle at D that is equal to angle B. create an angle at the angle created
the circumference between the tangent
▷ Tangents and chords and the chord
The angle formed between the tangent and the chord is equal to the tangent
the angle formed at the circumference if two lines are drawn from
either end of the chord to meet at a point on the circumference. point of contact B A
150 GEOMETRY
140–141 Circumference
and diameter
What is an arc?
An arc is a part of the circumference of a circle. The length angle created at the centre
of an arc is in proportion with the size of the angle made when two lines are drawn from minor arc
at the centre of the circle when lines are drawn from each the ends of the major arc
end of the arc. If the length of an arc is unknown, it can
be found using the circumference and this angle. When a
major arc
circle is split into two arcs, the bigger is called the “major”
arc, and the smaller the “minor” arc. formula for finding
the length of an arc
▷ Arcs and angles
arc length angle at centre This diagram shows two
circumference
= 360°
arcs: one major, one
minor, and their angles angle created at
at the centre of the circle. the centre when
two lines are drawn
total length of circle’s edge 360° in a circle
from the ends of
the minor arc
Take the formula for finding the length of an arc. arc length angle at centre
The formula uses the ratios between arc length and
circumference, and between the angle at the centre
of the circle and 360° (total number of degrees). circumference
= 360°
Substitute the numbers that are known into the arc length 120
formula. In this example, the circumference is
known to be 10cm, and the angle at the centre of
the circle is 120º; 360º stays as it is. 10
= 360
this side has been multiplied this side has also
by 10 to leave arc length on been multiplied by
its own (÷10 × 10 cancels out) 10, as what is done
Rearrange the equation to isolate the unknown 10 × 120 to one side must be
value – the arc length – on one side of the equals
sign. In this example the arc length is isolated by
multiplying both sides by 10.
arc length = 360
done to the other
3.333... is rounded to
2 decimal places
Multiply 10 by 120 and divide the answer by 360 to
get the value of the arc length. Then round the
answer to a suitable number of decimal places. C = 3.33cm
ARCS AND SECTORS 151
proportion
56–59 Ratio and
140–141
and diameter
Circumference
What is a sector?
minor arc
A sector of a circle is the space between two radii and
angle at the
one arc. The area of a sector depends on the size of
centre created by
the angle between the two radii at the centre of the minor sector the two radii of
circle. If the area of a sector is unknown, it can be the minor sector
angle at the centre created by
found using this angle and the area of the circle. When the two radii of the major sector
a circle is split into two sectors, the bigger is called the
“major” sector, and the smaller the “minor” sector.
major sector
Take the formula for finding the area of a sector. area of sector angle at centre
The formula uses the ratios between the area of a
sector and the area of the circle, and between the
area of circle
=
total number 360°
angle at the centre of the circle and 360º.
of degrees in
circle
Substitute the numbers that are known into the area of sector 45
formula. In this example, the area is known to be
7cm, and the angle at the centre of the circle is
45º. The total number of degrees in a circle is 360º. 7
= 360 this side has
this side has been multiplied by also been
7 to leave the area of a sector multiplied by 7
Rearrange the equation to isolate the unknown on its own (÷7 ×7 cancels out) 45 × 7
value – the area of the sector – on one side of the
equals sign. In this example, this is done by
multiplying both sides by 7.
area of sector = 360
0.875 is rounded to
2 decimal places
Multiply 45 by 7 and divide the answer by 360 to
get the area of the sector. Round the answer to a
suitable number of decimal places. C = 0.88cm2
152 GEOMETRY
134–137 Polygons
Volumes 154–155
A SOLID
D IIS A THREE-DIMENSIONAL SHAPE. Surface area of solids 156–157
Solids are objects with three dimensions: width, length, and
height. They also have surface areas and volumes.
Prisms
Many common solids are polyhedrons – three-dimensional shapes with flat
surfaces and straight edges. Prisms are a type of polyhedron made up of two
parallel shapes of exactly the same shape and size, which are connected by
a li
faces. In the example to the right, the parallel shapes are pentagons, joined by
ne
rectangular faces. Usually a prism is named after the shape of its ends, so a
cylinder is a circular prism. A cuboid is a prism whose parallel shapes are
wh
edgsurfaces
rectangles, so it is known as a rectangular prism.
ere
▷ A prism
hei
e meet
The cross-section of this
prism is a pentagon (a shape
with five sides), so it is called
a pentagonal prism.
dist g
anc ht
e
t fro
ob
ottom top
◁ Volume m
The amount of space that
a solid occupies is called
its volume.
hor
i zo
wid
cross-section of
nta
a l di
th
pentagonal prism ngl stan
is a pentagon e s t ce
o le at r
ngt igh
this net forms
a shape with
h t
seven faces
a pentagon is
a shape with
five sides
△ Cross-section cross-section
A cross-section is the shape made ◁ Surface area
when an object is sliced from top cut out net and fold The surface area of a solid
to bottom. along edges to is the total area of its net
construct – a two-dimensional shape,
or plan, that forms the solid
if it is folded up.
SOLIDS 153
Other solids
veorint whe
A solid with only flat surfaces is
ap called a polyhedron and a solid
with a curved surface is called a
tex re edg non-polyhedron. Each common
solid also has a name of its own.
▷ Cylinder
A cylinder is a prism
es m
△ Faces
A face is the surface contained circular end
between a number of edges.
This prism has seven faces. this face is equal in
size to its opposite
▷ Cuboid
A cuboid is a prism
whose opposite
faces are equal. If all
its edges are equal
in length it is a cube.
thst side
its centre.
n g
le f longe vertex
eo
anc ▷ Pyramid
dist A pyramid has a
polygon as its
base and triangular
faces that meet
at a vertex (point).
△ Vertices apex
A vertex (plural vertices) is a
point at which two or more
edges meet. ▷ Cone
A cone is a solid with
edge
a circular base that is
△ Edges connected by a
An edge is a straight line where curved surface to its
two surfaces of a solid meet. This apex (highest point).
prism has 15 edges.
154 GEOMETRY
SEE ALSO
area of a cross-section
cm
3. 8
GTH
US
cm
RA
H= 4. 3c m
WI
ENGT
DT
RADIUS = 2cm
H=
L
2. 2
cm
SEE ALSO
SURFACE AREA IS THE SPACE OCCUPIED BY A SHAPE’S OUTER SURFACES. 152–153 Solids
154–155 Volumes
For most solids, surface area can be found by adding together the areas of its
faces. The sphere is the exception, but there is an easy formula to use.
Surfaces of shapes
For all solids with straight edges, surface area can be found Finding the surface area of a cylinder
by adding together the areas of all the solid’s faces. One way Breaking the cylinder down into its component parts creates
to do this is to imagine taking apart and flattening a rectangle and two circles. To find the total surface area,
out the solid into two-dimensional shapes. It is then work out the area of each of these and add them together.
straightforward to work out and add together the areas
of these shapes. A diagram of a flattened and opened out formula for
shape is known as its net. area of circle
Area = π × r area of circle
▷ Cylinder
A cylinder has two flat faces and
3.14 × 4 × 4 = 50.24cm
C
IR
the flat surfaces are separated The area of the circles can be worked out using the known
M
FE
and the curved surface radius and the formula for the area of a circle. π (pi) is usually
REN
opened up. shortened to 3.14, and area is always expressed in square units.
CE
formula for
circumference
radius is the circumference
length from
RA
of cylinder
centre of circle to Circumference = 2 × π × r
DI
its perimeter
US
4C
m 2 × 3.14 × 4 = 25.12cm
10c
M
T
HE IGH Before the area of the rectangle can be found, it is necessary
to work out its width – the circumference of the cylinder. This is
done using the known radius and the formula for circumference.
circle has
same radius
unrolled middle as cylinder
section becomes 4cm width of rectangle
rectangle = circumference length of rectangle area of
of cylinder = height of cylinder rectangle
circumference of the
cylinder becomes
width of rectangle 25.12 × 10 = 251.2cm
? cm
The area of the rectangle can now be found by using the
height of cylinder
width of 10cm is now length
formula for the area of rectangle (length × width).
rectangle of rectangle
needs to surface area
be found of cylinder
HEIGHT
multiply together its two sides:
rectangle A the cuboid’s height and width.
TH
rectangle C Area of B = length × width
LENG
WI
DT
H
LENGTH HEIGHT
12.3cm 3cm The surface area of the (2 × A) + (2 × B) + (2 × C)
cuboid is the total of the areas
△ Net of a cuboid of its sides – twice area A, (2 × 14.7) + (2 × 60.27) + (2 × 36.9)
The net of a cuboid is made up of added to twice area B, added
three different pairs of rectangles. to twice area C. = 223.74cm
total surface
area of cone sphere is the same as 4
NT H
Corresponding triangles
the sun
Trigonometry uses comparisons of the lengths of the sides of the Sun’s rays
similar right-angled triangles (which have the same shape but create shadows of
the person and the
different sizes) to find the sizes of unknown angles and sides. building
This diagram shows the Sun creating shadows of a person and
a building, which form two similar triangles. By measuring the
shadows, the height of the person, which is known, can be
used to find the height of the building, which is unknown.
height of the
building,
▽ Similar triangles which is
The shadows the sun makes unknown
of the person and the
building create two
corresponding triangles. h
the height of
the person
the length of
the person’s
shadow the length of
the building’s
2.2m shadow
3.2m
58m
▷ The ratio between corresponding sides of similar triangles height of building length of building’s shadow
is equal, so the building’s height divided by the person’s =
height equals the length of the building’s shadow divided by height of person length of person’s shadow
the length of the person’s shadow.
▷ Substitute the values from the diagram into this whatever is done to one
h 58 side of the equation must
equation. This leaves only one unknown – the height of the value of h is = be done to the other, so
the building (h) – which is found by rearranging the
equation.
unknown
2.2 3.2 this side must also be
multiplied by 2.2
▷ Rearrange the equation to leave h (the height of the this side has been 58
building) on its own. This is done by multiplying both
sides of the equation by 2.2, then cancelling out the two
multiplied by 2.2 to h = × 2.2 the answer is
2.2s on the left side, leaving just h.
cancel out the ÷ 2.2
and isolate h 3.2 rounded to 2
decimal places
▷ Work out the right side of the equation to find the
value of h, which is the height of the building. h = 39.88m
W H AT I S T R I G O N O M E T R Y ? 161
Right-angled triangles
The sides of these triangles are called the hypotenuse, opposite, and
adjacent. The hypotenuse is always the side opposite the right angle.
The names of the other two sides depend on where they are in relation
to the particular angle specified.
▽ Opposite ▽ Adjacent
the angle
The opposite is the side that The adjacent is the shorter
faces the specified angle. side next to the specified
hyp hyp
ote ote angle.
opposite
adjacent
nus nus
e e
right angle right angle
the angle
adjacent opposite
Trigonometry formulas
There are three basic formulas used in trigonometry. “A” stands in for the
angle that is being found (this may also sometimes be written as θ). The
formula to use depends on the sides of the triangle that are known.
Using a calculator
The values of sine, cosine, and tangent are set for each angle.
Calculators have buttons that retrieve these values. Use them
to find the sine, cosine, or tangent of a particular angle.
160 What is
trigonometry?
GIVEN AN ANGLE AND THE LENGTH OF ONE SIDE OF A RIGHT-ANGLED Finding missing
missing length x
Substitute the known values
into the sine formula.
sin 37° = this side has
by 3.7
unknown
Rearrange to make x the subject first
by multiplying both sides by 3.7. x = tan 53° × 3.7
this side has value of tan 53˚
been multiplied by is rounded to 4
3.7 to isolate x decimal places
Use a calculator to find the value
of tan 53° – press the tan button x = 1.3270 × 3.7
53° then enter 53.
3.7cm (adjacent) the answer is
adjacent side rounded to 2
is side next Round the answer to a decimal places
to given angle suitable size. x = 4.91cm
164 TRIGONOMETRY
cosine button to
en
a+b b+a
a rectangle.
The area of any
rectangle is found
=
by using the
L (length)
equation area =
length × width. △ Two terms
When adding together two terms, it is possible to start with either term.
A = LW (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
△ Three terms
W (width) As with adding two terms, three terms can be added together in any order.
