UNIT 4

GUIDED WAVES AND RECTANGULAR

WAVEGUIDES

The two-wire transmission line used in conventional circuits is inefficient for

transferring electromagnetic energy at microwave frequencies. At these frequencies,
energy escapes by radiation because the fields are not confined in all directions, as
illustrated in figure 3.1. Coaxial lines are more efficient than two-wire lines for
transferring electromagnetic energy because the fields are completely confined by the
conductors, as illustrated in figure 3.2. Waveguides are the most efficient way to transfer
electromagnetic energy. WAVEGUIDES are essentially coaxial lines without center
conductors. They are constructed from conductive material and may be rectangular,
circular, or elliptical in shape, as shown in figure 3.3.

Figure 3 . 1 : F i e l d s confined i n t w o directions

only.

Figure 3 . 2 : F ie l d s confined i n all directions.

4.1 WAVEGUIDE ADVANTAGES

Waveguides have several advantages over two-wire and coaxial transmission lines.
For example, the large surface area of waveguides greatly reduces COPPER (12R)
LOSSES. Two-wire transmission lines have large copper losses because they have a
relatively small surface area. The surface area of the outer conductor of a coaxial cable is
large, but the surface area of the inner conductor is relatively small. At microwave
frequencies, the current-carrying area of the inner conductor is restricted to a very small
layer at the surface of the conductor by an action called SKIN EFFECT.
 Figure 3 . 3 : W a v e g u i d e shapes.

Skin effect tends to increase the effective resistance of the conductor. Although
energy transfer in coaxial cable is caused by electromagnetic field motion, the
magnitude of the field is limited by the size of the current-carrying area of the inner
conductor. The small size of the center conductor is even further reduced by skin
effect, and energy transmission by coaxial cable becomes less efficient than by
waveguides. DIELECTRIC LOSSES are also lower in waveguides than in two-wire and
coaxial transmission lines. Dielectric losses in two-wire and coaxial lines are
caused by the heating of the insulation between the conductors. The insulation
behaves as the dielectric of a capacitor formed by the two wires of the
transmission line. A voltage potential across the two wires causes heating of the
dielectric and results in a power loss. In practical applications, the actual
breakdown of the insulation between the conductors of a transmission line is more
frequently a problem than is the dielectric loss.

This breakdown is usually caused by stationary voltage spikes or “nodes,”

which are caused by standing waves. Standing waves are stationary and occur when
part of the energy traveling down the line is reflected by an impedance mismatch with
the load. The voltage potential of the standing waves at the points of greatest
magnitude can become large enough to break down the insulation between
transmission line conductors.

The dielectric in waveguides is air, which has a much lower dielectric

loss than conventional insulating materials. However, waveguides are also subject to
dielectric breakdown caused by standing waves. Standing waves in waveguides
cause arcing, which decreases the efficiency of energy transfer and can severely
damage the waveguide. Also since the electromagnetic fields are completely
contained within the waveguide, radiation losses are kept very low.
 Power-handling capability is another advantage of waveguides. Waveguides
can handle more power than coaxial lines of the same size because power-
handling capability is directly related to the distance between conductors. Figure
3.4 illustrates the greater distance between conductors in a waveguide.

In view of the advantages of waveguides, you would think that waveguides

should be the only type of transmission lines used. However, waveguides have certain
disadvantages that make them practical for use only at microwave frequencies.
 Figure 3.4: Comparison of spacing in coaxial cable and a circular waveguide.

4.2 WAVEGUIDE DISADVANTAGES

Physical size is the primary lower-frequency limitation of waveguides. The

width of a waveguide must be approximately a half wavelength at the frequency of
the wave to be transported. For example, a waveguide for use at 1 megahertz would
be about 700 feet wide. This makes the use of waveguides at frequencies below
1000 megahertz increasingly impractical. The lower frequency range of any
system using waveguides is limited by the

physical dimensions of the waveguides.

Figure 3. 5: Two-wire transmission line.

Note that quarter-wave sections are insulators at only one frequency. This
severely limits the bandwidth, efficiency, and application of this type of two-wire
line.
 Figure 3.6 shows several metallic insulators on each side of a two-wire
transmission line. As more insulators are added, each section makes contact with the
next, and a rectangular waveguide is formed. The lines become part of the walls of
the waveguide, as illustrated in figure 3-7. The energy is then conducted within the
hollow waveguide instead of along the two-wire transmission line.

