Bandara#Ngurah#Rai#:#Bali#

jalan akses
terminal

SI#4243#Rekayasa#Antar#Moda# runway
apron taxiway
Sony Sulaksono Wibowo, PhD.

Bandara#Juanda#:#Surabaya# Bandara Husein Sastranegara, Bandung

taxiway ?

runway

2 ? 1 ?
apron taxiway runway
apron

jalan akses terminal jalan akses

terminal
 Airport'Con*iguration'

Typical'Desirable'Airport'Con*igurations'

Airport#Con@iguration#and# Aerodrome Reference Code'

Runway#Length# Runway Orientation'

Runway'Length'

Runway'Length'Correction'

Geometric'Aspect'of'Runway'

Airport#Con@iguration#

  Airport configuration is defined as the number

and orientation of runways and the location of
the terminal area relative to the runways.
  Number of runways depends on air traffic
volume.
  Orientation of runways depends on the
direction of wind, size and shape of the area
Airport#Con@iguration# and land use and airspace use restrictions in
the vicinity of airport.
  The terminal building should be located so as
to provide easy and timely access to runways.
Airport#Con@iguration#
  Many runway configurations exist
  Most are combinations of these basic
configurations:
!  Single runway
!  Parallel Runways
o  Two parallel runways
o  Two parallel runways with staggered thresholds
o  Four parallel runways
!  Intersecting runways
!  Open-V Runways
Operations#on#Runways#
!  The manner in which each runway in a runway
system at an airport is operated for takeoffs and
landings is refereed to as runway-use-strategy.
!  For a given runway system, the runway-
usestrategy that involves routing of aircrafts in
multiple directions results in complex air traffic
control procedures.
!  Routing of aircrafts in a single direction is less
complex for air traffic control, and yields maximum
capacity when all other things being equal.
Flight#Operation#Rules#
 Aircrafts operate under two basic types of flight rules
 Visual Flight Rules
!  These rules apply when weather conditions are such that aircrafts can
maintain safe separation by visual means.
!  Aircrafts are allowed to fly under “see and be seen principle”
!  Air traffic controllers exercise minimum control under VFR. Intervene
only when there is need. (Passive Control)
 Instrument Flight Rules
!  These rules apply when visibility falls below the minimum level fixed
for VFR operations.
!  In IFR conditions, safer separation is the responsibility of air traffic
control personnel.
!  In other words air traffic controllers exercise positive control when IFR
apply.
Single#Runway#
L/TO# L/TO#
  This is the simplest of the runway configurations.
  Suitable when winds predominantly blow along the runway and
the peak hour air traffic demand is less than 50 operations.
  When winds are light both ends can be used for both arrivals and
departures.
  When winds are strong only one end can be used for operations.
  The capacity of a single runway depends on air traffic mix and type
of control.
!  VFR: 50 – 100 operations
!  IFR: 50 – 70 operations
Two#Parallel#Runways# Two#Parallel#Runways#

  Suitable when winds predominantly blow along the parallel  
runways and the peak hour air traffic demand is high (over
50 operations).
  The capacity of two parallel runways depends on the spacing
between them, runway usage strategy and air traffic mix.  
  The centre line separation between two parallel runways is
classified as close (210 m – 750 m), intermediate (750 m –
1290 m) and far (>1290 m)
 
When the spacing is close, under IFR, operation
of one runway is dependent up on the
operations on the other runway
When the spacing is intermediate, under IFR,
an arrival on one runway is independent of a
departure on the other runway.
When the spacing is far, under IFR, the two
runways can be operated independently.

Two#Parallel#Runways# Capacity#of#Two#Parallel#Runways#

 On closely spaced runways, under VFR, simultaneous

arrivals and departures can be allowed; i.e., arrivals
can occur on one runway while departures are
occurring on the other runway.
 Simultaneous arrivals to both runways or simultaneous
departures from both runways can not be allowed on
closely spaced runways under VFR conditions.
 Intermediate and far parallel runways, under VFR
conditions, may be operated independently; i.e.
simultaneous arrivals to both runways or simultaneous
departures from both runways can be allowed.
Staggered#Parallel#Runways#
  The staggering may be necessary because of the shape of the area
  When the terminal building is located in between the two runways
and when one runway is exclusively used for take off and the other
for landing, the taxiing distance for arriving and departing aircrafts
becomes minimum.
  Adjustment to separation clearance is allowed for simultaneous
arrivals and departures.
Four#Parallel#Runways#
  Four parallel runways are planned to take care of high
demand and when the winds are predominantly blowing
along the runways.
  In the case of four parallel runways, the runways are paired.
Within the pair the runways are spaced closely, but the pair
is spaced far apart.
  Terminal building is located between the pairs.
  The desirable mode of operation is to dedicate the outer
runways for arrivals and inner runways for departures.

