The Analysis of Discourse Markers in Students' English Writing

THE ANALYSIS OF DISCOURSE MARKERS IN STUDENTS’ ENGLISH
WRITING
MUTHMAINNAH MURSIDIN, S. Pd., M. Pd.

NIDN. 0923019002
ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY OF MAKASSAR

September, 2016
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2
HALAMAN PENGESAHAN
Judul Penelitian : THE ANALYSIS OF DISCOURSE MARKERS IN

STUDENTS’ ENGLISH WRITING
Nama Rumpun Ilmu : Pendidikan Bahasa (dan Sastra) Inggris
Peneliti
a. Nama Lengkap : Mutmainnah Mursidin, S.Pd., M.Pd
b. NIDN : 0923019002
c. Jabatan Fungsional : Asisten Ahli
d. Program Studi : Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris
e. Nomor HP /surel : 085242823582/muthmainnahmursidin23@yahoo.com
f. Perguruan Tinggi : Universitas Islam Makassar
Kota Makassar, 08-09-2016

Mengetahui,
Dekan Peneliti
(Dr. H. M. Arfah Shiddiq, M.A.) (Mutmainnah Mursidin, S.Pd., M.Pd)

NIP/NIK 195102051978011001 NIDN. 0923019002
Menyetujui,
Ketua LPPM
(Dr. Ir. Musdalipa Mahmud, M.Si.)

NIP. 19630626 199203 2 001
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter consists of background, research questions, objective of the
research, significance of the research, and scope of the research. The followings are
the explanation of each parts.
A. Background
The background of this research covers four distinct components. They are
novelty, importance, urgency, and feasibility. Pertaining to this research, these
components discussed to get the insight of this research. The explanation of each
components showed the background of this research.
Discourse Markers (henceforth DMs) have been studied from various research
perspective in the field of linguistics (Jucker and Ziv, 1998; Fraser, 1999; Müller,
2004) and contributed in developing of DMs in teaching and learning process. The
novelty of this research investigate the DMs emerging in students’ writing. In Sperber
and Wilson’s relevance theory (1995), the DMs can be seen as a signpost which
constrains the interpretation process and the concomitant background selection.
Discourse markers as the binding elements of a text in creating a meaningful
discourse have been viewed from different dimensions in language studies. Brown
and Yule (1983) defined discourse as “the analysis of language in use“ believed that
such an outlook could not restrict the description of linguistic forms independent of
the purposes or functions they serve in human affairs. Hatch (1992:1) defined
discourse analysis as the study of language communication, spoken and written. To
understand discourse and its scope, it is necessary to identify different elements
which contribute to the creation of discourse. One of the elements referred to in
different literatures is text markers or discourse markers.
The importance of this research deals with the literature on discourse and
writing skill analysis which analyze the emerging of DMs in students’ writing.
According to Halliday and Hassan (1976), cohesion in English deals with those
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elements which create cohesion in a text and shape contexts in extended pieces of
written or spoken language. They refer to cohesive devices in a very broad sense and
divided them into reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunctive. Schiffrin (1992)
referred to different type of DMs which are to some extent similar to Halliday and
Hassan conjunctives. In both Schiffrin (1992) and Halliday and Hassan (1976), the
different types of conjunctives referred to, and divided into four general and major
parts as “additive, adversative, causal, temporal. These connective elements represent
the generalized types of connection which are recognized as holding between
sentences. As Halliday and Hassan (1976) believed these connections are not logical
but textual.
When the students are planning to write a well-organized text in their writing
task, cohesion and coherence must be taken into consideration. The organization of
sentence of a text or a written discourse is not like putting up bricks one upon one,
there are some relationship between those sentences. Halliday and Hassan (1976:291)
have defined a text as “not just a string of sentences. It is not simply a long
grammatical unit, something of the same kind as a sentence, but differing from it in
size a sort of super sentence, a semantic unit“. Halliday and Hassan identify five
main cohesive devices in English discourse: reference, substitution, ellipsis, lexical
cohesion and conjunction. The option of DMs refers to the fact that they are almost
always syntactically optional, i.e. they can removed without altering the
grammaticality of the host sentence (Degand, 2010). This does not mean that DMs
have no function whatever in the utterances they occur in. A slight improvement has
been detected in writing ability.
Conjunction, or connective element, which is what Halliday called DMs,
involved the use of formal markers (i.e. discourse markers) to relate sentences,
clauses and paragraphs to each other. The difference of the conjunction with
reference, substitution, or ellipsis is that it does not instruct the reader to find missing
information by looking for it in the text. Instead, conjunction signals the way the
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writer wants the reader to relate what is about to be said to what has been said before.
The conjunctive elements (DMs) presuppose the presence of other components in the
discourse” (Halliday, 1976). DMs not only give cohesion to a text, they also cohere
two sentences together.
In fact it is not easy to list definitively all the items that perform the
conjunctive role in English. Single-word conjunctions merge into phrasal and clausal
ones, and there is often little difference between the linking of two clauses by a
single-word conjunction, a phrasal one, or a lexical item somewhere else in the
clause. Finally, DMs are distinguished from other types of commentary markers,
from vocatives, interjections, and from expressions such as oh, y’know, I mean, and
because, often treated as a part of this group (Fraser, 2002).
The urgency towards the functions of DMs in students’ writing has been
debated among the teachers. Within the past fifteen years or so there has been an
increasing interest in the theoretical status of DMs, focusing on what they are, what
they mean, and what functions they manifest in texts. Fraser (1999) proposed that
DMs are conjunctions, adverbs, and prepositional phrases that connect two sentences,
but the current sentence or utterance with its immediate context. Knowing that,
teachers can take positive and effective steps when they teach English writing.
According to Aijmer (2002), DMs are highly context specific and indexed to
attitudes, participants, and text. Therefore, they have discourse functions both on the
textual and interpersonal level. DMs play an important role in understanding
discourse and information progression (Schiffrin, 1987).
DMs play an important role in a text’s cohesion and coherence. The writer of
this paper can assume that discourse markers have some relationship with a
discourse’s cohesion, texture and coherence (Aidinlou and Mehr, 2012). Then the
researcher can put forward a hypothesis: in order to make their English writing more
cohesive and more coherent, besides reference, substitution and ellipsis, students are
also very likely to use discourse markers in their essays. If this is true, teacher should
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be clear about how their students use discourse markers and how they use discourse
markers correctly and appropriately. Knowing that, teachers can take positive and
effective steps when they teach English writing. Therefore, there is a significant
relationship between teaching discourse markers and enhancement.
Discussions and studies regarding DMs usually concern EFL writing (Feng,
2010) and usually focus on some specific markers such as Well and Oh and their role
in oral communication (Lee, 2000) with the exception of Traugott (1995) who related
DMs to theory of grammaticalization. Further, recent years have seen an emergence
of studies investigating DMs from a number of different perspectives e.g. Halliday
and Hassan’s (1976) seminar work on cohesion in English; however, they didn’t
speak directly of discourse markers. In the meantime, Fraser’s (1990 & 1998)
theoretical framework concerns the meaning of sentence. Therefore, seeing the need
to better understand this powerful construct, Fraser (1990) designed a study to
investigate the productive role of DMs in writing. In explaining discourse markers to
learners, instructors can explain that such words are helpful or necessary whenever
they are writing.
Based on the statements above, pertaining to the feasibility the researcher
interested to conduct a research to analyze the DMs used by the students’ writing that
focusing on their types and their functions.
B. Research Questions
Based on the previous statements above the purpose of this research is to
describe Discourse Markers as they occur in the written data. The researcher
formulates the following research questions:
1. What are the types of discourse markers used in the students’ writing?
2. What are the functions of discourse markers used in the students’ writing?
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C. Objective of the Research

According to the problem statements above the objectives of the research are
to find out:
1. The types of discourse markers used by the students in writing.
2. The functions of discourse markers used by the students in writing.
D. Significance of the Research

The significance of this research explained for several reasons. Academically,
this research is expected to give a contribution for the field of teaching and learning
process in the classroom specially in teaching writing skill in TEFL class. It is
addressed that this research gave a meaningful contribution for the teachers to
consider about discourse markers in teaching writing and they should be considering
about the use of discourse markers on students writing and for the students to be
aware in using discourse markers in writing and how to apply the discourse markers
to create a good writing and also give them information about the importance of
discourse markers knowledge including the types of DMs, and the functions of DMs
in conducting a good writing and make the students’ writing more effective.
Practically, by the competence and knowledge to use of discourse markers,
the students are able to improve their some of the difficulties involve limited
vocabulary, inadequate rhetorical organization and poor or inadequate use of
discourse markers in writing, so that at the end of this research the students is
expected to consider some points in using discourse markers on their writing.
E. Scope of the Research

The scope of this research is viewed from three components. First, by
discipline, this research is under applied linguistics. It restricted to show an analysis
of discourse markers on students writing in TEFL class. Second, by contents, this
research analyzed about the types of discourse markers, the applying of discourse
markers and the functions of discourse markers used by the students in conducting a
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good writing. And the last by activities, this research took the data about the use of
discourse markers from the students writing. And then the researcher analyzed the
data by using descriptive qualitative method.
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter contains several result of other researchers related to this
research. The research pertaining to the research of discourse markers in general
presented, with attention to the using of discourse markers in writing.
A. Some Previous Related Studies

Several studies as previous findings are listed briefly as follows:
Rum (2014) in his research “Analyzing the discourse markers by students’ in
IELTS speaking practice in ELC education Makassar” employed four types of
discourse markers appearing with several different function were like, well, you know,
okay and actually. He revealed new DMs in his research, how to say is considered as
clarification marker when speaker feels hesitant towards the given words that is
uttered before how to say is placed. At the end of his research, he concluded that
DMs are words or phrase in which speaker employ to coordinate what they want to
say, when, to whom and how during conversation. Comparing to my research, if his
research focused on the speaking practice, I focused on differently skill, they are the
types of DMs, the application of DMs and the functions of DMs in students’ writing.
When we link DMs and writing skill is not just talking about the grammatical but also
we have to consider about the coherence and the cohesive of the writing.
Yunus and Haris (2013) in their research “The use of discourse markers
among form four SLL students in essay writing” analyzed the use of discourse
markers in secondary school students’ essay writing, they had identified something
about the use of discourse markers such as the misused, the overused and also the
advanced used of it. This is not a problem that should be underestimated, but it is a
problem that should be taken care of. In writing, it is true that almost everyone can
write about anything, but there is not so many people can write about something. The
writer’s interpretation and the reader’s understanding are different as it depends on
how certain individual comprehend it, so it is very crucial for writers to ensure that
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their message is delivered appropriately to the receiver. Comparing to my research, if

their research is for SLL (second language learner) in this case I focused on
differently, it is for foreign language learner. By this different, I can guess that the
result of our research would be different.
Aidinlou and Mehr (2012) in their research “The effect of discourse markers
instruction on EFL learners’ writing” revealed the importance of teaching text
markers to students in increasing their awareness about the place of their usage in a
written text. Writing not only employs the procedure of a good written text, but
depicts and values the coherence and cohesion, too. Composing a lot of sentences
without considering the cohesive ties fails to negotiate the inter-related events
intended to be decoded by the reader. Then the presence of text markers is a
necessary condition to have a smooth and enjoyable written text. Based upon the fact,
the syllabus designer should believe that including these elements in texts books and
materials is a necessity. In the meantime, the related topics are related to teachers. It
means that teachers should believe that writing as one of the four language skills
should be taught to students. Comparing to my research, I would be focused on the
students’ writing, not considering with the teachers’ role in teaching DMs in
classroom. All the data of my research come from the students, but the introducing of
DMs for the students is a good way to give a clear understanding of DMs although
the theory excluding in the syllabus.
Feng (2010) in his research “Discourse markers in students writing”
concluded that a good writing is not only grammatical, but also cohesive and
coherent. Above analysis tells us that due to lack of discourse markers or misuse of
discourse markers the students’ articles become less cohesive and less coherent. We
cannot say discourse markers are decisive for English writing, but we cannot deny
they have a great effect on the cohesion and coherence of writing. Discourse markers
tell us not only about the linguistic properties (e.g. semantic and pragmatic meanings,
source, functions) of a set of frequently used expressions, and the organization of
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social interactions and situations in which they are used, but also about the cognitive,
expressive, social, and textual competence of those who use them. Regarding to my
research that analyzing about the types and the functions of DMs can avoid the
students’ writing become less cohesive and coherent, because by knowing the types
and functions of DMs the students can consider how to construct a good writing.
Based on the previous findings above, the researcher concludes that discourse
markers helped the students to arrange a good writing, how to consider some points
in writing related to the cohesive and the coherence theory. By the coherence of a
text, it gave us understand about what the text means. Coherence theory people
assume that texts are coherent, there is a definable set of coherence relations and the
recovery of such coherence relations is essential for comprehension. In taking the
data in this research, I focused on how to get the data about the types of DMs, the
application of DMs and the functions of DMs in students’ English writing by using an
instrument namely academic writing.
B. Some Pertinent Ideas