Figure 3.6: Quarter-wave section of transmission line shorted at one end.

 Figure 3.7: Metallic insulator on each side of a two-wire
line.

Figure 3. 8: Form ing a waveguide by adding quarter-wave sections.

Like a two-wire line that is completely shunted by quarter-wave sections.

If it did, the use of a wave- guide would be limited to a single-frequency wave
length that was four times the length of the quarter- wave sections. In fact, waves
of this length cannot pass efficiently through waveguides. Only a small also
undergo changes, the many changes. As a result of these waveguide
does not actually operate range of frequencies of somewhat shorter
wavelength(higher frequency) can pass efficiently.

As shown in figure 3.7, the widest dimension of a waveguide is called

the “a” dimension and determines the range of operating frequencies. The
narrowest dimension determines the power-handling capability of the waveguide and is
called the “b” dimension.
 Figure 3.9: Labeling waveguide
dimensions.

NOTE: This method of labeling waveguides is not standard in all texts,

Different methods may be used in other texts on microwave principles, but this method
is in accordance with Navy Military Standards (MIL-STDS).
 In theory, a waveguide could function at an infinite number of frequencies
higher than the designed frequency; however, in practice, an upper frequency limit is
caused by modes of operation, which will be discussed later.

If the frequency of a signal is decreased so much that two quarter-wavelengths are

longer than the wide dimension of a waveguide, energy will no longer pass through the
waveguide. This is the lower frequency limit, or CUTOFF FREQUENCY of a given
waveguide. In

practical applications, the wide dimension of a waveguide is usually 0.7 wavelength

at the operating frequency. This allows the waveguide to handle a small range of
frequencies both above and below the operating frequency. The “b” dimension is
governed by the breakdown potential of the

Dielectric, which is usually air. Dimensions ranging from 0.2 to 0.5 wavelength are

common for the “b” sides of a

waveguide.

4.3 ENERGY PROPAGATION IN

WAVEGUIDES

Since energy is transferred through waveguides by electromagnetic fields,

you need a basic understanding of field theory. Both electric (E FIELD) and
magnetic fields (H FIELD) are present in waveguides, and the interaction of these
fields causes energy to travel through the waveguide. This action is best
understood by first looking at the properties of the two individual fields.

E
Field

An electric field exists when a difference of potential causes a stress

in the dielectric between two points. The simplest electric field is one that forms
between the plates of a capacitor when one plate is made positive compared to the
other, as shown in view A of figure

3-24. The stress created in the dielectric is an electric

field.
 Electric fields are represented by arrows that point from the positive
toward the negative potential. The number of arrows shows the relative strength of the
field. In view B, for example, evenly spaced arrows indicate the field is evenly
distributed. For ease of explanation, the electric field is abbreviated E field, and
the lines of stress are called E lines.

H
Field

The magnetic field in a waveguide is made up of magnetic lines of force that are
caused by current flow through the conductive material of the waveguide. Magnetic
lines of force, called H lines, are continuous closed loops, as shown in figure 3-
25. All of the H lines associated with current are collectively called a magnetic field
or H field. The strength of the H field, indicated by the number of H lines in a given
area, varies directly with the amount of current.

Although H lines encircle a single, straight wire, they behave differently when
the wire is formed into a coil, as shown in figure 3-26. In a coil the individual H
lines tend to form around each turn of wire. Since waveguide is confined to the
physical limits of the guide.

Two conditions, known as BOUNDARY CONDITIONS, must be satisfied for

energy to travel through a waveguide.
 Figure3.10: Simple electric
fields.

The first boundary condition (illustrated in fig. 3-27, view A can be

stated as follows: the H lines take opposite directions between adjacent turns, the
field between the turns is canceled. Inside and outside the coil, where the
direction of each H field is the same, the fields join and form continuous H lines
around the entire coil. A similar action

takes place in a waveguide.

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 Figure 3.11.—Magnetic field on a single wire.

Figure 3.12: Magnetic field on a coil. BOUNDARY C O N D I T I O N

S IN A WAVEGUIDE

The travel of energy down a waveguide is similar, but not identical,

to the travel of electromagnetic waves in free space. The difference is that the
energy in a For an electric field to exist at the surface of a
conductor, it must be perpendicular to the conductor.