Intersecting#Runways# Capacity#of#Intersecting#Runways#

 It becomes necessary to use this configuration when

winds are blowing in more than one direction.
 When the winds are light both runways can be used.
 When the winds are strong only one runway can be
used.
 Capacity depends on the location of the intersection
point and the runway-use-strategy.
 The farther the intersection is from the takeoff end of
the runway and the landing threshold, the lower is the
capacity.
 Highest capacity is achieved when the intersection is
close to the takeoff end and the landing threshold.
Open:V#Runways# Capacity#of#Open:V#Runways#

! Runways in divergent directions which do not

intersect are referred to as open-V runways.
! When the winds are blowing in different
directions, if the layout of the land permits, this
configuration is preferred to intersecting
runways.
! Both the runways can be operated only when
the winds are light.
! The runway-use-strategy where in the
operations are away from the “V” yields highest
capacity.

Single#Runway#Layout# Two#Parallel#Runway#Layout#

 It is assumed that the takeoffs and landings will be

about equal in each direction.  
 If the terminal is located in the middle the taxiing
distances are equal for departing aircrafts
 
irrespective of the end of the runway used.
 This layout is also convenient for the arriving  
aircrafts irrespective of to which end they land.
It is not desirable to place the terminal building to one side
of the parallel runway system. Taxiing distances will become
longer and aircrafts on the ground have to cross active
runways. This will reduce the capacity of the system.
In the case of two parallel runway system, it is desirable to
locate the terminal centrally in between the two runways.
When the winds are light landings and takeoffs can be made
in either direction
Staggered#Parallel#Runway#Layout# Open:V#Runway#Layout#

  In this layout, it is desirable to use one runway

exclusively for takeoffs and the other exclusively for
landings.
  The above runway-use-strategy with landings to   In this configuration it is desirable to locate the
the near threshold results in maximum capacity.
terminal area centrally as shown.
  The above layout and the associated runway-use
strategy results in reduced taxiing distances for   When the winds are light both runways can be used for
both takeoff and landing. landing or takeoff.

Four#Parallel#Runway#Layout#

  In order to avoid interference from taxiing aircrafts, it is desirable

to reserve two runways exclusively for landing and two for takeoffs.
  The terminal area is centrally located between the two pairs of
runways.
  The two outer runways are designated for landing and the two Typical#Desirable#Airport#
runways adjacent to the terminal area are used for departures.
  The crossing of active runways by arriving aircrafts is preferred to Con@igurations#
the crossing of active runways by departing aircrafts by air traffic
control.
Airport#Physical#Layouts#

  Airport layouts exhibit enormous variability (no.

of runways, length of runways, geometric
configuration of runways, airfield layout,
location and configuration of terminal facilities)
  Range from very simple to complex geometries
  Area occupied is only mildly correlated
withtraffic volumes
  Layouts are influenced by historical and local
factors
 San Francisco International Airport
Boston
International
Airport

Sydney International Airport, Australia Charles de Gaulle Airport, Paris

 Factors#affecting#the#airside#con@igurations#

  Wind conditions relevant to the site of the

airport
  The elevation of the airport and the ambient
daytime temperature during warmer months
  Restrictions imposed by various externalities
  Safety & capacity of aircraft operations

Factors#affecting#the#airside#con@igurations# Aircraft#Categorization#will#impact#to#

  Aircraft categories for which the airport is ! Gate numbers

designed for
! Terminal configuration
  Evolution of airside configurations (including
terminal) and related constraints ! Runway configuration
  Taxiing distances for aircraft ! Terminal Location
  Access to ground based transportation network
Categorization#of#aircraft# Categorization#of#aircraft#
Aircraft categorization by weight (FAA/ICAO)
Aircraft categorization by Aircraft categorization by wingspan
FAA Weight
approach speeds (FAA) (FAA / ICAO)
I.C. ICAO
Special classes Current Previous (kg 000) (lb 000)
Approach Speed Wingspan
S1 Small Small < 5.67 < 12.5 Category FAA ICAO
Light (m/s) (Knots) Design Code
5.67-7.03 12.5-15.5 Group Letter (m) (ft)