1. Discourse Markers
Discourse refers to pieces of language larger than a sentence that function
together to convey a given idea or information. The linguistic devices that are used to
hang the pieces of language or expression together are called discourse markers. They
are used in conversation or writing to show or signal the relationship between ideas or
information in a given context. They are words or phrases used by speakers or writers
to link ideas or information in a discourse. According to Gerard (2010), discourse are
words like 'however', 'although' and 'Nevertheless' which are referred to more
commonly as 'linking words' and 'linking phrases', or 'sentence connectors'. They may
be described as the 'glue' that binds together a piece of writing, making the different
parts of the text 'stick together. Without sufficient discourse markers in a piece of
writing, a text would not seem logically constructed and the connections between the
different sentences and paragraphs would not be obvious. Discourse markers however
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guide the reader predict the direction of the flow of discourse than linking the various
text elements especially in spoken discourse. Fraser (1998: 301) calls discourse
marker analysis “a growth market in linguistics.” Since the late 1980’s discourse
markers have been studies in a variety of languages and examined in a variety of
genres and interactive contexts, though many scholars do not agree on how to define
them, even what to call them.
The word discourse is used to refer to a piece or unit of writing or speech that
is longer than, respectively, a sentence or an utterance. In writing, especially
academic writing, it is essential for the author to guide the reader through the
discourse signaling what is important and how each sentence connects to others.
Readers who have to “work” too hard to understand where to focus their attention and
to link together the concepts presented in the writing do not have enough mental
energy to process the author’s ideas and to remember them after having finished
reading.
In Cohesion in English (1976) Halliday and Hasan identify five main cohesive
devices in English discourse: reference, substitution, ellipsis, lexical cohesion and
conjunction. Conjunction, or connective element, which is what Halliday calls
discourse markers, involves the use of formal markers (i.e. discourse markers) to
relate sentences, clauses and paragraphs to each other. Unlike reference, substitution,
and ellipsis, the use of conjunction does not instruct the reader to supply missing
information either by looking for it elsewhere in the text or by filling structural slots.
Instead, conjunction signals the way the writer wants the reader to relate what is
about to be said to what has been said before.
One of the main ways that researchers help guide readers through discourse is
by “marking” how the coming sentence or clause (Discourse markers generally come
at the beginning of clauses and sentences) relates back to previous discourse. Thus if
the researcher wants to show a continuation of a previous line of thought, s/he would
begin the coming sentence with a marker such as in addition or moreover. This
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automatically helps the reader to approach the coming sentence with the knowledge
of how it relates to the theme the author is constructing (i.e. this is another sentence in
support of an idea previously posited). If, on the other hand, the researcher wants to
signal a change in direction of the discourse, s/he would utilize a marker such as on
the other hand or conversely (now go back to the beginning of this sentence and note
how the phrase on the other hand prepared students to understand that the sentence
would pose an idea in opposition to the previously presented idea of supporting a
previous theme, replaced by the concept of contrasting a previous theme).
It is not easy to present a complete list of discourse markers and their various
functions. There are many of them, and, perhaps even more importantly, some of
them are used more in speech than in writing, or vice versa or some of them are more
informally used than formally and so on and so on. The best way to understand an
effective use of discourse markers (which, remember, is essential for academic
writing!) is to read a lot. However, reading without paying special attentions to
discourse markers may be somewhat helpful, but not completely. The students must
take a step back from the reading process in order to pick out and notice how the
author is employing discourse markers and what they add to the reading experience.
In this way, the students can begin to develop both a conscious and unconscious
knowledge of how to use them yourself. What’s important is not to simply throw
discourse markers haphazardly into their writing. This is the case, for example, of
learners who remember suddenly, “oh yeah, I’m supposed to be using those discourse
markers” and then arbitrarily write one of the common ones remembered at the
moment (indeed, for some unknown reason, Italian students love moreover and use it
constantly, often when it’s not appropriate).
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a. The Types of Discourse Markers
Distinguishing DMs from whether they refer to a textual segment between

sentences or discourse segment in structure, Fraser (1999: 946) categorized DMs into
two major types as follows:
1) Discourse markers which relate messages
There are three main subclasses in the first class. The first class refers to DMs
that signal that the explicit interpretation of S2 contrasts with an interpretation of S1.
Fraser labels such DMs Contrastive Markers. This group includes, distinguished by
subtleties of meaning:
a. but, yet, on the other hand, as a matter of fact,
b. however, (al)though, even, though, even though,
c. in contrast (with/to this/that), whereas,
d. in comparison (with/to this/that),
e. on the contrary, contrary to this/that, in contrast to,
f. conversely,
g. instead (of (doing) this/that), rather (than (doing) this/that), than,
h. on the other hand,
i. despite (doing) this/that, in spite of (doing) this/that, nevertheless, nonetheless, still,
k. alternatively,
A second subclass of DMs relating aspects of S2 and S1 messages signal a
quasi-parallel relationship between S2 and S1. This subclass of DMs is referred to as
elaborative markers and includes:
a. and, or, like, such like, as well as
b. above all, also, besides, better yet, for another thing, furthermore, in addition,
moreover, more to the point, on top of it all, too, to cap it all off, what is more,
c. I mean, in particular, namely, parenthetically, that is (to say),
d. analogously, correspondingly, equally, likewise, similarly,
e. be that as it may, or, otherwise, that said, well,
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f. by the same taken,

g. equally, first, second, like, such like, like that,
h. for example, for instance,
i. in particular.
A third subclass is made up of DMs which signal that S2 is to be taken as a
conclusion based on S1. Within this group which Fraser (1999: 948) labels
inferential markers, we have:
a. so, now, well, anyway, surely,
b. of course, may, must,
c. accordingly, as a consequence, as a logical conclusion, as a conclusion, as a result,
because of this/that, consequently, for this/that reason, it can be concluded that,
therefore, thus, hence, accordingly, according to, therefore,
d. in this/that case, under these/those conditions, then,
e. all things considered,
f. after all.
Finally, Fraser (1999) distinguishes some additional subclasses (temporal
DMs): a group of DMs which specifies that provides a reason for the content
presented in S1. In this group we find:
a. if, under the circumstances, it follows, consequently, that,
b. because, for this/that reason, since, then, after, before, that, while,
c. eventually, finally, first, meantime, meanwhile.
2) Discourse markers which relate topics
e.g. back to my original point, before I forget, by the way etc.
Apparently, conjunction is related to the entire environment of a text. The

conjunctive elements (discourse markers) “presuppose the presence of other
components in the discourse (Halliday, 1976: 226).” Not only giving cohesion to a
text, they also cohere two sentences together.
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b. A List of Discourse Markers with Examples
Some lists of discourse markers for the students to look at and study, and to
keep close at hand when they are writing. While it is obvious that students may
develop a preference for certain discourse markers, they should try to vary them,
especially now as they are learning to write academic English. They are in the process
of learning and developing a writing style and so if they limit their self to the use of
just a few discourse markers now, they would inevitably continue to develop a style
which is more limited and less versatile.
The lists and/or tables which show discourse markers, their functions,
grammatical definitions and some examples. I have decided to include all three, even
if this means that there are repetitions, in order to show you how different people
might look at discourse markers differently. In other words, these are not
mathematical formulas but rather expressions which may be interpreted and utilized
in slightly different ways by different authors. Students may find that one list or table
in particular appeals to you in its presentation, explanation and organization. Or the
students may vary between them without a particular preference; what’s important is
that the students don’t simply read through them once, but that instead students refer
to them during students writing process so as to stimulate students’ creativity and
remind students of the importance of discourse marker usage in their writing.
1) with regard to; regarding; as regards; as far as … is concerned, as for
These expressions focus attention on what follows in the sentence. This is done by
announcing the subject in advance. As regards and as far as………is concerned
usually indicate a change of subject
Examples:
His grades in science subjects are excellent. As regards humanities … With regard to
the latest market figures we can see that ... Regarding our efforts to improve the local
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economy, we have made ... As far as I am concerned, we should continue to develop

our resources. As for John's thoughts, let's take a look at this report he sent me.
2) on the other hand; while; whereas
These expressions give expression to two ideas which contrast but do not contradict
each other.
Examples:
Football is popular in England, while in Australia they prefer cricket. We've been
steadily improving our customer service center.
On the other hand our shipping department needs to be redesigned. Jack thinks we're
ready to begin whereas Tom things we still need to wait.
3) however, nonetheless, nevertheless
All these words are used to present two contrasting ideas.

Examples:
Smoking is proved to be dangerous to the health. Nonetheless, 40% of the population
smokes. Our teacher promised to take us on a field trip. However, he changed his
mind last week. Peter was warned not to invest all of his savings in the stock market.
Nevertheless, he invested and lost everything.
4) moreover, furthermore, in addition
We use these expressions to add information to what has been said. The usage of
these words is much more elegant than just making a list or using the conjunction
'and'.
Examples:
His problems with his parents are extremely frustrating. Moreover, there seems to be
no easy solution to them. I assured him that I would come to his presentation.
Furthermore, I also invited a number of important representatives from the local
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chamber of commerce. Our energy bills have been increasing steadily. In addition to
these costs, our telephone costs have doubled over the past six months.
5) therefore, as a result, consequently
These expressions show that the second statement follows logically from the first
statement.
Examples:
He reduced the amount of time studying for his final exams. As a result, his
marks were rather low. We've lost over 3,000 customers over the past six months.
Consequently, we have been forced to cut back our advertising budget. The
government has drastically reduced its spending. Therefore, a number of programs
have been cancelled.
c. Classification of the Discourse Markers Found In the Texts by Function
Discourse markers have a lot of functions and below these are only some of
the functions which are commonly used (Fraser, 1993):
a. Coordinating Conjunction; for example for, but and so.
b. Subordinating Conjunction; for example as, in order that and since.
c. Connectors; for example however, therefore and in the other hand.
d. Phrase Linkers; for example due to.
e. Focusing and linking; for example for reference to, regarding and as
for.
f. Contrasts; for example however, in contrast and conversely.
g. Similarity; for example similarly, in the same way and likewise.
h. Change of subject; for example right, incidentally and by the way.
i. Structuring; for example first of all, finally and to begin with.
j. Adding; for example moreover, in addition and furthermore.
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k. Generalizing; for example in general, apart from and broadly

