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Space
Space is the boundless three-dimensional extent in which objects and
ev ents hav e relativ e position and direction. [1 ] Phy sical space is often
conceiv ed in three linear dimensions, although modern phy sicists usually
consider it, with time, to be part of a boundless four-dimensional
continuum known as spacetime. The concept of space is considered to be of
fundamental importance to an understanding of the phy sical univ erse.
Howev er, disagreement continues between philosophers ov er whether it is
itself an entity , a relationship between entities, or part of a conceptual
framework.

Debates concerning the nature, essence and the mode of existence of space
date back to antiquity ; namely , to treatises like the Timaeus of Plato, or
A right-handed three-dimensional
Socrates in his reflections on what the Greeks called khôra (i.e. "space"), or
Cartesian coordinate system used to
in the Physics of Aristotle (Book IV, Delta) in the definition of topos (i.e. indicate positions in space.
place), or in the later "geometrical conception of place" as "space qua
extension" in the Discourse on Place (Qawl fi al-Makan) of the 11th-
century Arab poly math Alhazen. [2] Many of these classical philosophical questions were discussed in the
Renaissance and then reformulated in the 17 th century , particularly during the early dev elopment of classical
mechanics. In Isaac Newton's v iew, space was absolute—in the sense that it existed permanently and independently
of whether there was any matter in the space. [3] Other natural philosophers, notably Gottfried Leibniz, thought
instead that space was in fact a collection of relations between objects, giv en by their distance and direction from
one another. In the 18th century , the philosopher and theologian George Berkeley attempted to refute the "v isibility
of spatial depth" in his Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision. Later, the metaphy sician Immanuel Kant said that
the concepts of space and time are not empirical ones deriv ed from experiences of the outside world—they are
elements of an already giv en sy stematic framework that humans possess and use to structure all experiences. Kant
referred to the experience of "space" in his Critique of Pure Reason as being a subjectiv e "pure a priori form of
intuition".

In the 19th and 20th centuries mathematicians began to examine geometries that are non-Euclidean, in which space
is conceiv ed as curved, rather than flat. According to Albert Einstein's theory of general relativ ity , space around
grav itational fields dev iates from Euclidean space. [4] Experimental tests of general relativ ity hav e confirmed that
non-Euclidean geometries prov ide a better model for the shape of space.

Contents
Philosophy of space
Galilei
René Descartes
Leibniz and Newton
Kant

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Non-Euclidean geometry
Gauss and Poincaré
Einstein
Mathematics
Physics
Relativity
Cosmology
Spatial measurement
Geographical space
In psychology
In the Social Sciences
See also
References
External links

Philosophy of space

Galilei
Galilean and Cartesian theories about space, matter and motion are at the foundation of the Scientific Rev olution,
which is understood to hav e culminated with the publication of Newton's Principia in 1687 . [5] Newton's theories
about space and time helped him explain the mov ement of objects. While his theory of space is considered the most
influential in Phy sics, it emerged from his predecessors' ideas about the same. [6]

As one of the pioneers of modern science, Galilei rev ised the established Aristotelian and Ptolemaic ideas about a
geocentric cosmos. He backed the Copernican theory that the univ erse was heliocentric, with a stationary sun at the
center and the planets—including the Earth—rev olv ing around the sun. If the Earth mov ed, the Aristotelian belief
that its natural tendency was to remain at rest was in question. Galilei wanted to prov e instead that the sun mov ed
around its axis, that motion was as natural to an object as the state of rest. In other words, for Galilei, celestial
bodies, including the Earth, were naturally inclined to mov e in circles. This v iew displaced another Aristotelian idea
—that all objects grav itated towards their designated natural place-of-belonging. [7 ]

René Descartes
Descartes set out to replace the Aristotelian worldv iew with a theory about space and motion as determined by
natural laws. In other words, he sought a metaphy sical foundation or a mechanical explanation for his theories
about matter and motion. Cartesian space was Euclidean in structure—infinite, uniform and flat. [8] It was defined as
that which contained matter; conv ersely , matter by definition had a spatial extension so that there was no such thing
as empty space. [5]