=8
The equals sign means that A number with a value that Multiplying terms in algebra can be done in any order, but when
the two sides of the equation is always the same dividing the terms must be kept in the order they were given.
balance each other
4 rows of 3 is
same amount
of blocks as 3
rows of 4
=
a×b b×a
△ Two terms
When multiplying together two terms, the terms can be in any order.
=
=
THE ANSWER IS:
a × (b × c) b × (a × c) c × (a × b)
△ Three terms
b=6 Multiplication of three terms can be done in any order.
170 ALGEBRA
▷A basic sequence
For this sequence, the rule is that
each term is the previous term
with 2 added to it.
is 2
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ...
1st term 2nd term 3rd term 4th term 5th term
continues
2n
The value of a particular term can be found without ▷ The rule as an expression expression used to
find value of term –
writing out the entire sequence up until that point Knowing the expression, which 1 is substituted for n
by writing the rule as an expression and then using is 2n in this example, helps find in 1st term, 2 in 2nd
this expression to work out the term. the value of any term. term, and so on
To find the first term, To find the second term, To find the 41st term, For the 1,000th term, substitute
substitute 1 for n. substitute 2 for n. substitute 41 for n. 1,000 for n. The term here is 2,000.
4n – 2 = 4 × 1 – 2= 2 4n – 2 = 4 × 2– 2= 6 4n – 2 = (4 × 1,000,000)– 2= 3,999,998
1st term 2nd term 1,000,000th term
To find the first term, To find the second term, For the 1,000,000th term, substitute
substitute 1 for n. substitute 2 for n. 1,000,000 for n. The term here is 3,999,998.
SEQUENCES 171
IMPORTANT SEQUENCES
Some sequences have rules that are slightly more complicated; however,
they can be very significant. Two examples of these are square numbers and square has
square has sides 5
the Fibonacci sequence. units long
sides 4
square has
units long
sides 3
Square numbers square has
sides 2 units long
square has
A square number is found by sides 1 units long
multiplying a whole number by itself. unit long
These numbers can be drawn as
squares. Each side is the length of a
whole number, which is multiplied by
itself to make the square number. 1 4 9 16 25
The Fibonacci sequence is a widely recognized sequence, appearing frequently in Fibonacci and nature
nature and architecture. The first two terms of the sequence are both 1, then after this
each term is the sum of the two terms that came before it. Evidence of the Fibonacci sequence is
found everywhere, including in nature.
each number in sequence is The sequence forms a spiral (see
sum of two numbers before it below) and it can be
seen in the spiral of a
1+1 1+2 2+3 3+5 5+8 shell (as shown here)
or in the arrangement
of the seeds in a
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ...
sequence starts with 1 sequence continues in
sunflower. It is
named after
Leonardo
Fibonacci,
an Italian
same way indefinitely
mathematician.
First, draw a square that is 1 unit long by Keep drawing squares that represent Finally, draw curves to touch the
1 unit wide. Draw an identical one above the terms of the Fibonacci sequence, opposite corners of each square,
it, then a square with sides 2 units long adding them in an anticlockwise starting at the centre and working
next to the 1 unit squares. Each square direction. This diagram shows the first outwards anticlockwise. This curve
represents a term of the sequence. six terms of the sequence. is a Fibonacci spiral.
172 ALGEBRA
6a × 2b 6×a×2×b 12 × ab = 12ab
The term 6a means 6 × a, Separate the expression into The product of multiplying 6 and 2 is
and the term 2b means the individual numbers and 12, and that of multiplying a and b is
2 × b. symbols involved. ab. The simplified expression is 12ab.
area of a rectangle is
y = 2, the overall value of the expression can be found. This is called
length × width.
“substituting” the values in the expression or “evaluating” the expression. Substituting 5cm for the
Substitute the values in the expression 2x – 2y – 4y + 3x if length and 8cm for
the width, gives an area
x = 1 and y = 2 of 5cm × 8cm = 40cm².
W = WIDTH
answer is –7
like terms
5x = 5 × 1 = 5
2x − 2y − 4y + 3x 5x − 6y 5 − 12 = –7
like terms
−6y = −6 × 2 = − 12
substitute 2 for y
Group like terms together The expression has Then substitute the The final answer is
to simplify the expression. now been simplified. given values for x and y. found to be –7.
174 ALGEBRA
Expanding and
2(a + 2) SEE ALSO
4 (a + 3) =
number outside is multiplied
4 × a + 4 × 3 = 4a + 12 sign between terms
by each number inside remains the same
To expand an expression with a Multiply each term inside the bracket by the Simplify the resulting
number outside a bracket, multiply all number outside. The sign between the two terms to show the expanded
the terms inside the bracket by that terms (letters and numbers) remains the same. expression in its final form.
number. The bracket means multiply. Here, 4 × a is simplified to
4a and 4 × 3 is simplified
Expanding multiple brackets to 12.
To expand an expression that contains two brackets, each part of the first bracket is multiplied by
each part of the second bracket. To do this, split up the first (blue) bracket into its parts. Multiply the
second (yellow) bracket by the first part and then by the second part of the first bracket.
3x × 3 = 9x 1 × 2y = 2y 1×3=3
second bracket multiplied
by first part of first bracket × × 3x × 2y = 6xy
To expand an expression of two Break down the first bracket into Simplify the resulting terms by
brackets, multiply all the terms of the its terms. Multiply the second carrying out each multiplication
second by all the terms of the first. bracket by each term from the first sum. The signs remain the same.
in turn.
Squaring a bracket multiplying a
negative and a
multiplying
two
Squaring a bracket simply means multiplying a bracket by itself. Write it out as two positive equals negatives
brackets next to each other, and then multiply it to expand as shown above. a negative, so equals a
x × −3 = –3x −3 × x = –3x positive, so
x × x = x −3 × −3 = 9
× ×
(x – 3) = (x – 3) (x – 3) = x(x – 3) – 3(x – 3) = x – 3x – 3x + 9 = x – 6x + 9
multiply second bracket by multiply second bracket by
sign remains
first part of first bracket second part of first bracket
the same
To expand a squared bracket, first Split the first bracket into its Simplify the resulting terms, making sure to
write the expression out as two terms and multiply the second multiply their signs correctly. Finally, add or
brackets next to each other. bracket by each term in turn. subtract like terms (see pp.172–173) together.
E X PA N D I N G A N D FA C T O R I Z I N G E X P R E S S I O N S 175
LOOKING CLOSER
Factorizing more complex expressions Factorizing a formula
Factorizing can make it simpler to understand and write complex
expressions with many terms. Find the factors that all parts of The formula for finding the surface area (see pp.156–157)
the expression have in common. of a shape can be worked out using known formulas for
3 × 5 × x × y × y = 15xy the areas of its parts. The formula can look daunting, but
3×3 3 × 3 × x × x × y = 9xy 2 × 3 × 3 × x × y × y × y = 18xy it can be made much easier to use by factorizing it.
x×x 3×5 x × y²
two circles, one at each end
y×y
9x y + 15xy + 18xy r
radius
height
all 3 terms
To factorize an expression write out the ◁ Surface of a cylinder
multiplied
factors of each part, for example, y² is y × y. The formula for the surface
Then look for the numbers and letters that area of a cylinder is worked
are common to all the factors. h out by adding together
the areas of the circles
common factor of x and x at each end and the
common factor
rectangle that forms the
of numbers
3xy common factor
of y, y, and y
space between them.
length of rectangle is
circumference of circle (2πr) area of a
area of rectangle circle is πr,
2πrh + 2πr
is length (2πr) × for 2 circles
All the parts of the expressions contain height (h) it is 2πr
the letters x and y, and can be factorized by
the number 3. These factors are combined
to produce one common factor. To find the formula for the surface area of
3xy is common
a cylinder, add together the formulas for
factor of all parts
9xy ÷ 3xy = 3x 15xy ÷ 3xy = 5y the areas of its parts.
of the expression
18xy ÷ 3xy = 6y h and r are not common
means
3xy(3x + 5y + 6y )
2πr is common to to both terms so they sit
both expressions multiply by inside the bracket
2πr (h + r)
Set the common factor (3xy) outside a set To make the formula easier to use, simplify it by
of brackets. Inside the brackets, write what identifying the common factor, in this case 2πr, and
remains of each part when divided by it. setting it outside the brackets.
176 ALGEBRA
A formula usually has a single subject and an equals sign, together with an
equations 180–181
expression written in symbols that indicates how to find the subject.
◁ Area of a tennis court
Introducing formulas A tennis court is a rectangle.
The recipe that makes up a formula can be simple The area of the court depends
or complicated. However, formulas usually have on its length (L) and width (W).
three basic parts: a single letter at the
beginning (the subject); an equals sign
that links the subject to the recipe;
and the recipe itself, which area is the space occupied
by the tennis court
when used, works out the
value of the subject.
A = LW
L=
LE
NG
TH
TH
ID
W
subject of equals sign the recipe – to find A
=
the formula we must multiply the length
W
(L) and the width (W). LW
means the same as L × W
LOOKING CLOSER
Formula triangles
Formulas can be rearranged to make ◁ Simple rearrangement
different parts the subject of the area (A) is the subject This triangle shows the different
formula. This is useful if the unknown
of the formula A A =L×W ways the formula for finding a
value to be found is not the subject of rectangle can be rearranged.
the original formula – the formula can L W area (A) = length (L)
multiplied by width (W)
be rearranged so that the unknown
becomes the subject, making solving
the formula easier. A stands
for area
length (L) = area (A) width (W) = area (A)
A
divided by width (W) L stands W stands divided by length (L)
for length for width
A A
L= A A W=
length (L) is the subject
of the formula
W
L W L W L W
L
width (W) is the subject
of the formula
178 ALGEBRA
A = bc A = bc A = bc A =b
c c c c c
In this example, b is Divide both sides by c. To Simplify the formula by The formula can
multiplied by c. To make move ×c, its opposite (÷c) must cancelling out c/c on the now be rearranged
b the subject, ×c needs to first be put into both sides of right, leaving b by itself as so that it reads
move to the other side. the formula. the subject of the formula. b = A/c.
A = bc A × c = b ×c c A × c = bc
c Ac = b
In this example, b is Multiply both sides by c. To Simplify the formula The formula can
divided by c. To make move ÷c, its opposite (×c) must by cancelling out c/c on the now be rearranged
b the subject, ÷c needs to first be put in to both sides of right, leaving b by itself as the so that it reads
move to the other side. the formula. subject of the formula. b = Ac.
FORMULAS 179
FORMULAS IN ACTION
A formula can be used to calculate how much this stands for principal, which this stands for rate of interest
just means the amount
interest (the amount a bank pays someone in
exchange for being able to borrow their money)
is paid into a bank account over a particular
period of time. The formula for this is principal (or
amount of money) × rate of interest × time ÷ 100. = PRT this stands for the time it
will take to earn interest
= PRT = RT
▷ Move P
The first step is to divide remember that dividing the right
side by P gives PRT/P100, but the
each side of the formula by
P to move it to the left of
the equals sign.
100 P 100 Ps cancel out, leaving RT/100
▷ Move 100
Then multiply each side
of the formula by 100 to
= T 100 = T T = 100
move it to the left of the
equals sign. PR 100 PR PR
interest (I) is £/$50 length of time (T) to earn
interest of £/$50 is 5 years
▷ Put in real values
Put in the real values for 100 50 × 100
I (£/$50), P (£/$500), and
T= = 5 years
R (2%) to find the value
of T (the time it will take
to earn interest of £/$50).