speaking.
l. Exemplification; for example in particular, for instance and such as.
m. Logical Consequence; for example thus, hence and accordingly.
n. Making things clear; for example actually, in other word and in my
opinion.
o. Referring to the other person's expectations; for example actually,
in fact and well.
p. Summing up; for example to summing up, in conclusion and briefly.
d. Cohesive Devices
As one of the four basic language skills, writing is more complex in that it
tests a person's ability to use a language and the ability to express ideas. As a result, a
person needs to write not only coherently but correctly, which requires much more
time and skills. This is especially so when writing in a second/foreign language.
Cohesion and coherence, two important textual elements (Halliday and Hasan, 1976;
Halliday, 2000), have long been recognized as important features of good writing.
Discourse markers provide the unity of texture in someone’s writing which in
the other word; it produces coherence in linking what someone wants to express.
Coherence comes from the Latin word “cohaerere” (co = together, haerére = to stick).
With coherence, it provided the flow of information which link from one idea to
another idea. According to Halliday and Hassan (1977), cohesion occurs when the
interpretation between some elements in the discourse is dependent with another. By
providing a good flow of ideas, there would be less interruption for the reader to
understand what the writer tries to conveyed, hence this created a good quality of
writing.
Print texts achieve coherence in two ways: through words and through
context. Conventional advice focuses on the relationship between words, as we see in
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the advice offered by Kies (2003), Coherence is product of many different factors,
which combine to make every paragraph, every sentence, and every phrase contribute
to the meaning of the whole piece. Coherence in writing is much more difficult to
sustain than coherent speech simply because writers have no nonverbal clues to
inform them if their message is clear or not. Therefore, writers must make their
patterns of coherence much more explicit and much more carefully planned.
Coherence itself is the product of two factors paragraph unity and sentence cohesion.
Cohesion refers to the explicit linguistic devices that link the sentences in a
text. These cohesive devices include reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and
lexical cohesion (Halliday & Hasan, 1976), and since they are manifested at the
surface level of a text, cohesion should be relatively straightforward to identify.
Textual cohesion is a critical aspect of successful language processing and
comprehension and is premised on building connections between ideas in text. As
noted by both Silva (1993) and Ferris (1994), cohesion plays an important part in the
lexical development of L2 writers, and it also serves as a means to distinguish
differences between L1 and L2 writers.
One of the most important objectives of writing in an academic environment
is to create texts that are coherent and cohesive in order to establish successful
communication within an academic community. Thus, the analysis of the use of
cohesive devices has been of great interest for researchers and language instructors
involved in the study and teaching of academic writing (Connor, 1984 and Hinkel,
2001).
Several studies have compared the use of cohesive devices in the writing of
native and non-native speakers of English (Connor, 1984; Hinkel, 2001; Scarcella,
1984). Most of these studies reported that non-native speakers‘use of certain lexical
cohesive devices was often rare or inappropriate. Hinkel (2001) reports that even the
advanced non-native speaker writers in her study did not use a wide variety of
cohesive ties to achieve a unified text.
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Research on cohesion and coherence in writing has been flourishing since the
publication of Cohesion in English (Halliday and Hasan, 1976). Halliday and Hasan
propose that in any language, such grammatical and lexical devices as reference,
ellipsis, substitution, conjunction and lexical cohesion create texture the property of
being a text. These devices form cohesive relations between sentences and elements
in sentences, thus contributing to the coherence of the text.
e. Coherence
In a coherent paragraph, each sentence relates clearly to the topic sentence or

controlling idea, but there is more to coherence than this. If a paragraph is coherent,
each sentence flows smoothly into the next without obvious shifts or jumps. A
coherent paragraph also highlights the ties between old information and new
information to make the structure of ideas or arguments clear to the reader.
Along with the smooth flow of sentences, a paragraph’s coherence may also
be related to its length. If you have written a very long paragraph, one that fills a
double-spaced typed page, for example, you should check it carefully to see if you
perhaps need to start a new paragraph where the original paragraph wanders from its
controlling idea. On the other hand, if a paragraph is very short (only one or two
sentences, perhaps), you may need to develop its controlling idea more thoroughly, or
combine it with another paragraph.
A well-organized text, cohesion and coherence must be taken into
consideration. The organization of sentences of a text or a written discourse is not like
putting up bricks one upon one. There exist some relations between those sentences.
Halliday and Hasan (1976: 291) have defined a text as “not just a string of sentences.
It is not simply a long grammatical unit, something of the same kind as a sentence,
but differing from it in size, a sort of super sentence, a semantic unit”. Discourse
relations are believed to transcend grammatical structure. In Cohesion in English
Halliday and Hasan (1976) identify five main cohesive devices in English discourse:
22
reference, substitution, ellipsis, lexical cohesion and conjunction. Conjunction, or

connective element, which is what Halliday calls discourse markers, involves the use
of formal markers (i.e. discourse markers) to relate sentences, clauses and paragraphs
to each other. Unlike reference, substitution, and ellipsis, the use of conjunction does
not instruct the reader to supply missing information either by looking for it
elsewhere in the text or by filling structural slots.
A number of other techniques that you can use to establish coherence in
paragraphs are described below.
a. Repeat key words or phrases. Particularly in paragraphs in which you define or
identify an important idea or theory, be consistent in how you refer to it. This
consistency and repetition would bind the paragraph together and help your
reader understand your definition or description. This notion may contrast with
your previous ideas about repetition in writing; however, you must now accept
that in order to write academic English well, you would have to learn to approach
the concept of repetition from a different point of view.
b. Create parallel structures. Parallel structures are created by constructing two or
more phrases or sentences that have the same grammatical structure and use the
same parts of speech. By creating parallel structures you make your sentences
clearer and easier to read. In addition, repeating a pattern in a series of
consecutive sentences helps your reader see the connections between ideas. The
paragraph below shows how a few carefully placed parallel structures
(CAPITALIZED) create a balanced and clear presentation of fairly complex
material.
I DON’T WISH to deny that the flattened, minuscule head of the large-bodied
"stegosaurus" houses little brain from our subjective, top-heavy perspective, but
I DO WISH to assert that we should not expect more of the beast. First of all,
large animals have relatively smaller brains than related, small animals. The
correlation of brain size with body size among kindred animals (ALL reptiles,
23
ALL mammals, for example) is remarkably regular. As we move FROM small

TO large animals, FROM mice TO elephants or small lizards TO Komodo
dragons, BRAIN SIZE increases, but not AS FAST AS BODY SIZE. In other
words, bodies grow faster than brains, and large animals have low ratios of
BRAIN WEIGHT to BODY WEIGHT. In fact, brains grow only about two-
thirds AS FAST AS bodies. Since we have no reason to believe that large
animals are consistently stupider than their smaller relatives, we must conclude
that large animals require relatively less brain to do AS WELL AS smaller
animals. If we do not recognize this relationship, we are likely to underestimate
the mental power of very large animals, dinosaurs in particular.
c. Be consistent in point of view, verb tense, and number. Consistency in point

of view, verb tense, and number is a subtle but important aspect of coherence. If
you shift from the more personal "you" to the impersonal “one,” from past to
present tense, or from “a man” to “they,” for example, you make your paragraph
less coherent. Such inconsistencies can also confuse your reader and make your
argument more difficult to follow.
d. Use transition words or phrases between sentences and between
paragraphs.
Transitional expressions (also known as discourse markers or connectors)
emphasize the relationships between ideas, so they help readers follow your train
of thought or see connections that they might otherwise miss or misunderstand.
The same paragraph from above now serves to demonstrate how carefully chosen
transitions (CAPITALIZED) lead the reader smoothly from the introduction to
the conclusion of the paragraph.
I don’t wish to deny that the flattened, minuscule head of the large-bodied
"stegosaurus" houses little brain from our subjective, top-heavy perspective,
BUT I do wish to assert that we should not expect more of the beast. FIRST OF
24
ALL, large animals have relatively smaller brains than related, small animals.
INDEED, the correlation of brain size with body size among kindred animals (all
reptiles, all mammals, FOR EXAMPLE) is remarkably regular. AS we move
from small to large animals, from mice to elephants or small lizards to Komodo
dragons, brain size increases, BUT not as fast as body size. IN OTHER WORDS,
bodies grow faster than brains, AND large animals have low ratios of brain
weight to body weight. IN FACT, brains grow only about two-thirds as fast as
bodies. SINCE we have no reason to believe that large animals are consistently
stupider than their smaller relatives, we must conclude that large animals require
relatively less brain to do as well as smaller animals. IF we do not recognize this
relationship, we are likely to underestimate the mental power of very large
animals, dinosaurs in particular.
f. The followings are the combination of Brinton and Jucker & Ziv as cited by
Castro (2009:60) pertaining to the characteristics of DMs
1) DMs are predominantly a feature of oral rather than of written discourse.
2) They appear with high frequency in oral discourse.
3) They are short and phonologically reduced items.
4) They may occur sentence initially. Sentence medially and finally as well.
5) They are considered to have little or no prepositional meaning, ot at least to
be difficult to specify lexically.
6) As DMs may occur outside the syntactic structure or loosely attached to it,
they have no clear grammatical function.
7) They seem to be optimal rather than obligatory features of discourse. Their
absence does not random a sentence ungrammatical and/or unintelligible, but
does remove a powerful clue. (this is Fraser’s as cited by Brinton, it is than
cited by Castro’s study).
25
8) They may be multifunctional, operating on the local and global levels

simultaneously though it is difficulty to differentiate a pragmatically
motivated from a non-pragmatically motivated use of the form.
(Brinton and Jucker & Ziv as cited by Castro, 2009:60)
2. Concept of Writing
a. The Nature of Writing
Writing stem from verb of write which in Chamber English Dictionary means
to form letter or words with a pen, pencil, or other implement on a (usually, paper)
surface. In other case, it means to compose, to draw, engrave etc. It is also could be to
communicate with, to perform or to practice by letters.
Nunan (1989:36) states that writing is not a natural activity, all physically and
mentally normal people learn to speak a language. This is a crucial difference
between the spoken and written forms of language. There are other important
differences as well writing, unlike speech, is displaced in time, indeed this must be
one reason why writing originally evolved since it makes possible the transmission of
a message from one place to another. A writing message can be received, stored and
referred back to at any time.
The act of writing is unlike with the act of talking. In writing, we are engaged
in an activity that usually at the same time both private and public. It is private
because the act of composition is by its nature solitary, but it is public because most
writing is intended for an audience. When we write, it is different when we talk. It is
less spontaneous and more permanent. The resources that are available for
communication are fewer because we cannot interact with the listener directly and
adapt as we go along in conversation. Therefore, writing is said as a process that
brings together three elements. They are writer, reader, and subject matter.
26
b. The Component of Writing
According to Heaton (1988:135), there are five main components or main

areas of writing namely content, organization, grammar, vocabulary, and mechanics.
All of each components explained briefly below:
a. Content
The content of writing should be clear enough for readers so that the readers can
understand the messages and gain information in it. Besides that, its content
should be also well unified and complete.
b. Organization
In organization of writing concerns with the ways, the writer arranges and
organizes the ideas or the messages in the writing. It could be chronological
order, order of importance, general to particular to general order.
c. Grammar/Language Use
In order to have grammar in writing, writers should attention to the use of
grammatical rules concerning tenses, preposition, conjunction, clause (adjective
or adverb clauses), articles, etc. The lack of knowledge of grammar make the
content of writing vague and can lead to misunderstanding.
d. Vocabulary
One cannot write anything if she or he has nothing to express. He or she should
express the ideas in form of words or vocabulary, the lack of vocabulary makes
someone fails to compose what they are going to say because he or she feels
difficult to choose words, appropriate vocabulary help the writers to compose the
writing and also make readers are easy to understand.
e. Mechanics
The use of mechanics is due to capitalization, punctuation, and spelling
appropriately. This aspect is very important since it leads readers to understand or
recognize immediately what the writer means to express definitely. The use of
27
favorable mechanics in writing make readers easy to group the conveying ideas or
messages to the written materials.
C. Discourse Markers in Pedagogical Setting