S2 Small-Plus A < 47 < 91

7.03-18.60 15.5-41.0 I A < 15 < 49
Large B 47-62 91-121
II B 15-24 49-79
L1 Large 18.60-115.7 41.0-255.0 Med
C 62-72 121-141 III C 24-36 79-118
L2 B757 115.7-136.1 255-300
D 72-85 141-166 IV D 36-52 118-171

H1 Heavy 136.08-453.6* 300-1,000* V E 52-65 171-214

Heavy Heavy E > 85 > 166
H2 A380 > 453.6* > 1,000* VI F 65-80 214-262

I.C. : Identification Code Proposed

* : Not defined yet

Higher#proportion#of#aircraft# Lesser#proportion#of#aircraft#
categorized#in#V#&#VI# categorized#in#V#&#VI#
and# and#
Lesser#proportion#of#aircraft# Higher#proportion#of#aircraft#
categorized#in#I#&#II# categorized#in#III#&#IV#
Hong Kong Intl. Airport
Source: Google Earth

Phoenix Intl. Airport

Source: Google Earth

for A380
 Possible'paths'of'evolution'from'a'con*iguration'with'a'single'
runway'to'con*igurations'with'two'runways'
Possible'paths'for''evolution'of'runway'con*igurations'

Paths'of'Evolution'from'two'runway'con*iguration'to'three'runway' Paths'of'Evolution'from'two'runway'con*iguration'to'three'runway'
con*iguration'(Part'1)' con*iguration'(Part'2)'

7+45 Configurations

7 Configurations
Paths'of'Evolution'from'two'runway'con*iguration'to'three'runway'
con*iguration'(Part'3)' Terminal#Areas#
7+45+50 Configurations

Terminal'con*igurations'with'different'degrees'of'ef*iciency'in' Terminal'con*igurations'with'different'degrees'of'ef*iciency'in'terms'
terms'of'taxiing'distance'for'terminal'space'produced'by'two' of'taxiing'distance'for'terminal'space'produced'by'two'intersecting'
parallel'runways'(type'C)' runways'(type'D)'
Location'of'terminal'&'its'effect'on'taxiing'distance'for'
Location'of'terminal'&'its'effect'on'safety'and'taxiing'distance'
a'con*iguration'with'two'far'spaced'parallel'runways'
Wind conditions & runway Wind conditions & aircraft
layout operations

Location'of'terminal'&'its'effect'on'safety'and'taxiing'distance'for'a' Location#of#terminal#&#its#effect#on#safety#and#taxiing#
con*iguration'with'two'intersecting'runways'' distance#
Wind conditions with lesser probability

Wind conditions & runway layout Wind conditions & aircraft operations
Location#of#terminal#&#its#effect#on#safety#and#taxiing# Evolutionary#paths#under#different#conditions#
distance#
Wind conditions with higher probability

Aerodrome#Reference#Code#(ICAO)#

Aerodrome#Reference#Code#
Code#Number# Code#Letter#

  Related to Airplane Reference Field Length, ARFL ! not   Related to wingspan and outer main gear wheel span
the actual runway length that installed in the field
Code Outer Main Gear Wheel Span
Wingspan
Letter (OMWS)
Code Number Criterion
A Wingspan < 15 m OMWS < 4,5 m
1 ARFL < 800 m
B 15 m ≤ Wingspan < 24 m 4,5 m ≤ OMWS < 6 m
2 800 m ≤ ARFL < 1.200 m C 24 m ≤ Wingspan < 36 m 6 m ≤ OMWS < 9 m

3 1.200 m ≤ ARFL < 1.800 m D 36 m ≤ Wingspan < 52 m 9 m ≤ OMWS < 14 m

E 52 m ≤ Wingspan < 65 m 9 m ≤ OMWS < 14 m

4 ARFL ≥ 1.800 m
F 65 m ≤ Wingspan < 80 m 14 m ≤ OMWS < 16 m

Aerodrome#Reference#Code# Aerodrome#Reference#Code#
Example#for#Boeing#Airplanes# Example#for#Boeing#Airplanes#