PR 500 × 2 rate of interest (R) is 2%
principal (P) is £/$500
180 ALGEBRA
Creating an equation
Equations can be created to explain day-to-day situations. For If a customer pays £18 for a journey, the equation can be used to
example, a taxi firm charges £3 to pick up a customer, and £2 work out how far the customer travelled.
per kilometre travelled. This can be written as an equation. cost per kilometre
total cost of journey multiplied by distance
c = 3 + 2d 3 has been
taken from
15 = 2d 3 has been
taken from
this side
Rearrange the equation
– subtract 3 from both sides.
this side
total cost of the 1 to get rid of 2 in Find the distance travelled
journey divide this
side by 2
7 =d2 km 2d, divide both by dividing both sides by 2.
sides by 2
S O LV I N G E Q U AT I O N S 181
12 ÷ 3 = 4, which
The subject of the equation, a, is now on its is the value of a a is now the subject,
own on the right side of the equation, and
there is only a number on the other side. 4=a isolated by itself on one
side of the equation
take 4 from
First rearrange the numerical terms. 4 – 4 = 0, so 6a 5, leaving 1
is on its own
Subtract 4 from both sides of the equation, so
that there are numbers on only one side. 6a = 1 – 2a
Then rearrange the equation so that the 6a + 2a = 8a –2a + 2a = 0, so
1 is on its own
unknown variable is on the opposite side to the
number, by adding 2a to both sides. 8a = 1
divide 8a by 8 to leave because the left side was divided by
a = 18
Finally, divide each side by 8 to make a the a by itself on the left 8 to isolate a, the right side must
subject of the equation, and to find the of the equation also be divided by 8 to keep both
solution of the equation. sides equal
182 ALGEBRA
90–93 Coordinates
gradient =
vertical distance 4 = +1 gradient y intercept = +4
horizontal distance 4 division sign
y y
4 4
horizontal y intercept
distance is 4 is where line
3 3
crosses the
vertical y axis – here
distance is 4 it is 4
2 2
1 1
0 0
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 x –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 x
–1 –1
y intercept 1x simplifies
Finally, substitute the values that have been found gradient is +1 is 4 to x
from the graph into the equation for a line. This gives
the equation for the line shown above.
y = mx + c y=x+4
LINEAR GRAPHS 183
Positive gradients
Lines that slope upwards from left to right have positive
gradients. The equation of a line with a positive gradient y
can be worked out from its graph, as described below. 3
Find the gradient of the line by choosing a section of it
and drawing horizontal (green) and vertical (red) lines out draw line
from it so they meet. Count the units each new line covers, 2 down from
then divide the vertical by the horizontal distance. graph; vertical
y intercept is 1
distance is 6
vertical distance 6 1
gradient = = = +2
horizontal distance 3
+ sign means line
slopes upwards 0 x
from left to right –2 –1 1 2
The y intercept can be easily read off the graph
– it is the point where the line crosses the y axis. –1
y intercept = +1
–2
Substitute the values for the gradient and y intercept into draw line across
the equation of a line to find the equation for this given line. –3 from graph;
y intercept horizontal
y intercept is 1 distance is 3
gradient
gradient is +2
y = mx + c y = 2x + 1
Negative gradients
Lines that slope downwards from left to right have negative
gradients. The equation of these lines can be worked out in
the same way as for a line with a positive gradient. y
2
Find the gradient of the line by choosing a section of it and
drawing horizontal (green) and vertical (red) lines out from it so they
meet. Count the units each new line covers, then divide the vertical 1
by the horizontal distance.
vertical distance
gradient = = 4 =4 –4 –3 –2 –1
0
1 x
horizontal distance 1
–1
insert minus
The y intercept can be easily read off the graph sign to show line draw line down from
slopes downwards graph; vertical –2
– it is the point where the line crosses the y axis. from left to right distance is 4
y intercept = –4 –3
y intercept is −4
y = mx + c y = –4x – 4
184 ALGEBRA
x y =2x
first, choose some then find –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
possible values of x 1 2 corresponding –1
values of y by
2 4 doubling each –2
3 6 x value –3
4 8 –4
Second, draw a set of –5 extend axes beyond
axes and label the axes known values to allow
First, choose some possible values of x, numbers below 10 are with numbers. Make –6
space for line to continue
easiest to work with. Find the corresponding values of y using a sure there is space to beyond points in table
table. Put the x values in the first column, then multiply each extend the line beyond
number by 2 to find the corresponding values for y. the calculated values.
y y
8 8
7 7
6 6
plot points from the
5 table on to the graph 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1 –1
–2 –2
Finally, draw
–3 –3 line continues
a straight line
beyond points in
Third, plot the through the
–4 –4 table to all points
x and y values points – this where y = 2x
from the table –5 is the graph of –5
on to the graph. –6 the equation –6
y = 2x.
LINEAR GRAPHS 185
Downward-sloping graph y
Graphs of linear equations can slope downwards or upwards
from left to right. Downward-sloping graphs have a negative 8
gradient; upward-sloping graphs have a positive gradient. 7
6
The equation here this means x graph of
contains the term –2x. multiplied by –2 y = –2x + 1 5
Because x is multiplied
by a negative number
(–2), the graph will
y = −2x + 1 4
3
slope downwards. 2
1
Use a table to find some values for x and y. This equation is more 0 1
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 2 3 4 5 x
complex than the last, so add more rows to the table: –2x and 1. –1
Calculate each of these values, then add them to find y. It is
–2 plot each point
important to keep track of negative signs in front of numbers.
–3 (x, y) from the
table
x −2x +1 y =−2x+1 work out –4
corresponding
1 –2 +1 –1 values for y by –5
adding together –6
write down 2 –4 +1 –3 the parts of
some the equation –7
possible 3 –6 +1 –5
values of x –8
4 –8 +1 –7
REAL WORLD
△ Temperature conversion
Two sets of values for Fahrenheit (F) 0
and Celsius (C) give all the −2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
information that is needed to plot –10 T E M P E R AT U R E ° C
the conversion graph.
186 ALGEBRA
x+y=1
x–y=0 Simultaneous equations SEE ALSO
and put in the value for y that has just it is already known that y = 4
been found. This eliminates the y variable
from the equation, leaving only the x
2x + (2 × 4) = 6 so 2y = 8
2×4=8
variable. Rearranging the equation
means that it can be solved, and the
2x + 8 = 6
subtract 8 from this side:
value of the x can be found.
2x = –2
subtracting 8 from this
side to isolate 2x
6 – 8 = –2
2x –2
2
=divide this side by 2 to
2
isolate x
this side must also be
divided by 2
–11y = –22
isolate the y term by subtracting
28 must also be subtracted
from this side: 6 – 28 = –22
28 from this side –11y –22
–11
= –11 this side must also be
divide this side by –11 to divided by –11
y=2
isolate y (–11y ÷ –11 = y)
this is the value of y
x+4=7
work out the terms in as 4 has been subtracted from
x=3
the brackets: 2 × 2 = 4 the other side of the equation,
it must also be subtracted
subtract 4 from this side to isolate x
from this side: 7 – 4 = 3
y=3+x
divide whole equation
by 3 to isolate y
3y ÷ 3 = y 9÷3=3 3x ÷ 3 = x
Find the corresponding x and y values for the Find the corresponding x and y values for the
rearranged first equation using a table. Choose rearranged second equation using a table.
a set of x values that are close to zero, then use Choose the same set of x values as for the other
the table to work out the y values. table, then use the table to work out the y values.
LOOKING CLOSER
Draw a set of axes, then plot the two sets of x and Unsolvable simultaneous equations
y values. Join each set of points with a straight line,
continuing the line past where the points lie. If the Sometimes a pair of simultaneous
y
pair of simultaneous equations has a solution, then equations does not have a solution.
the two lines will cross. For example, the graphs of the
two equations x + y = 1 and x + y =2
x + y = 2 are always equidistant from
each other (parallel) and, because
y they do not intersect, there is no
x
11
10
point of intersection
4 reresents solution to pair of
simultaneous equations
3
this is the graph of equation
y = 7 − 2x, which is the
2 rearranged form of the first
equation: 2x + y = 7
0
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
−1 value of x is read off
x axis: 1.3
LOOKING CLOSER
a sum of +3
b term (3) c term (1) Factors of +1 Sum of factors is needed as
both sets of
x 2 + 3x + 1 = 0 1, 1 2 the b term is 3
numbers multiply
together to give −1, −1 −2
c (1)
The equation above is a typical Listing all the possible factors and their sums
quadratic equation, but cannot in a table shows that there is no set of factors
be solved by factorizing. that add to b (3), and multiply to give c (1).
SEE ALSO
190–191 Factorizing
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS CAN BE SOLVED USING A FORMULA. quadratic equations
Quadratic
graphs 194–197
The quadratic formula
The quadratic formula can be used to solve any quadratic equation. Quadratic equations
take the form ax² + bx + c = 0, where a, b, and c are numbers and x is the unknown.
number that number that number with
▷ A quadratic equation multiplies x multiplies x no x terms
LOOK CLOSER
Quadratic equations
include a number Quadratic variations
multiplied by x² , a ax²+ bx + c = 0
number multplied by x Quadratic equations are not always the same. They can
and a number by itself. include negative terms, or terms with no numbers in front of
them (“x” is the same as “1x”) and do not always equal 0.
2
Add the two values on Subtract the second
the top part of the x = –3 + 4.12 value on the top part of x = –3 – 4.12
fraction; here the values the fraction from the first
are –3 and 4.12. value; here the values are
2 –3 and –4.12.
2
−3 − 4.12 = −7.12
2 2
quadratic equations always
have two solutions
Give both the answers,
as quadratic equations
always have two solutions.
x = 0.56 x = –3.56
194 ALGEBRA
x y x x2 3x +2 y x x2 3x +2 y
−3 −3 9 −9 2 −3 9 −9 2 2
−2 −2 4 −6 2 −2 4 −6 2 0
−1 −1 1 −3 2 −1 1 −3 2 0
0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 2
1 1 1 3 2 1 1 3 2 6
2 2 4 6 2 2 4 6 2 12
3 3 9 9 2 3 9 9 2 20
y is the sum of numbers
in each mauve row
△ Values of x △ Different parts of the equation
+ + =
The value of y depends on the Each quadratic equation has 3 different parts △ Corresponding values of y
value of x, so choose a set of x – a squared x value, a multiplied x value, and Add the three parts of the equation together
values and then find the an ordinary number. Work out the different to find the corresponding values of y for each
corresponding values of y. values of each part of the equation for each x value, making sure to pay attention to when
Choose x values either side of 0 value of x, being careful to pay attention to the different parts of the equation are positive
as they are easiest to work with. when the numbers are positive or negative. or negative.
Q U A D R AT I C G R A P H S 195
Draw the graph of the equation. Use the values of x and
y that have been found in the table as the coordinates of
points on the graph. For example, x = 1 has the corresponding
value y = 6. This becomes the point on the graph with the
coordinates (1, 6).
y
point plotted
from table
20
line continues
draw smooth line past the points
connecting plotted points 15 plotted
line continues
▷ Join the points past the points
Draw a smooth line to plotted
join the points plotted on 10
the graph. This line is the
graph of the equation
y = x + 3x + 2. Bigger and 5
smaller values of x could
have been chosen, and so
x
the line continues past the 0
values that have been –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3
plotted.
LOOKING CLOSER
linear part
of equation
This equation has two parts: a
−x − 2x + 3 = −5
quadratic equation on the left and a
linear equation on the right. To find the
solutions to this equation, draw the
quadratic and linear graphs on the same
axes. To draw the graphs, it is necessary
y values for linear
to find sets of x and y values for both quadratic part part of equation
sides of the equation. of equation are all –5
y values for quadratic
part of equation are
dependent on value
of x y = −5
Find values of x and y for the quadratic
y = −x − 2x + 3 y ◁ y = –5
This graph is very
simple: whatever value
x
part of the equation using a table. Choose 0 x takes, y is always –5.
x values either side of 0 and split the This means that the
equation into parts (–x, –2x, and +3). Work −5 graph is a straight
out the value of each part for each value of horizontal line that
x, then add the values of all three parts to passes through the y
find the y value for each x value. axis at –5.
work out x2 first
then put a minus
choose some values y = –x – 2x + 3, so it is sign in front to work out –2x in +3 is the same for add values in each mauve
of x around 0 difficult to work out the y give values this column each x value row to find y values
values straight away
x y x –x 2 –2x 3 y x –x 2 –2x 3 y
−4 −4 –16 +8 +3 −4 –16 +8 +3 −5
−3 −3 –9 +6 +3 −3 –9 +6 +3 0
−2 −2 –4 +4 +3 −2 –4 +4 +3 3
−1 −1 –1 +2 +3 −1 –1 +2 +3 4
0 0 0 0 +3 0 0 0 +3 3
1 1 –1 –2 +3 1 –1 –2 +3 0
2 2 –4 –4 +3 2 –4 –4 +3 −5
y is the sum of numbers
in each mauve row
△ Values of x △ Different parts of the equation
+ + =
Each value of y depends on The equation has 3 different parts: –x, △ Corresponding values of y
the value of x. Choose a –2x, and +3. Work out the values of each Finally, add the three parts of the
number of values for x, and part of the equation for each value of x, equation together to find the
work out the corresponding being careful to pay attention to whether corresponding values of y for each x
values of y. It is easiest to the values are positive or negative. The value. Make sure to pay attention to
choose values of x that are last part of the equation, +3, is the same whether the different parts of the
either side of 0. for each x value. equation are positive or negative.