The Cartesian notion of space is closely linked to his theories about the nature of the body , mind and matter. He is
famously known for his "cogito ergo sum" (I think therefore I am), or the idea that we can only be certain of the fact
that we can doubt, and therefore think and therefore exist. His theories belong to the rationalist tradition, which

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attributes knowledge about the world to our ability to think rather than to our experiences, as the empiricists
believ e. [9] He posited a clear distinction between the body and mind, which is referred to as the Cartesian dualism.

Leibniz and Newton

Following Galilei and Descartes, during the sev enteenth century the philosophy of
space and time rev olv ed around the ideas of Gottfried Leibniz, a German
philosopher–mathematician, and Isaac Newton, who set out two opposing theories
of what space is. Rather than being an entity that independently exists ov er and
abov e other matter, Leibniz held that space is no more than the collection of spatial
relations between objects in the world: "space is that which results from places
taken together". [1 0] Unoccupied regions are those that could hav e objects in them,
and thus spatial relations with other places. For Leibniz, then, space was an
idealised abstraction from the relations between indiv idual entities or their
possible locations and therefore could not be continuous but must be discrete. [1 1 ]
Space could be thought of in a similar way to the relations between family
Gottfried Leibniz
members. Although people in the family are related to one another, the relations
do not exist independently of the people. [1 2] Leibniz argued that space could not
exist independently of objects in the world because that implies a difference between two univ erses exactly alike
except for the location of the material world in each univ erse. But since there would be no observ ational way of
telling these univ erses apart then, according to the identity of indiscernibles, there would be no real difference
between them. According to the principle of sufficient reason, any theory of space that implied that there could be
these two possible univ erses must therefore be wrong. [1 3]

Newton took space to be more than relations between material objects and based
his position on observ ation and experimentation. For a relationist there can be no
real difference between inertial motion, in which the object trav els with constant
v elocity , and non-inertial motion, in which the v elocity changes with time, since all
spatial measurements are relativ e to other objects and their motions. But Newton
argued that since non-inertial motion generates forces, it must be absolute. [1 4] He
used the example of water in a spinning bucket to demonstrate his argument. Water
in a bucket is hung from a rope and set to spin, starts with a flat surface. After a
while, as the bucket continues to spin, the surface of the water becomes concav e. If
the bucket's spinning is stopped then the surface of the water remains concav e as it
continues to spin. The concav e surface is therefore apparently not the result of
relativ e motion between the bucket and the water. [1 5] Instead, Newton argued, it
must be a result of non-inertial motion relativ e to space itself. For sev eral centuries Isaac Newton
the bucket argument was considered decisiv e in showing that space must exist
independently of matter.

Kant
In the eighteenth century the German philosopher Immanuel Kant dev eloped a theory of knowledge in which
knowledge about space can be both a priori and synthetic. [1 6] According to Kant, knowledge about space is
synthetic, in that statements about space are not simply true by v irtue of the meaning of the words in the statement.
In his work, Kant rejected the v iew that space must be either a substance or relation. Instead he came to the

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conclusion that space and time are not discov ered by humans to be objectiv e
features of the world, but imposed by us as part of a framework for organizing
experience. [1 7 ]

Non-Euclidean geometry
Euclid's Elements contained fiv e postulates that form
the basis for Euclidean geometry . One of these, the
parallel postulate, has been the subject of debate
among mathematicians for many centuries. It states
that on any plane on which there is a straight line L1
and a point P not on L1 , there is exactly one straight
line L2 on the plane that passes through the point P
Immanuel Kant
and is parallel to the straight line L1 . Until the 19th
century , few doubted the truth of the postulate;
Spherical geometry is
instead debate centered ov er whether it was necessary as an axiom, or whether it was
similar to elliptical
geometry. On a sphere a theory that could be deriv ed from the other axioms. [1 8] Around 1830 though, the
(the surface of a ball) Hungarian János Boly ai and the Russian Nikolai Iv anov ich Lobachev sky separately
there are no parallel published treatises on a ty pe of geometry that does not include the parallel postulate,
lines. called hy perbolic geometry . In this geometry , an infinite number of parallel lines pass
through the point P. Consequently , the sum of angles in a triangle is less than 180° and
the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter is greater than pi. In the 1850s,
Bernhard Riemann dev eloped an equiv alent theory of elliptical geometry , in which no parallel lines pass through P.
In this geometry , triangles hav e more than 180° and circles hav e a ratio of circumference-to-diameter that is less
than pi.

Ratio of
Type of Number of Sum of angles Measure of
circumference to
geometry parallels in a triangle curvature
diameter of circle

Hyperbolic Infinite < 180° >π <0

Euclidean 1 180° π 0

Elliptical 0 > 180° <π >0

Gauss and Poincaré

Although there was a prev ailing Kantian consensus at the time, once non-Euclidean geometries had been formalised,
some began to wonder whether or not phy sical space is curv ed. Carl Friedrich Gauss, a German mathematician, was
the first to consider an empirical inv estigation of the geometrical structure of space. He thought of making a test of
the sum of the angles of an enormous stellar triangle, and there are reports that he actually carried out a test, on a
small scale, by triangulating mountain tops in Germany . [1 9]

Henri Poincaré, a French mathematician and phy sicist of the late 19th century , introduced an important insight in
which he attempted to demonstrate the futility of any attempt to discov er which geometry applies to space by
experiment. [20] He considered the predicament that would face scientists if they were confined to the surface of an
imaginary large sphere with particular properties, known as a sphere-world. In this world, the temperature is taken
to v ary in such a way that all objects expand and contract in similar proportions in different places on the sphere.

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With a suitable falloff in temperature, if the

scientists try to use measuring rods to determine
the sum of the angles in a triangle, they can be
deceiv ed into thinking that they inhabit a plane,
rather than a spherical surface. [21 ] In fact, the
scientists cannot in principle determine whether
they inhabit a plane or sphere and, Poincaré
argued, the same is true for the debate ov er
whether real space is Euclidean or not. For him,
which geometry was used to describe space was a
matter of conv ention. [22] Since Euclidean
geometry is simpler than non-Euclidean Carl Friedrich Gauss
Henri Poincaré geometry , he assumed the former would alway s
be used to describe the 'true' geometry of the
world. [23]

Einstein
In 1905, Albert Einstein published his special theory of relativ ity , which led to the
concept that space and time can be v iewed as a single construct known as
spacetime. In this theory , the speed of light in a v acuum is the same for all
observ ers—which has the result that two ev ents that appear simultaneous to one
particular observ er will not be simultaneous to another observ er if the observ ers
are mov ing with respect to one another. Moreov er, an observ er will measure a
mov ing clock to tick more slowly than one that is stationary with respect to them;
and objects are measured to be shortened in the direction that they are mov ing
with respect to the observ er.

Subsequently , Einstein worked on a general theory of relativ ity , which is a theory

of how grav ity interacts with spacetime. Instead of v iewing grav ity as a force field
acting in spacetime, Einstein suggested that it modifies the geometric structure of Albert Einstein

spacetime itself. [24] According to the general theory , time goes more slowly at
places with lower grav itational potentials and ray s of light bend in the presence of a grav itational field. Scientists
hav e studied the behav iour of binary pulsars, confirming the predictions of Einstein's theories, and non-Euclidean
geometry is usually used to describe spacetime.

Mathematics
In modern mathematics spaces are defined as sets with some added structure. They are frequently described as
different ty pes of manifolds, which are spaces that locally approximate to Euclidean space, and where the properties
are defined largely on local connectedness of points that lie on the manifold. There are howev er, many div erse
mathematical objects that are called spaces. For example, v ector spaces such as function spaces may hav e infinite
numbers of independent dimensions and a notion of distance v ery different from Euclidean space, and topological
spaces replace the concept of distance with a more abstract idea of nearness.

Physics
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Space is one of the few fundamental quantities in phy sics, meaning that it cannot be defined v ia other quantities
because nothing more fundamental is known at the present. On the other hand, it can be related to other
fundamental quantities. Thus, similar to other fundamental quantities (like time and mass), space can be explored
v ia measurement and experiment.

Today , our three-dimensional space is v iewed as embedded in a four-dimensional spacetime, called Minkowski space
(see special relativ ity ). The idea behind space-time is that time is hy perbolic-orthogonal to each of the three spatial
dimensions.

Relativity
Before Einstein's work on relativ istic phy sics, time and space were v iewed as independent dimensions. Einstein's
discov eries showed that due to relativ ity of motion our space and time can be mathematically combined into one
object–spacetime. It turns out that distances in space or in time separately are not inv ariant with respect to Lorentz
coordinate transformations, but distances in Minkowski space-time along space-time interv als are—which justifies
the name.

In addition, time and space dimensions should not be v iewed as exactly equiv alent in Minkowski space-time. One
can freely mov e in space but not in time. Thus, time and space coordinates are treated differently both in special
relativ ity (where time is sometimes considered an imaginary coordinate) and in general relativ ity (where different
signs are assigned to time and space components of spacetime metric).

Furthermore, in Einstein's general theory of relativ ity , it is postulated that space-time is geometrically distorted –
curved – near to grav itationally significant masses. [25]

One consequence of this postulate, which follows from the equations of general relativ ity , is the prediction of mov ing
ripples of space-time, called grav itational wav es. While indirect ev idence for these wav es has been found (in the
motions of the Hulse–Tay lor binary sy stem, for example) experiments attempting to directly measure these wav es
are ongoing at the LIGO and Virgo collaborations. LIGO scientists reported the first such direct observ ation of
grav itational wav es on 14 September 2015. [26][27 ]

Cosmology
Relativ ity theory leads to the cosmological question of what shape the univ erse is, and where space came from. It
appears that space was created in the Big Bang, 13.8 billion y ears ago [28] and has been expanding ev er since. The
ov erall shape of space is not known, but space is known to be expanding v ery rapidly due to the cosmic inflation.

Spatial measurement
The measurement of physical space has long been important. Although earlier societies had dev eloped measuring
sy stems, the International Sy stem of Units, (SI), is now the most common sy stem of units used in the measuring of
space, and is almost univ ersally used.

Currently , the standard space interv al, called a standard meter or simply meter, is defined as the distance trav eled
by light in a v acuum during a time interv al of exactly 1/299,7 92,458 of a second. This definition coupled with
present definition of the second is based on the special theory of relativ ity in which the speed of light play s the role
of a fundamental constant of nature.

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Geographical space
Geography is the branch of science concerned with identify ing and describing places on Earth, utilizing spatial
awareness to try to understand why things exist in specific locations. Cartography is the mapping of spaces to allow
better nav igation, for v isualization purposes and to act as a locational dev ice. Geostatistics apply statistical concepts
to collected spatial data of Earth to create an estimate for unobserv ed phenomena.

Geographical space is often considered as land, and can hav e a relation to ownership usage (in which space is seen as
property or territory ). While some cultures assert the rights of the indiv idual in terms of ownership, other cultures
will identify with a communal approach to land ownership, while still other cultures such as Australian Aboriginals,
rather than asserting ownership rights to land, inv ert the relationship and consider that they are in fact owned by the
land. Spatial planning is a method of regulating the use of space at land-lev el, with decisions made at regional,
national and international lev els. Space can also impact on human and cultural behav ior, being an important factor
in architecture, where it will impact on the design of buildings and structures, and on farming.

Ownership of space is not restricted to land. Ownership of airspace and of waters is decided internationally . Other
forms of ownership hav e been recently asserted to other spaces—for example to the radio bands of the
electromagnetic spectrum or to cy berspace.

Public space is a term used to define areas of land as collectiv ely owned by the community , and managed in their
name by delegated bodies; such spaces are open to all, while priv ate property is the land culturally owned by an
indiv idual or company , for their own use and pleasure.

Abstract space is a term used in geography to refer to a hy pothetical space characterized by complete homogeneity .
When modeling activ ity or behav ior, it is a conceptual tool used to limit extraneous v ariables such as terrain.

In psychology
Psy chologists first began to study the way space is perceiv ed in the middle of the 19th century . Those now
concerned with such studies regard it as a distinct branch of psy chology . Psy chologists analy zing the perception of
space are concerned with how recognition of an object's phy sical appearance or its interactions are perceiv ed, see,
for example, v isual space.

Other, more specialized topics studied include amodal perception and object permanence. The perception of
surroundings is important due to its necessary relev ance to surv iv al, especially with regards to hunting and self
preserv ation as well as simply one's idea of personal space.

Sev eral space-related phobias hav e been identified, including agoraphobia (the fear of open spaces), astrophobia
(the fear of celestial space) and claustrophobia (the fear of enclosed spaces).

The understanding of three-dimensional space in humans is thought to be learned during infancy using unconscious
inference, and is closely related to hand-ey e coordination. The v isual ability to perceiv e the world in three
dimensions is called depth perception.

In the Social Sciences

Space has been studied in the social sciences from the perspectiv es of Marxism, feminism, postmodernism,
postcolonialism, urban theory and critical geography . These theories account for the effect of the history of
colonialism, transatlantic slav ery and globalization on our understanding and experience of space and place. The

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topic has garnered attention since the 1980s, after the publication of Henri Lefebv re's The Production of Space . In
this book, Lefebv re applies Marxist ideas about the production of commodities and accumulation of capital to
discuss space as a social product. His focus is on the multiple and ov erlapping social processes that produce
space. [29]

In his book The Condition of Postmodernity, Dav id Harv ey describes what he terms the "time-space compression."
This is the effect of technological adv ances and capitalism on our perception of time, space and distance. [30]
Changes in the modes of production and consumption of capital affect and are affected by dev elopments in
transportation and technology . These adv ances create relationships across time and space, new markets and groups
of wealthy elites in urban centers, all of which annihilate distances and affect our perception of linearity and
distance. [31 ]

In his book Thirdspace, Edward Soja describes space and spatiality as an integral and neglected aspect of what he
calls the "trialectics of being," the three modes that determine how we inhabit, experience and understand the world.
He argues that critical theories in the Humanities and Social Sciences study the historical and social dimensions of
our liv ed experience, neglecting the spatial dimension. [32] He builds on Henri Lefebv re's work to address the
dualistic way in which humans understand space—as either material/phy sical or as represented/imagined.
Lefebv re's "liv ed space"[33] and Soja's "thridspace" are terms that account for the complex way s in which humans
understand and nav igate place, which "firstspace" and "Secondspace" (Soja's terms for material and imagined spaces
respectiv ely ) do not fully encompass.

Postcolonial theorist Homi Bhabha's concept of Third Space is different from Soja's Thirdspace, ev en though both
terms offer a way to think outside the terms of a binary logic. Bhabha's Third Space is the space in which hy brid
cultural forms and identities exist. In his theories, the term hy brid describes new cultural forms that emerge through
the interaction between colonizer and colonized. [34]

See also
Absolute space and time
Aether theories
Cosmology
General relativity
Personal space
Philosophy of Space and Time
Shape of the universe
Social space
Space exploration
Spatial analysis
Spatial-temporal reasoning

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2. Refer to Plato's Timaeus in the Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University, and to his reflections on k hora. See also
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