Runway#Orientation#
Runway#Orientation#and#Wind#
  The orientation of the runway is an important
consideration in airport planning and design
  The goal of this exercise is to define the runway
orientation that maximizes the possible use of the
runway throughout the year accounting for a wide
variety of wind conditions
  FAA and ICAO regulations establish rules about runway
orientation and their expected coverage
  Ideally, all aircraft operations on a runway should be
conducted against the wind
  Unfortunately, wind conditions vary from hour to hour
thus requiring a careful examination of prevailing wind
conditions at the airport site
Considered#Factors#in#Runway#Location#
  Wind
  Airspace availability
  Environmental factors (noise, air and water
quality)
  Obstructions to navigation
  Air traffic control visibility
  Wildlife hazards
Demonstrated#Wind#Conditions#
  Each aircraft has a uniquely stated maximum
crosswind component (derived from flight test
experiments)
!  A Boeing 727-200 (approach group C) has a maximum demonstrated
wind component of 35 knots
!  A Cessna 172 (a single engine aircraft falling in approach speed group
A) has a maximum demonstrated crosswind component of 17 knots
The challenge for the designer is to accommodate
all of the aircraft using the facility in a reliable and
reasonable manner
Reporting#Wind#Conditions# Crosswind#Computation,#example#
Wind#is#reported#on#an#azimuthally#

Design#Criteria# FAA#Crosswind#Design#Criteria#

  Recognizing that each aircraft has unique maximum

  Employ the most critical aircraft expected to operate (In demonstrated crosswind characteristics the FAA (and
the most cases the critical is the largest) ICAO as well) set a low value for crosswind design
  Provide runway(s) orientation that satisfies 95% criteria
coverage
  If a runway does not meet the 95% ! a second runway
  Reference:`
!  FAA AC 150/5300-13, Chapter 2
!  ICAO Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 1 Runway
ICAO#Crosswind#Design#Criteria# Wind#Data#Sources#

  ICAO has two aerodrome classifications.

  For mountainous terrain with data without wind data
! using the nearby stations could be questionable
value
  Take one year of wind data if possible
  Several automated reporting systems exist at airport
that can be used
!  AWOS - Automated Weather Observation System
  Use 5-10 years of data for airport planning purposes
(except when you are collecting the data yourself)

Sample#Wind#Data# Wind#Rose#Analysis#

  A clever way to portray all wind data in graphical

template and estimate the percent runway coverage
  The wind rose is just a graphical way to add decompose
vectors
  The wind rose is populated with percentages derived
from wind observations
  A wind rose can be built with a piece of cardboard and
a transparent template
Wind#Analysis#
  The wind data:
!  Intensity (speed)
!  Direction
!  Duration (within a year)
  High intensity winds perpendicular to the direction of
runway cause wobbling effect and cause problems
during landing and takeoff of aircrafts
  Smaller aircrafts are particularly effected by
crosswinds.
Collection#of#Wind#Data#
  In the absence of wind data for a site, it is permissible
to develop composite wind data using wind information
obtained from two or more nearby recording stations.
  In extreme cases, wind data should be collected for at
least one year at the site and the composite wind data
for the site should be prepared by merging data from
nearby recording stations and augmented with personal
observations.
  Airport development should not proceed until adequate
wind data are acquired
Collection#of#Wind#Data#
  The wind information that is used in the analysis
should be latest and should accurately represent the
situation.
  Preferably, wind data for the last 10 consecutive years
should be collected for carrying out the analysis.
  Wind data records for durations less than 10 years may
be utilized with caution.
  In some instances, it may be highly desirable to obtain
and assemble wind information for periods of particular
significance.
  At least 16 wind quadrants and suitable speed
groupings should be used.
Wind#Analysis#
  Cross wind component
!  The component of wind intensity perpendicular to the
centre line of runway is termed as cross wind component.
  Allowable cross wind component
!  This is the maximum cross wind component that is safe for
aircraft operations. This depends on the size of aircraft,
wing configuration and the condition of the pavement
surface.
Analysis#of#Wind# Analysis#of#Wind#

  ICAO guidelines on cross wind component   Wind coverage

!  The amount of time in an year during which the cross wind
component is less than the allowable cross wind component
!  FAA and ICAO specifies that the runways should be oriented in
such a way to give at least 95% wind coverage.
!  If it is not possible to achieve with one runway, a cross wind
runway should be provided to achieve the same.
  Calm Period
!  Percentage of time during which wind intensity is less than a
small value of wind speed (say 6.5 km/hr) which will not effect
the operations.
  Wind rose
!  A diagram where in the direction, duration and intensity are
graphically represented.