Q U A D R AT I C G R A P H S 197
y
Plot the quadratic graph. First draw
a set of axes, then plot the points of 4
green line represents
the graph, using the values of x and y equation −x − 2x + 3 = 0 3
from the table as the coordinates of
each point. For example, when x = –4, 2
y has the value y = –5. This gives the 1
coordinates of the point (–4, –5) on
x
the graph. After plotting the points, 0
draw a smooth line to join them. –5 –4 –3 −2 −1 −1 1 2 3
−2
−3
−4
−5
plot x and y values −6
from the table
−7
−8
−9
y
Then plot the linear graph. The
linear graph (y = –5) is a horizontal 4
straight line that passes through the y green line represents 3
axis at –5. The points at which the equation −x − 2x + 3 = 0
two lines cross are the solutions to 2
the equation –x –2x +3 = –5. 1
x
0
–5 –4 –3 −2 −1 −1 1 2 3
−2
−3
solution 1 solution 2
−4
second
The solutions are read off the coordinates of coordinates of first solution solution to
graph – they are the two x values of first solution second solution to the equation the equation
the points where the lines cross:
–4 and 2.
(−4, −5) and (2, −5) x = −4 x = 2
198 ALGEBRA
negative
34–35 Positive and
numbers
AN INEQUALITY IS USED TO SHOW THAT ONE
QUANTITY IS NOT EQUAL TO ANOTHER.
expressions Working with
172–173
180–181 Solving
equations
Inequality symbols
An inequality symbol shows that the numbers on either side of
it are different in size and how they are different. There are five
main inequality symbols. One simply shows that two numbers
are not equal, the others show in what way they are not equal.
x≠y ◁ Not equal to
This sign shows that x
is not equal to y; for
example, 3 ≠ 4.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
LOOKING CLOSER
–2 x – 2 < –6 ÷ –1 –p > –3
2 subtracted
△ Adding and subtracting from both
△ Multiplying or dividing by a negative number
When an inequality has a number sides of sign When an inequality is multiplied or divided by a
added to or subtracted from it, its negative number, its sign is reversed. In this example,
sign does not change. a less than sign becomes a greater than sign.
INEQUALITIES 199
Solving inequalities
Inequalities can be solved by rearranging them, but anything that is done to one side of
the inequality must also be done to the other. For example, any number added to cancel
a numerical term from one side must be added to the numerical term on the other side.
–6 ÷ 3 = –2 3x ÷ 3 = x 6÷3=2
3x ÷ 3 = x
What is statistics?
STATISTICS IS THE COLLECTION, ORGANIZATION, AND group number
PROCESSING OF DATA. Female teachers 10
Organizing and analysing data helps make large quantities of Male teachers 5
information easier to understand. Graphs and other visual charts Female students 66
present information in a way that is instantly understandable. Male students 19
Total people 100
Working with data △ Collecting data
Data is information, and it is everywhere, in enormous quantities. When data is Once data has been collected, it must
collected, for example from a questionnaire, it often forms long lists that are hard be organized into groups before it can be
to understand. It can be made easier to understand if the data is reorganized into effectively analysed. A table is the usual
tables, and even more accessible by taking the table and plotting its information way to do this. This table shows the
as a graph or pie chart. Graphs show trends clearly, making the data much easier different groups of people in a school.
to analyse. Pie charts present data in an instantly accessible way, allowing the
relative sizes of groups to be seen immediately.
ALE
F FEMCHERS
STUEMALE TEA
DEN
66
TS
10
MAL
TEA E
CHE
5 R S
△ Set of data
A set of data can be drawn up from almost
anywhere. This image shows the members
of a school. There are 10 female teachers, 5
male teachers, 66 female students, and 19
LE male students. This information can be put
MA DENTS into a table (see top right), and can then be
STU plotted as a graph, or shown as a pie chart,
FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY
6 6
Group 2 8
4 4
Group 3 6
2 2
Group 4 4
0 0
Group 5 5
DATA GROUP DATA GROUP
6 6 width of block
shows size of
data group
4 shape of line 4
shows trend
2 2
0 0
1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29
Collecting data
A common way of collecting
Drink questionnaire
information is in a survey. A This questionnaire is being used to find out what
selection of people are asked children’s favourite soft drinks are. Put a cross in the
about their preferences, box that relates to you.
habits, or opinions, often
in the form of a questionnaire. 1) Are you a boy or a girl?
The answers they give, which
is the raw data, can then
be organized into tables
x boy girl
and diagrams.
information from
pineapple juice orange juice
x apple juice
these answers is
collected as lists of data
milk cola other
once a week
or less x 2–3 times
a week
3–5 times
a week
over 5 times
▷ Questionnaire
a week
Questionnaires often take the
form of a series of multiple
choice questions. The replies
to each question are then 4) Where is you favourite drink usually bought from?
easy to sort into groups of
data. In this example, the data
would be grouped by the
supermarket
x convenience
store
other
man questioned
in survey
◁ Seismometer
A seismometer
records movements
supporters
of the ground that
of blue team
are associated with
△ Football fan earthquakes. The
If asked whether the blue or red collected data is
team is better, a blue supporter analysed to find
would probably answer blue. This patterns that may
would be regardless of whether the predict future
reds had proved their superiority. earthquakes.
206 S TAT I S T I C S
This frequency table To draw a bar graph, first choose a suitable scale for your
shows the groups of data data. Then draw a vertical line for the y axis and a horizontal
and the size (frequency) of line for the x axis. Label each axis according to the columns
each group in a data set. of the table, and mark with the data from the table.
Ages of
visitors Frequency y axis shows information from
frequency column of table
under 15 3
35
15–19 12
choose range according
20–24 26 to values in table – in this
FREQUENCY NUMBER OF PEOPLE WHO VISIT THE GYM
values of
frequency in 20
age groups in this column
this column y axis shows continuous
are marked data – all the values
are marked on vertical
on horizontal 15 between 0–35
y axis
x axis
10
each age group is
represented by 15 small
5 squares on x axis x axis shows information
draw mark between from ages column of table
each age group on x axis
0
under 15 15–19 20–24 25–29 30–34 over 35
mark the point where
y and x axis meet with 0 AGES OF VISITORS
BAR CHARTS 207
0
under 15 15–19 20–24 25–29 30–34 over 35
AGES OF VISITORS
15
10
0
under 15 15–19 20–24 25–29 30–34 over 35
AGES OF VISITORS
208 S TAT I S T I C S
Computer
games length of bars
shows frequency
of data
vertical y axis shows
Music
groups of data largest frequency
value is 45, so scale
Collecting of 0–50 is suitable
0 10 20 30 40 50
on x axis, 15 small horizontal x axis
squares represent FREQUENCY NUMBER OF CHILDREN shows frequency
10 children of each group
▷ Three-dimensional
bar chart
The three-dimensional
50
blocks in this type of bar
chart give it more visual
impact, but can be
FREQUENCY NUMBER OF CHILDREN
40
misleading. Because of the bars drawn in 3-D
perspective, the tops of the are more striking but
blocks appear to show two 30
less accurate
values for frequency – the
true value is read from the
front edge of the block. 20
10
number of children in
each group is difficult
to find quickly
0
Reading Sport Computer games Music Collecting
HOBBY
BAR CHARTS 209
Compound and Hobby Boys Girls Total frequency
composite bar charts ◁ Table of data
Reading 10 15 25
For data divided into sub-groups, This data table shows
compound or composite bar charts can Sport 25 20 45
the results of the
be used. In a compound bar chart, bars Computer games 20 10 30 survey on children’s
for each sub-group of data are drawn side Music 10 9 19 hobbies divided into
by side. In a composite bar chart, two separate figures for
sub-groups are combined into one bar. Collecting 5 10 15 boys and girls.
0 0
Reading Sport Computer Music Collecting Reading Sport Computer Music Collecting
games games
HOBBY HOBBY
△ Compound (or multiple) bar chart △ Composite (or component) bar chart
In a compound bar chart, each data group has In a composite bar chart, two or more sub-groups
two or more bars of different colours, that each of data are shown as one bar, one sub-group on
represent a sub-group of that data. A key shows top of the other. This has the advantage of also
which colour represents which groups. showing the total value of the group of data.
Frequency polygons
45
Another way of presenting the same
information as a bar chart is in a frequency 40
polygon. Instead of bars, the data is shown 35
as a line on the chart. The line connects the straight lines form
midpoints of each group of data. 30 frequency polygon
FREQUENCY
25
marks must be on
20 exact midpoints
15 of groups
10
5
▷ Drawing a frequency polygon 0
Mark the frequency value at the midpoint under 15 15–19 20–24 25–29 30–34 35–39 over 40
of each group of data, in this case, the middle of AGE
each age range. Join the marks with straight lines.
210 S TAT I S T I C S
84–85 Angles
PIE CHARTS ARE A USEFUL VISUAL WAY TO PRESENT DATA. 204–205 Arcs
150–151 and Sectors
Collecting
organizing data
and
A pie chart shows data as a circle divided into segments, or slices, with
each slice representing a different part of the data.
206–209 Bar charts
Why use a pie chart?
Pie charts are often used to present data as they
have an immediate visual impact. The size of each ◁ Reading a pie chart
slice of the pie clearly shows the relative sizes of When a pie chart is divided into slices, it is
different groups of data, which means that the easy to understand the information. It is
comparison of data is quick and easy. clear in this example that the red section
represents the largest group of data.
◁ Frequency table
Identifying data Country of Frequency
The table shows the number of
origin of data
To get the information necessary to hits on a website, split into the
calculate the size, or angle, of each slice United Kingdom 375 countries where they occurred.
of a pie chart, a table of data known
as a frequency table is created. This United States 250 “frequency of data” is
broken down country
identifies the different groups of data, Australia 125 by country
and shows both their size (frequency of
data) and the size of all of the groups of Canada 50 United
data together (total frequency). China 50
data from each country
Kingdom
▽ Calculating the angles Unknown 150 is used to calculate size
To find the angle for each slice of the pie
TOTAL FREQUENCY 1,000
of each slice 135°
chart, take the information in the
frequency table and use it in this formula.
“total frequency” is total
number of website hits
frequency of data from all countries
angle = × 360°
total frequency
The angles for the remaining slices are calculated in the same
way, taking the data for each country from the frequency table
and using the formula. The angles of all the slices of the pie Canada = 50 × 360 = 18°
should add up to 360° – the total number of degrees in a circle. 1,000
First, draw a circle using Draw a straight line Measure the angle of
a compass (see from the centre point a slice from the centre
pp.82–83). of the circle to the and straight line. Mark
circumference (edge it on the edge of the
of the circle). circle. Draw a line from
the centre to this mark.
United
States ◁ Finished pie chart
90° After drawing each slice on
the circle, the pie chart can
be labelled and colour
coded, as necessary. As
the angles add up to
360°, all of the slices fit
into the circle exactly.
LOOKING CLOSER
182–185 Linear
graphs
LINE GRAPHS SHOW DATA AS LINES ON A SET OF AXES.
204–205 Collecting and
organizing data
Line graphs are a way of accurately presenting information in an easy-to-read
form. They are particularly useful for showing data over a period of time.
Day Sunshine
(hours)
data from table is
Monday 12 12 y axis is marked with 12 plotted on graph
HOURS OF SUNSHINE
HOURS OF SUNSHINE
10 hours of sunshine 10
Tuesday 9
8 8
Wednesday 10 6 6
x axis is marked with
Thursday 4 4 days of the week 4
Friday 5 2 2
0 0
Saturday 8 Mon Tue Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun Mon Tue Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun
Sunday 11 DAY DAY
The columns of the table Draw a set of axes. Label the x Read up the y axis from
provide the information for axis with data from the first Monday on the x axis and mark
the horizontal and vertical column of the table (days). the first value. Do this for each
lines – the x and y axes. Label the y axis with data from day, reading up from the x axis
the second (hours of sunshine). and across from the y axis.