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 Figure 3.13.—E field boundary condition.

The opposite of this boundary condition, shown in view B,

is also true. An electric field CANNOT exist parallel to a
perfect conductor.

The second boundary condition, which is illustrated in figure 3-

28, can be stated as follows: For a varying magnetic field to
exist, it must form closed loops in parallel with the
conductors and be perpendicular to the electric field.

Figure 3.14.—H field boundary condition.

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 Since an E field causes a current flow that in turn produces an
H field, both fields always exist at the same time in a
waveguide. If a system satisfies one of these boundary
conditions, it must also satisfy the other since neither field
can exist alone.

WAVES IN RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDES

A rectangular waveguide is a hollow metallic device with four sides closed and two sides open.
It can be used as

1. a radiator
2. a high pass filter
3. a transmission line
4. a feed element to antennas

A hollow rectangular waveguide supports only TE and TM waves/modes and it does not support
TEM mode.

DERIVATION OF FIELD EQUATIONS IN RECTANGULAR HOLLOW WAVEGUIDES

Field expressions can be obtained from the solutions of Maxwell’s equations and wave
equations.

Assumptions:

1. Space inside the waveguide is free space or air.

2. The walls of the waveguides are perfectly conducting.
3. The direction of propagation of power is z.
4. The dimension of the narrow wall is b metres.
5. The dimension of the broad wall is a metres.
6. The fields in z-direction vary as

As the medium inside the waveguide is air, the first and second Maxwell’s equations are given
by

∇ × H = jω∈ E

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∇ × E = jωμ H

Expanding these equations, we get

Equating the respective components, we get

and

As the fields are assumed to be varying in the form of , combining time variation, we get

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Similarly,

and

Substituting Equation (6.32) in Equations (6.30) and (6.31), we get

The wave equations are:

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∇2 E = −ω2 μ ∈ E

∇2 H = −ω2 μ ∈ H

These can be written as

The wave equations for Ez and Hz are given by

Equation (6.33) can be mathematically manipulated to get the following. Consider

and

Equation (6.35) becomes

But Ey from Equation (6.36) is

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From Equations (6.37) and (6.38), we get

or,

or,

where

Similarly,

In the above equations, if Ez = 0 and Hz = 0, all the field components vanish. Hence, the wave
cannot satisfy TEM wave characteristics. They are transverse magnetic (TM) and transverse
electric (TE) waves. A typical rectangular waveguide is shown in Fig. 6.5.

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Fig. 6.5 A rectangular waveguide

Transverse Magnetic (TM) Waves in Rectangular Waveguide

TM waves are EM waves for which there is no component of H in the direction of propagation,
that is, Hz = 0.

The wave equations given by Equation (6.34) can be easily solved using the method of product
solution. In this method, two ordinary differential equations with known solutions are obtained.
We know that,

If

= XY (6.40)

where X is only a function of x and Y is only a function of y.

From Equations (6.34) and (6.35), we can write

or,

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This expression equates a function of x to another function of y. This is possible when each of
these functions is equal to some constant. Let the constant be B

and

The general solution of these equations are

X = A1 cos Cx + A2 sin Cx

where
and Y = A3 cos By + A4 sin By

= XY

= A1A3 cosCx cos By + A1 A4 cos Cx sin By

+ A2 A3 sin Cx cos By + A2 A4 sin Cx sin By

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The constants A1, A2, A3, A4 are evaluated using the boundary conditions. Using the boundary
condition

= 0 at x = 0

= A1 A3 cos By + A1A4 sin By

This is zero if A1 = 0

= A2 A3 sin Cx cos By + A2 A4 sin Cx sin By (6.44)

At y = 0, Equation (6.44) becomes

= A2 A3 sin Cx

For this to vanish, A2 or A3 can be zero, while assuming C ≠ 0. Keeping A2 = 0 in Equation

(6.44), becomes zero. Hence instead of A2 = 0 assume A3 = 0. Then Equation (6.44) becomes

= A2 A4 sin Cx sin By

= K sin Cx sin By

[K = A2 A4]

At x = a

= K sin Ca sin By

For this to vanish for all values of y (assuming B ≠ 0) the constant C must be

At y = b,

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For this to vanish for all values of x, B must be

Hence, the final expression for is

From Equations (6.44) and (6.45), we get

where

Therefore, the field components for a TM wave are:

TMmn wavefield components

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Field variations of TM11 mode/wave are shown in Fig. 6.6.

Fig. 6.6 Field variations of TM11 wave in hollow rectangular waveguide

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Transverse Electric Waves

TE waves are EM waves for which there is no component of E in the direction of propagation,
that is, Ez = 0.

The expressions for TE waves are derived in the same manner as in the case of TM waves. From
Equation (6.39), we have

But Ez = 0

Hence,

The first boundary condition is

Ex = 0 at y = 0

that is,

But

= (A1 cos Cx + A2 sin Cx).(A3 cos By + A4 sin By)

= (A1 cos Cx + A2 sin Cx).(−A3 B sin By + A4 B cos By)

As

The secondary boundary condition is Ex = 0 at y = b

A is

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B should be

Moreover,

and

Substituting Equation (6.47) in Equation (6.39), we get

The field expressions for TE waves in complete form are

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where

As TE10 is popular, its field equations are

The field patterns are shown in Fig. 6.7.

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Fig. 6.7 Field patterns of TE10 mode

PROPAGATION PARAMETERS OF TE AND TM WAVES IN RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDES

We have

and

or,

If

If

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If

This particular ω corresponds to ωc, the angular cut-off frequency.

or,

And cut-off wavelength is

The velocity of wave propagation is

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Derivation of guide wavelength in terms of free space and cut-off wavelengths

The expression for guide wavelength is

As

But

or,

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The summary of propagation parameters of TE and TM waves are:

1. Propagation constant,

2. Phase constant,

3. Cut-off frequency,

4. Cut-off wavelength,

5. Phase velocity,

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 6. Guide wavelength,

or,

Dominant wave/mode It is defined as a wave which has the lowest cut-off frequency. This is
represented by TE10.

In TEmn or TMmn waves, m represents the number of half-period variations of the field along x-
axis and n represents the number of half-period variations of the field along y-axis. Here, the
broad wall is along the x-axis and the narrow wall is along the y-axis.

Propagation and field equation of dominant mode, TE10

1. Cut-off frequency for dominant mode, TE10

2. Cut-off wavelength for dominant mode, TE10

λc of TE10 = 2a

Here λc = cut-off wavelength (m)

a = broad wall dimension (m)
m, n = integers = 1,2,3, …

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Transverse Electromagnetic Waves

In TEM wave, both E and H are entirely transverse to the direction of propagation, that is, if the
direction of propagation is along z, Ez = 0, and Hz = 0.

TEM wave is called principal wave. Its cut-off frequency is zero and it exists in two conductor
transmission lines or in free space.

Characteristics of TEM waves

1. TEM = TM00T
2. For TEM, Ez = 0, Hz = 0
3. Its cut-off frequency, fc = 0
4. It exists only in two conductor transmission lines or in free space.
5. It does not exist in hollow waveguides.
6. λg = λ
7. βg = β
8. α=0

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 9. η = η0
10. λc = ∞

6.15 TEM WAVE DOES NOT EXIST IN HOLLOW WAVEGUIDES

Proof Method 1 Consider TM wavefield equations given by

As TEM = TM00, that is, when m = 0, n = 0, all the above field components vanish. This itself
indicates that there exists no TEM waves in hollow waveguides.

Method 2 Assume that TEM wave exists within a hollow waveguide. Then, the magnetic field
lines must be in the transverse plane. Also we know that

∇.B = ∇. μH = 0

or,

∇.H = 0

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This requires that the lines of H be closed loops. Hence, if a TEM wave exists (by hypothesis)
inside the waveguide, the lines of H are closed loops in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the
guide. It may be noted that the direction of propagation is along the axis.

By Maxwell’s first equation, we have

that is, the magnetomotive force around the closed loop of H lines is equal to the sum of axial
displacement and conduction currents. As the space inside the guide is air or free space,

J = σE = 0

[as σ = 0]

that is, conduction current is zero. Hence the axial current must be a displacement current. If
there exists displacement current in the axial direction which is the direction of propagation of
EM energy, there should be a component of E

in the axial direction. The presence of

E along the axial or direction of propagation indicates the absence of TEM wave. Therefore, we
conclude that there exists no TEM in hollow waveguides of any shape.

6.16 EXCITATION METHODS FOR DIFFERENT TE AND TM WAVES/MODES

The excitation of TE10 by a probe is shown in Fig. 6.8.

Fig. 6.8 Excitation of TE10 by a probe

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The excitation of TE10 by a loop is shown in Fig. 6.9.

Fig. 6.9 Excitation of TE10 by a loop

The excitation method of TM11 by a probe and a loop are shown in Figs. 6.10 and 6.11.

Fig. 6.10 Excitation method of TM11 by a probe

Fig. 6.11 Excitation method of TM11 by a loop

6.17 EVANESCENT WAVE OR MODE

This is defined as a wave TEmn or TMmn in which the operating frequency is less than the cut-off
frequency and wave propagation does not take place. For evanescent wave, the TMmn wave
impedance is purely capacitive and this causes only reactive power or energy storage.

6.18 WAVE IMPEDANCE IN WAVEGUIDE

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For TEmn wave, wave impedance is defined as

or,

where η = intrinsic impedance of the unbounded medium.

The wave impedance is purely resistive and average power flow occurs in the waveguide when f
> fc.

For non-propagating TMmn wave, the wave impedance

when f < fc for a particular TMmn mode.

The variation of magnitude of wave impedances of TEmn and TMmn for f < fc is shown in Fig.
6.12.

Fig. 6.12 Magnitude of TEmn and TMmn wave impedances (f < fc)

The wave impedance for the propagating modes is found to be

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or,

From the above equations, we get

6.19 POWER TRANSMITTED IN A LOSSLESS WAVEGUIDE

The average power transmitted in z-direction is found by integration of the z component of the
complex Poynting vector over a transverse cross-section of the waveguide, that is,

where H* = complex conjugate of H

Power transmission takes place through TE10 wave. Using the corresponding component values
of E and H*, Pav is given by

In an ideal guide, Pav is independent of z-direction.

Power Dissipation in a Lossy Waveguide

When the conductivity of the dielectric (σd) in the waveguide is non-zero and the conductivity
(σc) of the walls is not infinite, wave in the propagating mode will be attenuated and the
transmitted power will decrease exponentially with z.

The attenuation factor due to dielectric loss is the indication of power loss for TE10 mode, which
is given by

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The attenuation factor due to wall loss indicates power loss and is given by

where Ploss = power flow into the first 1m of the inner surface of the wall

and simplified expression for α w of TE10 mode is given by

where RSC = surface resistance at cut-off frequency of TE10, Ω

The total attenuation factor is

αt = αd + αw, np/m

Problem 6.4 Find the cut-off frequencies for TE12 mode in a hollow rectangular waveguide
whose dimensions are:

1. a = 2.286 cm, b = 1.016 cm

2. a = 1.016 cm, b = 2.286 cm
3. a = 1 cm, b = 1 cm
4. a = 10 cm, b = 10 cm

Solution The cut-off frequency for TE12 mode is given by

1. a = 2.286 cm, b = 1.016 cm

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 2. a = 1.016 cm, b = 2.286 cm

3. a = 1 cm, b = 1 cm

4. a = 10 cm, b = 10 cm

Problem 6.5 A rectangular waveguide with dimensions 3 × 2 cm operates at 10 GHz. Find fc,
λc, λ, λg, βg, vp of TE10 mode.

Solution a = 3 cm, b = 2 cm, f = 10 GHz

For TE10 mode,

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Problem 6.6 Find the broad wall dimension of a rectangular waveguide when the cut-off
frequency for TE10 mode is (a) 3 GHz, (b) 30 GHz.

Solution

1. fc = 3 GHz for TE10 mode

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 or,

2. fc = 30 GHz for TE10 mode

Problem 6.7 A hollow rectangular waveguide operates at f = 1 GHz and it has the dimensions
of 5 × 2 cm. Check whether TE21 mode propagates or not.

Solution The propagation constant is given by

Here a = 5 cm = 0.05m
b = 2 cm = 0.02m
f = 1GHz = 109 Hz
For TE21 m = 2, n = 1
μ0 = 4 π × 10−7 H/m
∈0 = 8.854 × 10−12 F/m
γg for TE21 mode is

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As γg is purely real, there is no propagation of TE21 mode.

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