Classroom, as Walsh (2006:4) points out, is a “dynamic” context where series
of events take place among teachers, learners, discourses, settings and learning
materials. Communications between teachers and learners like conversation and
dialogue are realized through the medium of classroom discourse. As one important
part of classroom interaction, DMs are useful to help with the flow of conversation.
As stated above, DMs have been researched by numerous scholars’ recently.
Though there is a growing number of studies on DMs in the context of pedagogical
settings, they are rather limited to L2 learner acquisition. A large scale of studies has
focused on the second language learners’ use of DMs mostly using corpus-driven
approach. Müller (2004) compared the functions of well used by German EFL
university learners and that of American NS based on naturalistic corpus. 70 German
EFL learners’ conversations are recorded after watching a film and finishing a certain
task. Possible factors that influence the different use of DMs between native speakers
(NS) and non-native speakers (NNS) are also discussed. Similarly, Trillo (2002)
focused on the pragmatic fossilization issue of DMs in both child and adult NNS in
Madrid with comparison to NS during their process of learning English.
DMs in teacher talk, on the other hand, are rarely reached in literature. The
use and functions of DMs as one essential interactional factor in teacher talk so far
have not been fully described in previous studies. There are still few exceptions
though. For instance, Othman (2010) investigated three specific DMs okay, right and
yeah used by NS lecturers in Lancaster University, UK. It is found that college
lecturers use DMs as signposts on structural level when taking turns in lecturing as a
subconscious behavior, observed by Othman (2010). The study uses academic writing
and interviews with lecturers to cross-check the interpretation from both the lecturers
28
and the researcher’s point of view. It recognizes the functional significance of those
three DMs in conversational interactions when organizing utterances. In Chinese
context, Yu (2008) investigated interpersonal meaning of DMs in Chinese EFL
classroom within the framework of systemic functional linguistics. In her article,
DMs are studied in six moves of the process of teaching: opening, information
checking, information clarification, responding, comment and repetition. According
to Yu (2008), the appropriate use of DMs can improve the effectiveness of classroom
teaching. Liu (2006) conducted a pragmatic analysis on one Chinese literature class
and concluded that teachers’ DMs have five major textual functions: connect,
transfer, generalize, explain and repair. In the process of constructing classroom
context, he argued that DMs contribute to the functions of discussion, emotion
control and adjust of social relationship (Liu, 2006).
Though little attention has been paid to the use and functions of DMs in a
pedagogical environment, DMs are constantly used in teacher language to help
creating an effective flow of information from teachers to students in different stages
of learning process, if used appropriately (Yu, 2008). Different from other
applications, DMs used by EFL teachers also assist to realize certain pedagogical
purposes that direct EFL classroom lesson plan (Walsh, 2006). In classroom context,
DMs function as a lubricant in interaction to reduce understanding difficulties,
incoherence and social distance among students, and between teacher and student
(Walsh, 2006; Fung and Carter, 2007). DMs in teacher talk play an important role for
students to understand teacher language better, which hence helps them to improve
learning efficiency (Walsh, 2006). As it is observed, DMs perform both a social and
educational function at the same time in classroom context. The relationship between
DMs and efficacy of classroom interaction is still under investigation.
In pedagogical discourse, a comprehensive functional paradigm of DMs is
described by Fung and Carter (2007), through examining the use of DMs by NS and
NNS on the basis of a comparative study of two pedagogical corpora, can code (a
29
corpus of spoken British English) and natural transcripts of recordings in Hong Kong.
Through exploring a comparison of DMs output between native speakers and L2
learners, Fung and Carter (2007) have categorized a core functional paradigm of DMs
namely interpersonal, referential, structural and cognitive dimension (see Table 2).
As they observed, DMs serve as useful interactional endeavors to structure and
organize learners’ speech in class for both NS and NNS. They perform in different
functional levels to aid discourse development and management.
Table 1. A core functional paradigm of discourse markers in pedagogical discourse

In interpersonal function, DMs such as modal verbs are used often to reduce
the social distance between the speakers through the process of sharing common
knowledge and indicating agreed attitudes. On referential level, DMs mainly function
as sentence connectives as defined in systemic functional grammar to connect
preceding and following segments in meaning. In structural category, as Fung and
Carter (2007) generalized, DMs function to signal topic shifting and turn taking. In
terms of topic development, DMs mark particular sequences to see how they relate to
the suspected project, theme, stance, etc, which are essential to interactional projects
(Schegloff. 2007). Lastly, DMs also can work as cognitive device to “denote the
30
thinking process” in constructing utterances (Fung and Carter. 2007:415). The multi-
functional framework of DMs in NNS learners is effective in that it provides a
descriptive model to analyze DMs on different levels.
D. Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework of this research will illustrate as follows:
Writing Activity
Cohesion Devices
Reference Substitution Conjunction Lexical Ellipsis

Cohesion
The Identification of
Discourse Markers
The Types of The Application of The Functions of

Discourse Markers Discourse Markers Discourse Markers
Figure 2.1 Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework above shows the procedure in conducting the
study pertaining to the occurrence of discourse markers. The procedure starts with
writing activity refers to writing skill as an activity do by the English students in the
31
classroom. The students have to write paragraphs based on the topic that given by the
teacher. In Cohesion in English (1976) Halliday and Hasan identify five main
cohesive devices in English discourse: reference, substitution, ellipsis, lexical
cohesion and conjunction. Conjunction, or connective element, which is what
Halliday calls discourse markers, involves the use of formal markers (i.e. discourse
markers) to relate sentences, clauses and paragraphs to each other. The Identification
of discourse markers refers to the students used discourse markers in their writing.
And the researcher analyzed the using of discourse markers in their writing. The
types of discourse markers refers to one of concerning in the discourse markers.
Analyze about what types of discourse markers would be used by the students in their
writing activity and to get the data about the functions of discourse markers refers to
analyze what is the function of discourse markers would be used by the students, by
using writing activity too.
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CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter deals with the description of the research design, operational
definition, participants, research instruments, data collecting procedures, and
techniques of data analysis.
A. Research Design
This research used a descriptive qualitative method to collect and describe the
data. According to Gay, et al. (2006), a descriptive method determines and describes
the way things are. This type of design relates to collection, analysis, and
interpretation of comprehensive, narrative and visual data in order to gain insight into
a particular phenomenon of interest. The purposes of qualitative research broad in
scope and centre around promoting a deep understanding of a particular phenomenon,
such as environment, a process, or even a believe.
Creswell (2009) stated that research designs are the specific procedures
involved in the last three steps of the research process; data collection, data analysis,
and report writing. Through these designs, the researcher collected the data from the
students’ writing. The data analyzed the types of Discourse Markers, category based
on the function of DMs, and some of the DMs commonly used in the students’
writing.
B. Respondents
In qualitative research, selecting the respondents of this research is a process
of electing the small number of individuals for a study. These individuals are
expected to be able to help the researcher understands the occurrence under the
investigation of the research. In the process of selecting the respondents of this
research, the researchers should observe the participants that would be suitable with
the topic of the research and can help the researcher to find the data of the research.
33
In this research, the researcher would be chosen one class of the English
students in the second grade of senior high school in MAN 3 Makassar that consists
of 30 students that is suitable with the topic of the research.
C. Research Instrument
In this research, the researcher used discourse analysis to process the data, the
kinds of instrument in this research is writing activity. The explanation of these
instruments as follows:
1. Academic Writing
The researcher asked the students to write paragraphs based on the topic of
given by the teacher without limit of words. There are three kinds of writing activity,
they are compare and contrast text, argumentative text, and descriptive text. This
instrument applied to collect the data about the use of discourse markers on the
students writing and then from this data the researcher analyzed the types of discourse
markers, and some of the discourse markers commonly used on the students’ writing.
The topics of the writing text should have related to the discourse markers, for
example the topic about comparison and contrast text, argumentative text, and
descriptive text are different each other.
D. Data Collecting Procedure

In collecting data, the researcher used a writing activity. The procedures of
collecting data are presented in chronological order as follows;
1. Academic Writing
The researcher gave a writing activity for the students that the students
require to write paragraphs based on the topic given by the teacher without limit of
words. The writing activity assigned as a classroom task, and the subjects did not
know the purpose of this experiment. Thus the researcher ensured the subjects to use
discourse markers as usual. After collecting the students writing, a small corpus of 30
students’ writing established and then it examined whether discourse markers used in
34
writing and types of discourse markers used in writing. The analysis of the types and
the functions based on the students’ writing activity.
E. Techniques of Data Analysis

The data from academic writing in this research analyzed by using descriptive
qualitative method, because this research is designed to analyze the discourse markers
on the students’ writing. In analyzing of discourse markers on the students writing the
researcher described the types of discourse markers and the function of discourse
markers used in the students’ writing. The results of the process data collection
described qualitatively as a conclusion.
35
CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter particularly described the findings and the discussion of the
research. In the findings session, the researcher showed all the data which collected
through a writing activity. In the discussion section the researcher analyzed and
discussed all the data in the finding section, there are further explanation and
interpretation of the findings are given.
A. Findings
This parts are the data presentation towards the DMs used by the students
alongside their functions. It reveals that they are some examples of DMs used by the
students in three kinds of different writing activity, they are comparison and contrast
text, argumentative text and descriptive text. The presented data below are derived
from the students’ writing activity conducted by the researcher. Initially, the research
showed the DMs from the writing activity which is then analyzed their functions.
This study set out to achieve the objectives of the research in the chapter one,
it is about what are the types and the functions of discourse markers used by the
students in writing activity. The data are presented clearly in following extract
paragraph. The researcher used different color and how many its stars to differentiate
the types of DMs. Red DMs with one star is elaborative markers, blue DMs with two
stars is contrastive markers, purple DMs with three stars is inferential markers, and
green DMs with four stars is additional subclasses markers.
1. The Types of DMs Used by the Students and Their Functions in the
Comparison and Contrast Text
Based on the students’ writing, there were quite a number data of the types
and the functions of discourse markers in students’ writing activity in the comparison
and contrast text.
36

four types, they are elaborative, contrastive, inferential, and additional subclasses
markers.
a. Extract 1 (DMs and, but, because, on the other hand, and while)
Life in the city and* in the village are very different, ranging from
facilities, economics, technology, and other city maybe we can get what we
want but** unlike the case with the village, in the village what we want is very
difficult to get it because**** the times are different.
On the other hand**, some have argued that the city life better than the
village because the days that have been developed while**** studying abroad,
but there is also a found living in the village better than the city because
freedom and harmony in the village is more awake and more strained. It’s all
just the opinion of the people, the rest please judge for yourself.
(Taken from student’s writing no 1 , page 95 )
Analysis 1:
From the extract 1 above, we can see that there are five DMs used by the
student in his writing activity, they are and as Elaborative Marker, but and on the
other hand as Contrastive Markers, and because and while as additional subclasses
Markers. The five of DMs had different function in writing. The following paragraph
are the details explanation by extracts taken from students’ writing activity.
The DM and as elaborative markers expressed semantic relations between
elements of discourse without having any structural role, it assumed that they
cohesive and structural roles; structural because it links two (or more) syntactic units
such as clauses, phrases or verbs, and cohesive because the interpretation of the
whole conjunctive utterance depends on the combination of both conjuncts. As for
DM and, it can precede support units of talk (explanation, evidence and clarification
to previous units). It can also have a pragmatic effect in the sense that it indicates a
speaker’s continuation. However, DM and does not provide information about what
37
is being continued. Such information is derived from the discourse content and
structure. DM and is used to indicate the speaker’s continuation.
Regarding to the extract above, when the researchers analyzed the students’
writing, the researchers noticed that the respondent did apply the use of discourse
markers but most of it was in a wrong position. For example in writing activity no 24
And* in vacation, they like to spend them money to do road around Indonesia
even the world. Visit a place has unique things and fascinating beauty. And* then
they exposed in social media or public so that everyone can see it.
The use of and at the beginning of her sentence in inappropriate way. This is because
and is not suitable to be placed at a beginning of a sentence as and is used as a
coordinating conjunction to join two independent clauses.
The DM but in the extract 1 above indicates ‘contrastive’ relations in
discourse. It conveys contrast between two ideas or topics or it can be used to mark
the denial of the student’s expectation of something. When the first sentence is
different with the next sentence we use the word but and it is meaning is to contrast
something. DM but is used to coordinating conjunction to join two independent
clauses. Another example in the student’s writing activity no. 2 showed the
inappropriate way in using DM but.
But** online class learning in everywhere and every time such like a
garden yard or etc. the student need learning like that to facilitate the students
receive materials with easy. Adequate facilities can enhance the spirit of
learning.
The use of but at the beginning of the sentence is not suitable as it has been repeated
at the middle of the sentence. Moreover, but is not suitable to be placed at a
38
beginning of a sentence as but is used as a coordinating conjunction to join two

independent clauses. However is more suitable because it also represents contrast.
The DM because from the extract 1 indicates as additional subclasses markers
is used by the student to indicate a relation of cause and result. From the extract
above it showed a reason that the times are different.
The DM on the other hand as a contrastive markers used by the students’ in
writing to contrast with each other but are mutually compatible. From the extract we
know that the students contrast about some have argued that the city life better than
the village.
The DM While as additional subclasses markers used by the students’ in
writing to provide a reason for the content presented. It is syntactically a subordinate
conjunction, it cannot introduce a sentence which stands alone, but requires that the
previous independent clause be present.
b. Extract 2 (DMs such like, or and like that)
But online class learning in everywhere and every time suchlike* a

garden, yard or* etc. The student need learning like that* to facilitate the
students receive materials with easy. Adequate facilities can enhance the spirit
of learning.
Analysis 2:
The DMs Suchlike, Or, and Like that as Elaborative Markers. Elaborative
markers means that in this writing text the students use these DMs for quasi-parallel
relationship between one things with another one.
c. Extract 3 (DMs if, than, also, even though, and however)
If**** we see the differences about environment between in the city and
the home town, environment in the home town better more than in the city, in
the hometown, the environment cleaner than** in the city. Air in the hometown
also* fresher than in the city.
39
Even though** both is differences. However** we need both. The city

can be use for developing countries with through modernization. Whereas the
hometown can be use for developing countries with through agricultural
product, tourism, and much more.
Analysis 3:
The DM If as Additional subclasses Markers. It means that DM if used to
provide a reason for the content presented. In the writing above, the students need to
more explain about what he/she is talking about. It is more explanation and detail. It
is syntactically a subordinate conjunction, it cannot introduce a sentence which stands
alone, but requires that the previous independent clause be present.
The DMs Than, Even though, and However as Contrastive Markers. The
student used them in writing to show that the explicit interpretation of a sentence
contra with another interpretation of its sentence. All these words are used to present
two contrasting ideas.
The DM Also as Elaborative Markers. It means that in this writing text the
students use this DM for quasi-parallel relationship between one things with another
one. It means that the sentences is parallel between one sentences to the next
sentence.
d. Extract 4 (DMs first, second and third)
I prefer choose a female friend than a male friend. Why? There are so
many reason that I want to explain it. First*, even though females have a
stronger emotional feeling to each other but they are more a stronger
emotional attachment. How about feeling male friend? There’re more
emphasize their logic. Example: about parents. Mother, father and the children.
The children more intimate with mother, because a woman is have emotional
attachment to her children.
40
Second* reason is about comfortable. A female friend is more

comfortable than a male friend. We are easy to give something feeling each
other. A female friend also easy to keep the secret how much they are. Example
if there are problems, they can overcome it by herself, more calm and patient. A
female friend can hideaway their feeling.
Third* reason is if we are sad, they can cheer up with their joke and
make us smile and laugh. But the negative side, from a female friend, they are
unbeliever, but just don’t care anymore if far too much.
I think that’s all my opinion about the compare a female between male
friends. I hope you can understand my opinion. I’m sorry if there are something
mistake from my word. Thanks and see you next time.
Analysis 4:
The DMs First, second and third as Elaborative Markers. Based on the
writing activity above, when the student wanted to explain something step by step or
mention something one by one he/she was using DMs first, second, and third.
e. Extract 5 (DM of course)
I was a student who attended one of the public schools must have a
female friend and a male friend. In the classroom, of course*** I was friend
with men and women. However, I prefer to be friend with women.

Analysis 5:
The DM Of course as Inferential Markers. In this writing it is taken as a
conclusion based on the previous statement. The student deals to take a conclusion by
using DM of course after give some explanations.
f. Extract 6 (DM since)
And myself have five best friends are four and one male. I’m friends with them
since**** the entry in MAN 3 Makassar.

41
Analysis 6:
The DM Since as Additional subclasses Markers. The use of since in this
writing for providing a reason for the content that he/she is talking about. It is given
an explanation for the previous sentence.
g. Extract 7 (DMs furthermore, so, and therefore)
Furthermore*, the city is more developed. There are much more
department, stores, supermarket, shopping centers, etc. a lot of concert,
theaters, social activities are put in order in city, but they don’t happen in my
hometown a lot. The weather in winters, isn’t too cold. It doesn’t show a lot but
in my hometown is cold in winters.
There are similarities and also differences. So***, I think life in the
hometown is better in terms of health than in the city. But life in the city is
better in terms of technology. So, both have advantage and disadvantages of
each, therefore*** we can’t determine which is better than both of them.
Analysis 7:
The DM Furthermore as Elaborative Markers. This category of DM is used
for relating between one sentences to the next sentence. And the relation of the
sentences should be quasi-parallel. The student used this DM add information to what
has been said. The usage of these words is much more elegant than just making a list
or using the conjunction 'and'.
The DMs So and Therefore as Inferential Markers. They are used to indicate a
relation of premise and conclusion. They used to take a conclusion after giving some
explanation before.
h. Extract 8 (DM even)
Residents in the hometown are very friendly and probably a lot more
than the residents of the city are very much but more to be stoic. Employment
options in the city has far more appeal in the hometown. Even** many setter’s
from the hometown who come looking for work in the city.
42
Analysis 8:
The DM Even as Contrastive Markers. It shows that the use of DM even in the
writing is when the sentence is contra with the next sentence, when the sentences has
different interpretation.
i. Extract 9 (DM though)
Therefore it is fun when living in the village though** much of modern

things but we can still feel the atmosphere cozy and beautiful natural cool.
Analysis 9:
The DM Though as Contrastive Markers. The student use DM though in his
writing to contra between the first sentence with the next sentence.
j. Extract 10 (DM in addition)
There are many disadvantages of living in the hometown and live in the
city. Disadvantages of living in the city is difficulty of obtaining employment. In
addition* to the progress of technology is still very difficult in some places.
Unlike the hometown, short of living in the city is the associate free everywhere
lots going on diversion.
Analysis 10:
The DM In addition as Elaborative Markers. It means that we use this DM
when we want add some information in our written to support the previous sentence.
k. Extract 11 (DMs hmm, yes and although)
Do you have any friend? And whether male or female friend? Hmm…* I think
all the people who live on this earth has a many friend. Yes*, I will tell you
about my friend. I have many friends and of course you will also have a friend.
I think I prefer to have female friends, than male friends, because female
friends had the same feeling with me as a woman also and knowing what we
43
feel. Although** friendship in general from for the same reasons of support
and companionship.
Analysis 11:
The DMs Hmm.. and Yes as Elaborative Markers. These DMs add information
to what has been said. The usage of these words is much more elegant than just
making a list or using the conjunction 'and'.
The DM Although as Contrastive Markers. This word are used to present two
contrasting ideas.
l. Extract 12 (DMs too, then and for example)
But live in hometown or village is pleasant too* for some people who
love the natural environment. Why? It because of the environment is good for
them. There is no air polluted in village. It make the people who like to live in
village feel pleasurable. Then****, we can also find a many natural landscape
in village, for example* an estate.
Analysis 12:
The DMs Too and For example as Elaborative Markers. The student use these
DMs add information to what has been said. The usage of these words is much more
elegant than just making a list or using the conjunction 'and'.
The DM Then as Additional subclasses Markers. This kind of DM which
specifies that provides a reason for the content presented. It is syntactically a
subordinate conjunction, it cannot introduce a sentence which stands alone, but
requires that the previous independent clause be present.
44
m. Extract 13 (DM as well as)

Although male friend have a bad attitude. But male friend very
understand about female friend as well as* female friend can understand about
we self. So I’m very happy, fun and enjoy friendship with female friend and then
male friend.
Analysis 13:
The DM As well as as Elaborative Markers. This DM add information to what
n. Extract 14 (DMs besides and in conclusion)
But if we talking about hometown so many think we can get there, but in
city, you can’t get it example like a fresh breath, fresh fish and so many fresh
and original you can got there and the important is its all is low cost. Besides*
you will get a peace, no pollution, no traffic jam, no anarchist and the people is
still have the culture.
In conclusion***, is I will choose to work good or enjoy the facility and
I come back to hometown to get peace where you cannot find it in city.
Analysis 14:
The DM Besides as Elaborative Markers. This DM add information to what
The DM In conclusion as Inferential Markers. In this writing it is taken as a
conclusion based on the previous statement. The student deals to take a conclusion by
using DM in conclusion after give some explanations.
45
Table 4. 1 Data Display the types of DMs Used by the Students in the
Comparison and Contrast Text
No The example of DMs The Types of DMs Extract

1. And Elaborative Markers 1
2. But Contrastive Markers 1
3. Because Additional subclasses Markers 1
4. On the other hand Contrastive Markers 1
5. While Additional subclasses Markers 1
6. Or Elaborative Markers 2
7. Like that Elaborative Markers 2
8. If Additional subclasses Markers 3
9. Than Contrastive Markers 3
10. Also Elaborative Markers 3
11. Even though Contrastive Markers 3
12. However Contrastive Markers 3
13. First, second, third Elaborative Markers 4
14. Of course Inferential Markers 5
15 Since Additional Markers 6
16. Furthermore Elaborative Markers 7
17. So Inferential Markers 7
18. Therefore Inferential Markers 7
19. Even Contrastive Markers 8
20. Though Contrastive Markers 9
21. In addition Elaborative Markers 10
22. Hmm Elaborative Markers 11
23. Yes Elaborative Markers 11
24. Although Contrastive Markers 11
46
25. Too Elaborative Markers 12

26. Then Additional Markers 12
27. For example Elaborative Markers 12
28. As well as Elaborative Markers 13
29. Besides Elaborative Markers 14
30. In conclusion Inferential Markers 14
2. The Types of DMs Used by the Students and Their Functions in the
Argumentative Text
markers.
and the functions of discourse markers in their writing activity in the argumentative
text. The explanation of the data is presented in the following paragraph.
a. Extract 1 (DMs because, also, as well, anyway, so, and if)
I think learn English is very important for all us as intellectuals.

Because**** English is the national language that will be needed in the future,
especially for the students who will continue their education to college.
English is also* true for the people who have graduated from college
who wants to find a job should give priority to the English language, because
English is the main priority in the works as well*. Anyway***, the English
language is also a universal language or language that is not foreign to our
hearing. Because we have learned from elementary school to college later.
o***, we as educated people rushing to many many learn English which
has become the national language. For me, it’s never too late to start
something if****we are taking seriously what we want to achieve, so let’s learn
English because English is the primary determinant of your success in the
future.