0
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
DAY
LINE GRAPHS 213
15
10
to find temperature
reading graph here gives
at 14.00, draw vertical
temperature at 02.00,
line to graph line from
5 which is 12°C
14.00 on x axis
0
00.00 04.00 08.00 12.00 16.00 20.00 24.00
TIME
spread 220–223
Different types of averages
There are several different types of average. The main ones
are called the mean, the median and the mode. Each one
gives slightly different information about the data. In
150, 160, 170, 180, 180
everyday life, the term “average” usually refers to the mean. working out averages often requires
this colour represents mode listing a set of data arranged in
because it appears most often ascending order
The mode
The mode is the value that appears most ◁ The mode colour
frequently in a set of data. It is easier to find the The set of data in this
example is a series of
mode if you put the data list into an ascending
coloured figures. The
order of values (from lowest to highest). If
pink people appear the
different values appear the same number of
most often, so pink is
times, there may be more than one mode. the mode value.
150, 160, 170, 180, 180 180 occurs twice in this list, more often
than any other value, so it is the mode,
or most frequent, value
▷ Average heights this person is 170cm tall; this person is one of two people
The heights of this 170cm is the median who are 180cm tall; 180cm is
group of people can (middle value in the list) therefore the mode value
be arranged as a list mode the value that appears most often in the list
of data. From this
list, the different
median the middle value of the list
types of average can mean the sum of the values divided
be found – mean, by the number of values in the list (168cm) this person is
median, and mode. 160cm tall,
shortest shorter than
person is average
150cm tall
AV E R AG E S 215
The mean
The mean is the sum of all the values in a set of data divided Sum total of values
by the number of values in the list. It is what most people Mean =
Number of values
understand by the word ”average”. To find the mean, a simple
formula is used.
formula to find mean
110
100
in a list with an odd number
of values.
150, 160, 170, 180, 180
90
80 LOOKING CLOSER
70 Median of an even number of values
60 3rd value 4th value
In a list with an even number of values,
50 the median is worked out using the two
40 middle values. In a list of six values, 150, 160, 170, 180, 180, 190
these are the third and fourth values. middle values
30 median value
20 ▷ Calculating the median
10 Add the two middle values and 170 + 180 = 350 = 175
divide by two to find the median.
0 2 2
216 S TAT I S T I C S
The following marks were scored in a The following marks were scored in a ▽ An even total frequency
test and entered in a frequency table: test and entered in a frequency table: If the total frequency is even,
the median is calculated from
20, 20, 18 , 20, 18, 19 , 20 , 20, 20 18, 17 , 20 19, 19, 18 , 19 , 18 the two middle values.
Mark Frequency number of Mark Frequency 1st middle value + 2nd middle value
times each frequency Median =
mark appears 2
18 2 contains 17 1
4th value
19 1 (2 + 1 = 3) 18 3 (1 + 3 = 4) 1st middle value
frequency 2nd middle value
6 (3 + 6 = 9) median frequency
20
(entry contains
5th value in list)
contains
5th value
19 3 (4 + 3 = 7)
18 + 19 = 18.5
9 20 1 (7 + 1 = 8)
median total frequency
total frequency
8
2 median
mark
As the total frequency of 9 is odd, to find the median, The total frequency of 8 is The two middle values (4th and 5th)
first add 1 to it, then divide it by 2, making 5. This means even, so there are two middle represent the marks 18 and 19 respectively.
that the 5th value is the median. Count down the values (4th and 5th). Count The median is the mean of these two marks,
frequency column adding the values until reaching the down the frequency column so add them together and divide by 2. The
row containing the 5th value. The median mark is 20. adding values to find them. median mark is 18.5.
16 , 18 , 20 , 19 , 17 , 19 , 18 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 16 , 19 total marks
18 3 18 3 18 × 3 = 54 total marks
19 4 19 4 19 × 4 = 76
20 1 20 1 20 × 1 = 20 216 ÷ 12 = 18
12 216 total frequency mean mark
range of values frequency shows number of add frequencies together total marks
times each mark was scored to get total frequency
Input the given data into a Find the total marks scored by multiplying To find the mean, divide the sum of values, in
frequency table. each mark by its frequency. The total sum of this example, the total marks, by the number of
each part of the data is the sum of values. values, which is the total frequency.
AV E R AG E S 217
Finding the mean of grouped data LOOKING CLOSER
Grouped data is data that has been collected into groups of Weighted mean
values, as opposed to specific or individual values. If a
frequency table shows grouped data, there is not enough If some individual values within
Students 15 20 22
information to calculate the sum of values, so only an grouped data contribute more in group
estimated value for the mean can be found. to the mean than other
individual values in the group, Mean exam
estimated average total frequency × mark 18 17 13
size of data midpoint value
a “weighted” mean results.
To find the midpoint of a set of Multiply the midpoint by the frequency for Dividing the total frequency × midpoint by
data, add the upper and lower each group and enter this in a new column. the total frequency gives the estimated mean
values and divide the answer by Add the results to find the total frequency mark. It is an estimated value as the exact
2. For example, the midpoint in multiplied by the midpoint. marks scored are not known – only a range
the 90–99 mark group is 94.5. has been given in each group.
LOOKING CLOSER
Sales (in thousands) 1.25 3.75 4.25 2.5 1.5 4.75 5.0 2.75
4
THOUSANDS OF ICE CREAMS SOLD
Average for quarters 2–5 Average for quarters 3–6 Average for quarters 4–7 Average for quarters 5–8
Calculate the mean of the Calculate the mean of the figures Calculate the mean of the Find the mean for quarters
figures for quarters 2–5 and for quarters 3–6 and mark it at figures for quarters 4–7 and 5–8, mark it on the graph,
mark it at the quarters’ midpoint. the quarters’ midpoint. mark it at the quarters’ midpoint. and join all of the marks.
3.75 + 4.25 + 2.5 + 1.5 = 12 4.25 + 2.5 + 1.5 + 4.75 = 13 2.5 + 1.5 + 4.75 + 5 = 13.75 1.5 + 4.75 + 5 + 2.75 = 14
sum of sales figures sum of sales figures sum of sales figures for sum of sales figures
for quarters 2–5 for quarters 3–6 quarters 4–7 for quarters 5–8
mean value mean value mean value
3RD QUARTER 4TH QUARTER 5TH QUARTER 6TH QUARTER 7TH QUARTER 8TH QUARTER
YEAR TWO
220 S TAT I S T I C S
Ed: 10, 47, 60, 65, 77, 81, 90, 95 To calculate the range of each student’s
marks, subtract the lowest figure from
the highest in each set. Ed’s lowest mark
is 10, and highest 95, so his range is 85.
Bella: 60, 61, 64, 65, 65, 68, 70, 72 Bella’s lowest mark is 60, and highest 72,
giving a range of 12.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Bella
△ Measure-of-spread diagram
When the ranges are shown in a diagram, it is easy
to see that Ed’s marks are distributed over a much lowest mark highest mark
length of pink
wider range than Bella’s. bar is the range
MEASURING SPREAD 221
Stem-and-leaf diagrams
Another way of showing data is in stem-and-leaf diagrams. These give a clearer picture of the way
the data is distributed within the range than a simple measure-of-spread diagram.
the list of
data that
has 1 as its
first digit
1 2 2 4 5 8
2 1 2 2 4 5 7 34 appears 3 times
3 0 3 4 4 4 5 7 9
there is no
data of 60
or more 4 2 3 3 5 8 9 there is most data
in the middle of
the range
QUARTILES
Quartiles are dividing points in the range of a set of data that give a clear picture of distribution.
The median marks the centre point, the upper quartile marks the midpoint between the median and
the top of the distribution, and the lower quartile the midpoint between the median and the bottom.
Estimates of quartiles can be found from a graph, or calculated precisely using formulas.
Estimating quartiles 30
Quartiles can be estimated by reading
values from a cumulative frequency graph
(see p.213).
25
Make a table with the data given for range
and frequency, and add up the cumulative
frequency. Use this data to make a cumulative
frequency graph, with cumulative frequency on
the y axis, and range on the x axis. 20 read down from
here to find the
estimated value of
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY
Range Frequency Cumulative frequency the upper quartile
read down from here to find the
30–39 2 2 estimated value of the median
15
40–49 3 5 (2+3)
50–59 4 9 (2+3+4)
read down from here to
60–69 6 15 (2+3+4+6) 10 find the estimated value
70–79 5 20 (2+3+4+6+5) of the lower quartile
80–89 4 24 (2+3+4+6+5+4)
>90 3 27 (2+3+4+6+5+4+3)
5
this sign means add each number to
greater than those before it to find the median
cumulative frequency is 68
Calculating quartiles
Exact values of quartiles can be found from a list of data. These formulas give the position of the quartiles
and median in a list of data in ascending order, using the total number of data items in the list, n.
n is the total
number of values
in the list
(n + 1) (n + 1) 3 (n + 1)
4 2 4
△ Lower quartile △ Median △ Upper quartile
This shows the position of the This shows the position of This shows the position of the
lower quartile in a list of data. the median in a list of data. upper quartile in a list of data.
MEASURING SPREAD 223
37,38,45,47,48,51,54,54,58,60,62,63,63,65,69,71,74,75,78,78,80,84,86,89,92,94,96
Using the formulas, calculate where to find the
quartiles and the median in this list. The answers
give the position of each value in the list.
n is the total number of position of lower position of median position of upper
values in the list quartile (7th value) (14th value) quartile (21st value)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
37,38,45,47,48,51,54,54,58,60,62,63,63,65,69,71,74,75,78,78,80,84,86,89,92,94,96
LOOKING CLOSER
Box-and-whisker diagram
Box-and-whisker diagrams are a way of showing the spread and ▽ Using the diagram
distribution of a range of data in an graphic way. The range is This box-and-whisker diagram shows a
plotted on a number line, with the interquartile range between range with a lower limit of 1 and an
the upper and lower quartiles shown as a box. upper limit of 9. The median is 4, the
lower quartile 3, and the upper quartile 6.
the lower limit the boxed area is the the upper the upper limit
of the range the lower quartile the median interquartile range quartile of the range
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
224 S TAT I S T I C S
220–223
spread
Measuring
What is a histogram?
A histogram is a diagram made up of blocks on a graph. Histograms are useful for showing data when
it is grouped into groups of different sizes. This example looks at the number of downloads of a music
file in a month (frequency) by different age groups. Each age group (class) is a different size because
each covers a different age range. The width of each block represents the age range, known as class
width. The height of each block represents frequency density, which is calculated by dividing the
number of downloads (frequency) in each age group (class) by the class width (age range).
y axis shows
frequency density, 1
or frequency (number
of downloads in each
age range divided
by class width
(age range) 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
30
x axis shows ages of people AGE
downloading the music file
LOOKING CLOSER
The information needed to To find class width, begin by finding the class To find frequency density,
draw a histogram is the range of boundaries of each group of data. These are the divide the frequency by
each class of data and frequency two numbers that all the values in a group fall in the class width of each group.
data. From this information, the between – for example, for the 10–15 group they Frequency density shows
class width and frequency are 10 and 16. Next, find class width by subtracting the frequency of each group in
density can be calculated. the lower boundary from the upper for each group. proportion to its class width.
1 mark class
boundaries on
the x axis
0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 no one over the age of
AGE 29 downloaded the file
226 S TAT I S T I C S
×
× ×
× Scatter diagrams SEE ALSO
Height (cm) 173 171 189 167 183 181 179 160 177 180 188 186 176
Weight (kg) 69 68 90 65 77 76 74 55 70 75 86 81 68
160
◁ Positive correlation
The pattern of points
marked between the two
axes shows an upward
trend from left to right. An
two large squares upward trend is known as
represent 10kg data for weight in table is positive correlation. The
shown on x axis correlation between the
150 two sets of data in this
40 50 60 WEIGHT KG 70 80 90 example is that as height
increases, so does weight.