Wind#Coverage#(ICAO)# Wind#Rose#Construction#

  For operations on any given runway, crosswinds

should not exceed:
!  37 km/h (20 knots) for aircraft whose reference field length
is 1500 m or more, except with poor braking action, when
the limit is 24 km/h (13 knots)
!  24 km/h (13 knots) for ref. field length between 1200 m and
1,499 m
!  19 km/h (10.5 knots) for ref field length of less than 1,200 m
  Crosswind coverage (or “airport usability factor”)
should be at least 95%
 Typical#Wind#Data#in#Wind#Rose# Wind#Rose#
Percentage of Wind!
Wind Direction!
4-15 mph! 15-31 mph! 31-47 mph! Total!
N! 3.4! 2.4! 0.1! 5.9!
NNE ! 2.7! 1.5! 0.2! 4.4!
NE ! 1.8! 1.9! 0.3! 4.0!
ENE ! 4.7! 1.0! 0.1! 5.8!
E! 7.2! 3.7! 0.3! 11.2!
ESE ! 7.4! 4.1! 0.2! 11.7!
SE ! 3.1! 2.4! 0.1! 5.6!
SSE ! 2.3! 1.1! 0.1! 3.5!
S! 2.2! 1.1! 0.1! 3.4!
SSW ! 1.6! 0.8! 0.2! 2.6!
SW ! 1.3! 0.5! 0.3! 2.1!
WSW ! 2.7! 1.2! 0.2! 4.1!
W! 7.3! 3.2! 0.2! 10.7!
WNW ! 6.3! 4.7! 0.2! 11.2!
NW ! 2.3! 3.0! 0.1! 5.4!
NNW ! 2.1! 1.2! 0.2! 3.5!
Calms 0 - 4 mph! 4.9!
Total! 100.0!

o  Code Letter: C
o  Maximum Permissible
Cross Wind: 23 mph Case#for#Second#Runway#
Arah (Orientasi) Usability
Runway! Factor (%)!
0 - 18! 89.4!
1 - 19! 88.2!
2 - 20! 88.1!
3 - 21! 88.3!
4 - 22! 89.8!
5 - 23! 90.6!
6 - 24! 92.4!
7 - 25! 93.4!
8 - 26! 94.1!
9 - 27! 95.6!
10 - 28! 94.2!
11 - 29! 94.3!
12 - 30! 94.3!
13 - 31! 94.6!
14 - 32! 93.8!
15 - 33! 93.2!
16 - 34! 92.1!
17 - 35! 90.3!
Case#for#Second#Runway# Case#for#Second#Runway#

Husein#Sastranegara#Bandung# Hang#Nadim#Batam#
Penomoran#Landasan#Pacu# Contoh#Penomoran#Landasan#Pacu#

  Ujung-ujung landasan pacu terdapat nomor landasan Sudut azimuth runway: 90o
pacu (runway designation number) (berarti arah runway: Timur-Barat)

Nomor landasan pacu terdiri atas 2 (dua) angka Nomor runway:

(contoh: 04 dan 22) 90:10 = 9; ditulis 09
(180+90):10 = 27; ditulis 27
Nomor tersebut berhubungan dengan sudut azimuth
landasan pacu   Ujung landasan pacu sebelah Timur diberi nomor 27 dan ujung
landasan pacu sebelah Barat diberi nomor 09

Soekarno#Hatta,#07L# Soekarno#Hatta,#25L#
Soekarno#Hatta,#25R# Threshold#

  Pada awal landasan pacu yang dipergunakan untuk

pendaratan (landing) terdapat tanda/marka, yang
memberikan informasi ke pilot titik awal landing

  Tanda ini disebut threshold

  Pada saat pesawat terbang melintasi threshold,

kecepatan pesawat terbang harus sudah mencapai
kecepatan untuk landing, agar roda-roda pendaratan
dapat menyentuh permukaan landasan pacu di touch-
down area

Basic#Runway#Length#

  Length of runway required based on the imposed

performance requirements of the critical aircraft under
standard conditions
!  ∼ ARFL in ICAO standards
  Be determined for the following three general cases:
–  Normal landing case
–  Normal Takeoff case
Runway#Length# –  Engine failure case
•  Continued takeoff
•  Aborted takeoff (Engine failure accelerated stop)
Basic#Components# Runway#Component#

 Full strength pavement (FS)   Each runway end has to be considered individually for
!  support the full weight of the aircraft runway length analysis
 Clearway (CL)
!  a prepared area beyond FS
!  clear of obstacles (max slope is 1.25%)
!  allowing aircraft to climb safely at the clear imaginary
obstacle of 11 m (35’)
 Stopway (SW)
!  a paved surface that allows an aircraft overrun without
harming the vehicle structurally
!  cannot be used for takeoff

Clearway# Stopway#
Nomenclature# Normal#Landing#Case#

FL = field length (total amount of runway needed)   Pilot approaches with proper speed and crosses the
FS = full strength pavement distance threshold of the runway at a height of 15m
  The demonstrated distance to stop should be within 60% of
CL = clearway distance
landing distance
SW = stopway distance
LOD = lift off distance
TOR = takeoff run
TOD = takeoff distance
LD = landing distance
SD = stopping distance
D35 = distance to clear an 11 m (35 ft.) obstacle
! Declared Distances in ICAO standards

Normal#Takeoff#Case# Normal#Takeoff#Case#

  The length of runway depends on

!  Lift off distance (LOD)
!  Distance to reach a height of 35 feet (D35)
  Take of Distance (TOD) is taken as 1.15 times the D35
!  The entire length of TOD need not to be fully strength
pavement.
!  Permitted to use Clearway at the end of full strength
pavement
  Clearway Length (CL) = 0.5(TOD-1.15LOD)
  The full strength runway, which is TOD-CL, is also
termed as Take off Run (TOR)
Engine#Failure#Cases# Engine#Failure#Cases#

 Engine failure continued takeoff   Engine Failure Aborted Takeoff Case

!  TOD and LOD will be longer than those in normal takeoff
!  The length of runway should be sufficient to stop
case
!  The distance required by an aero plane for accelerating,
!  TOD is taken as D35 with no percentage applied
decelerating and coming to a stop
!  Regulations permit the use of clearway at the end
!  Be termed as Distance to Accelerated Stop (DAS)
!  Length of Clearway (CL) is half the difference between
!  For piston engine aircrafts
TOD and LOD
o  full strength pavement is used to the entire DAS
!  FS = TOR = TOD-CL
!  For turbine engine aircrafts
!  FL = FS + CL
o  Permitted to use Stopway as portion of DAS beyond TOR

Example#Problem#
Engine#Failure#Case#
#
Determine the runway length requirements according to the
specifications for a turbine powered aircraft with the following
performance characteristics:
  Normal Landing:
!  SD = 2540 m
  Normal Takeoff:
!  LOD = 2134 m
!  D35 = 2438
  Engine Failure Continued Takeoff:
!  LOD = 2500 m
!  D35 =2774 m
  Engine Failure Aborted Takeoff:
!  DAS = 2896 m
Solution# Displaced#Threshold#
  Normal landing:
!  LD = 1.667*SD = 1.667*1524 = 2540 m
  Normal takeoff:
!  TOD = 1.15 (D35) = 1.15*2438 = 2804 m
!  CL = 0.5(TOD-1.15LOD) = 0.5(2804-1.15*2134) = 175 m
!  TOR = TOD –CL = 2804 -175 = 2629 m
  Engine failure take off:
!  TOD = D35 = 2774 m
!  CL = 0.5(TOD-LOD) = 0.5(2774-2500) =137 m
!  TOR = TOD – CL = 2774 – 137 = 2637 m
  Engine failure aborted take off:
!  DAS = 2896 m
  Summary:
!  FL =max (LD, TOD, DAS) = 2896 m
!  FS = max (TOR, LD) = 2637 m
!  SW = (DAS – FS) = 259 m
!  CL = FL – (FS+SW) = 2896 – 2896 = 0

Runway#Distance#
Declared#Distance#

TORA: Take Off Run Available

TODA: Take Off Distance Available
ASDA: Accelerate Stop Distance Available
LDA: Landing Distance Available
 Environment#of#the#Runway#Length#
Basic runway length is valid under the following assumed
conditions at the airport:
  Altitude is at sea level
  Temperature at the airport is standard
  Runway is level in the longitudinal direction
  No wind is blowing on runway
  Aircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity

Runway#Length#Correction#   No wind is blowing en route to the destination

  En route temperature is standard

Corrections#to#the#Length# Correction#for#Elevation#

  The basic runway length is corrected for the actual   High altitudes reflect low air densities ! lower output of
conditions at the airport thrust.
  The following corrections are applied: !  Therefore, higher the altitude the longer the runway
!  Correction for elevation required.
!  The increase in runway length with altitude is not linear
!  Correction for temperature
and it varies with weight and temperature.
!  Correction for gradient !  The rate of increase at higher altitudes is higher than at
lower altitudes.
Note: ICAO recommends that the basic runway length should
ICAO uses ‘slope’ instead ‘gradient’ be increased at the rate of 7% per 300 m rise in
elevation above mean sea level.
  Exception for high temperature and high altitude areas
!  the increase could be up to 10%.
Correction#for#Temperature# Airport#Reference#Temperature#(tAR)#

  Higher temperatures reflect lower air densities ! lower Can be calculated as:
out put of thrust. tAR = t1 + (t2 – t1)/3
!  Therefore, higher the temperature the longer the runway
required. t1 = mean of the mean daily temperatures for the hottest
!  The increase in runway length with temperature is not month
linear.
t2 = mean of the maximum daily temperatures for the
!  The rate of increase at high temperatures is greater than at
lower temperatures. hottest month
ICAO recommends that the base runway length after
having been corrected for elevation, should be further Note:
increased at the rate of 1% for every 1°C rise of airport airport reference temperature ≠ average daily temperatures
reference temperature above the standard atmospheric
temperature at that elevation.

Standard#Atmospheric#Temperature#(tSA)# Standard#
Atmospheric#
  The standard temperature at mean sea level is 15°C
(example).
Temperature#
Nomogram#(in#ICAO)#
  The temperature gradient of the standard temperature
from the mean sea level to the altitude at which the
temperature becomes is 0.0065°C per meter, or
Note:
At the Sea Level,
tSA = tSL – 0.0065!*!eleva(on Temperature ! 15°C!
" " " Air!Pressure!!!76!cmHg!
in!meters Air!Density!!!1.225!kg/m3
°C 15°C

Take Sea Level Temperature of 15°C

Check#for#Correction# Correction#for#Gradient#

  The total correction in basic runway length for elevation  
and temperature should not exceed 35%.
  If this correction exceeds 35% further checks are  
needed using model studies.
 
 
If the runway is on gradient, the aircraft has to
overcome the grade resistance.
More runway length is required to achieve the required
speed for liftoff.
Studies indicate that the runway length varies linearly
with the gradient.
Airport design criteria limits the runway gradient to a
maximum of 1.5%

Effective#Gradient# Correction#for#Gradient#

  Effective gradient is defined as the maximum difference  
in elevation between the highest and the lowest points
of runway divided by the total length of runway.
 
FAA recommends that the runway length after having
been corrected for elevation and temperature should be
further increased at the rate of 20% for every 1%
effective gradient.
ICAO, however, recommends that the runway length
should be further increased at the rate of 10% for
every 1% effective slope.

Effective gradient = (h4 – h3)/L

Example#Problem#
 
  Determine the actual length of runway to be provided for  
the following data
!  Basic runway length: 1500 m
!  Elevation of the runway: 110 m +MSL
!  Mean of average daily temperatures for the hottest month:  
18oC
!  Mean of maximum daily temperatures: 30oC  
!  The construction plan includes the following data:
 
Solution#
Correction for elevation = (7/100)×(110/300)×(1500) = 38.50 m
!  Corrected length = 1500 + 38.50 = 1538.5 m
Correction for temperature:
!  Standard temperature = 15 – 0.0065 × 110 = 14.285°C
!  Airport reference temperature = 18 + (30 -18)/3 = 22°C
!  Correction = 1538.5 × (22 - 14.285) × (1/100) = 118.7 m
!  Corrected length = 1538.5 + 118.7 = 1657.2 m
Check for elevation and temperature correction
!  Increase the length = (1657.2-1500)/(1500/100) = 10.48%<35% ! ok
Correction for gradient
!  Station 0 300 900 1500 1800 2100
!  Elevation 100 101.5 99.7 105.7 104.2 103.3
!  Effective gradient = [(105.7 – 99.7)/1657.2] ×100 = 0.362%
!  Correction (ICAO)= 1657.2 × (0.362 × 10)/100 = 60 m
!  Corrected length = 1657.2 + 60 = 1717.2 m
Actual runway length at the airport = 1720 m

Runway#Safety#Area#

  The runway safety area is centered on the runway

 
 
Geometric#Aspects#of#RUNWAY#
 
centerline and is prepared or suitable for reducing the
risk of damage to aircraft in the case of undershoot,
overshoot or excursion from the runway.
The runway safety area includes the structural
pavement, shoulders, blast pad, stopway and to be
mandatory cleared and graded.
This area should be cleared, drained and graded and
have no potentially hazardous ruts, humps,
depressions, or other surface variations.
It should be free of objects, except for objects that need
to be located in the runway safety area
Runway#Safety#Area# Runway#OFA,#OFZ#&#RPZ#

PLAN   Runway Object Free Area (OFA)

!  two dimensional ground area centered on the runway center line which must
be clear of parked aircraft and objects other than those whose location is fixed
by function
Runway Obstacle Free Zone (OFZ)
!  volume of air space centered above the runway which supports the transition
between ground and airborne operations.
!  The OFZ clearing standard precludes taxiing and parked airplanes and object
penetrations, except for frangible visual navigational aids that need to be
located in the OFZ because of their function.
!  The FAA specifies this as the airspace above a surface whose elevation is the
same as that of the nearest point on the runway centerline and extending 200 ft
(60 m) beyond each end of runway.
  Runway Protection Zone (RPZ)
!  It is an area on the ground used to enhance the protection of people and
objects near the runway approach.
Section A-A

Runway#Protection#Zone# Runway#Shoulder#

  Runway shoulders provide resistance to blast erosion

and accommodate the passage of maintenance and
emergency equipment and the occasional passage of an
airplane veering from the runway.

Source: FAA AC: 150/5300-13 (2007)

Blast#Pad# Holding#Bays#

  Runway blast pads provide blast erosion protection  
beyond runway ends.
 
 
Large paved areas to hold more than one aircraft at a
time near a runway end
Provide the physical space for a runway departure
queue
Provide operational flexibility to ATC personnel to
arrange aircraft sequence in a departure queue

Longitudinal#Pro@ile# Longitudinal#Pro@ile#(ICAO)#

  Desirable to minimize the magnitude of gradient and

the grade changes
  The number and size of grade changes are limited by
FAA and ICAO
  Longitudinal slope changes are accomplished by means
of vertical curves
  The length of vertical curve is determined by the
magnitude of the changes in slope and the maximum
allowable change in slope of the runway

*May not exceed 0.8 percent in first and last quarters for runway of aerodrome code 4 or for a
category II or III precision-instrument runway for aerodrome code 3.
†Difference in elevation between high and low point divided by runway length.
‡For each 1 percent change in grade.
§Distance is multiplied by sum of absolute grade changes in percent; minimum length is 45m.
Transverse#Pro@ile# Transverse#Gradient#(ICAO)#

  Transverse Gradients
!  Transverse gradients are provided for the purpose of drainage and
navigational and obstruction free requirements

Runway#Exits# Typical#Runway#Exit#Design#Speeds#

  The purpose of runway exists is to improve service   Values measures by Virginia Tech research in 1992-
times of airport runways 1996 time period
  The number of runway exists varies from airport to !  90 degree angle ~ 8 m/s
airport and within runways at the same airport !  45 degree angle ~ 15 m/s
  Several types of runway exits have been tried in the !  30 degree angle ~ 21 m/s
past
!  90 degree (right-angle) exit
Note:
!  45 degree exit (for GA applications) Technically, design speeds for these exits are higher (for example, the
!  30 degree high speed turnoff (for high density operations 30 degree exit was designed for 60-65 mph). Pilots are conservative in
at busy airports) practice while using high-speed runway exits
Designation#of#Runways#
  Runways are identified by a two-digit number, which
indicates the magnetic azimuth of the runway in the
direction of operations to the nearest 10º
  When parallel runways are involved the indication R
(“right”), L (“left”) and, with three runways, C (“center”)
is also used (e.g. Runway 22R)
  Note that 22R is 04L in the opposite direction
  With 4-6 runways, one pair is marked to the nearest
10º and the other to the next nearest 10º
selesai#
Sight#Distance#on#Runway#
 The runway profile must permit an
unobstructed view between any two points
at a specified height above the runway
centre line to be mutually visible for a
distance equal to one-half the length of the
runway.
 Specified height
!  1.5 m – for aerodrome code A
!  2.0 m – for aerodrome code B
!  3.0 m – for aerodrome codes C, D or E