47
Analysis 1:
The DMs Because and If as Additional Subclasses Marker. These DMs focus
attention on what follows in the sentence. This is done by announcing the subject in
advance.
The DM Also as Elaborative Marker. All kinds of these DMs add information
to what has been said. The usage of these words is much more elegant than just
making a list or using the conjunction 'and'.
In the student’s writing, DM As well, is used wrongly to express her meaning.
Indeed, as well should be replaced with “as well as” as it shows similarity.
The DMs Anyway and So are Inferential Markers. These DMs show that the
second statement follows logically from the first statement.
b. Extract 2 (DMs like, and, although, therefore, even, and but)
I like* learning English, because of it I think it’s important to learning

English. As well as English language is the international language and* that
can facilitate us in communicating with citizens of other countries. I’m also
sure a lot more people who want to speak English than doesn’t want to.
Although**, it is difficult to speak English. We must remember the more
time developing certain languages are increasingly in need primarily English.
The English language is very important in order to support the future.
English will assist us in establishing a business relationship or relationship to
other jobs with foreigners. Therefore***, we must learn English, even** the
language of other countries were also good to learn on, but** we should not
forget the language of our country.
Analysis 2:
The DMs Like and And as Elaborative Markers. All kinds of these DMs add
information to what has been said. The usage of these words is much more elegant
than just making a list or using the conjunction 'and'.
The DMs Although, even and but as Contrastive Markers. All these words are
used to present two contrasting ideas.
48
The DM Therefore as Inferential Markers. This DM show that the second

statement follows logically from the first statement.
c. Extract 3 (DMs however and or)
If we talking about learning English, people have their own opinion.

Some people think it’s easy to learn the English language. However**, difficult
or*** not really depends on each individual.
Analysis 3:
The DM However as Contrastive Markers. The use of however at the
beginning of her sentence in inappropriate way. This is because however is not
suitable to be placed at a beginning of a sentence as however is used to present two
contrasting ideas.
The DM Or as Elaborative Markers. The kinds of this DM add information to
what has been said. The usage of these words is much more elegant than just making
a list or using the conjunction 'and'.
d. Extract 4 ( DM first)
Learning English is just speak and speak, don’t worry for making mistake,
remember like when you were baby, first* you call your mama by ma and so
on. Nowadays for those who can’t speak English they will lost their brighter
and better life in the future, so let’s study English for your better of life ahead.
Analysis 4:
The DM First as Elaborative Markers. This DM add information to what has
been said. The usage of these words is much more elegant than just making a list or
using the conjunction 'and'.
49
e. Extract 5 (DM in addition to)
But, not all material in English in easy to understand, because there are
also material that is difficult to understand and it sometimes makes a headache
if the enforce to understand. More of that learning English is also very
important especially if you want to foreign country. In addition to* that English
is the international language.
Analysis 5:
The DM In addition to as Elaborative Markers. This DM add information to
f. Extract 6 (DMs for example, that and thus)
In my opinion, today’s English is very important. Due to all of them already use
the language, for example*, when we want to find a job and record somewhere.
English is what is needed, if we are not able to communicate with the language,
we could not get a job or desires that**** we required.
Never understand against the language. 5 years old child alone is much
smoothly by using the English language, although their grammar is a bit messy.
Do we not feel embarrassed by those aged 5 years only because it could not
communicate or speak English? Thus***, let us vying to have the desire to
speak as they were 5 years old.
Analysis 6:
The DM For example as Elaborative Markers. This DM add information to
The DM That as Additional Subclasses Markers. This DM provides a reason
for the content presented, so there is a continue reason after using this DM.
50
The DM Thus as Inferential Markers. In this case the use of thus in the writing
activity for connecting one sentence with another sentence to make it more
understandable and comprehensible.
g. Extract 7 (DMs then and furthermore)
English is used in writing and speaking by many people all over the
world. However, English is the most global spoken language. Then***, if a
man wants to catch a global goal, he has to master English.
We even hear about British, American, and Australian English. Those
various names of English are used as the first language in those countries.
Furthermore*, some countries have their mostly in daily communication.
Analysis 7:
The DM Then as Inferential Markers. DM Then is used in discourse to
indicate succession between prior and upcoming talk—a succession from one topic to
another. DM Then indicates a temporal succession between two events and the third
one indicates a succession to a different topic.
The DM Furthermore as Elaborative Markers. The student used this DM add
than just making a list. In the student’s writing s/he used furthermore to give some
information more detail.
h. Extract 8 (DM while)
Learning English is very important because with English, we can get

more knowledge and can know some cultural other countries. English
while**** be easier for us to communicate with people of any country in the
business, learning and introductions. But, basically, we will be able to master
all the knowledge we take in.
51
Analysis 8:
The DM While as Additional Subclasses Markers. This DM is syntactically a
subordinate conjunction and it cannot introduce a sentence which stands alone, but
requires that the previous independent clause be present. So in this writing the use of
DMs while need more explanation for the next sentences.
i. Extract 9 (DM according to)
According to*** me the way that people can be interested and want to
learn the English language is a method of learning that does just that’s it,
would be nice if someone likes the lesson beforehand, so that people are not
saturated in learning and easy entry.
Analysis 9:
The DM According to as Inferential Markers. In the writing above, this DM
used to refer something for example to refer the name of the expert or to refer
something that supporting the idea.
j. Extract 10 (DMs well, now, and too)
About learning English, well***, it’s very important. So, I think really
loss for someone who didn’t want to know English.
I like to learning English because I didn’t want to outdate. Now***,
everyone is going to speak English every time, even in studying Arabic the
teacher use English too*. So I am interested and I want to master it too.
Analysis 10:
The DM Well as Inferential Markers. DM Well is used as a response marker
which anchors its user in an interaction when an upcoming contribution is not fully
constant with prior coherence options. DM Well can have pragmatic function; it is
52
used to indicate a request for elaboration and clarification. This implies that the
student use this element to start a turn that is going to deal with their cognitive and
social reality.
The DM Now as Inferential Markers. DM Now is used to indicate a speaker’s
progression through a discourse which contains an ordered sequence of subordinating
parts. It is also used to indicate the upcoming shift in talk, or when the speaker wants
to negotiate the right to control what will happen next in talk.
The DM Too as Elaborative Markers. In the writing above, this DM add
k. Extract 11 ( DM finally)
Finally****, by mastering the English language can make us easy to

get a job. When we want to look for a job or an interview. Somewhere,
language English much needed.
Analysis 11:
The DM Finally as Additional Subclasses Markers. This DM provide a reason
for the content presented, so there is a continue reason after using this DM. It is
syntactically a subordinate conjunction and it cannot introduce a sentence which
stands alone, but requires that the previous independent clause be present.
Table 4.2 Data Display the types of DMs Used by the Students in the
Argumentative Text
No Types of DMs Functions of DMs Extract
3. As well Elaborative Markers 1
53
4. Anyway Inferential Markers 1

6. If Additional Markers 1
7. Like Elaborative Markers 2
15. First Elaborative Markers 4
16. In addition to Elaborative Markers 5
17. For example Elaborative Markers 6
18. That Additional subclasses Markers 6
19. Thus Inferential Markers 6
20. Then Inferential Markers 7
21. Furthermore Elaborative Markers 7
22. While Additional Markers 8
23. According to Inferential Markers 9
24. Well Inferential Markers 10
25. Now Inferential Markers 10
26. Too Elaborative Markers 10
27. Finally Additional Markers 11
3. The Types of DMs Used by The Students and Their Functions in the
Descriptive Text
54

markers.
and the functions of discourse markers in their writing activity in the descriptive text.
The explanation of the data is presented in the following paragraph.
a. Extract 1 (DMs but, because, also, if, however, or, even, and and)
I think, when we play there own pleasure for the play, especially for fans
of the game, but** often play can make a person addition because**** playing
games.
Some people argue that the game is not good for humans because it can
cause negative effects, but there also* are found, the game is not always a
negative effect, said too often negative if**** only occasionally play but if it’s
not a problem anyway, just wanted to refresh the brain from thinking thought
that sometimes makes us dizzy or others.
However** good or* depending on people who play games. Whether
the people who play it can play it properly or even** the opposite. There’s
nothing wrong if we play it if only occasionally and* not excessive because of
something that used to be good inshaAllah good results.
Analysis 1:
The DMs But, However, and Even as Contrastive Markers. All these words
are used to present two contrasting ideas.
The DMs Because and If as Additional Subclasses Markers. These DMs
provide a reason for the content presented, so there is a continue reason after using
these DMs. they are syntactically a subordinate conjunction and they cannot
introduce a sentence which stands alone, but requires that the previous independent
clause be present.
The DMs Also, Or and And as Elaborative Markers, these DMs add
55
b. Extract 2 (DM therefore)
I have many hobbies, including reading novels, listening music singing and
dancing. But my most often do is just reading novels and listening music. I liked
a lot of things that related with music, therefore*** I followed the art
extracurricular activities at my school.
Analysis 2:
The DM Therefore as Inferential Markers. As a connector, this DM show that
the second statement follows logically from the first statement. It gave an explanation
more complete from the first sentence.
c. Extract 3 (DM so)
I have a dream for my parents happy, so*** I study extra hard than
other for realizing my dreams. I will as high school and to university entrance
so that they are proud of me.
Analysis 3:
The DM So as Inferential Markers. This DM used to indicate a speaker’s
56
d. Extract 4 (DMs first, well, and besides)

First*, let me introduce myself to you who read this.my name is
Melinda. I am 17 years old. I live in BTP, Makassar. Well***, talking about
hobby. I actually have a lot of hobbies. They’re reading, watching TV,
shopping, writing, playing game, stalking someone @@@, listening to music
and also laughing with my friends. One could almost say that my favorite hobby
is reading.
I enjoy spending time with the book when I have nothing to do. I always
reading novel. Novel can inspire me to keep moving forward to live better and
also can take the wisdom or positive things from it. Besides* reading novel, I
also like read magazine because it’s interesting. Different with the novel,
magazine is so much information and facts.
Analysis 4:
The DMs First and Besides as Elaborative Markers. All kinds of these DMs
add information to what has been said. The usage of these words is much more
elegant than just making a list.
The DM Well as Inferential Markers. This DM is used to indicate a speaker’s
e. Extract 5 (DM as well as )
Every people must have a lot of hobbies, as well as* me. I have like
listening to music, reading novels also watching Korean drama. I do it when I
feel sad, happy and others.
Analysis 5:
The DM As well as as Elaborative Markers. This DM add information to what
f. Extract 6 (DMs in addition and despite)
57
I often online in social media and most often I do is stalker all about
Aliando syarif, because I’m Alicious. I really love Aliando because I think
Aliando was amazing because in addition to* handsome and cute actor, he also
friendly, kindly, smart, talented, merciful and pious. So he is my mood baster.
But despite** having many hobbies, I don’t forget my obligations as a
students to study hard wherever I am don’t forget to carry out it’s obligation as
a Muslim woman to praying and devotion to parents. That’s all about me, thank
you.
Analysis 6:
The DM In addition as Elaborative Markers. This DM add information to
The DM Despite as Contrastive Markers. This DM is used to present two
contrasting ideas.
g. Extract 7 (DM now)
Sometimes, people judge me very quiet, calm and always happy. But not
all of it true. I’m not entirely subdued as if I was familiar people. I can easily be
choosily. I can also say people are selfish and irritability. But now*** I am
trying to understand other people and also try to control my emotions in order
not easily upset.
Analysis 7:
The DM Now as Inferential Markers. This DM used to indicate a speaker’s
58
h. Extract 8 (DM meanwhile)
Reading also has skills. Reading skills are relevant to writing skills.
Reading is a process of opening a window to the world, look on insight and
became one of the ways to obtain a maximum of information. Reading skills
necessary to be able to understand the message conveyed by the author through
the medium of words or written language. Meanwhile****, the ability to write
is a process of arranging, composing, and record the results of individual
thoughts in written language. Write means restate information to the general
public, and this information was obtained through reading.
Analysis 8:
The DM Meanwhile as Additional Subclasses Markers. This DM provides a
reason for the content presented, so there is a continue reason after using this DM. It
is syntactically a subordinate conjunction, it cannot introduce a sentence which stands
alone, but requires that the previous independent clause be present.
i. Extract 9 (DMs although, though and than)
My name is Iin nuryasinta. I live in the maros and educated in MAN 3

Makassar. Although** my house is very far from my school so rarely late,
though** lately started late. I belong to someone who is very humorous, almost
everyday I always make my friends laugh in class.
My hobbies are fickle. I included people who are easily bored. If I again
feel good then I would avidly read. The books I read was books which are
themed on religion. But if I am not happy than** I would listen to music, watch
even online for hours.
Analysis 9:
The DMs Although, Though and Than as Contrastive Markers. All kinds of
these DMs are used to present two contrasting ideas.
Table 4. 3 Data Display the types of DMs Used by the Students in the Descriptive
Text
59
No The example of DMs The types of DMs Extract

4. If Additional subclasses Markers 1
11. First Elaborative Markers 4
12. Well Inferential Markers 4
13. Besides Elaborative Markers 4
14. As well as Elaborative Markers 5
15. In addition Elaborative Markers 6
16. Despite Contrastive Markers 6
17. Now Inferential Markers 7
18. Meanwhile Additional subclasses Markers 8
20. Though Contrastive Markers 9
21. Than Contrastive Markers 9
60
B. Discussion
The discussion deals with the explanation of the findings derived from the
students’ writing. The investigation in this study revealed that there are two aspects
pertaining the discourse markers set out to achieve the objectives of the research in
the chapter one, they are about the types of discourse markers and its functions used
by the students in three kinds of writing activity. In this section, the researcher would
like to present the data interpretation that was taken from the students’ writing.
1. The types of DMs used by the students in writing activity

Based on the data collected, the researcher revealed that each student used
different types of DMs in their writing and after calculated of the DMs used by the
students’ in writing there were 41 types, they were and, but, because, on the other
hand, while, since, such like, or, like that, if, than, also, even though, even, though,
however, first, second, third, of course, furthermore, so, therefore, in addition,
hmmm, yes, although, too, then, for example, as well as, besides, in conclusion,
despite, according to, meanwhile, thus, now, finally, anyway, and well.
Regarding to the data showed that there are 14 extracts in the comparison and
contrast text, 11 extracts in the argumentative text, and 9 extracts in the descriptive
text. Totally the examples of DMs was 41 that including into four types of DMs.
Fraser (1999: 946) categorized DMs into four types, they are elaborative, contrastive,
inferential, and additional subclasses markers.
As the research findings showed that a good writing is not only grammatical,
but also cohesive and coherent. Discourse markers have main role in cohesion of text,
and should hold a central place in writing teaching. Nobody cannot say discourse
markers are decisive for English writing, but anybody cannot deny they have great
effect on the cohesion and coherence of writing. In the Extract 1 to extract 14 in the
comparison and compare text have showed the production of DMs in students’
English writing. The production of coherent discourse is DMs signals a relationship
between discourse units, i.e. utterances, longer spans of text, even between the text
61
and the extra-linguistic context. The option of DMs refers to the fact that they are
almost always syntactically optional, i.e. they can removed without altering the
grammaticality of the host sentence (Degand, 2010). This does not mean that DMs
have no function whatever in the utterances they occur in. A slight improvement has
been detected in writing ability.
The finding showed that as students are instructed about DMs, their level of
creating more cohesion text also improve. This is to be expected as learners becoming
more equipped may feel safer in dealing with composing a text. The strong
relationship between learning DMs roles within a text and perceived success in
establishing a cohesion text was identified that there are 30 DMs in the comparison
and compare text from extract 1 to extract 14, 27 DMs in the argumentative text from
extract 1 to extract 11 and 21 DMs in the descriptive text from extract 1 to extract 9,
as shown in table data display, implying that the more knowledge learners have about
DMs, the more successful they can be in the writing process. Text with more DMs
were considered as more cohesive though DMs are by no means the only evidence for
a well-organized and cohesive text.
This is reinforcing with previous research that reported a positive impact of
instruction of DMs on success in language writing (Feng, 2010). Obviously, learners
who can cope with writing task, dealing with creating cohesion text, feel more
successful in writing in a foreign language. This finding on the other hand is
supported with former research by Traugott (1995), who has accounted the effect of
DMs’ relationship with self-perceived success of learners in writing in a foreign
language. One of the aims of learner training is to help learners become independent
in the learning process and become more confident with writing task of language
learning. Therefore, learners who can become more educated can better composing of
cohesion text. To see whether receiving any form of such instructions influences
writing proficiency, such a finding indicates that the more learners receive instruction
about knowing of reading in a foreign language, the more proficient they can become
62
of writing skill. Without a doubt much more investigation is necessary to determine

the precise role of learner training in improving writing skill.
On the basis of the findings of this paper it is concluded that instruction of
discourse markers can be one of basic process in developing of writing ability, and
learners profit from it and use it in an efficient way. An interactive process that
requires speakers to draw upon several different types of communicative knowledge-
cognitive, expressive, social, textual that complement more code-based grammatical
knowledge of sound, form, and meaning (Schiffrin, 1992). Discourse markers
mention not only about linguistic properties ( e.g. semantic and pragmatic meaning ),
but also about the cognitive, expressive, social, and textual competence of those who
use them ,because the functions of markers are so broad, and all analyses of markers
can teach about their roles in discourse Basing decisions about marker status on data
analysis has an important consequences.
Accordingly the researcher assumed that students’ awareness of discourse
markers’ role in written would facilitate creating of a cohesion text is confirmed and
this is reflected in the learners’ written performance. The finding of this paper is
supported by other papers which is related to this topic, such as “Discourse Markers
in English Writing “by Li Feng who concludes that discourse markers function as one
of the cohesive devices between words and sentences. He also believes that during
English teaching, especially during English writing teaching, discourse markers
should paid attention. With most cases of overuse and misuse of DMs in learners’
cloze test, the writer follows who suggest that DMs are used in their writing as a
result of translation from their first language to target language. Some of the students
used DMs which overshadowed the text and made it difficult to understand.
Regarding to this research, the data from the students’ writing there was many
examples of DMs used by the students, although the students did not understand how
to use the DMs in constructing sentences in their writing. For example in some
63
extracts, the used of DM and and but inappropriate way in putting at the beginning of
the sentences (extract 2).
By investigating the students’ writing, the researcher found that there some
students did not know how to organize the using of DMs in their writing, in extract 1
to 11 in the argumentative text. Kubota (1998) specifically found that insufficient L2
skills account for the lack of attention to organization, the use of the simple text
structures, ineffectiveness in connecting paragraphs, or inadequate paragraphing.
Even though the students’ classroom teachers may not directly teach discourse
marker use, but students may be modeling that use in the classroom, and they satisfy
themselves with the idea that if they use too many DMs, they are making their
composition more cohesive and acceptable (Jalilifar, 2008). So the hypothesis that
instruction of DMs is necessary and needed is rejected with Jalilifar’s finding that
‘high’ achievers use more DMs and are more likely to direct their attention to
creating of cohesion and coherence text than to generating short grammatical
sentences. On the other hand, the findings of this study is supported by Moradan’s
study (1995), investigated the effect of explicit teaching of DMs on the appropriate
use of DMs by students in their writings and found that the students’ conscious
awareness of forms and implications of DMs improved their appropriate use of DMs.
He also found that comparison of DMs in the first language and English had a great
advantage for the students. Therefore, he suggested that explicit instruction of DMs
should be involved in language course to help learners take advantage of their
knowledge of DMs in reading comprehension and other language uses.
Thornbury (1997, as cited in Aidinlou 2012) reiterated that “cohesion alone is
not enough to make a text coherent” (P.126). Texts have an internal logic, which the
reader recognizes even without the aid of explicit cohesive devices. Students need to
know that there are a number of other linguistic devices that affect the extent to which
groups of sentences hold together and form a complete and cohesive text such as
64
reference words ( e.g. pronoun reference, article reference, ellipsis etc.), lexical sets,
lexical repetition, as well as conjunctions (Jalilifar, 2008).
In fact using of DMs is just one part of grammar. Traugott (1995) defines
grammaticalness as a process where, by lexical material in highly constrained
pragmatic and morpheme-syntactic contexts become grammatical and already
grammatical material becomes more grammatical (P.37). In her study, she found out
that development of DMs coincides with development of highly specific
constructions via strategic use in discourse to a sequential adverbial and ultimately a
DM. According to Fraser (1988) DMs are part of grammar by carrying on the label of
pragmatic markers, and then they should be somewhere between grammar and
discourse comes to vogue, then they could be part of grammar and discourse (P.21-
23). So grammar develops via pragmatic strengthening which ends up with the use of
DMs; for this reason, the use of DMs demands experiential language learning
(Jalilifar, 2008).
The students’ grammatical of DMs does not necessarily show a sentence
ungrammatical, it’s just a removing of some powerful clues, which make relationship
between the current utterance and the prior discourse. As Lichtenberk (1991) said
“Grammar shapes discourse, and discourse, in return, shapes grammars”.
The suggestion could be explicit instruction of DMs, their meaning and
functions in different contexts. A study by Nunan (1999) indicated that the
“background knowledge was a more important factor than grammatical complexity in
the ability of the readers to comprehend the cohesive relations in the texts” (p. 260).
Thus, comprehension of DMs and cohesive relations, on one hand, and overall
creation of a text, are highly interrelated. What the results of the study suggest is that
for a better writing text, learners need to comprehend and recognize meanings and
functions of DMs, that is, they require to have a good command of DMs.
65
2. The functions of DMs used by the students in writing activity

The functions of DMs also consisted by different explanation. Discourse
markers have a lot of functions and below these are only some of the functions which
are commonly used. Message-related DMs are those that relate the aspects of an
explicit message conveyed by the segment which is introduced by the discourse
marker with aspects of a message, directly or indirectly, associated with the segment
in the prior discourse. This major group of markers encompasses four subclasses of
contrastive, parallel, elaborative and inferential markers. (Fraser, 1999).
Contrastive markers refer to those DMs that signal the explicit interpretation
of one segment in contrast with the interpretation of preceding segment. The
contrastive markers were also widely employed by the students. The markers of this
type used are: but, however, although, whereas, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the
other hand, in contrast (with/to this/that), whereas, instead (of (doing) this/that),
despite (doing) this/that, in spite of (doing) this/that. There was again a difference in
the use of contrastive DMs between the highly-rated essays and the poorly-rated
essays. The highly-rated essays in general tended to present a larger variety of
contrastive markers whereas the poorly-rated essays tended to repeat the same
markers (but, however). For example:
My hobbies are fickle. I included people who are easily bored. If I again
feel good then I would avidly read. The books I read was books which are
themed on religion. But if I am not happy than** I would listen to music, watch
even online for hours.
Additional subclasses markers indicate that the basic message is somehow

parallel to some aspect of the prior discourse. The causative markers used were
because, for this/that reason, since. Here it is worth pointing out the fact that since
was only employed as a causative marker in the highly- rated essays. We observe that
the students are not familiar with the use of since as a DM. For example:
66
And myself have five best friends are four and one male. I’m friends
with them since**** the entry in MAN 3 Makassar.
Elaborative markers signal that the current utterance constitutes an

elaboration of an earlier one. The elaborative markers present in the compositions
were the following: also, besides, in addition, moreover, that is (to say), likewise,
and, for example, to sum up, and in short. There was a difference of effectiveness in
the use of elaborative DMs between the highly-rated essays and the poorly-rated
essays. The highly-rated essays in general tended to present a larger variety of
elaborative markers with the result that these were very effective in the development
of the ideas whereas the poorly-rated essays tended to repeat the same markers and as
a result they looked redundant. For example:
I often online in social media and most often I do is stalker all about Aliando
syarif, because I’m Alicious. I really love Aliando because I think Aliando was
amazing because in addition to* handsome and cute actor, he also friendly,
kindly, smart, talented, merciful and pious. So he is my mood baster.
The final group as inferential markers signal that the current utterance
conveys a message that is, in a sense, consequential to some aspect of the foregoing.
The inferential markers used were so, as a consequence, as a result, because of
this/that, consequently, for this/that reason, therefore and then. We do not observe
differences in the use of these DMs between the highly-rated and poorly-rated
compositions. Finally, the topic relating DMs used were with regards to and in
relation to. We only find these markers in highly-rated compositions. We observe in
general the use of quite a large variety of DMs within each type with the exception of
topic relating markers and a larger variety of DMs in the good compositions and
repetition of the same markers in the poor compositions. For example:
67
I have many hobbies, including reading novels, listening music singing

and dancing. But my most often do is just reading novels and listening music. I
liked a lot of things that related with music, therefore*** I followed the art
extracurricular activities at my school.
When the researcher analyzed the use of discourse markers in students’

writing, he/she had identified something about the problem in using of discourse
markers. This is not a problem that should be underestimated, but it is a problem that
should be taken care of. In writing, it is true that almost everyone can write about
anything, but there is not so many people can write about something. The writer’s
interpretation and the reader’s understanding are different as it depends on how
certain individual comprehend it, so it is very crucial for writers to ensure that their
message is delivered appropriately to the receiver. It supports Granger’s (1998, p.80)
investigation which showed that learners have problems with differentiation between
discourse markers used in conversation and academic essay writing. According to this
scholar, “one problem for learners is that the use of connectors is sensitive to register
and discourse type”. One of the reasons could be that the learners’ course books and
other materials they use, lack of some important information about discourse markers.
The requirements to use a formal style are indicated and among the items making the
style more formal discourse markers are included; however, examples are indicated
with no explanations on stylistic and statistical grounds of discourse markers. For
example, first, firstly (to begin an essay) or then, subsequently (for middle steps) are
given without indicating that firstly is more formal than first, and then is slightly
informal, while subsequently is formal (Granger, 1998, p.175).
Learning English is just speak and speak, don’t worry for making
mistake, remember like when you were baby, first you call your mama by ma
and so on. Nowadays for those who can’t speak English they will lost their
brighter and better life in the future, so let’s study English for your better of life
ahead.
68
Truthfully, some students had no idea what discourse markers is all about. It
can be seen that some of the students lacked of knowledge about discourse markers
and not only the students. If the students themselves were lacked of knowledge about
discourse markers, how can discourse markers effectively been applied? Even some
of the students themselves agreed that they were not focusing too much on the
discourse markers in the classroom so there was not enough exposure to make the
students had a better understanding on how to incorporate the use of discourse
markers in their essay. As the researchers had already mention in the previous
chapter, discourse markers is not only important in joining words, sentences or
paragraph, but it is also indispensable for the coherent of the whole essay. A writer
writes because they have their own purpose, but without cohesion, it will be difficult
to for the reader to understand the purpose that the writer tried to deliver.
Writing is not generally concerns only about grammar, but it is also about
coherence. They only concerned about how discourse markers could help to join
students’ sentences and the sentences should be grammatically correct. This might be
one of the reasons why there are still some students who do not know the correct
usage of the application of discourse markers. Truthfully, discourse markers are not
only bound as part of grammatical function only, but it has a variety of functions that
are important to be learned by the students. Impressively, they are certain students use
advanced discourse markers and indeed based on the observation, it helps to improve
their writing better.
The result of the research showed that the misused and overused of discourse
markers indeed affected the flow of the students’ essay writing and makes it less
coherent. Hence, discourse markers are obviously important in someone’s writing and
it should be emphasis in teaching and learning process. The students need not only to
focus on grammatical or vocabulary meaning, but they also need to focus on the
content and the objective of their writing as well.
69
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS
This chapter deals with three sections. The first section contains some
conclusions based on the findings and discussions. The second section contains the
pedagogical implication that refers to what and how these findings of the research
affect both academic and practical perspectives of discourse markers as mentioned
previously in the significance of the study. And the third section contains suggestions
based on the conclusion and it is for the future research. The explanation of the
content in this research will be explained in the following paragraph.
A. Conclusion
Based on the findings discussed in the prior chapter, some conclusions could
be drawn to get the insight to which could be name DMs. The researcher revealed
that the students of MAN 3 Makassar employed some types of DMs appearing with
several different functions. The analysis told us that due to lack of discourse markers
or misuse of discourse markers the students’ spoken become less cohesive and less
coherent. Discourse markers tell us not only about the linguistic properties of a set of
frequently used expressions, and the organization of social interactions and situations
in which they are used, but also about the cognitive, expressive, social, and textual
competence of those who use them. Because the functions of markers are so broad,
any and all analyses of markers even those focusing on only a relatively narrow
aspect of their meaning or a small portion of their uses can teach us something about
their role in discourse (Schiffrin, 1987: 67).
Total DMs used by the students in three kinds text was 40 DMs which is have
different functions that is calculated into 30 DMs in the comparison and compare text
from extract 1 to extract 14, 27 DMs in the argumentative text from extract 1 to
extract 11 and 21 DMs in the descriptive text from extract 1 to extract 9, as shown in
table data display.
70

markers. Based on the data, the researcher found that the students used 30 types of
elaborative markers, 19 types of contrastive markers, 16 types of inferential markers
and 13 types of additional subclasses markers. The researchers concluded that
elaborative markers is the most used by the students in writing activity.
B. Implications
The result of the research clearly revealed the importance of teaching text
markers to students in increasing their awareness about the place of their usage in a
written text. Writing not only employs the procedure of a good written text, but
depicts and values the coherence and cohesion, too. Composing a lot of sentences
without considering the cohesive ties fails to negotiate the inter-related events
intended to be decoded by the reader. Then the presence of text markers is a
necessary condition to have a smooth and enjoyable written text.
Based upon the fact, the syllabus designer should believe that including these
elements in texts books and materials is a necessity. In the meantime, the related
topics are related to teachers. It means that teachers should believe that writing as one
of the four language skills should be taught to students.
The teachers need to ensure that it is not only the students need to understand
how to apply discourse markers as well as its vast usage, but the teachers also need to
instill adequate knowledge about it before transmit it to their students as its role is not
only to join sentences only. The teacher themselves, need not to avoid to teach
discourse markers or expect the students to learn by themselves, but they need to pay
more attention towards this as well when teaching writing to the students. Thus, by
completing this research, the researchers hope that it could help the other researchers
in exploring the usage of discourse markers as coherence provides good quality of
writing and allow the writers’ ideas to meet with the readers’ understanding.
71
Instructors ought to emphasize on these text markers which are used

frequently and are prevalent in a written text of any nature. As the research by Innajih
(2007) shows, explicit instruction of DMs is to the advantage of second language
learners. In fact explicit teaching of DMs seems to influence all language skills since
they are important components of language. As some studies have shown (Moradan
1995, Nunan 1991), it is recommended that the instructor compare the DMs in
English with those in the students’ first language.
The students have to focus and concentrate on the use of discourse markers to
enhance more effective writing. The students need to be taught specifically about
discourse markers in carrying out activities inside the class. They need not only be
taught, but also need to be able to see the clear and the big picture of discourse
markers. The students must be aware that the writing skill is one of the important and
difficult tasks to learn. Learning to write well of course is a matter of art, inherited in
some people by nature; it requires to be equipped with some knowledge as well one
of the useful elements is to be familiar with text binding devices, among them text
markers.
C. Suggestions
Based on the result of the data analysis, the researcher gives some suggestions
as follows:
1. The researcher suggests to the English teachers that they need to teach
Discourse Markers as an alternative way to improve students’ writing
ability.
2. The students should use some kinds of DMs to make their writing task
more creative in their writing activity.
3. This research dedicated to every single person who spending some of their
precious time in helping and motivating us to complete this research.
Hope that this research can be a guide for other researchers and give some
useful insight within the same area as well.
72
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THE ANALYSIS OF DISCOURSE MARKERS IN STUDENTS’ ENGLISH

MUTHMAINNAH MURSIDIN, S. Pd., M. Pd.

ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY OF MAKASSAR

Judul Penelitian : THE ANALYSIS OF DISCOURSE MARKERS IN

Kota Makassar, 08-09-2016

(Dr. H. M. Arfah Shiddiq, M.A.) (Mutmainnah Mursidin, S.Pd., M.Pd)

(Dr. Ir. Musdalipa Mahmud, M.Si.)

C. Objective of the Research

D. Significance of the Research

E. Scope of the Research

A. Some Previous Related Studies

their message is delivered appropriately to the receiver. Comparing to my research, if

B. Some Pertinent Ideas

a. The Types of Discourse Markers

Distinguishing DMs from whether they refer to a textual segment between

f. by the same taken,

2) Discourse markers which relate topics

e.g. back to my original point, before I forget, by the way etc.

Apparently, conjunction is related to the entire environment of a text. The

b. A List of Discourse Markers with Examples

1) with regard to; regarding; as regards; as far as … is concerned, as for

economy, we have made ... As far as I am concerned, we should continue to develop

2) on the other hand; while; whereas

3) however, nonetheless, nevertheless

All these words are used to present two contrasting ideas.

4) moreover, furthermore, in addition

5) therefore, as a result, consequently

c. Classification of the Discourse Markers Found In the Texts by Function

k. Generalizing; for example in general, apart from and broadly

In a coherent paragraph, each sentence relates clearly to the topic sentence or

reference, substitution, ellipsis, lexical cohesion and conjunction. Conjunction, or

ALL mammals, for example) is remarkably regular. As we move FROM small

c. Be consistent in point of view, verb tense, and number. Consistency in point

8) They may be multifunctional, operating on the local and global levels

a. The Nature of Writing

b. The Component of Writing

According to Heaton (1988:135), there are five main components or main

C. Discourse Markers in Pedagogical Setting

Table 1. A core functional paradigm of discourse markers in pedagogical discourse

The conceptual framework of this research will illustrate as follows:

Reference Substitution Conjunction Lexical Ellipsis

The Types of The Application of The Functions of

Figure 2.1 Conceptual Framework

D. Data Collecting Procedure

E. Techniques of Data Analysis

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Distinguishing DMs from whether they refer to a textual segment between

(Taken from student’s writing no 24 , page 118 )

beginning of a sentence as but is used as a coordinating conjunction to join two

But online class learning in everywhere and every time suchlike* a

Even though** both is differences. However** we need both. The city

Second* reason is about comfortable. A female friend is more

(Taken from student’s writing no 4 , page 98 )

(Taken from student’s writing no 6 , page 100 )

(Taken from student’s writing no 7 , page 101 )

(Taken from student’s writing no 8 , page 102 )

Therefore it is fun when living in the village though** much of modern

(Taken from student’s writing no 12 , page 106 )

(Taken from student’s writing no 21 , page 115 )

m. Extract 13 (DM as well as)

(Taken from student’s writing no 28 , page 122 )

No The example of DMs The Types of DMs Extract

25. Too Elaborative Markers 12

Even though both is differences. However we need both. The city