S C AT T E R D I A G R A M S 227
Negative and zero correlations
The points in a scatter diagram can form many different patterns, which reveal different types of
correlation between the sets of data. This can be positive, negative, or non-existent. The pattern can
also reveal how strong or how weak the correlation is between the two sets of data.
Energy used (kwh) 1,000 1,200 1,300 1,400 1,450 1,550 1,650 1,700 IQ 141 127 117 150 143 111 106 135
Temperature (°C) 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 Shoe size 8 10 11 6 11 10 9 7
1,600 140
1,400 130
IQ
1,200 120
1,000 110
800 100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
TEMPERATURE °C) SHOE SIZE
190 180
HEIGHT
48–55 Fractions
total of all
▷ Total chances possible events
there are 5 that can happen
Decide what the total sweets, 4 are red
number of possible and 1 is yellow
outcomes is. In this
example, with 5 sweets
to pick 1 sweet from, the
total is 5, as any one of 5
sweets may be picked.
▷ A hole in one
total number of A hole in one during a game
▷ Chance of red sweet
Of the 5 sweets, 4 are red.
This means that there are
4 red sweets that
can be chosen
total of 5 sweets
of golf is highly unlikely, so
it has a probability close to 0
on the scale. However, it can
4 chances out of 5 that
the sweet chosen is red.
This probability can be
5 to choose from still happen!
total of 5 sweets
picked being yellow. This
probability can be written
as a fraction 1⁄5.
5 to choose from △ Identical snowflakes
Every snowflake is unique
and the chance that there
0
can be two identical
snowflakes is 0 on the scale,
or impossible.
IMPOSSIBLE UNLIKELY
▷ Probability scale
All probabilities can be shown on a line
known as a probability scale. The more
likely something is to occur the further
LESS LIKELY
to the right, or towards 1, it is placed.
W H AT I S P R O B A B I L I T Y ? 231
Calculating probabilities
This example shows how to work out the probability of randomly picking a red sweet
from a group of 10 sweets. The number of ways this event could happen is put at the
top of the fraction and the total number of possible events is put at the bottom.
chance of red
number of red sweets sweet being
that can be chosen chosen, as fraction
3 red sweets 3
or 0.3
10 sweets 10
chance of red sweet
total that can be being chosen,
chosen as decimal
△ Pick a sweet △ Red randomly chosen △ Write as a fraction △ What is the chance?
There are 10 sweets to One sweet is chosen at There are three reds that The probability of a red
choose from. Of these, 3 are random from the 10 can be chosen, so 3 is put at sweet being picked is 3 out
coloured red. If one of the coloured sweets. The sweet the top of the fraction. As of 10. This can be written as
sweets is picked, what is chosen is one of the 3 red there are ten sweets in the fraction 3⁄, or the
the chance of it being red? sweets available. total, 10 is at the bottom. decimal 0.3.
vast majority of
people are ◁ Being right-handed
right-handed The chances of picking at
random a right-handed
0.5
EVEN CHANCE
person are very high –
almost 1 on the scale. Most
people are right-handed.
LIKELY
1
CERTAIN
MORE LIKELY
232 PROBABILITY
6
Expectation and reality SEE ALSO
48–53 Fractions
W H AT A R E T H E C H A N C E S ?
What is expectation?
There is an equal chance of a 6-sided dice landing on any Two random phone numbers ending in same digit 1 chance in 10
number. It is therefore expected that each of the 6 numbers Randomly selected person being left-handed 1 chance in 12
on it will be rolled once in every 6 throws (1⁄6 of the time). Pregnant woman giving birth to twins 1 chance in 33
Similarly, if a coin is tossed twice, it is expected that it will
land on heads once and tails once. However, this does not An adult living to 100 1 chance in 50
always happen in real life. A random clover having four leaves 1 chance in 10,000
Being struck by lightning in a year 1 chance in 2.5 million
A specific house being hit by a meteor 1 chance in 182 trillion
△ Roll a dice
Roll a dice 6 times and it
seems likely that each of
the 6 numbers on the dice
will be seen once.
▷ Expectation
Mathematical probability
expects that, when a dice is
rolled 6 times, a 4 will be
thrown once.
▷ Reality
Throwing a dice 6
times may create any
combination of the
numbers on a dice.
E X P E C TAT I O N A N D R E A L I T Y 233
Calculating expectation
Expectation can be calculated. This is done by expressing 5
◁ Numbered balls
the likelihood of something happening as a fraction, and 13 2 18 There are 30 balls in the
19 2
6
then multiplying the fraction by the number of times the 28 bucket and 5 are removed at
4 9 24 1 23
1
occurrence has the chance to happen. This example 15 7 random. The balls are then
10 8
shows how expectation can be calculated in a game
25
16 20 26 checked for winning numbers
30
17 3
11
where balls are pulled from a bucket, with numbers – numbers that end in 0 or 5.
12
29
14
ending in 0 or 5 winning a prize. 22 27
number of winning
6 winning balls balls in game
25 26 27 28 29 30
both parts of the chances of winning
fraction can divide by 6, ball being picked
1 2 3 4 5 6 so it can be cancelled 6÷6=1
28
20 4 9 24 1 23 of winning a prize is therefore 1⁄5 of 5,
5
1
7
5 15 10 8 30 which is 1.
16 26 opportunities
25
17 3
11
picking a
14
22 27
winning ball
is 1 in 5
“expect” 1 prize
230–231 What is
probability?
THE PROBABILITY OF ONE OUTCOME FROM TWO OR MORE EVENTS 232–233 Expectation
HAPPENING AT THE SAME TIME, OR ONE AFTER THE OTHER. and reality
Calculating the chance of one outcome from two things happening at the
same time is not as complex as it might appear.
coin has 2 sides dice has 6 sides
▷ Both events coin lands on tails multiply the 2 chance of dice rolling
To find out the chances probabilities together a 4 is 1 in 6 chance of specific
of both a coin landing outcome
on tails and a dice
simultaneously rolling a 1 1 1 chance of coin
4, multiply the individual
probabilities together. × = landing on tails
and rolling
a 4 is 1 in 12
The answer shows that
there is a 1⁄12 chance of
this outcome.
2 chance of coin landing
6 12 total possible
TAILS on tails is 1 in 2 outcomes
COMBINED PROBABILITIES 235
Red
Blue
6 ways out of
36 to throw 7, for
example blue
5 ways out of 36
to throw 8, for
example blue
4 ways out of 36
to throw 9, for
example blue
3 ways out of 36
to throw 10, for
example blue
5 6 7 8 9 10 dice rolling 4 and
red dice rolling 6
2 ways out of 36
to throw 11, for
example blue
6 7 8 9 10 11 dice rolling 5 and
red dice rolling 6
1 way out of
36 to throw 12
7 8 9 10 11 12
KEY
232–233 Expectation
and reality
THE CHANCES OF SOMETHING HAPPENING CAN CHANGE ACCORDING
TO THE EVENTS THAT PRECEDED IT. THIS IS A DEPENDENT EVENT. there are 4 cards of each colour
▷ Colour-coded
Dependent events This pack of cards
In this example, the probability of picking any one of four contains 10
green cards from a pack of 40 is 4 out of 40 (4/40). It is an groups, each with
independent event. However, the probability of the second its own colour.
card picked being green depends on the colour of the card There are 4 cards
picked first. This is known as a dependent event. in each group.
total of 40 cards
in pack
there are 4 green cards green cards
12 cards chosen,
chances of next card
none pink
being pink
The first 12 cards have
been chosen, none of
which were pink. The
next card to be picked 28
12 cards
chosen means
4 ◁ The chances of the
next card being pink are
24 cards chosen,
none pink 24 cards chosen chances of next card
means 16 cards left being pink
24 cards have been
chosen and none of
which were pink. The
next card to be picked 16 4 ◁ The chances of the
next card being pink are 4
36 cards chosen,
none pink 36 cards chosen chances of next card
means 4 cards left being pink
The first 36 cards have
been chosen. None of
them were pink. The
next card to be picked 4 4 ◁ The chances of the next
card being pink are 4 in 4
cards left
238 PROBABILITY
230–231 What is
probability?
TREE DIAGRAMS CAN BE CONSTRUCTED TO HELP CALCULATE THE
PROBABILITY OF MULTIPLE EVENTS OCCURRING.
234–235 Combined
probabilities
236–237 Dependent
events
A range of probable outcomes of future events can be shown using
arrows, or the “branches” of a “tree”, flowing from left to right.
2
Building a tree diagram 2 messages out of 5 5
The first stage of building a tree diagram ▷ Single events sent to first phone
HELLO
is to draw an arrow from the start position Of 5 messages, 2 are
to each of the possible outcomes. In this sent to the first
example, the start is a mobile phone, and phone, shown by the
the outcomes are 5 messages sent to 2 fraction 2⁄5, and 3 out 3 messages out of 5
other phones, with each of these other
phones at the end of 1 of 2 arrows. As no
of 5 are sent to the
second phone, shown
sent to second phone 3
event came before, they are single events. by the fraction 3⁄5. 5
3
picks orange is
3 out of 10 chance person
7 chance person 2
picks orange
10 2 picks apple 9
3 × 2 = 6
7 chance person
2 picks orange
3 10 9 90
10 chance person 1 9
△ Dependent events
picks apple is
7 out of 10
chance person
1 picks orange or chance both
pick orange
chance person 6
The first person picks from a
bag of 10 fruits (3 oranges, 7
2 picks apple
9 1 fraction ∕
cancelled
down to ⁄
apples). The next picks from
9 fruits, when the chances of
what is picked are out of 9. person 1 chooses from 10 fruits person 2 chooses from 9 fruits
15 by dividing 6
and 90 by 6
POMPEII
1
while in Naples,
△ Stage 2 of multiple events
4 1 out of 4 visit Vesuvius
VESUVIUS
Stage 2 shows the chances of a △ Stage 3 of multiple events
randomly selected person Stage 3 shows the chances of a randomly
staying in a specific location. selected person making a specific day trip.
Reference section
Multiplication table 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
This multiplication table shows the products of 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
each whole number from 1 to 12, multiplied 2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
by each whole number from 1 to 12. 3 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36
column with other number 4 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48
to be multiplied, here 2
5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
1 2 3 6 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
1 1 2 3 7 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84
2 2 4 6 8 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96
3 3 6 9 9 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 99 108
10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
row with one result of multiplication 11 11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 110 121 132
number to be (2 × 3 = 6)
multiplied, here 3 12 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144
242 REFERENCE
Units of measurement
A unit of measurement is a quantity used as a standard, allowing values of things
to be compared. These include seconds (time), metres (length), and kilograms
(mass). Two widely used systems of measurement are the metric system and
the imperial system.
MASS LENGTH
metric metric
1,000 milligrams (mg) = 1 gram (g) 10 millimetres (mm) = 1 centimetre (cm)
1,000 grams (g) = 1 kilogram (kg) 100 centimetres (cm) = 1 metre (m)
1,000 kilograms (kg) = 1 tonne (t) 1,000 millimetres (mm) = 1 metre (m)
imperial 1,000 metres (m) = 1 kilometre (km)
16 ounces (oz) = 1 pound (lb) imperial
14 pounds (lb) = 1 stone 12 inches (in) = 1 foot (ft)
112 pounds (lb) = 1 hundredweight 3 feet (ft) = 1 yard (yd)
20 hundredweight = 1 ton 1,760 yards (yd) = 1 mile
5,280 feet (ft) = 1 mile
TIME 8 furlongs = 1 mile
metric and imperial
60 seconds = 1 minute TEMPERATURE
60 minutes = 1 hour Fahrenheit Celsius Kelvin
24 hours = 1 day Boiling point of water = 212˚ 100˚ 373˚
7 days = 1 week Freezing point of water = 32˚ 0˚ 273˚
52 weeks = 1 year Absolute zero = −459˚ −273˚ 0˚
1 year = 12 months
REFERENCE 243
Conversion tables
The tables below show metric and imperial equivalents for common
measurements for length, area, mass, and volume. Conversions between
Celcius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin temperature require formulas, which are
also given below.
