Design and Fabrication of Impact Test Machine For Composite Materials PDF

Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background .......................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Problem Statement ............................................................................................... 6
1.3 Research Objective ............................................................................................... 6
1.4 Thesis Outline ...................................................................................................... 7
Chapter 2 Methodology ................................................................................................. 8
2.1 Planning................................................................................................................ 9
2.2 Design Objectives .............................................................................................. 10
2.3 Design................................................................................................................. 10
2.4 Design principle and calculations ...................................................................... 10
2.4.1 Calculations for spring ................................................................................ 11
2.4.2 Impact velocity............................................................................................ 13
2.4.3 Impact energy.............................................................................................. 13
2.4.4 Impact force ................................................................................................ 14
2.5 Sampling and Test Specimens............................................................................ 14
2.5.1 Sampling ..................................................................................................... 14
2.5.2 Stacking Sequence ...................................................................................... 14
2.5.3 Unidirectional Tape .................................................................................... 14
2.5.4 Woven Fabric .............................................................................................. 15
2.6 Selection of composite ....................................................................................... 16
2.7 Pro-E Model ....................................................................................................... 17
2.7.1 Parts............................................................................................................. 17
Chapter 3 Fabrication and Assembly........................................................................... 19
3.1 Frame .................................................................................................................. 20
3.2 Support fixture.................................................................................................... 20
3.3 Impactor assembly.............................................................................................. 21
3.4 Instrumentation................................................................................................... 22
3.4.1 Velocity Detection and Software Setup ...................................................... 23
3.4.2 Circuit Diagram .......................................................................................... 24
3.4.3 Coding of velocity sensor ........................................................................... 24
Chapter 4 Fabrication of Composite Laminates .......................................................... 26
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4.1 Experimental procedure ..................................................................................... 27
4.1.1 Work station preparation............................................................................. 27
4.2 Mold preparation ................................................................................................ 27
4.3 Lay-up process ................................................................................................... 28
4.4 Curing ................................................................................................................. 30
4.5 Cleaning ............................................................................................................. 30
4.6 Safety.................................................................................................................. 31
Chapter 5 Experimental Results .................................................................................. 32
5.1 Low Velocity Impact Testing............................................................................. 33
5.2 Realistic Constraints........................................................................................... 33
5.3 Standard Operating Procedure ........................................................................... 33
5.3.1 Samples ....................................................................................................... 34
5.3.2 Carbon Composites ..................................................................................... 34
5.3.3 Hybrid composites ...................................................................................... 35
5.4 Analysis .............................................................................................................. 35
5.4.1 Qualitative Analysis .................................................................................... 37
5.5 Fractographic analysis: ....................................................................................... 40
5.5.1 Carbon fiber composite ............................................................................... 40
5.5.2 Hybrid Composite ....................................................................................... 42
Chapter 6 Modeling on ABAQUS............................................................................... 47
6.1 Analysis on ABAQUS ....................................................................................... 48
6.2 Impact Analysis of Composite Laminate ........................................................... 48
6.2.1 Boundary conditions ................................................................................... 49
6.2.2 Material properties ...................................................................................... 49
6.3 Constituent damage models & element deletion criteria ................................... 50
6.3.1 For matrix.................................................................................................... 50
6.3.2 For Fiber...................................................................................................... 50
6.4 Analysis results .................................................................................................. 51
6.4.1 Damage contour of whole model ................................................................ 51
6.4.2 Damage contour of pure matrix .................................................................. 52
6.4.3 Damage contour of matrix in tows.............................................................. 52
6.5 Comparison of Experimental and Simulation Results ....................................... 53
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Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 55
Future Recommendations ............................................................................................. 56
References ..................................................................................................................... 57
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List of Tables
Table 1.1: Comparison of some commonly used structural materials along with
composite materials ............................................................................................................ 3
Table 2.1: Force vs. Deflection for the designed spring ................................................... 13
Table 2.2: Recommended Layups for Various Nominal Cured Ply Thicknesses,
Unidirectional Tape .......................................................................................................... 16
Table 2.3: Recommended Layups for Various Nominal Cured Ply Thicknesses, Woven
Fabric ................................................................................................................................ 16
Table 5.1: Carbon Fiber Damage Results ......................................................................... 43
Table 5.2: Hybrid Composite Damage Results................................................................. 45
Table 6.1: Mechanical Properties of Carbon Fiber Composite......................................... 50
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List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Classification of composites ............................................................................ 2
Figure 1.2: Stacking of plies with different orientations for a composite laminate ............ 2
Figure 1.3: Reduction in compressive strength of composite materials ............................. 4
Figure 1.4: A carbon fiber fabric ........................................................................................ 4
Figure 1.5: Deformation of matrix under tensile load. ....................................................... 5
Figure 1.6: Visible and invisible damage after impact ....................................................... 6
Figure 2.1: Spring Parameters........................................................................................... 11
Figure 2.2: Unidirectional Fiber alignment ...................................................................... 15
Figure 2.3: Woven Fabric ................................................................................................. 15
Figure 2.4: Spring ............................................................................................................. 17
Figure 2.5: Frame .............................................................................................................. 17
Figure 2.6: Support Fixture ............................................................................................... 17
Figure 2.7: Impactor.......................................................................................................... 17
Figure 2.8: Final Assembly ............................................................................................... 18
Figure 3.1: Fabricated Machine ........................................................................................ 20
Figure 3.2: Support Fixture ............................................................................................... 21
Figure 3.3: Impactor assembly.......................................................................................... 22
Figure 3.4: Velocity Sensor .............................................................................................. 23
Figure 4.1: Weighing resin and hardner ........................................................................... 27
Figure 4.2: Ply layup process ............................................................................................ 28
Figure 4.3: Laminate Preparation ..................................................................................... 29
Figure 5.1:Prepared Carbon Fiber Composite ................................................................. 34
Figure 5.2: Hybrid Composite (Kevlar/Glass/Carbon) ..................................................... 35
Figure 5.3: Eight Damage Detection Parameters, ASTM D-7136 ................................... 36
Figure 5.4: Hybrid Composite at E=2.28J (front view) ................................................... 37
Figure 5.5: Hybrid Composite at E=2.28J (bottom view) ................................................ 37
Figure 5.6: Hybrid Composite at E=6.73J (front view) ................................................... 38
Figure 5.8: Hybrid Composite at E=14.03J (front view) ................................................. 38
Figure 5.9: Hybrid Composite at E=14.03J (bottom view) ............................................. 38
Figure 5.7: Hybrid Composite at E=6.73J (bottom view) ................................................ 38
Figure 5.10: Hybrid Composite at E=24.39J (front view) ................................................ 39
Figure 5.11: Hybrid Composite at E=24.39J (bottom view) ............................................ 39
Figure 5.12: Carbon Fiber Composite at E=33.2J (front view) ........................................ 39
Figure 5.13: Carbon Fiber Composite at E=33.2J (bottom view) .................................... 39
Figure 5.14: E=22.60J (bottom view) ............................................................................... 40
Figure 5.15: E=22.60J (front view)................................................................................... 40
Figure 5.20: E=33.2J (front view)..................................................................................... 41
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Figure 5.21: E=33.2J (bottom view) ................................................................................. 41
Figure 5.22: E=6.73J (front view)..................................................................................... 42
Figure 5.23: E=2.28J (front view).................................................................................... 42
Figure 5.5: Fracture Length (Longitudinal) Vs. Impact energy........................................ 44
Figure 5.6: Fracture Length (Transverse) Vs. Impact energy ........................................... 44
Figure 5.7: Fracture Length (Longitudinal) Vs. Impact energy........................................ 46
Figure 5.8: Fracture Length (Transverse) Vs. Impact energy ........................................... 46
Figure 6.1: ABAQUS model of specimen ........................................................................ 48
Figure 6.2: Specimen Dimentions and Boundary Conditions .......................................... 49
Figure 6.3: Damage Model for matrix .............................................................................. 50
Figure 6.4: Damage Model for fiber ................................................................................. 50
Figure 6.5: Damage contour (Top Side) ........................................................................... 51
Figure 6.6: Damage contour (Bottom Side) ...................................................................... 51
Figure 6.7: Damage contour of pure matrix...................................................................... 52
Figure 6.8: Damage contour of matrix in tows ................................................................. 52
Figure 6.9: Damage on ABAQUS .................................................................................... 53
Figure 6.11: Real Time Damage ....................................................................................... 54
Figure 6.10: Fractograph showing matrix damage ........................................................... 54
Figure 6.12: Top Side (Crack) .......................................................................................... 54
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DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF IMPACT TEST MACHINE FOR COMPOSITE
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Chapter 1
Introduction
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1.1 Background
Composite materials are those materials which have remarkably distinct chemical and
physical properties. These materials are made of two or more than two materials
(constituents) to produce new materials that have different features from the independent
components, while in newly developed components all constituents remain chemically
distinct and don’t react chemically with each other. Some commonly known examples
include reinforced concrete, plywood, and cement. Composites are classified according to
Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Classification of composites
These materials, when their constituent materials and component geometry work together
to optimize performance, are often referred to as “advanced composites.” Advanced
composites are comprised of thin sheets called lamina. These lamina are then adhered to
each other to form a thicker laminate. Lamina can be orientated a variety of ways within a
laminate to bolster and alter the laminate's directional mechanical properties. In this fashion
a manufacturer can choose to make an advanced composite extra strong in one or several
specific loading directions by aligning the fibers in those loading directions. This is known
as tailoring of composite material according to requirement. The orientation of the lamina
within the laminate is referred to as the stacking sequence (Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2: Stacking of plies with different orientations for a composite laminate
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Advanced composites have high strength-to-weight ratios that are often used in high-tech
industries such as aviation, aerospace, and motor sports. Table 1.1 gives a density and
mechanical property comparison of some commonly used structural materials along with
composite materials for comparison. The relatively high cost of advanced composites
compared to other materials is hardly a deterrent to high tech industries that are willing to
pay for the best materials to produce high performance components. Due to unique and
different properties of advanced composites, these composites are ideal for the aviation
industry. Properties like corrosion resistance or environmental resistance, high strength,
temperature resistance (low thermal expansion), great fatigue resistance and structural
efficiency can improve easily in composites. Due to these properties composites are mostly
used in severe climates.
σ
E / ρ
ρ σut E u / ρ
Material [cm]
[kg/m3] [MPa] [GPa] [cm]
10^8
10^6
Aluminum 2700 620 70 2.3 2.6
Steel 7800 2100 210 2.7 2.7
Glass Fiber 2540 3450 72.4 13.6 2.9
Kevlar
1440 3620 130 25.1 9.0
Fiber
Carbon
1800 5410 276 30.0 15.3
Fiber
Table 1.1: Comparison of some commonly used structural materials along with composite materials
There are two categories of polymer matrices that are typically used with advanced
composites: thermoplastics and thermosets. Thermoplastics consist of polymeric chains
that are not chemically bonded between each other, but strictly combined together because
of weak secondary bonds or intermolecular forces such as London dispersion forces or
hydrogen bonds.
Thermosets, on the other hand, have polymeric chains that are cross linked together through
chemical bonds, forming a rigid network structure. Both are used in the aforementioned
industries, although thermosets are more commonly used because of their easier
manufacturability. Of special importance to this project is the fact that thermoplastics tend
to have superior damage tolerance compared to thermosets, including impact damage
resistance. Since advanced composite’s advent into industry, it has been discovered that
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when such materials sustain an out of plane impact, even at low velocity, their compressive
strength can be significantly reduced (Figure 1.3).
Figure 1.3: Reduction in compressive strength of composite materials
In advance composites carbon fibers (Figure 1.4) are widely used for reinforcement
because of high performance. Some advantages of carbon fibers are as follows:
 Out of all reinforcing fiber materials the carbon fibers have high specific modulus
and strength.
 At elevated temperature carbon fibers maintain their high tensile modulus and high
strength.
 Carbon fibers are environment resistant or corrosion resistant and don’t effected by
any solvent and moisture.
 Carbon fiber reveals a long range of physical and mechanical features.
Reinforcement of these fibers gives the specific engineering properties.
 Manufacturing processes of carbon fibers are inexpensive and cost effective.
Figure 1.4: A carbon fiber fabric
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This significant reduction in compressive strength is associated with the separation of the
lamina within the laminate, otherwise known as delamination (Figure 1.5), although other
damages are often also present. An oft-thought of example of such a situation that could
occur is when a maintenance worker accidentally drops a 2 kilogram hammer from chest-
height onto the advanced composite wing of an aircraft. That panel may now have a dent,
broken fibers, a cracked matrix, and most importantly, delamination. The panel will now
likely have severely reduced compressive strength, possibly a major problem for the
aircraft.
Figure 1.5: Deformation of matrix under tensile load.
Although composites offer high strength to weigh ratio and offer many advantages over
the conventional materials, they remain prone to low velocity impacts (LVI). Damages
may be in the form of mixture of debonding of plies, breaking of fibers, delamination or
perforation.
For low velocity impact tests, D7136 and D7137 are the international standards set by
ASTM. The former a standard for the test itself and latter for the assessment damage
resistance after single impact (6.7 j/mm of thickness) on polymer matrix composites with
thickness ranging from 4mm-6mm. These techniques have long been used for making of
aviation composites.
Today the danger of impact damage and the issues related with gaps are restricting design
criteria for composite material related with aviation structures. Low-speed affect is
considered conceivably risky predominantly in light of the fact that the damage may be left
undetected (Figure 1.6). By and large, the level of impact at which unmistakable damage
is shaped is considerably higher than the level at which generous loss of residual properties
happens.
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Compression strength
after impact
*BVID = Barely Visible Impact Damage
Figure 1.6: Visible and invisible damage after impact
1.2 Problem Statement

Composite Materials are widely used in many industries including Aerospace and
Automobile. Although composites offer high strength to weigh ratio and offer many
advantages over the conventional materials, they remain prone to low velocity impacts
(LVI). Impacts, especially low velocity, are the most common type of damage mechanisms.
Strength of composite material is degraded significantly after impact loading which needs
to be studied through experiments and simulation. In previous designs of conventional drop
weight impact test machines, the mass and height were the two variables to impart different
impact forces and energies hence requiring a considerable height for the machine. One of
the goals of this project is to change this concept and make an indigenous design for the
drop weight impact machine so that we can achieve different impact energies and forces
within minimum height.
There are two main goals of this project. The first is to design, fabricate and make operable
a low velocity impact test machine. The second primary goal of this project is to conduct
low velocity impact testing on fiber reinforced polymer matrix composites.
1.3 Research Objective

The objective of this research is to study the damage resistance of polymer matrix
composites. Strength, stacking sequence, fracture type, variations in fiber volume fractions,
etc. will be considered. The newly established machine will be used for the study of
material properties after LVI through experiments and the results will be analyzed,
recorded and verified through Abaqus software.
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1.4 Thesis Outline

The thesis will cover the following topics in detail and in sequence.
 Chapter 1: Introduction.
 Chapter 2: Methodology.
 Chapter 3: Experimental setup.
 Chapter 4: Experimental results.
 Chapter 5: Modeling on ABAQUS.
 Chapter 6: Comparison of results.
 Chapter 7: Conclusions and future recommendations.
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Chapter 2
Methodology
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2.1 Planning
The progress made in the development of the project will be simpler to evaluate the
estimated time of arrival with a proper management.Planning is important because it
provides enough time and resources. The important reflections on the planning of the
project are:
 Calculating the sufficient time required for project completion
 Define research procedure and knowing facts
 Defining available amount of resources
 Determining the statistics and equipment to be used.
Before starting the development of the task, the above arranging must be made. Be that as
it may, the diverse arranging and advance should be re-making sense of when the task come
to midterm. The contemplations are:
 Solving problems with the time of arrival problem solving procedure

 Finding improvements in the estimated time of arrival mistakes
 Study of estimated time of arrival projects for the maintenance process.
 Meeting the standards of project (after modification).
At the point when issues are experience immediate moves should be made and project
planning must be followed up on time. For example, when the underlying arranging need
to happen promptly to obtain supplanted hardware. Legitimate arranging and great
administration are required for project to complete on time.
Methodology Flow Chart
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2.2 Design Objectives

The aim of the project is to develop the drop weight impact test machine to perform low
velocity impact tests up to a maximum velocity of 15 m/s. The machine was designed to
test specimens which can accommodate a maximum cross sectional area of (150x100)
mm2. The energy of the impactor assembly can be varied by varying the deflection of spring
or velocity of an impactor.
 Design, manufacture and assemble an impact tester.

 Indigenous and one of a kind design.
 A unique design of impact tester able to simulate a one meter free fall in only 1.5
feet.(Reduction of machine height in new design)
 Attain high impact energy in minimum height with the help of spring system which
throws the impactor with some known initial impact force.
2.3 Design
An impact testing machine in light of spring framework rule was chosen since it can give
affect speed by utilizing spring framework which tosses the impactor with some known
introductory impact constrain. In the outline, a specimen was settled over a mild steel base.
An impactor was tosses with the assistance of compacted spring and after that discharged
with a specific power on the specimen. The impactor would hit the specimen with an impact
speed that relies upon the pressure of spring. The dynamic vitality of the impactor was then
consumed by the dynamic collapsing of the specimen, which lessened the motor vitality of
the impactor until the point when it at long last halted. The devastating power of the
specimen at the time of impact was detected by utilizing the load cell which was set
between the specimen and the steel base. The devastating power information was later
utilized as a part of the numerical investigation. From the plan rule and prerequisites, the
drop weight impact testing was designed. The impact test machine can be divided into four
major systems namely the impactor assembly that consists of spring system; base plate or
support fixture; frame that consists of guide hollow tube, impactor head and clamp and the
load cell with display.
2.4 Design principle and calculations

A machine based on the impacts produced by using spring system which throws the
impactor with some known initial impact force under which is given by:
F = k .x
In this project we want to achieve maximum 50N impact force and 40J impact energy for
testing of 4mm to 6mm thickness composite laminates.
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For achieving of this desired impact force.

Here spring of known stiffness is used,
K = 0.537 N/mm
So force depends on X,
2.4.1 Calculations for spring

We calculated the following dimensions for spring deign to achieve the desired values.
Material of spring = Carbon Steel
Figure 2.1: Spring Parameters
Outer dia. = 62 mm
Wire dia. = d = 4 mm
Free length = L0 = 400 mm
Inner dia. = Outer dia. – 2d = 54 mm
No of active coils = n = 20
𝐿𝑜−𝐿𝑠
Pitch = +d
𝑛
𝑙𝑜 =Free length
𝑙𝑠 =Solid length
400 −80
Pitch = + 4 = 20 mm
20
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Gd4
Spring constant = k =
8nD3
(80,000)(44 )
k= = 0.537 N/mm
8(20)(62)
K = 0.537 N/mm
Fmax = 50 N
For achieving 50N force
F = k .x
𝐹
x=
𝐾
50
x=
0.5
x= 100 mm = 10 cm
Range of x = 32 cm
F = k .x
𝐹
x=
𝐾
50
x=
0.5
x= 100 mm = 10 cm
Our designed spring Range of x = 32 cm
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Force Deflection (x)

(N) (mm)
50 100
40 80
30 60
20 40
10 20
Table 2.1: Force vs. Deflection for the designed spring
So, we can achieve 50N force in 100mm deflection of spring having k=0.537 N/mm.
2.4.2 Impact velocity

If utilized, position the velocity detector at a point such that the velocity should be
measured just before the impact and this completed between 3 to 6 mm [0.13 to 0.25 in.]
vertically above the surface of the specimen.
In this project impact velocity is calculated with the help of IR velocity sensor, velocity is
measured just before the impact.
2.4.3 Impact energy

If the impact device is capable of detecting the velocity of the impactor, calculate the actual
impact energy using given equation and report the results to three significant figures. This
calculation is performed automatically by most systems with velocity detection capability,
but may be performed manually if necessary. The measured impact energy may differ from
the nominal impact energy calculated in due to friction losses during the drop.
In our project velocity sensor with micro controller is capable of automatic calculation of
impact energy.
1
K.E=2 𝑚𝑣 2
Here,
Mass of impactor = 5kg
Impact velocity = from sensor
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2.4.4 Impact force

The expected force-time curve is used to determine the required impact force by calculating
the pulse width of the curve. Here according to Newton’s 2nd law of motion, F = ma.
Impact acceleration is computed with the help of final velocity calculated from the velocity
sensor. This acceleration term relies upon the pulse width of the force time curve and
should go up against an expected esteem in view of different material composes like the
way impact distance was evaluated. Impact acceleration might be ascertained from the
adjustment in speed during the pulse width time, or
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑎= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑡(pulse)
Tpulse is calculated by force time curve given by load cell.
Now with the help of Newton’s 2nd law equation impact force is calculated:
F = ma
2.5 Sampling and Test Specimens

2.5.1 Sampling
Test no less than four specimen for each test condition unless legitimate outcomes can be
increased using less examples, as on account of a planned trial. For factually huge
information the methods laid out in Practice E122 ought to be counseled. The strategy for
testing might be accounted for
2.5.2 Stacking Sequence

For correlation screening of the drop-weight impact damage resistance of various
materials, the standard example thickness should be 4.0 to 6.0 mm [0.16 to 0.24 in.] with
an objective thickness of 5.0 mm [0.20 in.] and the cover characterized as takes after:
2.5.3 Unidirectional Tape

Laminate construction should comprise of the proper number of unidirectional plies to
accomplish an aggregate cured thickness closest to 5.0 mm [0.20 in.] with a stacking
succession of [45/0/-45/90]NS where N is a whole number. On the off chance that the
"closest" thickness is under 4.0 mm [0.16 in.], the following estimation of N should be
utilized (N+1). Prescribed layups for different ostensible cured ply thicknesses are given
in Table 2.2. The overlaid plate layup is to be characterized to such an extent that the 0°
fiber introduction is lined up with the long way (long) measurement
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Figure 2.2: Unidirectional Fiber alignment
2.5.4 Woven Fabric

Laminate construction might comprise of the suitable number of fabric plies to accomplish
an aggregate cured thickness closest to 5.0 mm [0.20 in.] with a stacking succession of
[(+45/ - 45)/(0/90)]NS where N is an entire number. In the event that the "closest" thickness
is under 4.0 mm [0.16 in.], the following estimation of N might be utilized (N+1). The
assignments (+45/ - 45) and (0/90) speak to a solitary layer of woven texture with the twist
and weft strands situated at the predefined points. Texture overlays containing silk
compose weaves should have symmetric twist surfaces, unless generally indicated and
noted in the report. Suggested layups for different ostensible cured employ thicknesses are
given in Table 2.3. The covered plate layup is to be characterized to such an extent that the
0° fiber introduction is lined up with the longwise (long) dimension.
Figure 2.3: Woven Fabric
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Table 2.2: Recommended Layups for Various Nominal Cured Ply Thicknesses, Unidirectional Tape
Table 2.3: Recommended Layups for Various Nominal Cured Ply Thicknesses, Woven Fabric
2.6 Selection of composite

The mechanical properties of woven carbon fiber-fortified epoxy laminates were
contrasted and those of non-woven laminates with identical (0,90), (±45) and (0,90 ± 45)
lay-ups, (0,±45) laminates with just the ±45° layers supplanted by woven layers were
likewise examined. Static qualities and firmness' were estimated and sturdiness was
evaluated by methods for indented ductile tests and residual quality tests after low vitality
affect. The aftereffects of the tests propose that specific types of woven material ought to
be truly considered for elite applications. In this study we use woven carbon fiber-
reinforced epoxy laminates due to high performance applications,
Material: woven carbon fiber laminates
CF: TC 300 3k
Epoxy: YD 128
Method: Hand lay-up method (Compression Molding)
Our specimen size according to ASTM 7136
Length= 6 inch, width= 4 inch, thickness= 0.15 inch to 0.24 inch
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2.7 Pro-E Model

2.7.1 Parts
Figure 2.5: Frame Figure 2.4: Spring
Figure 2.7: Impactor Figure 2.6: Support Fixture
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Figure 2.8: Final Assembly
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Chapter 3
Fabrication and Assembly
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3.1 Frame
The material used for building the frame was mild steel. First we made the frame base of
(21in x 18in) .Then three side columns are attached both sides with the base by using arc
welding process. Then, top of the frame attached with the help of arc welding process.
Height of frame = 36.3 inch
Length of frame = 21 inch
Width of frame = 18 inch
Figure 3.1: Fabricated Machine
3.2 Support fixture

The impact support apparatus, appeared in Fig should use a plate no less than 20 mm [0.75
in.] thick built from either aluminum or steel. The cut-out in the plate might be 75 mm by
125 mm [3.0 in. by 5.0 in.]. The substance of the plate might be level to inside 0.1 mm
[0.005 in.] in the zone which contacts the test specimen controlling pins might be found
with the end goal that the specimen should be halfway situated over the removed. Four
clasps should be utilized to limit the specimen during impact. The clips should have a base
holding limit of 1100 N (200 lbf). The tips of the clasps might be made of neoprene elastic.
The apparatus might be adjusted to an unbending base utilizing bolts or clamps; an
representative base design is appeared.
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For upper and lower steel plates.

Material (Steel)
Length =12 in
Width =12 in
Thickness = 0.5 in
Rectangular through hole = (3 x 5) in
Specimen dimensions = (4 x 6) in
Support rods (4)
12 in long
1.50 in diameter
Figure 3.2: Support Fixture
3.3 Impactor assembly

It consists of impactor that is guided by hollow tube. This hollow tube having slots in which
impactor triggers move up and down. Spring is compressed within the tube when impactor
move upward and apply force on impactor when released.
Material of impactor = steel

Hardness= 60 to 62 HRC
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Diameter of tip= 16 mm
Mass = 5 kg
Inner diameter of hollow tube = 70mm
Slots = 6mm
Length of tube = 19.5 in
Figure 3.3: Impactor assembly
3.4 Instrumentation
The drop weight test facility consists of various devices which are used to measure the
velocity, force and displacement of the impactor to calculate the energy absorbed by the
specimen under the test. The details of the instrumentation employed for the purpose is
explained below.
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3.4.1 Velocity Detection and Software Setup

The second section of setting up the tower was establishing the velocity detectors and their
associated software. The velocity detectors are Venier Photo gates, and they use a micro
controller.
Figure 3.4: Velocity Sensor
Photo gates contain an emitter and a detector. The emitter projects a laser and the detector
receives it. When the laser is blocked by an obstruction the velocity detector cannot “see”
the laser and registers “blocked” to the software. When there is no obstruction and the light
is allowed to pass into the detector the velocity detector registers “unblocked” to the
software. To calculate velocity, two photo gates a known distance apart must be connected
to the software, and then an equation can be used to find the velocity of objects passing
through both photo gates. Mounting tape was used to adhere the two velocity detectors
together, with the distance between them equal to 8.5 centimeters. By knowing that
(distance) = (velocity) (time), and rearranging that equation to (velocity) =
(distance)/(time), the only missing variable to find velocity was time.
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3.4.2 Circuit Diagram
Figure 3.5: Circuit Diagram
3.4.3 Coding of velocity sensor
#include <LiquidCrystal.h>
LiquidCrystal lcd(13, 12, 11, 10,9, 8);
volatile long up_time=0;
volatile long down_time=0;
float diff;
void up()
{
up_time=micros();
}
void down()
{
down_time=micros();
}
void setup() {
attachInterrupt(0,up, RISING);
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attachInterrupt(1,down,RISING);
lcd.begin(16, 2);
Serial.begin(9600);
lcd.setCursor(0, 0);
lcd.print("V=");
}
void loop() {
if(up_time>1 & down_time>1){

diff=abs(up_time-down_time)/1000000.0;
Serial.print("diff = ");
Serial.println(diff);
Serial.print("UP sensor = ");
Serial.println(up_time);
Serial.print("Down sensor =");
Serial.println(down_time);
while(1){
float v=0.085/diff;
lcd.print(v);
lcd.print("m/s ");
Serial.println(v);
lcd.setCursor(0, 1);
float E=.5*(5)*(v*v);
lcd.print("Energy = ");
lcd.print(E);
lcd.print(" J ");
}
}
}
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Chapter 4
Fabrication of Composite
Laminates
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4.1 Experimental procedure

4.1.1 Work station preparation
Prepare materials and tools used to work with basic rules. This is mainly because the resin
and hardening mixes regulate the rate of chemistry to reduce the work time of the epoxy
(before resin), creating an exothermic reaction.
Each group of student must prepare ALL materials and supplies available and set up before
proceeding.
Additionally, as a major aspect of the laminates arrangement, the woven fabric must be
sliced by the state of the part. In this trial the student needs two pieces of fiberglass material
cut into one foot squares.
Figure 4.1: Weighing resin and hardner
4.2 Mold preparation

Before beginning with the lay-up process a satisfactory mold preparation must be finished.
Fundamentally, this preparation comprises of cleaning the mold and applying a discharge
specialist in its surface to maintain a strategic distance from the resin to stick. In this
analysis the form preparation is basically taping the plastic sheeting to the tabletop. On the
off chance that this was a real form the understudy would do the accompanying:
 Clean cloth is used for the cleaning of the mold
 On the surface of the mold apply and spread the release agent
 Wait for a while to set up the release agent
 Buff with the help of clean cloth
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4.3 Lay-up process

When every one of the materials are readied, the workstation is prepared and the mold
preparation is done; the students can begin with the lay-up process.
The initial step is to blend the pitch and the hardener. The extents are generally given by
the provider and can be found on the compartments of the hardener or sap.
The segments can be either estimated by weight for by volume yet it is essential to take
after these extents precisely as this is an entire substance response and all parts must
respond totally for greatest quality of the grid. It is simplest to quantify extents utilizing
the volume technique and tighten direct that additions into the jars of resin and hardener.
These pumps can be acquired alongside the holders of 6 tar and hardener. Make a point to
keep the resin pump and holder top separate from the pump and compartment best of the
hardener in light of the fact that any sullying will start the compound response and cause
the subsequent mix to solidify.
The blending is performed in the blending holders with the blending stick and ought to be
done gradually to not entrain any abundance air rises in the pitch. Be mindful so as to blend
totally and purposely for an entire two minutes previously applying. It is best to utilize a
"level" stick, for example, tongue depressor; a round stick does not function admirably as
it doesn't 'paddle' the blend to mix it appropriately. Note: Plastic blending compartments
may liquefy amid the exothermic response, so it is best to utilize holders that are
particularly made to mix epoxy pitch. These are regularly accessible from the resin seller.
Figure 4.2: Ply layup process
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Next a sufficient amount of blended resin and hardener is saved in the form and a brush or
roller is utilized to spread it around all surface. It is imperative not to include excessively
resin, which will cause too thick of a layer, nor to include not as much as the essential sum,
which will cause gaps in the surface of the part when it is cured. A gauge of the measure
of resin required can be founded on weight of glass fiber material. One can accept 50:50
volume proportion of resin and fiber and after that utilization the thickness of the support
to touch base at the heaviness of the pitch. It regards at that point include a little security
factor so enough resin is blended for the layup.
Figure 4.3: Laminate Preparation
The primary layer of fiber reinforcement is then laid. This layer must be wetted with resin
and after that delicately squeezing utilizing a brush or a roller make the resin that was
included the past advance wick up through the fiberglass material. In the event that the
fiber isn't totally wet, more resin can be included over the best and spread around. At this
stage a moment layer of glass fiber is included and unique care must be taken to take out
all air bubbles conceivable. This can be expert by either rolling any air rises out with a little
hand moving apparatus or brushing out the air rises with a paintbrush. This progression is
rehashed until the point when the coveted thickness is gotten. As the glass fiber layers are
added to fabricate overlays and add up to part thickness the individual layers might be
arranged at different points to achieve particular quality toward the support weave-this is
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called 'clocking'. Now and then during the development of progressive layers of
reinforcement a cover sheet of plastic can be incidentally put over the layup and moved
together with the layers underneath to decrease the wreckage and crush out excess resin.
It is critical when the best possible measure of resin has been utilized for the layup that any
abundance resin in the glass is set on and in a zone that does not have any combustible
material, for example, a solid sink or piece. The understudies should watch the exothermic
response that is occurring as the resin 'gels'. Commonly the container gets more blazing
than the composite board, due to the warmth of response that is being exchanged to the
cup.
4.4 Curing
The part can be cured at hoisted temperatures utilizing a oven (typically something close
to 160 degrees F) or at room temperature. For the most part, the best possible curing time
of each sort of resin hardener, and in addition the working time, is given by the provider
on the back of the compartments.
On the off chance that the part is left on plastic sheeting make certain to utilize legitimate
plastic sheet that will survive the hoisted temperature. Most plastic sheet accessible from
hardware shops (polyethylene) may liquefy. On the off chance that arranging the layup part
will be moved to a curing broiler, at that point layup ought to be done on a caul plate-for
the most part a sheet of aluminum or steel >1/8" thick. For the reasons for this investigation
and utilizing an epoxy resin framework, room temperature curing is satisfactory.
4.5 Cleaning
Once that part is prepared to be cured, it must be moved to a sufficient area. For this
situation it can be moved to a curing oven or just left to cure set up until the following day.
At that point a cleanup must be done before leaving the class. Every one of the materials
utilized (brushes, rollers, blending devices, scissor), including the table, must be cleaned
utilizing CH3)2CO and fabric. Likewise, whatever is left of the fiberglass woven
fortification must be gathered from the table and floor. Step by step instructions to discard
CH3)2CO: Soap and water can be utilized on skin if uncovered. Some shop hand cleaners
(Go Jo) function admirably too.
Any excess CH3)2CO ought to be appropriately discarded, it is a smart thought to place it
in a legitimate transfer can with top and discarded effectively.
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4.6 Safety
 Always use PPE during the handling of composite materials in a layup process.
 Always use cutting gloves when using scissors, Stanley knives etc.
 Be careful and thoughtful of the resin/hardener chemical reaction, which is an
exothermic reaction.
 Only in a well-ventilated area perform layup operations and always have any
cleanup performed in a well-ventilated area also.
 Review all MSDS sheets prior to handling materials. MSDS sheets describe all
necessary safety data about the material you are handling.
 Allow proper working space around each student. Resins are messy and easy to get
on other people’s clothes, be thoughtful about their workspace and their work as
well.
 Always prepare all tools, chemicals, PPE and cut reinforcement materials prior to
mixing any chemicals. Time and note the actual mixing time (2 minutes minimum)
and so that you can project when gelation will occur (usually 15 to 20 minutes
depending on how hot the hardener is).
 Remind students not to touch face, skin, etc. while working with the resins. Explain
how to remove epoxy from skin if exposed.
 Explain that many solvents area potential fire hazard, while other solvents (such as
citrus oil, which is non-flammable and less toxic) are available.
 Discuss handling and cutting of dry fibers with caution and using the proper PPE
because glass or carbon fibers can cause itching or skin irritation.
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Chapter 5
Experimental Results
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5.1 Low Velocity Impact Testing

The early stages of research efforts to characterize impact behavior of advanced composites
were inconsistent due to lack of a standardized test for long fiber composites. A recent set
of standardized tests (American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D7136 and
D7137)4 to assess the impact tolerance of fiber reinforced polymer matrix composites has
remedied the problem and allowed companies to compare and refine their products. ASTM
D7136 is the official standard for conducting a low velocity impact test on a fiber
reinforced polymer matrix composite, and details the methodology of striking an advanced
composite sample with a known energy, and then analyzing the damage. ASTM D7137 is
the standard for testing the altered compressive strength of the composite after the D7136
test has been conducted. To run the D7136 test the tester needs several key pieces of
machinery and equipment. The foremost piece of equipment needed is a low velocity
impact test machine, other necessary parts include spring and impactor, a striker tip, a
sample clamping mechanism, and assorted hand-held measuring tools. Optional equipment
includes velocity detectors and force indicators if the machine desires additional
information for analysis purposes. Velocity detectors were included with the donated to
impact test machine.
5.2 Realistic Constraints

Unfortunately manufacturing and economic limitations constrain this project. There is not
enough time to manufacture a device that will automatically prevent the impactor from
hitting twice on the specimen, and there are several other improvements to the impact test
machine that simply cannot be made in time. The economic constraint applies to the
analysis portion of low velocity impact testing. There is not enough financial support to
justify adding either an ultrasonic scanner for B and C-scanning or adding a modal testing
machine for modal analysis. Although the new impact test machine is able to create visible
damage on the specimen. After following D7136 standards to run the test properly on the
impact test machine, the composite will have likely received a dent such as the one pictured
shown. Other possible outcomes from running the impact test include no damage to the
composite, barely visible impact damage (BVID), where the damage may be internal, or
full punctures, where the striker goes all the way through the composite. BVID may be
analyzed using ultrasonic B-Scanning and C-Scanning to detect delamination and other
internal damages.
5.3 Standard Operating Procedure

Because the impact test machine is a new design to the department, nobody else knows
how to properly operate the impact test machine and software. With this in mind, a
Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) was drafted to help new users with the tower.
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Contents within the SOP include sections on safety, software setup, spring mechanism,
sample setup, running a test, troubleshooting, and an additional notes section.
5.3.1 Samples
 Four samples of each composites (Carbon fiber and hybrid).
 Testing of samples at different impact energies and impact velocities.
 Obtaining results.
 Parametric study at different impact velocities and impact energies.
 Fractography is done for clear visualization of the type of fracture/failure.
 Study the behavior of composite laminates under different impact energy levels.
5.3.2 Carbon Composites
 Carbon Fiber (TC 300 3k), Dry Woven Fabric - Plain Weave
 Epoxy: YD-128
 Epoxy resin was used with its hardener in the ratio (13:7).
 Volume Fraction of Reinforcement (C.F): 56%
 Volume Fraction of Matrix (Epoxy): 44%
 16 ply laminate
 Thickness of one ply: 0.3mm
 Thickness of Laminate: 5mm
 Size of tested specimen (7 x 5) inches
Figure 5.1:Prepared Carbon Fiber Composite
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5.3.3 Hybrid composites

 Hybrid, Dry Woven Fabric - Plain Weave
 Epoxy: YD-128
 Stacking sequence [G/k/C]s
 Epoxy resin was used with its hardener in the ratio (13:7).
 Volume Fraction of Reinforcement (C.F): 56%
 Volume Fraction of Matrix (Epoxy): 44%
 6 ply laminate
 Thickness of one ply of Glass fiber: 0.2mm
 Thickness of one ply of Kevlar fiber: 0.3mm
 Thickness of one ply of Carbon fiber: 0.3mm
 Thickness of Laminate: 2mm
 Size of tested specimen (7 x 5) inches
Figure 5.2: Hybrid Composite (Kevlar/Glass/Carbon)
5.4 Analysis
To compare samples in a quantitative fashion, several equations must be utilized. The
equations can be found in the ASTM D7136 standard. To use these equations the
experimenter must keep in mind that there are both predicted values and measured values,
distinct from each other. For example, although an experimenter may intend to impact a
sample with exactly 6.70 J/mm, the impact tower is not electronically controlled, so it may
strike with a value closer to 6.61 J/mm. Throw the impactor with some known spring
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deflection and achieve specific impact velocity which is necessary for measuring the
impact energy.
1
𝐸 = mv2
2
Now find the impact energy per thickness
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
CE =
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑛 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
After a test has been conducted, there are several analysis techniques that can be applied
to the sample to qualitatively and quantitatively measure damage. One technique used was
measuring the shape and size of the dent by finding the eight points on the dent shown in
Figure, along with finding the dent depth with a depth gauge. Dent depth is measured from
the deepest part of the dent to the surface plane. The other technique used is to identify the
specific damage types on the sample.
Figure 5.3: Eight Damage Detection Parameters, ASTM D-7136
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5.4.1 Qualitative Analysis

Methodology used to analyze tested samples is to visually inspect them for specific damage
types. Damage types include dent/depression, cracking/ splitting, fiber failure, and
delamination, which are all shown in both sample types. Because delamination is the most
important damage type, an enlarged image is shown in sample C4. The thermoplastic
samples C1, C2, C3 display matrix breakage while the sample C4 reveal delamination,
dent/depression, cracking/splitting, and fiber failure. Samples of 6 ply Hybrid composite
of [G/K/C]s exhibit different damage than 16 ply carbon fibers. All Hybrid samples
displayed delamination, dent/depression, and cracking/splitting, and also fiber failure with
different crack length propagations with respect to applied impact energies. In all Hybrid
composites first and last ply of Glass fiber displayed dent/depression and cracking/splitting
and fiber failure.
Figure 5.4: Hybrid Composite at E=2.28J Figure 5.5: Hybrid Composite at E=2.28J
(front view) (bottom view)
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Figure 5.7: Hybrid Composite at E=6.73J

(front view) Figure 5.6: Hybrid Composite at E=14.03J
(front view)
Figure 5.9: Hybrid Composite at E=6.73J Figure 5.8: Hybrid Composite at E=14.03J
(bottom view) (bottom view)
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Figure 5.10: Hybrid Composite at E=24.39J Figure 5.12: Carbon Fiber Composite at
(front view) E=33.2J (front view)
Figure 5.11: Hybrid Composite at E=24.39J Figure 5.13: Carbon Fiber Composite at
(bottom view) E=33.2J (bottom view)
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5.5 Fractographic analysis:

5.5.1 Carbon fiber composite
Figure 5.14: E=22.60J (bottom view)

Figure 5.16: E=26.98J (front view)
Figure 5.15: E=22.60J (front view) Figure 5.17: E=26.98J (bottom view)
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5.5.2 Hybrid Composite
Figure 5.23: E=2.28J (front view) Figure 5.22: E=6.73J (front view)
Figure 5.24: E=14.03J (front view) Figure 5.25: E=24.39J (front view)
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There are three types of damages that can occur in composite impact testing. Cohesive
damage, Adhesive damage and mix mode failure. As it is clearly visible from the above
analysis that the fiber breakage in carbon fiber composite occur above the 29.84J energy.
The composites of carbon fiber bear the impact and barely visible damage is shown at the
energy level of 30J above this impact energy these carbon woven composites reveal
clearly visible damage.
Samples Spring Measured Impact Impact Fracture Fracture Dent

deflection impact energy energy per Length Length depth
velocity (J) specimen
(mm) (Longitudinal) (Transverse) (mm)
thickness
(m/s)
(mm) (mm)
Ce (J/mm)
1 250 3.01 22.60 4.52 25 18 0.1
2 285 3.29 26.98 5.40 30 23 0.25
3 305 3.45 29.84 5.97 35 26 0.30
4 315 3.64 33.20 6.64 40 30 0.5
Table 5.1: Carbon Fiber Damage Results
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Fracture Length (Longitudinal) Vs. Impact energy

45
40
FRACTURE LENGTH (MM)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
IMPACT ENERGY (J)
Figure 5.26: Fracture Length (Longitudinal) Vs. Impact energy

35
30
FRACTURE LENGTH (MM)
25
20
15
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
IMPACT ENERGY (J)
Figure 5.27: Fracture Length (Transverse) Vs. Impact energy
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Samples Spring Measured Impact Impact Fracture Fracture Dent

deflection impact energy energy Length Length depth
velocity (J) per
(mm) (Longitudinal) (Transverse) (mm)
specimen
(m/s)
thickness (mm) (mm)
Ce
(J/mm)
1 115 1.09 2.28 1.14 35 14 0.12
2 155 1.87 6.37 3.18 28 17 0.25
3 205 2.7 14.03 7.01 30 15 0.34
4 255 3.56 24.40 12 33 20 0.8
Table 5.2: Hybrid Composite Damage Results
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40
35
Fracture Length (mm)

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Impact energy (J)
Figure 5.28: Fracture Length (Longitudinal) Vs. Impact energy
Fracture Length (Transverse) Vs Impact Energy

25
Fracture Length (mm)
20
15
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Impact energy (J)
Figure 5.29: Fracture Length (Transverse) Vs. Impact energy
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Chapter 6
Modeling on ABAQUS
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6.1 Analysis on ABAQUS

A new numerical method for analyzing the mechanical behavior of three-dimensional (3D)
woven carbon fiber-reinforced composites was developed by considering changes in the
fiber orientation and calculating the stress increments due to incremental deformations.
The model consisted of four steps, starting update of the yarn orientation based on
incremental deformation gradient. The stiffness matrix was then computed using the
updated yarn orientation. Next, partial damage and propagation were incorporated into the
stress calculation using modified ply discount method.
The failure conditions were obtained by testing the unidirectional composites and
formulated using Puck’s criterion. This numerical model was finally implemented into
commercial finite element software, ABAQUS, as a user material subroutine. As for
experiment, 3D woven composite samples was manufactured using laboratory built-in
system and characterized. After that their results were contrasted with simulated results,
exhibiting that the current numerical model can properly predict the mechanical behavior
of 3D fiber-reinforced composites.
6.2 Impact Analysis of Composite Laminate

Impactor diameter = 16mm
Velocity of impactor = 3.64m/s
Mass of impactor = 5kg
Figure 6.1: ABAQUS model of specimen
Following resin systems were used:

Thermoplastic resin (Epoxy)
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6.2.1 Boundary conditions

During this analysis the specimen were clamped from all sides.
Clamped
l'=36.1
mm
w=39.2
w'=37.5 mm
mm
T=
l=36.1 5mm
mm
Figure 6.2: Specimen Dimentions and Boundary Conditions
6.2.2 Material properties

Material properties Tow
Longitudinal modulus Ef1 (GPa) 15.6
Transverse modulus Ef2 (GPa) 15.6
In-plane shear modulus Gf12 (GPa) 4.00
Transverse modulus G (GPa) 2.277

f23
Major Poisson’s ratio vf12 0.045
Major Poisson’s ratio vf23 0.300
3
1050.75
Density ρ (Kg/m )
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Tensile Strength Tf (GPa) 3.8
Compressive Strength Cf (GPa) 2.0
Table 6.1: Mechanical Properties of Carbon Fiber Composite
6.3 Constituent damage models & element deletion criteria

6.3.1 For matrix
Figure 6.3: Damage Model for matrix
6.3.2 For Fiber
Figure 6.4: Damage Model for fiber
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6.4 Analysis results

6.4.1 Damage contour of whole model
Figure 6.5: Damage contour (Top Side)
Figure 6.6: Damage contour (Bottom Side)
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6.4.2 Damage contour of pure matrix
Figure 6.7: Damage contour of pure matrix
6.4.3 Damage contour of matrix in tows
Figure 6.8: Damage contour of matrix in tows
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6.5 Comparison of Experimental and Simulation Results

 Carbon woven laminate
 Impact energy 33.2J
 16 ply laminate
Figure 6.9: Damage on ABAQUS
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Figure 6.10: Real Time Damage Figure 6.11: Fractograph showing matrix damage
Figure 6.12: Top Side (Crack)
 All results shows same kind of fracture at same energy level. Hence
experimental results are validated through ABAQUS.
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Conclusions
 A cost effective machine was designed and fabricated that meets the requirements
of the ASTM-D7136 and has its own limitations.
 Composite laminates were prepared and tested in WEC under supervision of
faculty.
 Damage of composite laminates were studied in detail on different impact energies
and low velocities.
 16 ply CF laminates were found to be very resistant against Visible Damage at
velocities up to 3.0 m/s.
 Visible Damages were recorded at velocities of 3 m/s and above.
 Mix mode failures were observed in CF composites.
 6 ply hybrid composite were found to be very ineffective against impact test and
showed significant visible damage.
 Results were validated through FEA software ABAQUS.
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Future Recommendations
 A system for loading the spring such as hydraulic/pneumatic automatic system.
 Spring to be designed with a higher stiffness to further lower down the machine
size and achieving higher impact energy.
 Force sensor to be installed for accurate measurement of impact force and energy
absorbed by the specimen.
 Attachment of oscilloscope for automatic generation of energy time graphs.
 Rubber pads for absorption of vibrations to be attached on the base of the impact
machine.
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58

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Design and Fabrication of Impact Test Machine For Composite Materials PDF

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Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 1

Figure 1.1: Classification of composites

Aluminum 2700 620 70 2.3 2.6

Steel 7800 2100 210 2.7 2.7

Glass Fiber 2540 3450 72.4 13.6 2.9

Figure 1.3: Reduction in compressive strength of composite materials

Figure 1.4: A carbon fiber fabric

Figure 1.5: Deformation of matrix under tensile load.

*BVID = Barely Visible Impact Damage

Figure 1.6: Visible and invisible damage after impact

1.2 Problem Statement

1.3 Research Objective

1.4 Thesis Outline

 Solving problems with the time of arrival problem solving procedure

Methodology Flow Chart

2.2 Design Objectives

 Design, manufacture and assemble an impact tester.

2.4 Design principle and calculations

For achieving of this desired impact force.

2.4.1 Calculations for spring

Figure 2.1: Spring Parameters

Force Deflection (x)

2.4.2 Impact velocity

2.4.3 Impact energy

2.4.4 Impact force

Tpulse is calculated by force time curve given by load cell.

2.5 Sampling and Test Specimens

2.5.2 Stacking Sequence

2.5.3 Unidirectional Tape

Figure 2.2: Unidirectional Fiber alignment

2.5.4 Woven Fabric

Figure 2.3: Woven Fabric

2.6 Selection of composite

2.7 Pro-E Model

Figure 2.5: Frame Figure 2.4: Spring

Figure 2.7: Impactor Figure 2.6: Support Fixture

Figure 2.8: Final Assembly

Figure 3.1: Fabricated Machine

3.2 Support fixture

For upper and lower steel plates.

Figure 3.2: Support Fixture

3.3 Impactor assembly

Material of impactor = steel

Figure 3.3: Impactor assembly

3.4.1 Velocity Detection and Software Setup

Figure 3.4: Velocity Sensor

3.4.2 Circuit Diagram

Figure 3.5: Circuit Diagram

3.4.3 Coding of velocity sensor

if(up_time>1 & down_time>1){

4.1 Experimental procedure

Figure 4.1: Weighing resin and hardner

4.2 Mold preparation

4.3 Lay-up process

Figure 4.2: Ply layup process

Figure 4.3: Laminate Preparation

5.1 Low Velocity Impact Testing

5.2 Realistic Constraints

5.3 Standard Operating Procedure

Figure 5.1:Prepared Carbon Fiber Composite

5.3.3 Hybrid composites

Figure 5.2: Hybrid Composite (Kevlar/Glass/Carbon)