LENGTH AREA
metric imperial metric imperial
1 millimetre (mm) = 0.03937 inch (in) 1 square centimetre (cm2) = 0.155 square inch (sq in)
1 centimetre (cm) = 0.3937 inch (in) 1 square metre (m2) = 1.196 square yard (sq yd)
1 metre (m) = 1.0936 yards (yd) 1 hectare (ha) = 2.4711 acres
1 kilometre (km) = 0.6214 mile 1 square kilometre (km2) = 0.3861 square miles
imperial metric imperial metric
1 inch (in) = 2.54 centimetres (cm) 1 square inch (sq in) = 6.4516 square centimetres (cm2)
1 foot (ft) = 0.3048 metre (m) 1 square foot (sq ft) = 0.0929 square metre (m2)
1 yard (yd) = 0.9144 metre (m) 1 square yard (sq yd) = 0.8361 square metre (m2)
1 mile = 1.6093 kilometres (km) 1 acre = 0.4047 hectare (ha)
1 nautical mile = 1.853 kilometres (km) 1 square mile = 2.59 square kilometres (km2)
MASS VOLUME
metric imperial metric imperial
1 milligram (mg) = 0.0154 grain 1 cubic centimetre (cm3) = 0.061 cubic inch (in3)
1 gram (g) = 0.0353 ounce (oz) 1 cubic decimetre (dm3) = 0.0353 cubic foot (ft3)
1 kilogram (kg) = 2.2046 pounds (lb) 1 cubic metre (m3) = 1.308 cubic yard (yd3)
1 tonne/metric ton (t) = 0.9842 imperial ton 1 litre (l)/1 dm3 = 1.76 pints (pt)
imperial metric 1 hectolitre (hl)/100 l = 21.997 gallons (gal)
1 ounce (oz) = 28.35 grams (g) imperial metric
1 pound (lb) = 0.4536 kilogram (kg) 1 cubic inch (in3) = 16.387 cubic centimetres (cm3)
1 stone = 6.3503 kilogram (kg) 1 cubic foot (ft3) = 0.0283 cubic metres (m3)
1 hundredweight (cwt) = 50.802 kilogram (kg) 1 fluid ounce (fl oz) = 28.413 millilitres (ml)
1 imperial ton = 1.016 tonnes/metric tons 1 pint (pt)/20 fl oz = 0.5683 litre (l)
1 gallon/8 pt = 4.5461 litres (l)
TEMPERATURE
To convert from Fahrenheit (˚F) to Celsius (˚C) = C = (F − 32) × 5 ÷ 9
To convert from Celsius (˚C) Fahrenheit (˚F) = F = (C × 9 ÷ 5) + 32
To convert from Celsius (˚C) to Kelvin (K) = K = C + 273
To convert from Kelvin (K) to Celsius (˚C) = C = K − 273
How to convert
The table below shows how to convert between metric and British imperial units of measurement. The left table shows
how to convert from one unit to its metric or imperial equivalent. The right table shows how to do the reverse conversion.
HOW TO CONVERT METRIC and IMPERIAL MEASURES HOW TO CONVERT METRIC and IMPERIAL MEASURES
to change to multiply by to change to divide by
acres hectares 0.4047 hectares acres 0.4047
centimetres feet 0.03281 feet centimetres 0.03281
centimetres inches 0.3937 inches centimetres 0.3937
cubic centimetres cubic inches 0.061 cubic inches cubic centimetres 0.061
cubic feet cubic metres 0.0283 cubic metres cubic feet 0.0283
cubic inches cubic centimetres 16.3871 cubic centimetres cubic inches 16.3871
cubic metres cubic feet 35.315 cubic feet cubic metres 35.315
feet centimetres 30.48 centimetres feet 30.48
feet metres 0.3048 metres feet 0.3048
gallons litres 4.546 litres gallons 4.546
grams ounces 0.0353 ounces grams 0.0353
hectares acres 2.471 acres hectares 2.471
inches centimetres 2.54 centimetres inches 2.54
kilograms pounds 2.2046 pounds kilograms 2.2046
kilometres miles 0.6214 miles kilometres 0.6214
kilometres per hour miles per hour 0.6214 miles per hour kilometres per hour 0.6214
litres gallons 0.2199 gallons litres 0.2199
litres pints 1.7598 pints litres 1.7598
metres feet 3.2808 feet metres 3.2808
metres yards 1.0936 yards metres 1.0936
metres per minute centimetres per second 1.6667 centimetres per second metres per minute 1.6667
metres per minute feet per second 0.0547 feet per second metres per minute 0.0547
miles kilometres 1.6093 kilometres miles 1.6093
miles per hour kilometres per hour 1.6093 kilometres per hour miles per hour 1.6093
miles per hour metres per second 0.447 metres per second miles per hour 0.447
millimetres inches 0.0394 inches millimetres 0.0394
ounces grams 28.3495 grams ounces 28.3495
pints litres 0.5682 litres pints 0.5682
pounds kilograms 0.4536 kilograms pounds 0.4536
square centimetres square inches 0.155 square inches square centimetres 0.155
square inches square centimetres 6.4516 square centimetres square inches 6.4516
square feet square metres 0.0929 square metres square feet 0.0929
square kilometres square miles 0.386 square miles square kilometres 0.386
square metres square feet 10.764 square feet square metres 10.764
square metres square yards 1.196 square yards square metres 1.196
square miles square kilometres 2.5899 square kilometres square miles 2.5899
square yards square metres 0.8361 square metres square yards 0.8361
tonnes (metric) tons (imperial) 0.9842 tons (imperial) tonnes (metric) 0.9842
tons (imperial) tonnes (metric) 1.0216 tonnes (metric) tons (imperial) 1.0216
yards metres 0.9144 metres yards 0.9144
REFERENCE 245
Numerical equivalents
Percentages, decimals, and fractions are different ways of presenting a numerical value as a proportion of a
given amount. For example, 10 (10 per cent) has the equivalent value of the decimal 0.1 and the fraction ⁄.
% Decimal Fraction % Decimal Fraction % Decimal Fraction % Decimal Fraction % Decimal Fraction
1 0.01 ⁄ 12.5 0.125 ⁄ 24 0.24 ⁄ 36 0.36 ⁄ 49 0.49 ⁄
2 0.02 ⁄ 13 0.13 ⁄ 25 0.25 ⁄ 37 0.37 ⁄ 50 0.5 ⁄
3 0.03 ⁄ 14 0.14 ⁄ 26 0.26 ⁄ 38 0.38 ⁄ 55 0.55 ⁄
4 0.04 ⁄ 15 0.15 ⁄ 27 0.27 ⁄ 39 0.39 ⁄ 60 0.6 ⁄
5 0.05 ⁄ 16 0.16 ⁄ 28 0.28 ⁄ 40 0.4 ⁄ 65 0.65 ⁄
6 0.06 ⁄ 16.66 0.166 ⁄ 29 0.29 ⁄ 41 0.41 ⁄ 66.66 0.666 ⁄
7 0.07 ⁄ 17 0.17 ⁄ 30 0.3 ⁄ 42 0.42 ⁄ 70 0.7 ⁄
8 0.08 ⁄ 18 0.18 ⁄ 31 0.31 ⁄ 43 0.43 ⁄ 75 0.75 ⁄
8.33 0.083 ⁄ 19 0.19 ⁄ 32 0.32 ⁄ 44 0.44 ⁄ 80 0.8 ⁄
9 0.09 ⁄ 20 0.2 ⁄ 33 0.33 ⁄ 45 0.45 ⁄ 85 0.85 ⁄
10 0.1 ⁄ 21 0.21 ⁄ 33.33 0.333 ⁄ 46 0.46 ⁄ 90 0.9 ⁄
11 0.11 ⁄ 22 0.22 ⁄ 34 0.34 ⁄ 47 0.47 ⁄ 95 0.95 ⁄
12 0.12 ⁄ 23 0.23 ⁄ 35 0.35 ⁄ 48 0.48 ⁄ 100 1.00 1
Angles
An angle shows the amount that a line “turns” as it extends in a direction
away from a fixed point.
turn is more
line rotated 45° than 180°
anticlockwise from start
90° 90° more than
90° but less
less than
than 180°
90°
90°
180° 45° 0°
55° 120° 210°
360° 180°
centre of rotation △ Acute angle △ Obtuse angle
This angle is less than 90°. This angle is more than
90° but less than 180°. △ Reflex angle
A reflex angle is more
than 180°.
Shapes
Two-dimensional shapes with straight lines are called polygons. They are
named according to the number of sides they have. The number of sides
is also equal to the number of interior angles. A circle has no straight lines,
so it is not a polygon, although it is a two-dimensional shape.
Sequences
A sequence is a series of numbers written as an ordered list where there
is a particular pattern or “rule” that relates each number in the list to the
numbers before and after it. Examples of important mathematical
sequences are shown below.
square has
square has sides 5
sides 4 units long
square has
sides 3 units long ◁ Square numbers
square has
sides 2 units long In a sequence of square numbers,
square has
sides 1 units long each number is made by squaring
unit long its position in the sequence, for
example the third number is 3²
(3 × 3 = 9) and the fourth number
is 4² (4 × 4 = 16).
1 (1 × 1) 4 (2 × 2) 9 (3 × 3) 16 (4 × 4) 25 (5 × 5)
5th number = ◁ Triangular numbers
1+2+3+4+5 In this sequence, each number is
4th number =
1+2+3+4 made by adding another row of
3rd number =
1+2+3 dots to the triangular pattern.
2nd number =
1st number of The numbers are also related
1+2
sequence = 1 mathematically, for example, the
fifth number in the sequence is
the sum of all numbers up to 5
(1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5).
1 3 6 10 15
FORMULAS
Formulas are mathematical “recipes” that relate various quantities or
terms, so that if the value of one is unknown, it can be worked out if
the values of the other terms in the formula are known.
Interest
There are two types of interest – simple and compound. In simple interest,
the interest is paid only on the capital. In compound interest, the interest number of
itself earns interest. years
interest rate number of years amount invested interest rate
◁ Compound interest
per year (capital) per year formula
amount invested
(capital) ◁ Simple interest To find the total value
formula of an investment (capital
T
Interest =
P×R×T
100
To find the simple interest
made after a given number
of years, substitute real
values into this formula.
Amount = P 1 + R
100 ) ) + interest) after a given
number of years,
substitute real values
into this formula.
total interest total value of
after T years investment after T years
this means add
squared value of x normal number or subtract
multiplied by number with no x terms
Formulas in algebra
Algebra is the branch of mathematics ax²+ bx + c = 0 x = –b +– b²– 4ac
that uses symbols to represent numbers
and the relationship between them.
Useful formulas are the standard
x multiplied by
a number 2a
△ Quadratic equation △ The quadratic formula
formula of a quadratic equation
Quadratic equations take the form This formula can be used to solve any
and the formula for solving it.
shown above. They can be solved quadratic equation. There are always
by the quadratic formula. two solutions.
symbol for pi
π = 3.14
value to 2 decimal places
Formulas in trigonometry
Three of the most useful formulas in trigonometry are those used to find the
unknown angles of a right-angled triangle when two of its sides are known.
Area
The area of a shape is the amount of space inside it. Formulas for working out
the areas of common shapes are given below.
h h
r
b b
h h h
b b2 b
Pythagoras’ theorem
This theorem relates the lengths of all the sides of a right-angled triangle, so
that if any two sides are known, the length of the third side can be worked out.
c
a + b = c b ◁ The theorem
In a right-angled triangle
side b the square of the
hypotenuse (the largest
side, c) is the sum of the
squares of the other two
sides (a and b).
a
250 REFERENCE
vertical height
slant length of cone
of cone
radius of
◁ Cone sphere ◁ Sphere
s
radius of
cylinder
◁ Cube
◁ Cylinder The surface area and
The surface area and volume of a cube can
h volume of a cylinder can be found when only
r
vertical height
of pyramid
slant length of
width of pyramid
cuboid s
height of cuboid ◁ Square pyramid
h The surface area of a
square pyramid can be
h ◁ Cuboid found from the slant
The surface area and length and the side of its
w volume of a cuboid can base. Its volume can be
be found from its length, found from its height
l length of side of l
length of cuboid width, and height. base of pyramid and the side of its base.
circumference (c)
diameter = 2r diameter = πc
circumference (c)
◁ Length of an arc
angle (x) A section of the angle (x)
circumference of a
circle is known as an arc, ◁ Area of a sector
the length can be found The area of a sector (or
when the circle’s radius (r) “slice”) of a circle can be
total circumference found when the circle’s
and the angle of the area and the angle of
arc are known. the sector are known.
Glossary
Acute Area Bisect Circumference
An acute angle is an angle that is The amount of space within a To divide into two equal halves, The edge of a circle.
smaller than 90º. two-dimensional outline. Area e.g. to bisect an angle or a line.
is measured in units squared, Clockwise
Addition e.g. cm. Box-and-whisker diagram A direction the same as that of a
Working out the sum of a A way to represent statistical clock’s hand.
group of numbers. Addition is Arithmetic data. The box is constructed from
represented by the + symbol, e.g. Calculations involving lines indicating where the lower Coefficient
2 + 3 = 5. The order the numbers addition, subtraction, quartile, median, and upper The number in front of a letter in
are added in does not affect the multiplication, division, quartile measurements fall on a algebra. In the equation x 2 + 5x +
answer: 2 + 3 = 3 + 2. or combinations of these. graph, and the whiskers mark the 6 = 0 the coefficient of 5x is 5.
upper and lower limits of the
Adjacent Average range. Common factor
A term meaning “next to”. In The typical value of a group A common factor of two or more
two-dimensional shapes two of numbers. There are three Brackets numbers divides exactly into
sides are adjacent if they are next types of average: median, 1. Brackets indicate the order in each of those numbers, e.g. 3 is
to each other and meet at the mode, and mean. which calculations must be done a common factor of 6 and 18.
same point (vertex). Two angles – calculations in brackets must
are adjacent if they share a vertex Axis (plural: axes) be done first e.g. 2 x (4 +1) = 10. Compass
and a side. Reference lines used in graphs to 2. Brackets mark a pair of 1. A magnetic instrument that
define coordinates and measure numbers that are coordinates, shows the position of North
Algebra distances. The horizontal axis is e.g. (1, 1). and allows bearings to be found.
The use of letters or symbols in the x-axis, the vertical axis is the 3. When a number appears 2. A tool that holds a pencil in a
place of unknown numbers to y-axis. before a bracketed calculation it fixed position, allowing circles
generalize the relationship means that the result of that and arcs to be drawn.
between them. Balance calculation must be multiplied
Equality on every side, so that by that number. Composite number
Alternate angle there is no unequal weighting, A number with more than two
Alternate angles are formed e.g. in an equation, the left-hand Break even factors. A number is composite if
when two parallel lines are side of the equals sign must In order to break even a business it is not a prime number e.g. 4 is
crossed by another straight line. balance with the right-hand side. must earn as much money as it a composite factor as it has 1, 2,
They are the angles on the spends. At this point revenue and and 4 as factors.
opposite sides of each of the Bar chart costs are equal.
lines. Alternate angles are equal. A graph where quantities are Concave
represented by rectangles (bars), Calculator Something curving inwards. A
Angle which are the same width but An electronic tool used to solve polygon is concave if one of its
The amount of turn between two varying heights. A greater height arithmetic. interior angles is greater than 180°.
lines that meet at a point. Angles means a greater amount.
are measured in degrees, for Chart Cone
example, 45°. Base An easy-to-read visual A three-dimensional object with
The base of a shape is its bottom representation of data, such as a circular base and a single point
Anticlockwise edge. The base of a three- a graph, table, or map. at its top.
Movement in the opposite dimensional object is its
direction to that of a clock’s hand. bottom face. Chord Congruent/congruence
A line that connects two different Two shapes are congruent if they
Apex Bearing points on a curve, often on the are both the same shape and size.
The tip of something e.g. the A compass reading. The angle circumference of a circle.
vertex of a cone. measured clockwise from the Constant
North direction to the target Circle A quantity that does not change
Arc direction, and given as 3 figures. A round shape with only one and so has a fixed value, e.g. in
A curve that is part of the edge, which is a constant the equation y = x + 2, the
circumference of a circle. distance from the centre point. number 2 is a constant.
GLOSSARY 253
Construction Cubed number Decimal place Division/divide
The drawing of shapes in Cubing a number means The position of the digit after the The splitting of a number into
geometry accurately, often with multiplying it by itself twice e.g. decimal point. equal parts. Division is shown by
the aid of a compass and ruler. 8 is a cubed number because the symbol ÷ e.g. 12 ÷ 3 = 4 or by
2 x 2 x 2 = 8, or 23. Degrees / as used in fractions, e.g. 2/ 3.
Conversion The unit of measurement of
The change from one set of units Cuboids an angle, represented by the Double negative
to another e.g. the conversion A three-dimensional object symbol °. Two negative signs together
from miles into kilometres. made of 6 faces (2 squares at create a double negative, which
opposite ends with 4 rectangles Denominator then becomes equal to a positive
Convex between), 8 vertices, and 12 The number on the bottom of a e.g. 5 – (–2) = 5 + 2.
Something curving ourwards. A edges. fraction e.g. 3 is the denominator
polygon is convex if all its interior of 2/ 3. Enlargement
angles are less than 180°. Currency The process of making something
A system of money within a Density bigger, such as a transformation,
Coordinate country e.g. the currency in the The amount of mass per where everything is multiplied by
Coordinates show the position of US is $. unit of volume, i.e. density = the same amount.
points on a graph or map, and mass ÷ volume.
are written in the form (x,y), Curve Equal
where x is the horizontal position A line that bends smoothly. A Diagonal Things of the same value are equal,
and y is the vertical position. quadratic equation represented A line that joins two vertices of a shown by the equals sign, =.
on a graph is also a curve. shape or object that are not
Correlate/correlation adjacent to each other. Equation
There is a correlation between Cyclic quadrilateral A mathematical statement that
two things if a change in one A shape with 4 vertices and 4 Diameter things are equal.
causes a change in the other. edges, and where every vertex is A straight line touching two
on the circumference of a circle. points on the edge of a circle and Equiangular
Corresponding angles passing through the centre. A shape is equiangular if all its
Corresponding angles are Cylinder angles are equal.
formed when two parallel lines A three-dimensional object with Difference
are crossed by another straight two parallel, congruent circles at The amount by which one Equidistant
side. They are the angles in the opposite ends. quantity is bigger or smaller than A point is equidistant to two or
same position i.e. on the same another quantity. more points if it is the same
side of each of the lines. Data distance from them.
Corresponding angles are equal. A set of information, e.g. a Digit
collection of numbers or A single number, e.g. 34 is made Equilateral triangle
Cosine measurements. up of the digits 3 and 4. A triangle that has three 60°
In trigonometry, cosine is the angles and sides of equal length.
ratio of the side adjacent to a Debit Dimension
given angle with the hypotenuse An amount of money spent and The directions in which Equiprobable events
of a right-angled triangle. removed from an account. measurements can be made Two events are equiprobable if
e.g. a solid object has three they are equally likely to happen.
Cross section Debt dimensions: its length, height,
A two-dimensional slice of a An amount of money that has and width. Equivalent fractions
three-dimensional object. been borrowed, and is therefore Fractions that are equal but have
owed. Direct proportion different numerators and
Cube Two numbers are in direct denominators e.g. 1/ 2, 2/4, and 5/ 10
A three-dimensional object Decimal proportion if they increase or are equivalent fractions.
made up of 6 identical square 1. A number system based on 10 decrease proportionately, e.g.
faces, 8 vertices, and 12 edges. (using the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, doubling one of them means the Estimation
7, 8, and 9). other also doubles. An approximated amount or an
Cube root 2. A number containing a approximation the answer to a
A number's cube root is the decimal place. Distribution calculation, often made by
number which, multiplied by In probability and statistics, the rounding up or down.
itself twice, equals the given Decimal point distribution gives the range of
number. A cube root is indicated The dot between the whole part values unidentified random Even number
by this sign 3 of a number and the fractional variables can take and their A number that is divisible by 2
part e.g. 2.5. probabilities. e.g. -18, -6, 0, 2.
254 GLOSSARY
Index
supplementary 85 box method of multiplication 21 arcs 150, 251
A
abacus 14
tangents 149
triangles 116, 117
brackets
calculators 72, 73
area of 142–43, 151, 154,
155, 251
accuracy 71 trigonometry formulas 161, expanding expressions 174 chords 138, 139, 146–47
acute-angled triangles, area 123 162, 163, 164–65 break-even, finance 74, 76 circumference 140, 251
acute angles 85, 245 annotation, pie charts 211 business finance 76–77 compasses 82
addition 16 answer, calculator 73 cyclic quadrilaterals 147
algebra 169 approximately equals sign 70 diameter 140, 141, 251
binary numbers 47
calculators 72
approximation 70
arcs 138, 139, 150
C
calculators 72–73, 83
formulas 249
geometry 80
expressions 172 compasses 82 cosine (cos) 161, 164 loci 114
fractions 53 length of 251 exponent button 37 pie charts 210, 211
inequalities 198 sectors 151 powers 37 sectors 151
multiplication 18 area roots 37 symmetry 88
negative numbers 34 circles 138, 139, 142–43, 151, sine (sin) 161, 164 tangents 148, 149
positive numbers 34 155, 249 standard form 43 circular prism 152
vectors 96 congruent triangles 120 tangent (tan) 161, 164 circumference 138, 139, 140, 251
algebra 166–99, 248 conversion tables 243 calendars 28 angles in a circle 144, 145
allowance, personal finance 74 cross-sections 154 cancel key, calculators 72 arcs 150
alternate angles 87 formulas 177, 249–50 cancellation chords 146
AM (ante meridiem) 32 measurement 28, 242 equations 180 cyclic quadrilaterals 147
analogue time 32 quadrilaterals 132–33 expressions 173 pie charts 211
angle of rotation 100, 101 rectangles 28, 249 formulas 178 tangents 148, 149
angles 84–85, 245 triangles 122–24, 249 fractions 51, 64 clocks 31–32, 33
45º 113 arithmetic keys, calculators 72 ratios 56 codes 27
60º 113 arrowheads 86 capital 75 combined probabilities 234–35
90º 113 averages 214–15 carrying numbers 24 common denominator 52–53
acute 85 frequency tables 216 Celsius temperature scale 185, ratio fractions 57
alternate 87 moving 218–19 242, 243 common factors 174, 175
arcs 150 axes centimetres 28, 29 common multiples 20
bearings 108 bar charts 206 centre of a circle 138, 139 comparing ratios 56, 57
bisecting 112, 113 graphs 92, 184, 212, 213 angles in a circle 144 compass directions 108
in a circle 144–45 axis of reflection 102, 103 arcs 150 compass points 108
complementary 85 axis of symmetry 89 chords 146, 147 compasses (for drawing circles) 139
congruent triangles 120, 121 pie charts 211 constructing tangents 149
constructions 110 tangents 148, 149 constructions 110
corresponding 87
cyclic quadrilaterals 147
B
balancing equations 180
centre of enlargement 104,
105
drawing a pie chart 211
drawing triangles 118, 119
drawing triangles 118, 119 banks, personal finance 74, 75 centre of rotation 89, 100, 101 geometry tools 82
geometry 80 bar charts 203, 206–209, 224 centuries 30 complementary angles 85
obtuse 85 base numbers 15 chance 230, 231, 234, 236, 237 component bar charts 209
pairs of 245 bearings 80, 108–109 chances composite bar charts 209
parallel lines 87 bias 205 dependent events 236, 237 composite numbers 15, 26, 27
pie charts 210 binary numbers 46–47 expectation 232 compound bar charts 209
polygons 134, 135, 136 bisectors 112, 113 change compound interest 75
protractor 82, 83 angles 112, 113 percentages 63 compound measurement units
quadrilaterals 130, 131 perpendicular 110, 111, proportion 58 28
reflex 85 146, 147 charts 203, 205 compound shapes 143
rhombus 133 rotation 101 chords 138, 139, 146–47 computer animation 118
right-angled 85, 113 borrowing, personal finance tangents 149 concave polygons 136
sectors 151 74, 75 circles 138–39, 246, 251 cones 153
size of 245 box-and-whisker diagrams 223 angles in a 84, 85, 144–45 surface area 157, 250
INDEX 259
Acknowledgements
BARRY LEWIS would like to thank Toby, Lara, and Emily,
for always asking why.
The publisher would like to thank the following for their kind
permission to reproduce their photographs: