2019

Addis Ababa Science

and Technology
University

Dr.Misrak Girma

[GRAMMAR RULES]
This English Grammar Rules Reference Book Prepared by Collecting
Different Materials from Internet and Book.
 Table of Contents
Grammar rules ................................................................................................................................ 9

1. Verbs ........................................................................................................................................... 9

General verb introduction............................................................................................................ 9

Verb-subject agreement............................................................................................................. 11

Affirmative, interrogative and negative form ........................................................................... 12

Simple present ........................................................................................................................... 14

1. Simple present use ............................................................................................................. 14

2. Simple present continuous ................................................................................................. 16

Simple past ................................................................................................................................ 17

1. Simple past use .................................................................................................................. 17

2. Simple past continuous ...................................................................................................... 19

3. Expressions using the simple past ..................................................................................... 20

Present perfect ........................................................................................................................... 21

1. Present perfect use ............................................................................................................. 21

2. Present perfect continuous ................................................................................................. 22

3. Expressions using the present perfect ................................................................................ 23

Past perfect ................................................................................................................................ 24

Future ........................................................................................................................................ 25

Simple future ............................................................................................................................. 25

1. Simple future use ............................................................................................................... 25

2. Future continuous .............................................................................................................. 26

3. Expressions using the simple future .................................................................................. 28

 Conditional ................................................................................................................................ 28

Conditional and conditional perfect .......................................................................................... 28

Infinitive .................................................................................................................................... 29

Gerund ....................................................................................................................................... 31

The gerund................................................................................................................................. 31

Imperative.................................................................................................................................. 32

Subjunctive ................................................................................................................................ 32

Irregular verbs ........................................................................................................................... 33

Question tags ............................................................................................................................. 35

Conditional sentences ................................................................................................................ 36

Conditional sentences tenses ..................................................................................................... 36

Sequence of tenses .................................................................................................................... 37

Reported questions .................................................................................................................... 38

2. Part of Speech ........................................................................................................................... 39

Nouns ........................................................................................................................................ 39

1. Noun determiners .............................................................................................................. 39

2. Numbers in plural nouns.................................................................................................... 41

3. This, that, these, those ....................................................................................................... 42

4. Using reflexive pronouns................................................................................................... 43

5. Countable vs uncountable nouns: Many vs much, few vs little, amount of vs number of

etc........................................................................................................................................... 44

6. The plural form of compound nouns ................................................................................. 45

7. Specific and general numbers ............................................................................................ 46

8. Noun gender ...................................................................................................................... 46

9. Collective nouns ................................................................................................................ 47

 10. Preposition placement...................................................................................................... 48

Determiners ............................................................................................................................... 48

1. A vs An .............................................................................................................................. 48

2. Countable vs uncountable nouns ....................................................................................... 50

3. Some vs Any...................................................................................................................... 51

4. Definite vs indefinite articles ............................................................................................. 52

5. Omitting articles (no determiner) ...................................................................................... 53

6. Each vs every ..................................................................................................................... 55

7. Using determiners .............................................................................................................. 55

8. Ordering determiners ......................................................................................................... 56

Pronouns .................................................................................................................................... 57

1. Pronouns - general ............................................................................................................. 57

2. Who, whom, whose ........................................................................................................... 59

3. That, which, who ............................................................................................................... 60

4. Which vs what ................................................................................................................... 61

5. Pronoun order .................................................................................................................... 62

6. Reflexive pronouns ............................................................................................................ 62

7. Indefinite pronouns ............................................................................................................ 63

8. One as a pronoun ............................................................................................................... 65

Adverbs .................................................................................................................................... 65

1. Many vs Much ................................................................................................................... 65

2. Adverbs and comparisons of equality ............................................................................... 66

3. Adverb position ................................................................................................................. 67

4. What does an adverb do? ................................................................................................... 68

Adjectives .................................................................................................................................. 69
 1. Adjective order .................................................................................................................. 69

2. Superlative adjectives ........................................................................................................ 70

3. Comparative adjectives...................................................................................................... 71

4. Comparative adjective sentence structure ......................................................................... 72

5. Superlative adjective sentence structure ............................................................................ 72

6. Adjectives and linking verbs ............................................................................................. 73

7. Compound adjectives ........................................................................................................ 74

8. Adjectives and comparisons of equality ............................................................................ 76

Prepositions ............................................................................................................................... 76

1. For, since, ago, during ....................................................................................................... 76

2. Prepositions across, over, and through .............................................................................. 77

3. At, in, on ............................................................................................................................ 78

4. Among & between ............................................................................................................. 79

5. What is a preposition and when to use one ....................................................................... 80

6. Unnecessary prepositions .................................................................................................. 83

7. No splitting auxiliary verbs with prepositions ................................................................... 83

8. Ending a sentence with a preposition ................................................................................ 84

9. Per and measurements ....................................................................................................... 84

10. As vs Like ........................................................................................................................ 84

Conjunctions.............................................................................................................................. 85

1. Expressions of contrast ...................................................................................................... 85

2. Understanding coordinating conjunctions ......................................................................... 85

3. Subordinating conjunctions ............................................................................................... 87

4. Correlative conjunctions .................................................................................................... 88

3. Homonyms ................................................................................................................................ 89
 Most commonly confused words .............................................................................................. 89

There, their, they’re ................................................................................................................... 92

Its vs it’s .................................................................................................................................... 93

Yours vs your’s ......................................................................................................................... 93

Your vs you’re ........................................................................................................................... 94

For vs four ................................................................................................................................. 94

To, too, two ............................................................................................................................... 95

Whose vs who’s ........................................................................................................................ 95

Then vs than .............................................................................................................................. 96

Further vs farther ....................................................................................................................... 96

Where, were, wear ..................................................................................................................... 97

Though, thought, tough, through, throughout ........................................................................... 98

4. Miscellaneous ........................................................................................................................... 98

Capitalization ............................................................................................................................ 98

1. Capitalization at the start of a sentence ............................................................................. 98

2. When to capitalize within parentheses .............................................................................. 99

3. Pronoun capitalization ....................................................................................................... 99

4. Capitalizing proper nouns .................................................................................................. 99

5. When to capitalize titles .................................................................................................. 100

6. Capitalizing the days of the week, months and seasons of the year ................................ 101

7. Other capitalizations: nationalities, languages, events, etc. ............................................ 102

8. Capitalizing words ........................................................................................................... 103

Punctuation .............................................................................................................................. 103

1. Commas after introductory prepositional phrases ........................................................... 103

2. Punctuating infinitive phrases ......................................................................................... 104

3. Punctuating participle phrases ......................................................................................... 105

4. Punctuating introductory phrases that start with a subordinating conjunction ................ 106

5. Punctuation after conjunctive adverbs ............................................................................. 107

6. Punctuation after interjections ......................................................................................... 108

7. Punctuation of coordinating conjunctions ....................................................................... 108

8. Sentence composed of two independent clauses ............................................................. 109

9. Non-restrictive clauses .................................................................................................... 110

10. Question tags ................................................................................................................. 110

11. Punctuating contrasting subject in a phrase ................................................................... 111

12. Punctuating dates ........................................................................................................... 111

13. Appositives .................................................................................................................... 112

14. Commas and quotation marks ....................................................................................... 112

15. Punctuating et cetera ...................................................................................................... 114

16. Punctuating interrupting phrases ................................................................................... 114

17. Name included in direct speech ..................................................................................... 115

18. Punctuating coordinate and non-coordinate adjectives ................................................. 115

19. Punctuating addresses .................................................................................................... 116

20. Punctuating salutations .................................................................................................. 117

21. Closing letters ................................................................................................................ 117

22. Punctuating correlative conjunctions............................................................................ 118

23. Two part subjects and punctuation ................................................................................ 118

24. Parenthesis ..................................................................................................................... 118

25. Punctuating a nominal groups series ............................................................................. 119

26. Punctuating a series of verbs ......................................................................................... 119

27. Word of comparison ...................................................................................................... 120

 28. Cases where commas will never be used....................................................................... 121

The genitive case ..................................................................................................................... 121

British vs American English ................................................................................................... 123

5. Typography ............................................................................................................................. 124

Spacing .................................................................................................................................... 124

1. Spacing between words ................................................................................................... 124

2. Spacing around parentheses............................................................................................. 125

3. Spacing around commas .................................................................................................. 125

4. Spacing around quotation marks ..................................................................................... 125

5. Spacing and ordinal number suffixes .............................................................................. 126

6. Spacing and contractions ................................................................................................. 126

7. Spacing and slashes ......................................................................................................... 127

The period and punctuation ..................................................................................................... 128

Semicolon use ......................................................................................................................... 128

The question mark ................................................................................................................... 129

Multiple punctuation marks .................................................................................................... 130

Confusion in hyphens .............................................................................................................. 130

1. Compound adjectives ...................................................................................................... 130

2. Hyphens in numbers ........................................................................................................ 131

3. Hyphenated prefixes ........................................................................................................ 131

Number format ........................................................................................................................ 132

1. General format ................................................................................................................. 132

2. Ordinal number endings .................................................................................................. 132

3. When to write out numbers ............................................................................................. 132

Currency format ...................................................................................................................... 133

Writing dates ........................................................................................................................... 134

Writing times ........................................................................................................................... 135

Use of Et cetera ....................................................................................................................... 136

Em dash, en dash, and hyphen ................................................................................................ 136

Parentheses and brackets ......................................................................................................... 137

 Grammar rules

1. Verbs

General verb introduction

 There are five basic sentence structures in English. More complex sentences are created with
one of these basic structures at its core.

Subject-verb The girl sings.

Casey ra .
Subject-Verb-Direct Object I ate the apples.
She kicked the ball.
Subject-Verb-Indirect Object I go to the cinema.
It remains in the box.
Subject-Verb-Adjective Colin is handsome.
I am happy.
Subject-Verb-Adverb Sarah runs quickly.
Maria talks quietly.
Subject-Verb-Noun I am a student.
John is a plumber.

 There are also three main auxiliary verbs you need to understand in English. Auxiliary verbs
help the main verb by adding different tenses, mood, and voices.
Modal auxiliary verbs

Will Be Do Shall
Would Should Can Could
May Might Must Have
I should be cooking dinner right now.
She would like to hike Mount Shasta one day.
They must come over by 4pm.
 There are three main auxiliary verbs: to be, to do, and to have. These three can either be
main verbs or auxiliary verbs. They can change tense or form, as you see on the chart below.

Form To be To do To have
Base form Be Do Have
Present form Am/is/are Do/does Have/has
Past form Was/were Did Had
Present participle Being Doing Having
Past participle Been Done Had

To be is the most used verb in the English language. It can be used to create the passive voice
or progressive sentences.
I am eating lunch.
He was chosen to participate.
I am looking for my coat.
He was yelling at the dog.
To do, as an auxiliary verb, is always followed by the infinitive of the main verb. It is used in
negative sentences, in questions, and to add emphasis to a positive sentence.
She does run in the mornings, I swear!
Do you like cake?
She doesn’t go to the movies very frequently.
Do Do you wash your sheets weekly?
To have is another one of the most common verbs used in English. It is often used in
questions and perfect sentences.
Have you seen my cat?
Has he finished his homework yet?
I have eaten four meals today.
He has been finished rude all night.

Verb-subject agreement

 Unlike many languages, English doesn’t require a verb to agree with the gender of a
corresponding noun. It does, however, require agreement with number.

 Indefinite pronouns (everyone, nobody, no one, someone, etc.) are always singular.
Indefinite pronouns like "all" or "some" have either plural or singular verb forms depending on
what they refer to; see the examples below. If it’s something countable, such as "students" or
"fish," use the plural. If it’s uncountable, like "information" or "art," use the singular.

Somebody is eating the cake. NOT Somebody are eating the cake.
Nobody was home. NOT Nobody were home.
All the information is important. NOT All the information are important.
Some of the sandwiches are gone. NOT Some of the sandwiches is gone.

 When using "neither," "either," or joining two singular subjects with "as well as" or
"together with," use the singular. While these may appear to require the plural, they don’t.

Either option is fine with me.

Neither light is working.
The dog, as well as the cat, is sleeping.
John, together with Sarah, is going to the ceremony.
 "And" conjoins two subjects and requires a plural verb. On the other hand, the conjunction
"or" does not do this, since it suggests only one item out of those listed. Instead, when using
"or," the verb agrees with the subject closest to it.

The dog and the cat are sleeping.

My mom and dad are coming to the airport.
My sister or my brothers are coming to get me.
The swimmers or the coach is ordering lunch.

 Fractional expressions, such as "half of," "a majority of," and "part of" are difficult because
they can be either plural or singular. The verb usually corresponds with the nearest noun as
either plural or singular.

More than one citizen has voted.

Most of the members are unhappy with the decision.
Half the class is sick.
Half of the students are sick.

 There are nouns that always require the plural, like "glasses," "pants," "stairs," "clothes,"
"earnings," "children," and "scissors."
The scissors are broken.
His earnings were stagnant.
There are a lot of stairs!

Affirmative, interrogative and negative form

 Verbs in English come in three main categories: the affirmative, the negative, and the
interrogative.
The affirmative= asserting that something is true or valid.
The negative= a reply denying something.
The interrogative= asking a question.

Here’s an overview of how each category is structured for most verb tenses in the English
language.

Verb Tense Affirmative Negative Interrogative

Present Simple I see you. I don’t see you. Do I see you?
Present continuous She is reading. She is not reading. Is she reading?
Past simple I cooked dinner. I didn’t cook dinner. Did I cook dinner?
Past simple continuous They were skiing. They weren’t skiing. Were they skiing?
Present perfect We have seen it. We haven’t seen it. Have we seen it?
Present perfect We’ve been singing. We haven’t been Have we been
continuous singing. singing?
Past perfect She had studied. She hadn’t studied. Had she studied?
Past perfect continuous She had been She hadn’t been Had she been
studying. studying. studying?
Future simple I will travel. I won’t travel. Will I travel?
Future simple He will be travelling. He won’t be Will he be
continuous travelling. travelling?
Future perfect He will have finished. He won’t have Will he have
finished. finished?
Future perfect He will have been He won’t have been Will he have been
continuous finishing. finishing. finishing?
Conditional It would work I wouldn’t work. Would it work?
Conditional continuous They would be They wouldn’t be Would they be
running. running. running?
Conditional perfect She would have been She wouldn’t have Would she have
happy. been happy. been happy?

Simple present
1. Simple present use

 When to use the simple present tense:

This tense has a range of uses; however, it doesn’t express actions happening in the moment. It
can be expressed in three different ways: affirmative, interrogative, and negative. We’ll start
with the general outline of the present simple tense in the affirmative form.

To express general truth, emotions, and I play soccer.

repeated or habitual actions. She volunteers at school.
My parents live in Maine.
To express a fixed event or arrangement in Kerry’s plane arrives at 6pm.
the near future. My appointment is at 8am tomorrow.
To express a future event after certain I will come after I run 10 miles.
conjunctions like: as soon as, before, after, I will come over as soon as I find my keys.
or until.
To give directions or instructions. Take a left at the light and continuer
another 5 minutes.

 Rules for conjugating the simple present tense:

 Use the base of the verb to conjugate present simple. Add an -s to the base for the third
person (she thinks, he cleans, etc.)
 Verbs ending in -y should be changed to -ies (study studies) for the third person. Some
exceptions are play (plays) and pray (prays).
 Add an -es to verbs that end in -ss, -ch, -sh, and -x (wash washes, hush hushes)

Verb I/you/we/they She/he/it

Run run runs
Study study studies
Catch catch catches
Pass pass passes

 To be is one of the most important verbs to know. As an irregular verb, it can also be a bit
harder to master.

They arrange the chairs each morning.  She arranges the chairs each morning.

I sing in a choir.  He sings in a choir.

We are angry at the court’s decision.  She is angry at the court’s decision.

Subject pronoun Full form Contracted form

I Am I’m
You Are You’re
He/she/it Is He’s/She’s/It’s
We Are We’re
They Are They’re

 Add "do" or "does" before the subject to switch from the affirmative simple present to
interrogative. "Do" will precede all subject pronouns except the third person (he/she/it). The
subject pronouns he/she/it require "does" to make the interrogative form. The new sentence
structure will look like this, and you can find examples in the chart below:
Do/does + subject + verb
The negative form also requires do/does, constructed like this:
Subject + do/does +not + Verb

Interrogative Full negative Contracted negative

Do I run? I do not run. I don’t run.
Do you run? You do not run. You don’t run.
Does she/he/it run? She does not run. She doesn’t run.
Do we run? We do not run. We don’t run.
Do they run? They do not run. They don’t run.

2. Simple present continuous

 The present continuous tense is used to describe an action happening right now. It is
composed of two parts. It begins with the verb to be in present tense, which is then followed by
the present participle of the main verb. The present participle is the verb base + -ing.

Using the present continuous:

An action happening right now. You’re reading a description of present
continuous.
A future plan that has already been She’s going to London in the spring.
planned.
A continuous, repeated action. I’m always practicing guitar.

A temporary situation. She’s working late tonight.

I’m doing my homework.

Harry is fixing his bike.
Caroline isn’t running much because of her injury.
We’re going on vacation next week!

 Verbs to avoid in present continuous

There are some verbs that should be avoided in present continuous; instead, use them in simple
present. As a rule of thumb, these verbs refer more to a state of being (as opposed to an action).
Here are some of the most common of these verbs:

To notice To believe To wish To regret

To weigh To smell To fear To hope
To dislike To contain To taste To see
To doubt To assume To be To want

They cover emotions, senses, opinions, measurements, and mental states. However, this doesn’t
mean these verbs can never be used in present continuous. Rather, it’s best to double-check
them.

Simple past
1. Simple past use

The simple past is used to describe an action that has already been completed in the past. It
may refer to the recent past or to the very distant past.

Using the simple past

A completed action in the past (or series of I walked the dog last night.
completed actions in the past). I ran five miles, then I showered, and
afterwards, I went to work.
A finished period of time in the past. I lived in France for three years.
 I worked at the Embassy for three months.
Past generalizations that are no longer the Cars were less fuel efficient in the 80’s.
same. Pip was a shy child.
Past habits (that have since changed). I played basketball in high school.
I trained to be a ballerina in my twenties.

 Rules for conjugating simple past:

 Base verb + -ed

 Common irregular verbs include: speak ( spoke), make ( made), take ( took), etc.
It’s best to memorize the irregular verbs.

Verb Past simple Passive voice

Call Called Was call d
Pay Paid Was paid
See Saw Was seen
Finish Finished Was finished

Examples of the simple past tense:

I called the hotel yesterday.

I saw the play last week; it was great!
The company was sold to the highest bidder.
Lacy ran three marathons last year.
 Irregular verbs
Draw  drew Fly flew Catch caught Cut cut
Make made Hold held Fight fought Give gave
Meetmet Say said Singsang Tell told
Write wrote Sell sold Spendspent Sleep slept

2. Simple past continuous

 The past continuous, also called the past progressive, describes an action or event that began
in the past and is still ongoing. The action wasn’t completed in the past (like with the simple
past).

Using the past continuous

To describe an action that was interrupted I was sleeping when the alarm went off.
by a shorter action. I was concentrating until my phone rang.
Expressing a change of mind. I was going to start school, but I decided to
travel for the year instead.
To provide background information or The birds were chirping.
description. The sun was shining.
A specific time stated during the course of At 3pm I was giving an important
a past action or event*. presentation at work.

* A sentence in the simple past tense, includes a specific time that indicates the start or end of the action (ex: “At
8am I ran five miles,” instead of, “At 8am I was running five miles”). In the second example, 8am interrupts the
run, which had already started.

 Rules for conjugating past continuous:

 Was/were (the past simple of "to be") + present participle of main verb

Verb I/she/he You/we/they

Sing Was singing Were singing
Call Was calling Were calling
Ask Was asking Were asking
Write Was wr ting Were writing

Examples:

Catherine was speaking to her mother when the phone ran out of battery.
The ocean waves were crashing along the shore.
I called you at 8pm last night, what were you doing?
At 8pm I was eating dinner with my girlfriend.
I was thinking about eating pizza for dinner, but I want to be healthier this year. I ate a salad
instead.

3. Expressions using the simple past

 The simple past is used to describe actions started in the past and have also been completed
in the past. There are many specific words and phrases that require the simple past — see
examples on the chart below.

Yesterday Last night One year ago

The day before yesterday Many years ago In the past
At that time The other day A long time ago
A short time ago Yesterday afternoon Recently
(specific dates) The month before last The week before last

Last year, I went to China.

The week before last, she and I went out to dinner.
I was born on May 1st, 1989.

Present perfect
1. Present perfect use

 This can be a hard tense to learn, especially for non-native English speakers. Present perfect
cannot be used with specific expressions of time (such as: "yesterday," "last night," when I lived
in Minneapolis," etc.). It can be used with non-specific expressions, like: "never," "ever," "many
times," etc. For example: “I have been to France,” or “I’ve never been to Japan”. However, it is
incorrect to say: “I have been to France for 4 months.”

Using present perfect

Describing experiences They have traveled all of South America.

Signe has lived in Dominica.
Describing change The rose bush has grown so much.
The paint has faded.
Past accomplishment, without a specific Stacy has won gold medals before.
date
Actions that are expected to be completed I still haven’t finished this paper.
in the future It hasn’t stopped raining yet.
Multiple actions or events throughout time We’ve given this presentation four times.
They have seen the movie many times.

 Rules for conjugating present perfect:

 Have/has + past participle
 The past participle usually ends with: -ed, -d, -t, -en, or -n.

Verb I/you/we/they She/he/it

Eat Have eaten Has eaten
Live Have lived Has lived
Close Have closed Has closed
Study Have studied Has studied

Examples:

Many people have climbed mount Kilimanjaro.

The child has grown so much over the years.
They’ve fought on several occasions.
I’ve worked in Silicon Valley.

2. Present perfect continuous

 Present perfect continuous is used for events or actions that started in the past and continue
into the present.

Using present perfect continuous

To describe an event started in the past that I’ve been cleaning houses for three months.
is still happening. Sarah has been waiting all day for you.
To describe recent events or actions. I’ve been eating really healthy lately.
They’ve been working so hard this week.
 Rules for conjugating present perfect continuous:

 Has been/have been + present participle (base verb + ing)

Verb I/you/we/they She/he/it

Wait Have been waiting Has been waiting
Sleep Have been sleeping Has been sleeping
Work Have been working Has been working
Drinking Have been drinking Has been drinking

Examples:

She has been practicing piano so much in the recent months.

You’ve been travelling for weeks now.
I’ve been cooking since 3pm.

 There are certain verbs that normally are not conjugated in the present perfect continuous
(instead in the present perfect). These verbs include: understand, know, and want.

I’ve been understanding your lectures.  I have understood your lectures.

3. Expressions using the present perfect

The present perfect tense cannot be used with specific expressions of time like "yesterday",
"one month ago," etc. It is used with unspecific expressions of time, as seen in the table below.

Ever Never Once

So far Already Before
 Recently To date In the last year
I have been to Japan in the last year.
She has never been to my favorite restaurant.
They have hiked Mount Hood before.

Past perfect

 The past perfect is used to show that one event happened before another one. It doesn’t
matter which event is mentioned first in the sentence; the past perfect clarifies their temporal
order.

Using the past perfect

First event Second event

I had left Before Shelly arrived at the office.
Clara had done the dishes When I returned this morning.
I had just boarded the airplane When my mother called me.

 Rules for conjugating past perfect:

 Paste tense of have + past participle of main verb
 It’s often used with specific expressions of time, like:
o After, before, by the time, etc.

Verb Affirmative Negative Interrogative

(using the
contraction of
"not")
 Call Had called Hadn’t called Had [you] called?
Pay Had paid Hadn’t paid Had [you] paid?
See Had seen Hadn’t seen Had [you] seen?
Finish Had finished Hadn’t finished Had [you] finished?

Examples:

After I had called the hotel I saw you.

The company had been sold by the time you emailed me.
Lacy had just run a marathon when we ran into her yesterday.

Future

Simple future
1. Simple future use

 The simple future is very easy to conjugate and can be used for a variety of reasons.

Using the simple future

To predict a future event. It will snow tomorrow.
You will be tired later.
To express one’s willingness to do I’ll clean the apartment.
something or to request help. I’ll help Luke with his anthropology
assignment.
Used to express a promise to do something. I will take care of grandma.
I’ll keep it a secret.
I won’t tell anyone.
Used to give an invitation. Will you be my date to the ballet?
Will you wash the car?
 Rules for conjugating simple future:
 Will + verb infinitive (without "to")
 It’s also possible to replace "will" with "shall"; however, "shall" isn’t common (and is a bit
dated). It may be best to stick with "will."

Examples:

She’ll make a great politician one day.

Don’t fret; I’ll mop the floor.
I’ll be careful while driving.
Will you fix my computer?

 The subject pronouns ("I," "you," "he," etc.) and "will" are almost always used in their
contracted form; this makes recognizing the contracted form very important.

I will = I’ll
You will = you’ll
She will = she’ll
We will = we’ll
They = they’ll
Will not = won’t

2. Future continuous

 The future continuous implies that the action or event being described has not yet
finished. Furthermore, this event or action will be completed sometime in the future

Using the future continuous

 A specific time used as a future I will be watching the movie when she
interruption to a future continuous action*. boards her flight.
She’ll be cooking when I arrive at home.
Used to predict the future. They’ll be dancing all night!
We’ll be waiting all week I’m afraid.
Used as a polite way to ask about future Will you and Tom be attending the
information. wedding next week?
When combined with "still," it is used to She’ll still be in waiting for an answer.
describe a present-day action that will I’ll still be wearing this dress tonight.
continue in the future

*The interrupting action is conjugated in simple present — not simple future.

 Rules for conjugating future continuous:

 Will be + present participle (verb base + -ing)

 Like the simple future, the future continuous is conjugated the same with all subject
pronouns.

Verb All pronouns Contraction example

Sing Will be singi g I’l be singing
Watch Will be watching You’ll be watching
Jump Will be jumping He’ll be jumping
Eat Will be eating They’ll be eating

Examples:
Tell Signe that we’ll still be cleaning up this mess and we won’t be done by lunch.
Will you be enrolling in college next fall?
I’ll be crying when Adam arrives tomorrow!

3. Expressions using the simple future

Common expression of the future Examples

After the present - one or several days or Tomorrow my dad will be late to work.
hours in the future Tomorrow night, I’ll be working.
This afternoon I’ll be going to the doctor.
In a (specific period of time) In a year, he will be in the United States.
In a week, I will start my work contract.
In 2055 I’ll be 63 years old.
This (specific, current and continuing This year, I will finish my degree.
period of time) This week, I will work a lot.
The (period of time) after (same period of The week after next, I will be in France.
time) The day after tomorrow she’ll already have
left.
Next (specific period of time) Next week Sarah will be busy.
Next year I will be 30.
On (a specific day) On Monday, I will meet with my mom.
On Tuesday, she won’t be at work.

Conditional

Conditional and conditional perfect

 The present conditional is used to describe an imaginary situation or habitual actions of

the past (in place of "used to").
Would + infinitive
I would get coffee nearby in the mornings.
If she lost her wallet, I would loan her money.
If I didn’t have a job, I would move back home.
 The conditional perfect is used for something that might have happened in the past. It is
almost always accompanied by an "if" phrase to set up the conditional tense.

Would + have + past participle (infinitive+ -ed)

Ve b Fu l form Contracted from

Walk Would have walked Would’ve walked
Sing Would have sung Would’ve sung
Study Would have studied Would’ve studied
Repeat Would have repeated Would’ve repeated

If she had lost her wallet, I would have lent her money.
If I didn’t get a job last month, I would have moved back home.
I would have dressed up more if I knew you were wearing a suit!
She would have changed her behavior if she realized how much it upset her parents.

Infinitive

 The English infinitive has two forms: the "to-"infinitive and the zero infinitive.
Using the infinitive:

To express intention or purpose. She went to ask your uncle for money.
The maid is here to clean the house.
As the subject of the sentence (only the to- To be or not to be, that is the question.
infinitive). To learn — that is the goal of education.
To describe how something will be used Do you want something to eat?
 (only the to-infinitive). They have instruments to play.
After ‘make’, ‘let’, and ‘had better’ (only They had better find a new home.
the zero infinitive). Let me make you dinner.
Make Jay apologize to you!
Have him walk Julie home, it’s late.
In sentences with ‘too much’ and ‘enough’ There is too much snow to drive.
(only the zero infinitive). I don’t have enough money to buy it.
In a question that asks why to offer a Why turn around now?
suggestion (only the zero infinitive). Why wait until tomorrow?
As a judgment (only the to-infinitive). That was a weird thing to say.
This is a great place to eat!
After "get" (only the "to-"infinitive). We need to get a contractor to patch the
wall.

 Rules for making the infinitive:

 The to-infinitive: to + verb base

 The zero-infinitive: only the verb base

Jim should play guitar more often; it was lovely!

Mom made me go to my room.
I want a large glass to drink milk.
Why not stay here this weekend?
What a nice thing to say!
I went to the store to buy food.

 A negative infinitive requires ‘not’ before the infinitive.

I decided not to attend the concert.
She would rather not cook tonight.

Gerund

The gerund

 The gerund is often mistaken for a verb because it ends in -ing ; however, it functions as a
noun in sentences. The gerund can be used as the subject, object, or complement for a sentence.
It is made by adding -ing to the infinitive of the verb.

Read  reading
Sing  singing
Learn  learning

Reading is one of my favorite things ! (Subject of sentence)

Sally enjoys swimming. (Object of sentence)
His favorite hobby is singing. (Complement of sentence)
When the gerund is used as the complement, the infinitive can also be used :
His favorite hobby is to sing.

 Just add not to make the sentence negative.

Sally enjoys not swimming.

 There are specific phrases that require the gerund, for example: can’t bear, can’t stand, to be
worth, it’s no use.

I can’t bear seeing you with him.

It’s no use cleaning that dress now. The stain is set.
It’s worth waiting for.

Imperative

 The imperative form gives an order, a warning, or advice. Use the infinitive of the verb
(without the "to") to create the imperative from.

Give me the phone.

Do your laundry!
Don’t move.
Come here now!
Don’t tell him now. I think that would be a mistake.

Subjunctive

 The subjunctive is almost identical to the indicative form; however, in some instances it is
different and noticeable. It is used when the sentence is hypothetical, or to express something
wished for or recommended. The subjunctive is not noticeable after the subject pronoun ‘you’
because the verb form that follows is the same as you would use for the indicative.

Here are common expressions and verbs that indicate a subjunctive verb will be required later in
the sentence:

It is best that Advise that Demand that

It is crucial that Insist that Recommend that
It is important that Request that Suggest that
It is a good idea that Ask that Propose that
It is a bad idea that Urge that Command that
 When the subjunctive is noticeable, the verb form usually only changes for the third person
pronoun (he, she, it) by dropping the -s. Take this comparison of the indicative and subjunctive
conjugations of work as an example.

Indicative Subjunctive
I work I work
You work You work
She/he/it works She/he/it work
We work We work
They work They work

The subjunctive usually indicates a command or request, wishes, or improbable situations.

It is important that he decide today.

I ask that she be here earlier tomorrow morning.
It’s a bad idea that Kiralyn work all weekend.
They insist that he be the next director of international affairs.

Irregular verbs

 When it comes to irregular verbs, the best option is just to memorize them. Here’s a list of 25
of the most common irregular verbs in the English language. While we cannot make a
comprehensive list of all irregular verbs, this list serves as a good jumping-off point.

As a reminder of how these verbs forms sound in a sentence:

I need to begin my homework. (Infinitive)
I began my homework. (Past simple)
I had begun my homework. (Past participle)

Infinitive Past simple Past participle

Be Was/were Been
Become Became Become
Begin Began Begun
Choose Chose Chosen
Come Came Come
Do Did Done
Eat Ate Eaten
Feel Felt Felt
Fly Flew Flown
Forget Forgot Forgotten
Get Got UK: got USA: gotten
Go Went Given
Have Had Had
Leave Left Left
Make Made Made
Meet Met Met
Pay Paid Paid
Put Put Put
Read (pronounced "reed") Read (pronounced "red") Read (pronounced "red")
Say Said Said
Sell Sold Sold
Sing Sang Sung
Sit Sat Sat
 Think Thought Thought

Question tags

 Question tags are placed at the end of statement in a way that transforms it into a
question. They are used almost exclusively during informal, oral interactions. There are either
positive or negative question tags, depending on the main statement.

Positive statement, + Negative question tag

Negative statement, + Positive question tag

 A question tag must be the opposite of the main statement. If the main statement is positive,
the question tag is negative (and vice versa). It is formed with the verb followed by the subject
pronoun.

Jasmine is a teacher, isn’t she?

Malina doesn’t like broccoli, does she?
Maia likes skiing, doesn’t she?
Henry passed his exam, didn’t he?

 If the verb is in the simple present, form the question tag with "do" or "does". If the verb is in
the simple present and is a form of "to be," use "to be" again in the question tag. If it’s in the
past simple, use "did." For future tense, use "will" or "won’t." In general, the question tag
matches the tense in the main statement.
He ate his lunch, didn’t he?
They didn’t pack a lunch, did they?
We don’t take off our shoes, do we?
She’s coming for dinner, isn’t she?
They are delicious, aren’t they?
I’ll speak next, won’t I?
He’ll study tonight, won’t he?

While it is more common to use a contracted verb, you are not required to use a contraction of
"not" in your negative question tag. Instead, you can build the question tag with the verb,
subject pronoun, and "not." This construction of a sentence tag is more formal that the first.
She’s perfect, is she not?
He bought the boat, did he not?

Conditional sentences

Conditional sentences tenses

 Conditional phrases can be used in past, present, and future; however, they more importantly
break down into two categories: real and unreal. As the names suggest, the real conditional
describes real situations, while the unreal conditional describes imaginary situations.
 Conditional sentences are always composed of two clauses. The conditional clause (that
begins with "if") shouldn’t contain "would" or "will."

If + conditional clause tense, + main clause

 This chart maps out the different conditional phrases possible, including their purpose,
structure, and examples.
 Past real conditional Past unreal conditional
This expresses past real-life situations. It This describes an unreal past condition and
implies a change in habits. the probable past consequence.

[If +simple past, +simple past] [If + past perfect, +perfect conditional]
If I had time, I ran. If I had had time, I would have run.
Present real conditional Present unreal conditional
This is also called the zero conditional. It is This is used to describe what you would
used to describe general knowledge. generally do in an imaginary situation.

[If + simple present, + simple present] [If + simple past, + would + infinitive]
If I have time, I run. If I had time, I would run.
Future real conditional Future unreal conditional
This type refers to a real present or future This refers to an imaginary future situation.
situation.

[If + simple present, + simple future] [If + simple past, + would + infinitive]
If I have time, I will run. If I had time, I would run.

Sequence of tenses

 The verb tense used in a subordinate clause changes depending on the tense used in the main
clause. Here are the basic rules to follow.

Main clause Subordinate clause Example

Prese t or future tense Any ense; it depends on I think he will be ok.
what is being expressed. I think he is ok.
I think he was ok.
 Past tense Past tense. I thought he was ok.
She was there when he
arrived.
Paste tense when expressing Present tense. My father told me that
general knowledge. honesty is the best
policy.
Future tense Present or present perfect She will come after you
tense. call her.
I’ll clean up after we eat
dinner.
I will finish my work
after I’ve taken a break.
Expressions that begin with: Past or past perfect tense If only I remembered
if only, wish, it is time (usually). earlier.
I wish she had stayed for
dinner.

Reported questions

 Reported questions are a way to express that a question was asked, without providing a direct
quotation of the question. "Yes" or "no" questions are usually reported with "if" or "whether"
(for example, "I asked if he likes coffee"). When there is a question, use the question word
(who, what, when, where, why, how) without any auxiliary verbs. Reported questions do not
need question marks.

CORRECT: He asked what time school starts.

INCORRECT: He asked what time does school start.
CORRECT: He wanted to know if he was ready.
INCORRECT: He wanted to know if was he ready.

Direct question Reported question

He asked, "Where did you go?" He asked me where I went.
Sally asked, "What time is it?" Sally asked what time it was.
I said, "Why are you running?" I asked why he was running

2. Part of Speech

Nouns
1. Noun determiners

 Determiners are words found in front of a noun that clarifies what the noun references. The
type of determiner depends on the type of noun. Is it plural or singular? Is it countable or
uncountable? There are a wide variety of determiners in English. Here’s a basic breakdown of
the different determiners found in the English language.

Articles Demonstrative Possessive Quantifiers Numbers Ordinals

A, an, the This, that, My, your, Each, every, One, two, First,
these, those, our, his, her, some, any, seven, thirty, second,
etc. their, etc. much, many, etc. third, etc.
etc.

 Here’s a chart to help you learn when to use each type of determiner.
Singular countable nouns Plural countable nouns Uncountable nouns
A, an, the The The
A cat jumps. The marbles are green. The water is cold.
The house is blue.
This, That These, those This, that
This cat jumps. Those marbles are green. This is good evidence.
That house is blue. These marbles are white. That is powerful wind.
Some, any, no Some, any, no Some, any, no
I am no doctor. Some people are rude. I have no time.
Some guy just called. I don’t have any animals. She doesn’t have any time.
Possessive pronouns Possessive pronouns Possessive pronouns
Your bed is large. Her dishes are still dirty. Show me your evidence.
His leg is broken. My classes are great!
Every
Every plant needs water.
Few, a few, fewer, the fewest Little, a little, less, least
I have a few ideas. There is a little water left.
There are fewer people in I have little hope.
Denmark than China.

Many, more, most Much, more, most

I have many ideas. Chocolate cake has the most
She has more stamps in her sugar.
passport than you. How much coffee is left?
Numbers, a number of
Eight horses galloped away.
A number of students started
 to protest.
Another, the other Other, the other Other, the other
Another girl called me. The other lawyers were upset. The other evidence isn’t
convincing.
Enough Enough
They have enough There is enough rice for
assignments. everyone!
All, all the All, all the
All cars have wheels. All the beauty in the world
All the birds have flown amazes me.
south.
Neither, either
Neither team won the
tournament.
Each
Each dessert tasted great!
One of the, many of the
She’s one of the girls.
One of the cars is broken.

2. Numbers in plural nouns

 Numbers become determiners when they are placed before a noun. Cardinal numbers
expresses the quantity, while ordinal numbers express a sequence. The noun must be plural for
cardinal numbers above one.

Cardinal Ordinal
 One cat Third place
Two cats cond chance
Three cats First sight

A thousand seagulls flew over my house last night!

My mother has two cats.
I won second place in the 100-meter race.
There are three buildings on campus.
It was love at first sight.

3. This, that, these, those

 This, that, these, those can be used as determiners. As determiners, this and that can be
applied to all single countable and uncountable nouns. On the other hand, these and those are
used with plural nouns (meaning they are countable). They are placed before the noun.

Uncountable single noun This water tastes weird.

Countable single noun That cat is so cute!
Countable plural noun  Those clothes are so expensive!

 When used as pronouns, "this," "that," "these," and "those" are used to refer to things or
ideas. "This" and "these" are used when the thing is in close proximity to us, while "that" and
"those" are used for objects further away.

This is my house.
These are my dogs.
Those students won’t last long.
That cat scared me yesterday.
4. Using reflexive pronouns

 Reflexive pronouns are used when we want to refer back to the subject of the sentence. The
reflexive pronoun becomes the direct object in the sentence. This means the subject and the
direct object represent the same thing. Singular reflexive pronouns end in -self and plural
reflexive pronouns end in -selves.

Myself Yourself Himself Herself

Itself Ourselves Themselves Yourselves

 As an example let’s look at this sentence:

Bill saw Katy (or her).

Bill sees someone else in this sentence (indicated by the pronoun her). Now here’s the same
sentence in reflexive form:
Bill saw himself.

 Here are some more examples:

I saw myself in the mirror.

You all should do the work yourselves.
The building collapsed in on itself.

 The meaning of some verb changes when paired with reflexive pronouns:

She found herself struggling to breathe.

(She was surprised she was struggling to breathe.)
I saw myself as a politician when I was younger.
(I felt that I was a politician when I was younger.)

5. Countable vs uncountable nouns: Many vs much, few vs little, amount of vs number of

etc.

 Countable nouns are nouns that we count with numbers, for example: I have three
cats. These nouns have a singular and a plural form. The singular form can use either "one" or
"a"/"an" as a determiner. To form a question about countable nouns we ask "how many?"

one (a) house two houses

one (a) chair two chairs
one (a) kid two kids
one (an) idea two ideas

Many We have many bottles of water.

Much There is much love in the world.
Few There are a few dogs in the park.
Little I see little evidence of criminal intent.
Amount of A large amount of research is ready to be
published
Number of A number of students protested today.

 Uncountable nouns cannot be counted with numbers. They include abstract ideas and
objects that are difficult to count (gases, liquids, small and numerous objects). In most cases,
they do not have a plural form.
 water rice research salt
sugar peace lov evidence
beauty anger coffee oil

To ask about the quantity of uncountable nouns, we must use "How much?"

How much research is there on brain cancer?

I want some coffee.
There is a lot of beauty in the world.
The amount of evidence available is unbelievable.

*Each language differs on what nouns are considered countable and uncountable. For example,
"hair" is uncountable in English, unless referring to individual hairs.

Q: How much hair does your baby have?

A: She doesn’t have very much hair yet.
I’ve noticed Tom has a few gray hairs these days.

6. The plural form of compound nouns

 Add an -s or -es only to the most significant word (also called the base word) of a
compound noun.

Pear tree  Pear trees

Mother-in-law  mothers-in-law
Changing room  changing rooms
 Add an -s or -es at the end if there doesn’t appear to be a base word or it’s one word.

Toothbrush  toothbrushes
Forget-me-not  forget-me-nots
Paperclip  paperclips

7. Specific and general numbers

 People may easily get tripped up when trying to decide if a large number is plural or not. Is
it million or millions? Let’s take a look at when large numbers should be singular and when
they should be plural.

 For specific numbers, you do not add an -s to hundred, thousand, or million.

There are 320 million Americans.

This stadium can seat five thousand people.

 You will need to add an -s if the number is unspecified, and instead just expresses an
approximate number. Hundreds, thousand, and millions are often followed by countable nouns.

There are hundreds of people here!

The sky is so clear, we’ll be able to see millions of starts tonight.
There are hundreds of bears in Yosemite National Park.

8. Noun gender

 In general, there is no gender distinction between masculine or feminine nouns in

English. However, there are a few exceptions to that rule.
If you would like to emphasize the gender, you may add the word male or female before the
noun.
I have two male cousins.
She has a female friend.

 Many animals (mainly domesticated animals) have a masculine and feminine noun.
Frequently, however, English speakers just use the general term for the animal.

Animal Feminine Masculine

Lion Lioness Lion
Pig Sow Boar
Horse Mare Stallion
Tiger Tigres Tiger
Cattle Cow Bull

 There are a few exceptions beyond domesticated animals; however, there are so few
gendered words it’s best just to memorize them.
Masculine Feminine
Actor, boy, groom, brother, count, czar, Actress, girl, bride, sister, countess,
dad, duke, emperor, god, heir, hero, host, czarina, mom, duchess, empress, goddess,
king, husband, mas er, prince, uncle, heiress, heroine, hostess, queen, wife,
wizard, waiter. mistress, princess, aunt, witch, waitress.

9. Collective nouns

 Collective nouns are single words that represent more than one person, place, idea, animal,
or thing.
Common collective nouns

Class Herd Jury Team Army

Council Audience Crowd Swarm Mob
Crew Staff Choir Panel Stack

 It can be difficult to decide whether a collective noun is singular or plural. In Britain, you
can decide if you would rather refer to the collective noun in the singular or plural. However,
the United States has a much stronger preference for presenting collective nouns as
singular. Perhaps the trickiest part about collective nouns is verifying that your writing remains
consistent. Once you’ve decided, every reference to the collective noun must reflect your initial
choice.

The council was quiet; they were deep in thought.

Instead The council was quiet; it was deep in thought.

10. Preposition placement

 Prepositions describe the relationship between the subject and the object of a sentence. A
noun always follows a preposition.

Subject + verb Preposition Noun

I am On The bed.
She sat By The ocean.
Rene is looking For Me.

Determiners
1. A vs An
When deciding between the articles a and an, evaluate the initial sound of a word, and
not necessarily the initial letter. Use a when the word starts with a consonant sound.

a coat
a lamp
a bottle
use an when the word begins with a vowel (A, E, I, O, U, and sometimes Y) sound.

an eagle
an octopus
an extra ticket

There are exceptions and inconsistencies to this rule. The most notable among them is
the H. If the word starts with a hard "h" sound (as is the case with holy, high, and hover),
employ a. If the word begins with a silent or unstressed h (like in honor, and hour), use
an.

After an hour, lacey returned from the store.

It was an honorable discharge from the navy.

Another common exception to the rule are words that start with the long u sound, for
example: unique, union, and eulogy would all get the determiner "a."

There is an unusual smell in the house.

This is a united country.
This is a university with a large campus.
2. Countable vs uncountable nouns

Countable nouns are nouns that we count with numbers, for example: I have three
cats. These words have a singular and a plural form. The singular form can use either
one or a/an as a determiner.

one (a) two houses

house
one (a) chair two chairs
one (a) kid two kids
one (an) idea two ideas

When asking a question about the amount of a countable noun, we use “How many?”

Q: How many houses do you have?

A: I have just one house.
Q: How many ideas did your team brainstorm during the meeting?
A: We came up with seven ideas.

Uncountable nouns cannot be counted with numbers. They include abstract ideas and
objects that are difficult to count (gases, liquids, small and numerous objects). In most
cases, they do not have a plural form.

water rice research salt

sugar peace love evidence
beauty anger coffee oil
To ask about the quantity of uncountable nouns, we must use “How much?”

How much research is there on brain cancer?

I want some coffee.
There is a lot of beauty in the world.
*Each languages differs on what nouns are considered countable and uncountable. For
example, "hair" is uncountable in English, unless referring to individual hairs.

Q: How much hair does your baby have?

A: She doesn’t have very much hair yet.
I’ve noticed Tom has a few gray hairs these days.

3. Some vs Any

The words some (including somebody an something) and any (as well as anything and
anybody) are used when the speaker cannot specify or doesn’t need to specify an exact
amount. They can be used with countable and uncountable nouns.

As a general rule, some is used in positive sentences:

I got some great produce at the farmer’s market this weekend.

I’d like some water.
Let’s make some cookies tomorrow!
Somebody is at the door.

And any is usually used in negative sentences or questions:

Do you have any ideas for Krista’s birthday party?
Did anybody send you the notes for the meeting on Friday?
I didn’t do anything this weekend.

4. Definite vs indefinite articles

In English there are three articles: a, an, and the. A and An are indefinite articles;
whereas the is a definite article. There are several ways to distinguish when to use a
definite or an indefinite article in English.

A and an are used for several different reasons:

1. Before an unspecified singular noun.
an umbrella can be very helpful on a rainy day.
2. Before number collectives.
a gallon of milk
3. Before nouns that form adverbial phrases about quantity, degree, or amount.
a slight breeze
a bit of snow
The is used to:
1. When there is a definite noun, or the noun was previously specified.
Can you hand me the paperwork from yesterday.
2. Indicate the noun is unique
The Grand Canyon is an amazing place.
The moon is bright tonight.
3. Indicate a natural phenomenon
The wind is an important aspect of life in the south of France.
4. Reference to a period of time
The Renaissance was an exciting time.
5. Indicate all the members of one family
The Bradford family left for their annual ski trip.
6. Before the superlative form
This is the finest jewelry.
The least comfortable.
7. Before ordinal numbers
The 41st ceremony.

5. Omitting articles (no determiner)

There are many different cases where articles are omitted before a noun. Many can just
be memorized over time, while other follow hold fairly consistent rules.

1. The names of countries, continents, cities, days, months, languages, most diseases, and
sciences.

North America has three countries.

January is my least favorite month.
Italian is a beautiful language.
Malaria poses a risk in tropical environments.

2. Before a noun when it is used in a general way.

Olive oil is often used in Italian cooking.

Cheetahs can run faster than humans.

3. Before a phrase that is made up of a preposition + a noun.

They went to school on foot.
Lacey is at school.
Many American students are in debt.

4. Before proper, abstract, and material nouns. However there are exceptions, for
example: the United States, the Dominican Republic, the Bahamas, the United Kingdom,
the Philippines, the Netherlands, the Czech Republic, the West Indies, and the Democratic
Republic of the Congo.
London is one of the most populated cities on the planet.
Rice cooks in 20 minutes.
Idealism is unrealistic.

5. When the noun follows phrases like kind of, type of, sort of, style of, etc.

What kind of food do you want?

That’s the kind of sportsmanship we need.
What style of dance is your favorite?

6. Before a mealtime.

Breakfast will be ready soon.

I had lasagna for dinner.

7. Before common nouns that are in pairs.

The bond between father and son is strong.

I pronounce you husband and wife.

6. Each vs every

Learning the difference between each and every requires a nuanced understanding of
English. The two words, while not identical, are similar in meaning and use.

Each is used when you want to highlight the individuality of the group or number of
things being discussed.

She put makeup on each eye.

The cat left a scratch on each of Lily’s legs.
Each student has unique interests.
He considered each option carefully.

Unlike each, the word every stresses all the members or items in a group. It is used with
adverbs (like practically, almost, rarely etc.) and in reference to repeat events.

Every child must take the standardized tests.

I go to the dentist every six months.
Nearly every family got a discount at the market today.

7. Using determiners

There are six types of determiners in the English language. Determiners take on a variety
of functions in a phrase; however, they always modify a noun. In many cases it can be
hard to distinguish determiners and adjectives because they both modify nouns.
Adjectives usually describe or modify the quality of a noun.
I have a purple notebook.

Determiners express information about definiteness, proximity, relationship, and

quantity. They are placed before the noun in a sentence.

Articles A, an, the An elk ran through the field.

Possessive My, your, his, her, their My cat doesn’t like your dog.
pronouns
Demonstrative This, that, those, these This documentary is more interesting
pronouns than that one.
Interrogative Which, what, whose Which country would you like to see?
pronouns
Numerals One, two, a dozen etc. Let’s buy a dozen eggs.
Quantifiers Many, all, a lot of Many families use the public library.

8. Ordering determiners

Determiners are broken into three main categories: predeterminer, central

determiner, and postdeterminer. As the names indicate, they must appear before the
noun in the correct order.
Predeterminers include “multiplying expressions,” fractions, and the words all and
both. You don’t usually two predeterminers in the same sentence.

Ten times the size

One half the amount
Both my sisters

Central determiners include articles, possessive pronouns, and demonstrative pronouns.

All your cats

Half the airplane
All those activities
Postdeterminers include cardinal and ordinal numbers, as well as general ordinals, and
quantifiers. Unlike predeterminers, there can be multiple postdeterminers in the same
sentence.

Your next two meetings

All his subsequent writings
Our many achievements

Pronouns
1. Pronouns - general

 A pronoun is a word that can replace a noun or a noun phrase. They are very versatile and
can do anything, grammatically speaking, that a noun can do. They may act as the subject,
direct object, or indirect object of a sentence. There are a wide variety of types of pronouns,
and they are frequently used to avoid repeating the same noun again later in the sentence or
paragraph.

Annie wished that she could fly.

I didn’t know anything about it.
Type of pronoun Definition Examples
Indefinite pronoun Refers to one or more Anybody, anything, each,
unspecified noun. either, nobody, something,
someone, etc.
Personal pronoun Refers to a specific noun. I, you, he, she, it, we, they,
me, him, her, us, them
Possessive pronoun Indicated possession or My, mine, our, ours, its, his,
ownership. her, hers, their, theirs, your
and yours
Demonstrative pronoun Used to point out something This, that, these, those,
specific. such, none, neither
Reflexive pronoun Ends in -self or -selves. Myself, yourself, himself,
herself, oneself, ourselves,
themselves, itself
Relative pronoun Refers to a previously Who, whom, that, which,
mentioned noun. whomever, whoever,
whichever, etc.
Interrogative pronoun Used to introduce a What, which, when, where,
question. why, who, whose, etc.
Reciprocal pronoun Used to indicate mutual Each other, one another
action.
Intensive pronoun Ends in -self or -selves just Myself, yourself, himself,
as reflexive pronouns do, themselves, itself, etc.
but used to emphasize their
antecedents. They are
grammatically non-essential
 to the sentence.

 Many people confuse nominative and objective pronouns. In this sentence, for example,
"Your secret is safe with John and I," it should really be: "Your secret is safe with John and
me." To check yourself, take the other person out of the sentence, and it will become clearer.
Nominative pronouns are used as subjects in a sentence, while objective pronouns are used as
objects.

Nominative pronouns I, you, he, she, it, we, they

(used in place of the subject)
Objective pronouns Me, you, him, her, it, us, them
(used in place of the object)

Nominative pronouns:
She went to the store.
We watched a movie last night.
It was very hot.

Objective pronouns:
Carina spoke to us yesterday.
Reba explained the project to Todd and me earlier today.

2. Who, whom, whose

 The quickest way to distinguish between who and whom is to use the he/him method.
Replace the who or whom with either he or him. This method is actually quite simple once
you’ve given it a try.
He=who
Him= whom
Let’s take this question as an example:

1. Who/whom called the police? We need to decide which is correct.

2. Rewrite the question using either he or him.
 He called the police. This means the sentence requires who.
3. The answer is : Who called the police?
 Whose is a possessive pronoun and is used to identify who owns a specific object.

Whose shoes are in the hallway?

The shoes belong to Jimmy.
Whose car has enough seats?
Clara’s car has enough seats!

3. That, which, who

 Who, that, and which can all be used as relative pronouns in a sentence (meaning they are
used to refer back to a noun previously mentioned). This means that they can be easily
confused if you don’t understand how each one is used.

 The first question you should ask is whether or not the noun is a human. "Who" is a relative
pronoun that always refers to humans, while "that" and "which" usually refer to things.

I am the kind of person who likes math.

The teacher who started last week is very young.
 Things get a little more complicated when trying to distinguish when to use "that" or
"which." To start, both American and British English agree that you should never use that to
introduce a non-restrictive relative clause (a clause that is nonessential to the sentence).
Furthermore, commas should offset non-restrictive relative clauses. This means that, if you are
going to have a clause in the middle of the sentence set apart with commas, it is probably best
to use "which" to begin the clause.

My blue car, which I bought last year, is having engine problems.

The dog, which is grey, is lipping.

 When it comes to restrictive relative clauses, the rules vary between British and American
English. American English uses "that" rather than "which" to introduce a restrictive clause. On
the other hand, it is acceptable to use either in British English. There is no comma before a
restrictive clause.

British English: Sally wore the shoes which looked best.

American English: Sally wore the shoes that looked best.

4. Which vs what

 So what’s the difference between "what" and "which" when they are being used as
interrogative pronouns? There’s little difference between the two; however, English speakers
prefer to use "which" when there are a limited number of choices. "What" is used for questions
where the answer is unlimited.

Which What
Which dessert are you going to choose? What is your favorite dessert?
 Which teacher do you prefer? What did you learn today?
Which language is easier to learn — What will you do tomorrow?
Spanish or Arabic?

5. Pronoun order

 When it comes to pronoun order, there are a few basic rules to follow. Firstly, place the first
person pronoun (I or me) after any other pronoun. Secondly, place third person pronouns (he,
she, it, or a name) first.

Bret and I went to the movies last night.

He sent a copy to Jane and me.

 When speaking or in informal writing, it is perfectly fine to switch the order

occasionally. The meaning of the sentence will not be lost.

6. Reflexive pronouns

 Reflexive pronouns can take on three different roles within a sentence: as direct objects,
indirect objects, and prepositional complements.

 Reflexive pronouns are used as direct objects with transitive verbs. The direct object in this
kind of sentence receives the action of the verb.
Transitive verbs examples
 Enjoy Help Hurt
Introduce Prepare Teach
Satisfy Cut Blame

I hurt myself while skiing last week.

Bob taught himself to dance.
She introduced herself to me this morning.

 They can also be indirect objects. In this case, the indirect objects show for whom the action
is being performed.
I bought myself a dress.
He got himself another beer.

 Prepositional complements help by indicating the meaning of a prepositional phrase.

She left the keys for herself under the mat.

I bought some flowers for myself.

 Unlike many other languages, English doesn’t use reflexive pronouns after verbs that
describe typical things people usually do for themselves. For example: to wash, to shave, to
dress, etc. The only reason to add a reflexive pronoun after a verb like this is for emphasis.

Tom shaved yesterday.

Tom shaved himself despite his broken arm.

7. Indefinite pronouns
 In definite pronouns don’t refer to a specific person, place, or thing. They all begin with one
of four qualifiers: some, any, every, or no.

Person Place Thing

Everyone Everywhere Everything
Everybody
Someone Somewhere Something
Somebody
Anyone Anywhere Anything
Anybody
No one Nowhere Nothing
Nobody

 The pronouns with "some" or "any" qualifiers are used to describe incomplete or indefinite
quantities.

I want to travel somewhere this summer.

It’s so hot outside! I’d go swimming anywhere.

 The pronouns with "every" describe a complete quantity, while "no" describes an absence.

Everything is booked for our trip.

Nothing has arrived.

 To form a negative sentence with an indefinite pronoun you must use "any."
I don’t know anybody at this party.
She didn’t bring anything the meeting.

8. One as a pronoun

 "One" can be used as a pronoun in many different ways. It can be used numerically, to
represent a general group or people, as a reflexive pronoun, or even a possessive pronoun. It
can be singular (one) or plural (ones).

Reflexive: If one falls on ice, one could hurt oneself badly.

Possessive: One must learn from one’s experiences.
Numerical: I have two dresses. One is blue and the other is pink.
Plural: I like most types of pie. The fruit ones are my favorite.

Adverbs

1. Many vs Much

When to use much

The word "much" is used if the noun is uncountable. As a reminder, uncountable nouns
cannot be counted with numbers. They include abstract ideas and objects that are
difficult to count (gases, liquids, small and numerous objects). In most cases, they do not
have a plural form.

water rice research salt

sugar water love evidence
beauty anger coffee oil
I don’t have much sugar.
There is so much beauty in the world.
There isn’t much coffee left.

*Each language differs on what nouns are considered countable and uncountable. Refer
to countable vs uncountable nouns for more information.

When to use many

"Many" is used with countable nouns — nouns that have a plural form such as dollars,
bananas, and houses.
I have so many bananas.
She doesn’t have many dresses.
My father has many friends.

2. Adverbs and comparisons of equality

 To show an equality between two items in a comparative phrase we can use one of
four sentence structures: "as," "nearly," "quite as," and "just as." These create a positive
sentence structure; however, each one means something slightly different.

Jonathan is as funny as Tom

This sentence plainly states that Tom and Jonathan are both equally funny.
Jonathan is nearly as funny as Tom
In this phrase, Jonathan is almost as funny as Tom. This indicates a slight difference
between the two.
Jonathan is just as funny as Tom
Jonathan is quite as funny as Tom
Here, the "just" and "quite" emphasize that the two items are the same. For example,
this would be used if the interlocutor doesn’t believe that two are equal.

3. Adverb position

There are three possible positions for adverbs within a sentence: the initial position,
the mid position, and the end position.

The initial position is before the subject of the sentence. You’ll most likely see linking
adverbs (e.g.: however, although, moreover), time adverbs (e.g.: today, then, again), and
viewpoint adverbs (e.g.: luckily, officially, thankfully) in this position.
Today, Jeremy ate his lunch outside.
Luckily, I caught the bus this morning.

I invited Tom. However, he couldn’t come.

The mid position favors indefinite frequency adverbs (e.g.: always, never, often),
location adverbs (e.g.: high, low, ahead), and adverbs of degree (e.g.: probably, clearly,
almost). The mid position is after the first auxiliary verb.

The Red Cross has always been helpful.

I haven’t quite finished my homework.
He’s obviously going to be late.

The end position is where you’ll find definite frequency adverbs (e.g.: last week, every
year) and adjectives of manner (e.g.: easily, quickly, well). They will be placed at the
very end of a sentence.

I go horseback riding every year.

She drove fast.
I write carefully.

4. What does an adverb do?

Adverbs add description to the sentence by modifying a verb. In some cases adverbs
can also modify adjectives, and even other adverbs.

Carrie sang loudly.

The cat ran quickly.

The examples above show adverbs modifying verbs (to sing and to run). They can
also modify adjectives and other adverbs.

The movie was quite interesting.

(The adverb quite is modifying the adjective interesting)
She swims very fast.
(The adverb very is modifying the adverb fast)

An adverb answers the question "how?". This is a helpful tip for those first learning to
use or write with adverbs.

How did Carrie sing?

She sang loudly.
How did the cat run?
The cat ran quickly.
How fast does she swim?
She swims very fast.
 Adjectives
1. Adjective order

When we use more than one adjective in front of a noun, there is a specific order in
which they must appear. In a sentence, the adjectives usually appear after the determiner,
and before the noun they modify. The breakdown of the nine categories is found in the
chart below.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Number Opinion Size Age Shape Color Origin Material Purpose

 Most nouns do not have more than three adjectives in front of them.

Her ugly old cat

The blue shopping bag
A few new French wines.

Adjective types Examples

Number One, three, a few, several
Opinion Silly, charming, comfortable
Size Large, small, tiny
Age Old, young, new, 12-year-old
Shape Square, rectangular
Color Red, blue, green
Origin American, French, Ghanaian
Material Wood, iron, ceramic
Purpose Running (where the purpose of the
 noun is to run e.g. running shoes),
cooking, school (as in "school
supplies")

2. Superlative adjectives

 Adjectives modify nouns, giving them descriptions about size, color, shape, origin, etc.
Superlative adjectives are used to describe the noun to the upper and lower limits of a
quality. There are some basic rules on how to convert an adjective into a superlative
adjective.

Add “-est” onto a one-syllable word to make the superlative form. If this word ends with
an “–e”, just at the –“st”.

Fine  finest
Large  largest

Two-syllable adjectives that end in “-y” require you to change that letter to an “-i” and
then add on the ‘-est”.

Funny  Funniest
Groovy  grooviest

For all adjectives that are two or more syllables, use the words most or least to indicate
either the upper, or the lower limit of the adjective.

Comfortable  most comfortable / least comfortable

Rectangular  most rectangular / least rectangular

3. Comparative adjectives

 Adjectives modify nouns, adding descriptions about size, color, shape, origin, etc.
Comparative adjectives are used to compare two nouns. For example: “This table is
larger than that one”.

Add “-er” onto a one-syllable word to make the comparative form. In some cases an
adjective ending in a consonant requires us to double that consonant before adding the “-
er”. When it already ends with an “-e”, just add on the “-r”.
Large  larger
Fat  fatter
When a two-syllable adjective ends in a “-y”, we must change it to and “-i” before adding
the “-er”.

Crazy  crazier
Happy  happier

Three-syllable adjectives require adding “more” or “less.”

Comfortable  more comfortable / less comfortable

American  more American / less American

 Uncomparable adjectives describe absolute conditions. You cannot use modifiers like
“more” or “less” with them. They cannot be used in the comparative form either.
Most common uncomparable adjectives
bsolute False Favorite Impossible
 Perfect Possible Inevitable Complete
Broken Only Ideal Infinite
Fatal Adequate Whole Unique

4. Comparative adjective sentence structure

 Comparative adjectives are used to compare two nouns. For example: “This dog is
faster than that one.” It is used with the word than, which compares the two items.
Below you can see the two sentence structures possible.

Subject + To be + Adjective + -ER + Than

The dresser is bigger than the chair.

The soup is spicier than the lasagna.

Subject + To be + More + Adjective + Than

Lisa is more comfortable than I am.

Bruno is more studious than Casey.

5. Superlative adjective sentence structure

 The superlative adjective is used to distinguish one item from all the other items in a
group by using “-est” or the most / least. Below are the two sentence structures possible
with superlative adjectives.

Subject + To be + The + Adjective + -EST

She is the youngest child.
New York City is the coolest city in the world.

Subject + To be + The + Most + Adjective

Lisa is the most organized person ever.

This exam is the most important part of our grade.

6. Adjectives and linking verbs

A linking verb is used to express further information about the subject, instead of an
action. While to be, to become, and to seem are always linking verbs, others are only
sometimes used as linking verbs. Here are some of the most common linking verbs in
English:

To feel To taste To smell

To appear To look To feel
To grow To prove To remain

To distinguish these verbs' action form from their linking form, try replacing the verb
in question with is in the form of a question. If the question makes sense, it’s in the
linking verb form.

Kerry grew tired after dinner.  Was Kerry tired after dinner?
*The question makes sense with this sentence; therefore, to grow is being used in the
linking verb form.
Chris grew roses in his garden.  Was Chris roses in his garden?
* This question doesn’t make sense. This means the verb to grow is being used in the
action verb form.

 Usually, only adverbs come directly after a verb in a sentence, modifying it. However,
if it’s a linking verb, it will be followed by an adjective .

Subject + Linking Verb + Adjective

Kiralyn appeared tired
The house was co d

This can be a complicated grammar rule to understand. While the adjective appears
after the linking verb, it doesn’t necessarily come directly after it. If the adverb describes
the adjective, the adverb will come after the verb and before the adjective.

Subject + Linking verb + Adverb +

Adjective
The Cat was alarmingly still
I felt unusually happy

7. Compound adjectives

 Compound adjectives are a combination of two or more adjectives that modify the
same noun. They require a hyphen to avoid confusion. Examples include:
 French- Small-town Slow-moving Up-to-date
speaking
All-too- Low-risk Ill-equipped Sure-footed
common
Long-winded Part-time Open-minded Four-year

Erin received high marks on her well-written essay.

Luna installed a state-of-the-art technology in her office.
Stephanie was broken-hearted after her soccer team lost.

There are several other formulas that can be used to make compound adjectives. For
example:

Noun + present participle or present participle or adjective

Record-breaking
Oven-baked
World- famous

Adjective + present participle or present participle or noun

Slow-moving
Cold-blooded
Last-minute

 A compound adjective, composed of a number followed by a time period, requires a

hyphen and the singular form of the time period.
A three-week vacation, not three-weeks vacation
A two-year contract, not two-years contract

8. Adjectives and comparisons of equality

 To show an equality between two items in a comparative phrase we can use one of
four sentence structures: "as," "nearly," "quite as," and "just as." These create a positive
sentence structure; however, each one means something slightly different.

Jonathan is as funny as Tom

This sentence plainly states that Tom and Jonathan are both equally funny.
Jonathan is nearly as funny as Tom
In this phrase, Jonathan is almost as funny as Tom. This indicates a slight difference
between the two.

Jonathan is just as funny as Tom

Jonathan is quite as funny as Tom

Here, the "just" and "quite" emphasize that the two items are the same. For example,
this would be used if the interlocutor doesn’t believe that two are equal.

Prepositions
1. For, since, ago, during

These are four common prepositions expressing time. They are often confused and take
some practice to master proper use.
For Since Ago During
Used to express This introduces a This is used to This is used when
how long a time specific time in the discuss a past, referring to
period lasts. past and continuing completed time something that
up until the present period in relation happens in a period
or defined moment to the present. of time or when
in the past. referring to entire
time period.
For+ [time period] Since +[time period] [time period]+ ago During+[time period]

I lived in France for three years

Erin worked at the bank for two weeks before quitting.

I’ve been very politically engaged since 2008.
I’ve been tired since last week.
The civil right movement happened over 50 years ago.
How long ago did you start driving? I began driving eight months ago.
During the summer I did a lot of travelling.
Cameron was very sick during high school.

2. Prepositions across, over, and through

Across, over, and through are prepositions used to situate movement and position.

 Across is used to indicate from one side of something to another. The "something" in
question must have sides or limits (example: a city, a road, a bridge). Across also
indicates that the same thing is happening in many places at the same time. Additionally,
in American English the phrase across from is used to show that something is ‘on the
other side.’

The bridge went across the widest part of the Mississippi river.
She’s waiting across from the old movie theatre.
People celebrated Independence Day all across the Unites States.

 Through is used for movement from one side to the other when you are considered
‘in’ something (like a forest or grass).

Sadie skipped through the field. Sadie skipped across the field

 Over means that something is in a higher position in relation to something else. It can
also refer to movement.

From my apartment, you can see over the whole city.

Last year we drove over the mountain pass.

* Note that all three can also be used as adverbs.

3. At, in, on

 "In," "on," and "at" are all preposition that can refer to time or location.

In (general) Centuries Country In the 1700’s

Decades City In May
Months Neighborhood In Romania
Years In Berlin
 On (more specific) Days Streets On Thursday
Weekends Avenues On Christmas
Holidays On Wall Street

At (specific) Hours Address At 7am

Meal times Specific location At my house
Times of day At lunchtime
At night

My mother was born in the 20th century.

I live on Humboldt Street.

I’ll call you on Christmas day.
Will you come over at 8pm please?
Lionel was born in Maine.
He proposed to me at breakfast time.

 No prepositions are needed before:

Today, yesterday, tomorrow

This year, month, etc.
Last night, week, etc.
Next week, month, etc.

4. Among & between

Among and between are both prepositions. In general, we use between when
referring to only two people or things, while among is used for three or more. Let’s break
down their specific uses in detail below.

Among
Belonging to a specified group. This usually means a plural noun or collective noun follows
’among’.

Sadie was among the seven girls selected to read their poetry.
I was among the 50 Americans trapped in the building
Surrounded by people or things, or within that group of people or things.
Henry walked among the deer.

Used to show choice and division when three or more people or things are involved.
The money was divided among all seven participants.

Between
The space separating two people or things. The nouns can be singular or plural and are two
distinct items.

The dog slept between Erin and Joseph.

The time separating two events or dates
My great-grandmother was born sometime between 1850 and 1860.
Used to show choice and division between two people or things.
Katy had to decide between living in China or Greece.

5. What is a preposition and when to use one

What is a preposition?
A preposition is a word that describes the relationship between a noun, pronoun, or
another element in a phrase. Prepositions are only found in prepositional phrases. A
phrase is a part of speech, or a sentence, that acts together to perform a certain task. A
prepositional phrase is a phrase composed of the preposition followed by a noun or
pronoun. Prepositional phrases will take on one of the two forms below.

Of In To For
With At From By
About As Into Like Preposition + Noun, pronoun, or
Between Over Against Before clause

 A prepositional phrase must start with a preposition and be followed by either a noun,
pronoun, or clause. It may also include modifiers in between those two, such as
adjectives and adverbs.

To + bed
In + time
From + our crazy + aunt
With + me
At + my + house
At + the closest + grocery store

Preposition + Modifier + Noun,

pronoun, or
clause
 A prepositional phrase will never contain the subject of the sentence; prepositional
phrases operate as adjectives or adverbs. They are important because they answer
questions like: which one? Where? When? How?

The towel on the floor is all wet.

 Where is the towel? (on the floor)

Our class before noon was cancelled.

 When is the class? (before noon)

The email from the professor contained very important information.

 Which email? (From the professor)
Complex Prepositions
 Complex prepositions work the same way as regular prepositions; however, they are
two or three words combined to make a single preposition.

Two-word prepositions
According to As for As to But for
Along with Alternative to Away from Aside from
Because of Contrast to Due to Except for
Relative to Equally with Ahead of Apart from

From: word + simple preposition

Three-word prepositions

In spite of In aid of In lieu of In front of

In case of In view of In place of In regard to
 In reference to In comparison to In order to In relation to

From: simple preposition + noun + simple preposition

6. Unnecessary prepositions

 For the most part, prepositions are not used with transitive verbs because they require
direct objects. Here are some of the most common transitive verbs:

Ask Attend Buy Take

Lose Make Love Find
Con act Need Discuss Raise
Join Describe Use Want

I want cake.
Can I use your umbrella?
Let’s discuss the homework.

* These verbs are followed by direct objects.

 When a sentence has a list of nouns, a preposition is only required before the first
noun, not each noun in the list.
I went to buy a cake with chocolate and whipped cream.
I walked across a field and a bridge this afternoon.

7. No splitting auxiliary verbs with prepositions

 A preposition cannot be placed between an auxiliary verb and its main verb. Sometimes
adverbs may be placed between the auxiliary and the main verb.
I will change my bike.
NOT  I will to change my bike.
I should have gone to the park earlier.
NOT  I should have to gone the park earlier.
You can, however, add an adverb after the first auxiliary verb in certain cases.
I should already have gone to the park, it’s too dark now!

8. Ending a sentence with a preposition

While it is perfectly fine to end a sentence with a preposition for informal writing or
speaking, it isn’t acceptable in formal writing. Here are some examples showing how you
can rephrase a sentence ending with a preposition.
Which drawer should this go into?
Into which drawer should this go?
Who were you on the phone with?
With whom were you on the phone?

9. Per and measurements

"Per" is used to describe prices or times in relation to weight, speed, or other times.

Five miles per hour  same as: five miles an hour

$7.80 per kilo  same as: $7.80 for one kilo
$20 per hour to rent this boat  same as: this boat costs $20 for each hour of use.

10. As vs Like

 Many people have a hard time deciding whether to use "like" or "as." Traditionally, "like" is
used as a preposition and "as" is used as a conjunction. Nowa-days "like" is often employed as
a conjunction. To distinguish between the two, look at what follows the as/ like. Use "like" if it
is not followed by a verb and "as" if there is a verb.

He swims like a fish.

Sally acted as if she wasn’t upset.
I acted just as you would have in that situation.
You’re acting like my little brother!

Conjunctions
1. Expressions of contrast

But although, and though are conjunctions used to connect ideas that contrast.
But is a coordinating conjunction that must be placed in between the main idea and the
contrasting idea. Coordinating conjunctions are used between two main clauses.

The dress is beautiful but impractical.

My dinner was delicious but too expensive.

Although and though are subordinating conjunctions that link a main clause to a
subordinate contrasting clause. They can also be placed at the start of the sentence.

She is nice although I don’t see her much.

He is very smart though he tries to hid it.
Although she is extroverted, she doesn’t really like parties.

2. Understanding coordinating conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions connect items, phrases, or clauses. They are used to give
equal weight to each phrase. Coordinating conjunctions are easily remembered with a
simple acronym:

FANBOYS
For
And
Nor
But
Or
Yet
So

In addition to coordinating conjunctions' role in giving equal weight to the two main
clauses, they can also be used to connect items in a list. While it isn’t grammatically
incorrect to start a sentence with a coordinating conjunction, many advise against this
practice to help avoid fragments.

Main clause Coordinating Main clause

conjunction
The dog hates to swim but he loves to go on walks.
I want to go out to eat but the babysitter is sick.

Main clause Item Coord. item

conjunction
The party will have cake and cookies.
I wan to try salsa or tango.
3. Subordinating conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions are used to link subordinating clause to a main

clause. This means that, instead of equal emphasis for each clause, there is one clause
that is considered the principal phrase.

Common subordinating conjunctions:

as soon as because whenever

as long as Just as wherever

after once now that

although if unless
provided even until

 There are two main patterns a sentence with subordinating conjunctions can
take. Firstly, the sentence may begin with the subordinating conjunction and subordinate
clause. An introductory phrase beginning with a subordinating conjunction is dependent
on the main clause.

Subordinate conjunction + subordinate clause , main clause

Even if it’s cold, we are going on a hike.
Although I’ve seen it before, I’ll see that movie with you tomorrow.
As soon as it stops raining, you need to take out the garbage.

*Whether the dependent clause is before or after the main clause, the subordinating
conjunction comes at the beginning of the dependent clause.
The second structure puts the main clause before the subordinate clause.

Main clause + subordinate conjunction + subordinate clause

I liked your performance now that I understand it’s historical context.
I’ll drive you to school as long as you’re not late again.

4. Correlative conjunctions

The adjectives "either" and "neither" allow speakers to refer to two separate things or
situations at the same time. "Either" is used in positive phrases about a choice, while
"neither" is used in negative phrases.

If the words are paired, you use:

Neither… nor
Either…or
When paired, they become correlative conjunctions that connect two grammatically
equal options. Other correlative conjunctions include: not only…but also, both…and
just as…so.

Neither Beth nor Colin got good grades this year.

Whether the dependent clause is before or after the main clause, the subordinating
conjunction comes at the beginning of the dependent clause.

When I’m in Europe this summer I’ll visit either France or Italy.

 These phrases can be grammatically tricky, especially when it comes to verb and
pronoun agreement. The verb or pronoun must agree with the second subject or
antecedent, instead of the first or a combination.

Neither Rebecca nor the Johnson twins handed in their homework on time.

*Note here that “their homework” represents the Johnson twins. If we reversed the
order of the subjects, the antecedent would need to change.

Neither the Johnson twins nor Rebecca handed in her homework on time.

3. Homonyms
Most commonly confused words

 Homonyms are words that are pronounced or spelled similarly but that have different
meanings. Homophones are words that share the same pronunciation but different
meanings — they may or may not be spelled the same. Homographs are words that share
the same spelling but not always the same pronunciation. Heteronyms share the same
spelling but not the same pronunciation. Here is a break down of the most common
homonyms, homophones, homographs and heteronyms.

Accept Accept is a verb that I will accept your terms.

Vs means "to receive".
Except Except is a preposition I will go skiing except if it’s
meaning "to exclude". stormy.
Affect Affect is a verb to indicate The critics didn’t affect her good
Vs influence. Effect is a noun, mood.
Effect synonymous with
"result." The drug has side effects.
Allusion An allusion is an indirect The author made an allusion to
Vs reference. An illusion is a Jane Austen.
Illusion deception or false
impression. She has the illusion of being
wealthy.
Elicit Elicit is a verb meaning I want to elicit positive behavior
Vs "to evoke." Illicit is an in my students.
Illicit adjective synonymous
with "illegal." She was involved in illicit
activities.
Here Here is the location of a I moved here last year.
Vs place or thing. Hear is a
Hear verb to do with sound I can’t hear you very well, please
perception. speak louder.
Buy The verb buy means to Can you buy some bread?
Vs purchase. By is a
By preposition meaning My house is by Lake Michigan.
Vs near, or on behalf of, or to
Bye express a method. Bye is a Finish the soup by garnishing it
shortened form of with parsley.
"goodbye."
See you later, bye!
Whole Whole is either an I have the whole day free.
Vs adjective or noun to
Hole mean complete or I fell into a hole; I think it was dug
undamaged. A hole is a out by an animal.
noun meaning an
emptied space.
Brake A brake is a noun and is My bike brake doesn’t work.
Vs used to stop a
Break vehicle. Break is a verb If the glass falls it will break.
meaning to shatter
something. Break can All employees are entitled to a 30-
also, however, be a noun, minute break.
synonymous with
"pause" or "rest."
One One is a single unit, while I have one car.
Vs won is the past tense of
Won the verb "to win." We won the soccer game!
Are Are is a present tense How are you doing?
V form of the verb to
Our be. Our is a plural Our house is in the country.
possessive pronoun.
Weather Weather is the We can’t swim due to the weather
Vs atmospheric conditions. outside.
Whether Weather can also be used
as a verb to describe the Whether or not I fall ill, I will go
wearing down of to the show.
something. Whether is
used to present two All that time outside weathered
alternatives. my bike.
Allowed The verb "to allow" is the I was allowed to ride the
Vs act of making something rollercoaster.
Aloud possible or permitting
it. Aloud is the act of She read the book aloud.
using one's voice.
Right Right means "correct." That’s the right answer.
 Vs Write is to form letters or
Write words on a surface. Please write your name below.
Principal Principal is an adjective The principal argument for
Vs meaning "main" or "most seatbelts is safety.
Principle important." Principle is a
noun meaning "a Stick to your principles!
fundamental idea."
Dessert A dessert is something I want a dessert with chocolate!
Vs sweet to eat, while a
Desert desert is an arid region. There was no water in the desert.

There, their, they’re

 This is an easy grammar mistake to make when you’re not being careful. Luckily it’s
also easy to learn and use.

There Their They’re

This word represents an This word is a possessive This word is the contraction
abstract or physical place. It adjective. It’s used to of "they are." It’s often used
is used to show that show possession of before a verb ending in -
something exists. A good something. "Their" can be ing. If the phrase works
rule of thumb: if you can replaced by the word with "they are," then you are
replace “there” with the word “our” and still make sense. using the correct word.
“here,” it’s being used
correctly.
There is tea on the table. Their house is nice They’re coming to dinner.

There isn’t any snow Their cat is getting old They’re still in school.
outside.
Their car has a flat tire. They’re singing in a choir.
There are many kinds of
birds.

Its vs it’s

It’s and its are not the same thing. While "its" is the possessive form of the pronoun "it,"
"it’s" (with an apostrophe) is a contraction of "it is." If you’re unsure which one to use, try
the phrase with "it is," — if it still makes sense, use "it’s," the contraction and not the
possessive pronoun.

The company and its mission are admirable.

 Whose mission? The company’s mission.

I went to the Louvre today. The Mona Lisa is among its most famous paintings.
 Whose painting? The Louvre’s painting.
It’s ten o’clock.
 It is ten o’clock

When it’s cold out I always bring gloves with me.

 When it is cold out…

Yours vs your’s

 "Yours" is a second person possessive pronoun. It is used to replace your + noun

I found a wallet, is it yours?

(your + wallet)
Yours is a better plan.
(your + plan)
I love this bike, but I want yours.
(your + bike)

*The form your’s is incorrect and should never be used.

Your vs you’re

 "Your" is the second person possessive adjective. It is used to describe something as

belonging to someone. It should be followed by either a noun or the gerund.
Where is your hat?
Your being here has been very helpful.

 "You’re" is the contraction "you are." It is usually followed by the present participle, but can
also be followed by an adjective.
You’re going to be late!
I wonder if you’re getting sick.
It seems like you’re hungry.

For vs four

 "Four" is the number between three and five. Yet, it is pronounced the same as "for." "For,"
on the other hand, has a wide range of meanings (such as: to be in favor of something, in
exchange, etc.). "For" can be used as a conjunction and as preposition.

I’m all for this decision.

She bought six apples for 5 dollars.
I have four children.
 To, too, two

 Learning the difference between "to," "too," and "two," which are all pronounced the
same, is fairly straightforward. Let’s look at the differences.

To Too Two
To can be used as a Too can have two Two is the number, as in
preposition either before separate meanings: it’s 2. This one is the simplest
a noun or before an either a synonym of also, to use.
infinitive verb. or used to indicate that
something is excessive.

Let’s go to the store.
(before noun)
I want to eat lunch.
(before verb)
I have too much work for There are two cars
this afternoon.
(indicates excessiveness) How many classes do you
have today?
I want to come, too. I have two classes.
(synonym of also)

There are too many people to fit in the two cars we’re using to drive to the hike.

Whose vs who’s

 "Who’s" and "whose," often used to form questions, do not mean the same thing.

Who’s Whose
This is the contraction of who is or who Whose is the possessive form of who or
has. If you can write the sentence with which. Whose can apply to inanimate
who is and the meaning doesn’t change, objects unlike who’s.
it’s a contraction.
Who’s that lady in the red dress? Whose hat is this?

Who’s ready to party? Whose essay was the best?

Cindy, who’s my aunt, can’t make it The wooden door, whose engraving is
tonight. elaborate, is over 100 years old.

Then vs than

Then
Then is an adverb that indicates time. It
is used to place events in a sequence.
I went to the store and then baked a
cake.
I went to dinner, then the movies.
Than
Than is a conjunction used to make
comparisons. Than has no synonyms in
English, making it a one-of-a-kind word.
A cheetah can run faster than a human.
I’d rather work at a bank than as a
lifeguard.

Further vs farther
 Farther is used to describe physical distances, while further is used for metaphorical
distances. Sometimes a situation may appear ambiguous and, in this case, you may choose
either one.

Lacy moved farther east last month.

How much farther do we have until we arrive?
That couldn’t be further from the truth.

Where, were, wear

 These three words are pronounced nearly the same, making them difficult to
distinguish.

Where is about direction and can Where is the train

be used as an adverb, headed?
conjunction, and pronoun.
Where are you from?
Were is a past tense verb used What were you doing
to describe something in yesterday?
the past.
Were you happy about it?
Wear is a verb concerning what I often wear dresses.
someone is carrying on
them or using to cover Working all day really
themselves. It can also be wears me out.
used to indicate fatigue.
 Though, thought, tough, through, throughout

 These words are all very similar in spelling and pronunciation, which makes it difficult
to distinguish them. Take a look at the chart below to better understand the differences.

Though is a conjunction and is I like ice cream, though

synonymous with but and this flavor isn’t good.
although.
Thought is the past tense of the I thought it was a good
verb to think. idea at the time.
Tough is an adjective meaning It was a tough game to
hard, firm, or difficult. win.
Through is a preposition meaning I moved through the
from one end to the other, crowd of people.
or from beginning to end.
Throughout is also a preposition, and it Music was playing
means during a time throughout the store.
period or in every
part/place.

4. Miscellaneous
Capitalization

1. Capitalization at the start of a sentence

 The first letter of the first word in a sentence is always capitalized. This also applies to
full-sentence quotations within a sentence.

The wind blew a tree over in my yard last night.

My cat doesn’t like dogs.
What kind of cake do you like?
She said, “Why are you looking at me?” and “Please go away.”

2. When to capitalize within parentheses

 If a parentheses interrupts the middle of a sentence, do not capitalize the first letter. An
independent parenthetical sentence requires you to capitalize the first letter. If there are multiple
sentences within a pair of parenthesis, each one needs to be capitalized like a regular sentence.
The same goes for parenthetical sentences with an exclamation or question mark.
I want a dog (Do you want one?) because they are so cute.
I want a dog (They are so cute!), but my sister is allergic to them.
I want a dog (a really big dog to be precise), but my sister is allergic.
I want a dog. (I love Dalmatians more than other kinds of dogs.) Sadly my sister is allergic to
dogs.

3. Pronoun capitalization

 The first-person pronoun "I" is always capitalized in English, with no exceptions. It is

also capitalized within quotations. While there isn’t a clear answer as to why this pronoun
is always capitalized, take comfort in the simplicity of this rule.

I am not ready to leave yet.

She said, “I don’t know.”
I think, therefore I am.

4. Capitalizing proper nouns

 Proper nouns are capitalized, no matter where they are within a phrase. Remember,
proper nouns name specific, one-of-a-kind items.

Common noun vs proper noun

a palace Buckingham Palace

a planet the Earth
an ocean the Pacific Ocean
a city Paris

The Earth is the third planet from the sun.

I visited the Taj Mahal last year.
My cousin is Brad Pitt.

 When a family relation is used as a proper noun, it must be capitalized. In this case, it
will sound like a first name in the sentence. Generally there will be a possessive pronoun
(such as "his" or "hers") or an article (such as "the" or "an") in front of a common noun.

Mother, when will Grandpa arrive?

Hi Aunt Ruth! How are you?

However, in the sentences below the family relations are common nouns, therefore not
capitalized.

My dad is so funny.
The two brothers played tag.

5. When to capitalize titles

 The rules concerning the capitalization of someone’s title are not as set in stone as other
grammar rules; however, there are some basic guidelines we can follow.
 Firstly, we generally capitalize a title when it is written in a letter. This applies to the
top of the letterhead and the signature line.

Sincerely,
Barack Obama, President

 Secondly, it is best to capitalize the title of a high-ranking official when it precedes their
name. It is not necessary to capitalize the title if it is used instead of their name.

The president is in Colombia this week.

 The title is not followed by the name.

When President Obama took office, he was only 47 years old.

 The title is followed by the name

 Lastly, a title should be capitalized during a direct address to the person.

Madam Chancellor, how are you today?

Is that everything , Mr. President?

6. Capitalizing the days of the week, months and seasons of the year

 Days of the week and months of the year are capitalized in English, no matter where
they are placed within a sentence, because they are proper nouns.

December is my favorite month of the year.

Is your birthday in May?
I work late on Tuesdays and Fridays.

 Seasons are usually lowercase, with a few exceptions: when it is a part of a proper noun,
or is being used as a proper noun. The latter is mostly seen in literature when a season is
personified.

My mom loves the band The Four Seasons.

I don’t like winter very much.
The Spring gave new life to the Earth with each passing day.

7. Other capitalizations: nationalities, languages, events, etc.

There are a wide range of words that should be capitalized in English.

1. Nations, nationalities, and languages

I went to England last year.
She speaks fluent Spanish.
He has a Greek car.
The French coffee shop.

2. Specific events and time periods (However, centuries should remain lower case.)
The plague swept through Europe during the Middle Ages.
World War II ended over 70 years ago.

3. Gods, deities, religions, and holy books

The Quran often mentions Allah.
The Pope sometimes visits the United States.

4. Trademarks
Eddie ate at McDonalds for lunch.
Millions of people drink Coca-Cola.
5. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs of book titles, songs, and articles
Romeo and Juliet
All Quiet on the Western Front

8. Capitalizing words

 Most of what is capitalized in English are proper nouns (names of specific or unique
things). This includes things like street names, mountains, volcanoes, people, bodies of water,
buildings, titles, monuments, bridges, universities, and geographical locations (cities, towns,
regions, etc.).
 The entire title must be capitalized, including names composed of a proper noun and a
common noun (like most buildings, bridges, companies, and airports).

CORRECT: John F. Kennedy International Airport

INCORRECT: John F. Kennedy international airport

Locations (street names, cities, towns, Amazon Drive, Humboldt Avenue, France,
countries, etc.) Oregon, Silicon Valley
Mountains, volcanoes, and bodies of Cascade Mountain Range, Lake Michigan,
water Mount Saint Helens
Buildings, monuments, and bridges Empire State Building, Golden Gate
(including those named after people) Bridge, Rockefeller Center
Universities, schools, and organizations New York University, South Eugene High
School, The Clinton Foundation

Punctuation
1. Commas after introductory prepositional phrases
An introductory prepositional phrase defines the direction, time, location, or spatial
relationship of the main clause. It is dependent on the main clause and cannot stand alone
as a phrase. There must be a comma after the introductory prepositional phrase if it
contains five or more words.

After the big family dinner, we wanted to sleep.

(introductory prepositional clause), (main clause)
In the sprawling city park, there is always someone having a picnic.

However, if the introductory prepositional phrase contains four or fewer words, a

comma is not necessary:

While on duty the officer fell asleep.

There may be cases where a comma isn’t necessary but adds clarity to the phrase. In the
phrase below, readers may think “night owls” is a single concept if the comma is excluded.

In the night owls attack mice.

In the night, owls attack mice.

2. Punctuating infinitive phrases

An infinitive phrase starts with the infinitive form of a verb and is connected to a main
clause.

To get a better view of the match, Sarah changed seats.

(introductory infinitive phrase), (main clause)

There are three possible grammatical patterns a sentence with an infinitive phrase may
take. First is an introductory infinitive phrase that is followed by the main clause. This
requires a comma after the introductory phrase.
To earn more money, John applied for a second job.

To learn Spanish, Euan moved to Argentina.

Secondly, an infinitive phrase may interrupt the main clause. In this case, commas are
required to offset the infinitive phrase.

That idea, to be perfectly honest, will not work well.

This park, to let you know, is a little scary at night.

The third pattern is when the infinitive phrase comes after the main clause. There is no
need for punctuation between the two sentence parts.

I completely forgot you wanted to see that new movie.

The cat is happy to see you.

3. Punctuating participle phrases

A participle phrase begins with either a present or past tense participle. They always
function as adjectives and add description to the phrase.

Jasmine stared out at the ocean, crashing its waves against the cliffs, and wished it were
warm enough to swim.
The bird’s song lasted all morning, echoing in the valley, as Stephanie took pictures for the
ornithology society.

Present tense participles end in –ing:

Chewing, dancing, laughing
While regular past tense participles end in –ed:
Chewed, danced, laughed
Irregular forms:

singing sang *It must be noted that irregular past tense participles will not
becoming became follow a common form.

breaking broken

4. Punctuating introductory phrases that start with a subordinating conjunction

When an introductory phrase begins with a subordinating conjunction (such as: even, as
soon as, if, provided that, once), there is a comma after the introductory phrase. However,
there is not a comma after the subordinating conjunction.

Common subordinating conjunctions:

as soon as because whenever

as long as Just as wherever

after once now that

although if unless
provided even until

An introductory phrase beginning with a subordinating conjunction is dependent on the

main clause. Whether the dependent clause is before or after the main clause, the
subordinating conjunction comes at the beginning of the dependent clause.

Even if it’s cold, we are going on a hike.

Although I’ve seen it before, I’ll see that movie with you tomorrow night.
As soon as it stops raining, you need to take out the garbage.
5. Punctuation after conjunctive adverbs

Conjunctive adverbs 1) link two independent clauses in the same sentence, 2) link ideas
in two or more sentences, and 3) show connections between ideas within a single
independent clause.

Common conjunctive adjectives include:

nevertheless similarly ho ever also

nonetheless finally therefore indeed


consequently likewise moreover then

furthermore hence otherwise thus 
When a conjunctive adverb is used to
link two independent clauses, it is preceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma.

You’re my brother; nonetheless, I feel like you’re taking advantage of me.

Tuition increases have prompted many American students to look for educational
opportunities outside of the Unites States; furthermore, many European countries provide
free higher education to non-European citizens.

Sea turtles are an endangered species; however, many people still illegally kill them and
takes their eggs on beaches around the world.

If a conjunctive adverb is used anywhere else in a phrase, it is off set by commas.

Malina had no alibi for the murder. Nevertheless, she maintained her innocence
throughout the trial.
Finally, the ship was cleared to set sail.
I went to the store. Meanwhile, Catherine made us lunch.

6. Punctuation after interjections

 An interjection conveys an emotion or feeling, and they are rarely seen in academic and
formal writing. The interjection usually appears at the beginning of a sentence or clause
with little connection to the rest of the phrase. They are most often followed by an
exclamation point or comma.

The interjection is followed by an exclamation point when it conveys very strong

emotions like delight or surprise.

Ouch! Claire just bit me.

Whoa! I can’t believe you did that.

Yay! This is such exciting news.

In most other cases, the interjection is offset by commas. This includes when an
interjection is found in the middle of a sentence.

Well, let’s see what we can do.

Here, I’ll help you with those boxes.
I’ll need more time to finish this project, well, I think I’ll need extra time.

7. Punctuation of coordinating conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions connect items, phrases, or clauses. They are used to give equal
weight to each phrase. Coordinating conjunctions are easily remembered with a simple
acronym:
FANBOYS
For
And
Nor
But
Or
Yet
So

When a coordinating conjunction separates two main clauses or verbs, a comma

precedes it. The second main clause needs to be an entirely independent clause, with a
subject and verb, if you are to put a comma before the coordinating conjunction. Otherwise,
don’t use the comma.

The pasta looked delicious, but the family ordered lobster.

It was raining outside, yet I went for a run.
I was very excited, and fairly nervous.
They ran as fast as they could, and jumped as high as possible.

Finally, when it is used to separate two items there is no punctuation.

I ordered potatoes and French fries.

There are hats and gloves inside.
You may eat this with a spoon or a fork.

8. Sentence composed of two independent clauses

When two independent clauses are not connected with a conjunction or another
transitional expression, a semicolon is used to separate them. The semicolon works as a
light period between the phrases; nonetheless, it keeps the two independent clauses in the
same sentence. Both the independent clauses need to be able to operate as complete
sentences if you are to use a semicolon.

The party appeared to be a huge success; all the cake had been eaten quickly.
The children refused to go to bed; they didn’t want to miss the fireworks.

9. Non-restrictive clauses

A non-restrictive clause provides non-essential information to the meaning of a sentence,

and is offset by commas. It usually adds interesting information to the sentence, and it can
be removed easily as well.

My sister, who is a lawyer, will help me move tomorrow.

The information here concerning where the sister lives is non-essential. The sentence
makes just as much sense without it.

My sister will help me move tomorrow.

 The information offset by commas must be non-essential to understanding the phrase; if

it’s essential information, do not use commas. For example, if the sister’s profession
actually tells us which sister is helping, instead of just adding something of interest, it
becomes essential information.

My sister who is a lawyer will help me move tomorrow.

(Instead of the sister who is, say, a teacher).

10. Question tags

Question tags are placed at the end of statement in a way that transforms it into a
question. They are often used when the speaker expects that the person with whom
they’re speaking will agree with them, and they are used almost exclusively during
informal interactions. Question tags are always separated from the main clause by a
comma.

It’s beautiful outside, isn’t it?

I’m so proud of Sophia, aren’t you?
Let’s have some tea, shall we?
You’ve met him before, haven’t you?
It isn’t very good, is it?
That’s very interesting, yeah?

11. Punctuating contrasting subject in a phrase

When a phrase contains a part that is in contrast with the subject, this part is offset by
commas. Look for words like not, unlike, and never to signal a contrast to the subject.

A green light, not red light, means go when driving.

Today, unlike yesterday, is very cloudy.
Erin, unlike Kira, is very studious.

12. Punctuating dates

Commas are used only sometimes for dates, dependings on the information
provided. When a phrase contains only the month and year, no punctuation is needed.
These less-specific dates are also frequently preceded by "in."

I visited Vietnam in May 2011.

Signe graduated from high school in June 2007.

When the day of the month is also included, there must be a comma between the day and
the year. These specific dates are frequently preceded by "on."
The ceremony took place on May 17, 2001.
I arrived in France on August 26, 2015.

 Furthermore, if the day of the week is included, there is a comma after it.

The grocery store will be closed Wednesday, July 13, 2016.

13. Appositives

An appositive is a noun or a pronoun that is set next to another noun or pronoun and is
used to describe or identify it.

The girl in the toy store commercial is my daughter

(noun) + (appositive)

The tree with blue flowers needs to be removed from my garden.

(noun) + (appositive)

The appositive is offset by commas when the information is non-essential to

understanding the phrase. If it’s essential information, do not use commas. For example,
take the two sentences below:

My sister the lawyer will help me move tomorrow.

My sister, the lawyer, will help me move tomorrow.

For example, if the sister’s profession actually tells us which sister is helping, instead of
just adding something of interest, it becomes essential information.

14. Commas and quotation marks

There must always be a comma before a direct quotation is inserted in a text.

She said, “I’ll never go back!”

“He’s a great man, ” Humphrey shouted.

If there is an interruption in the quote, it i’s offset by commas. Following American
grammar rules, the comma preceding the interruption is placed inside the quotation
marks. However, this may vary depending on the country.

“How dare you,” she screamed, “speak to me in such a manner!”

 If the quote is not from someone specific, but instead refers to a general statement do
not include a comma.

I don’t like it when people yell “shut up” at me. I find it rude.

In this example, the speaker is not directly quoting someone, and is instead making a
general statement. Furthermore, it isn’t an entrance to a dialogue.

You also don’t need a comma if you are not using a verb that introduces a direct quotation.
While you will always need a comma after verbs like "said," "shouted," "scolded," and
"pleaded," constructions like "she asked me to" and "he explained that" don’t take a comma
before the quotation.

I can’t believe yesterday she told me to "make myself useful."

She said, "make yourself useful" to me yesterday.
Lastly, Punctuation almost always goes inside the quotation marks.
Michael begged, "I really don’t want to go back to that school."
My mom asked me, "Will you be home for Thanksgiving this year?"
Did she really say, "You can’t sit with us"?
The last example has the question mark outside the quotation because, while the quotation
is a positive statement, it’s the sentence itself that is interrogative. The speaker wants to
know if the person in question made a particular statement.

15. Punctuating et cetera

"Et cetera" is Latin and is usually abbreviated as "etc." It’s used for two reasons: when
the omitted material is obvious, and when additional information is unnecessary.

When used at the end of a sentence, it is preceded by a comma and followed by a period.

I have all the necessary items to make a cake, like flour, sugar, etc.
You’ll find tissues in the bathroom, living room, kitchen, etc.

If the et cetera appears in the middle of a phrase it is followed by a period and a comma.

I ate so much chocolate, fudge, cake, etc., that I gave myself a stomach ache.

16. Punctuating interrupting phrases

Interrupters are small word group that convey tone, emotion, or emphasis in a
sentence. They are offset with commas without commas the sentence flow would be
awkward. Reading sentences aloud often helps determine if there is an interrupter or not.

Common interrupters include:

Generally speaking To say the least unfortunately

In fact happily indeed
As they say sadly (name of a person)
I am, needless to say, happy to see you.
Brooke, sadly, has been placed in a psychiatric hospital.
In my experience, generally speaking, there isn’t a long line.

17. Name included in direct speech

 There must be a comma before or after a name when it’s included at the beginning or end of a
sentence.
Jane, have you found the keys yet?
I’ll let you know later, Tom.
George, you’re the best!

18. Punctuating coordinate and non-coordinate adjectives

Coordinate, or paired, adjectives are two or more parallel adjectives used to modify a
noun. Commas are used to separate these kinds of adjectives. There are ways to test
whether or not the sentence contains coordinate adjectives.

Firstly, sentences with coordinate adjectives still make sense if you replace the commas
with the word and. If there are just two coordinate adjectives, separate them with the
word and.

The girl was sweaty and gross.

This example shows that this phrase is, in fact, a series of coordinate adjectives:

The boy was covered in gross, stinky, sticky mud.

The boy was covered in gross and stinky and sticky mud.

Secondly, if you can switch the order of the adjectives without compromising the
meaning of the sentence, they are coordinate adjectives.
I was looking at the tall, funny building.
I was looking at the funny, tall building.

 On the other hand, adding the word and or changing the adjective order of
noncoordinate adjectives confuses the meaning of the sentence. No commas are needed
between this kind of adjective.

The red sports car zoomed past them. [correct]

Notice that if you change the order or add the word “and,” the sentence no longer makes
sense.

The red and sports car zoomed past them. [incorrect]

The sports red car zoomed past them. [incorrect]

This shows that "red" and "sports" in the above sentence are not being used as
coordinate adjectives.

19. Punctuating addresses

When putting an address in a sentence, each element is separated by a comma. The

standard American address breaks down into these parts:

1023 Patterson Avenue

Eugene, Oregon 97405

In a sentence this address will contain a comma after the street number and street name,
and after the city. If the sentence continues, there must also be a comma after the zip code.

Ricky lives at 1023 Patterson Avenue, Eugene, Oregon 97405.

Ricky moved to 1023 Patterson Avenue, Eugene, Oregon 97405, about a year ago.

20. Punctuating salutations

There are two ways to punctuate salutations at the start of a letter, depending on how
formal it is. The general rule is to place a comma after the name; however, a semicolon may
be used in formal writings instead.

Dear Ms. Johnson,

or Dear Ms. Johnson:

Commas are also inserted between a person’s name and post-nominal letters (academic
degrees, certifications, affiliations, etc.). Keep in mind, there’s no comma between the
abbreviations for junior or senior.

Mr. Bradford, MD,

Mr. Lidon Jr.,

21. Closing letters

A letter closes with a complimentary closing followed by a comma (and usually a signature on
the next line). The complimentary closing may be rather informal or very formal.

Sincerely,
Rebecca Chatsworth
Best Regards,
Kiralyn Peterson
Respectfully,
Richard Hoggart
Sincerely yours,
Abigail Midelfort
Kind regards,
 Lindsay MacDonald
Best,
Philip Hayfield

22. Punctuating correlative conjunctions

either… or
neither… nor Correlative conjunctions connect two parallel items in

both… and a sentence. Pay careful attention to the fact that both

whether… or parts of the sentence actually carry equal weight. Here

not only… but also are some common correlative conjunctions:

Either I leave or she does.

Neither Michael nor I own a car.

The cat is both gentle and wild.

Not only am I an exceptional driver, but I’m also great at parallel parking.

23. Two part subjects and punctuation

When the subject of a sentence is actually composed of two or more nouns or pronouns
(e.g. Kate and Mike), there is no comma to separate the two. This is true whether the nouns
are separated by the word and, or the word or.

Kate and Mike love their new house.

Mom or her friend will come pick you up later.
The dog and the cat play together all the time.

24. Parenthesis

Depending on the sentence surrounding the parentheses, there may either be one
comma after the closing parentheses or none required. If the sentence doesn’t need a
comma, once the parentheses are taken out, you should not add one. However, if there is a
comma needed, it should be placed at the end of the parenthesis.

They were counting (very loudly I might add) how many eggs were left.
They were counting eggs (very loudly I might add), but they didn’t have enough for
breakfast.

25. Punctuating a nominal groups series

Nominal groups are word groups that provide information about people, places, and
concepts. Also called noun phrases, nominal groups shouldn’t be split up by a comma
because they will lose their meaning. You will need commas when there is a series of noun
phrases in one sentence.

Example of a nominal phrase:

a bank account
my mother’s maiden name
a yellow house

I want a blue shirt, a portable vacuum, and a pretty dress to dance in for Christmas.

In the sentence above, there are three nominal groups in a series.

26. Punctuating a series of verbs

When the phrase includes only two verbs, separate them by the word and, with out any
punctuation. Commas are required after each verb in the series once the series includes
three or more verbs. If there’s already a comma after each verb, use semicolons to separate
each verb in the series.

Two verbs in a series:

I ran and swam yesterday.

He drove over and parked the car.

Three or more in a series:

You will empty the trash, clean the bathroom, and call your grandmother this
afternoon.
The children played at the park, ate lunch, and walked back home.

A case with semicolons:

She ran in the morning, without any shoes on; stepped on some glass, which
surprised no one; and spent the afternoon getting stitches.

In a series such as "cats, dogs, and elephants," the comma after "dogs" is called the
"Serial" or "Oxford" comma. It makes sentences clearer, and is thus preferred in written
English. You may see sentences without the final comma, however, and can choose to omit
it and still have a grammatically correct sentence by writing "cats, dogs and elephants."

27. Word of comparison

Commas shouldn’t be used in a comparison. Writers often place a comma after a

conjunction in comparison phrases; however, this is incorrect.

This soda is bigger than your water bottle.

This bag weighs more than my suitcase.
28. Cases where commas will never be used

There are two places you will never, without exception, see commas. They should never
separate the subject and the verb of a sentence, and should never be the start of a sentence.
While commas are rarely mistakenly placed at the start of a sentence, we often see commas
cropping up between the subject and the verb. This mistake frequently occurs when the
subject clause is long or already has a verb in it.

The way to check if you’re on the right road is to use GPS.

With the above sentence, you may be tempted to add a comma after "road"; however,
this is incorrect. The verb of the sentence is to be and the subject is the way to check if
you’re on the right road

 There should never be a comma after a conjunction that is followed by a phrase.

I can’t say if the weather will be clear tomorrow.

I always wash my hands if I see someone near me cough.

The genitive case

The genitive case, or possessive case, is when the apostrophe s ('s) is used to show possession
(my grandmother’s ring, my sister’s car). The genitive case is used mainly with people and
animals; it is rarely used with non-living things. However, sometimes it is used with
organizations or companies.

How to use the genitive case

Singular noun Add ’s (apostrophe S) The museum’s new exhibit

 was fascinating.

Singular noun Add ’s (apostrophe S) after James’s new job pays quite
(ending in S) names or common nouns. well.

The bus’s wheels were flat.

Jesus’s birthday is
Christmas.
Plural noun Add only the apostrophe My sisters’ art project is
finally finished.

Plural noun Add ’s (apostrophe S) My children’s teacher is

(not ending in S) very kind.

No noun If the meaning is clear, My bike is older than

sometimes the possessive is Sarah’s.
used without a repeated
noun. The possessive will Taylor’s house is bigger
usually be on a name. than Mike’s.
 British vs American English

 There are a variety of differences between American and British English. Most differences are
small and will not affect overall understanding of a text. There are too many small differences to
outline below; however, we’ll go over some basic differences.

Most people have heard of the differences in vocabulary. Here’s a list of some of the most
common words that differ in American and British English.

American English British English

Counter-clockwise Anti-clockwise
Trailer Caravan
Parking lot Car park
Fries, French fries Chips
Garbage can Dust bin
Apartment Flat
Vacation Holiday
Truck Lorry
Corn Maize
Math Maths
Diaper Nappy
Gas, gasoline Petrol
Attorney, lawyer Solicitor

 British and American English use the verbs "have" and "take" a bit differently. British English
uses "have," while American English leans towards "take" as a delexical verb (a verb placed
before a noun which describes an action).

American English British English

 I’ll take a bath later. I’ll have a bath later.
I took a nap today. I had a nap today.

Time and date formats are different in American and British English.

American English British English

MM/DD/YYYY DD/MM/YYYY
July 14th 14th of July
Two weeks Fortnight
A week from Wednesday A week Wednesday
Half past four Half four
A quarter past ten A quarter after ten

5. Typography
Spacing

1. Spacing between words

A space is required in between each word in a phrase. Here, we are talking about the
words; there are, of course, examples of punctuation that need no space preceding and/or
following a word.
The weather doesn’t look inviting.
I made couscous for dinner.

2. Spacing around parentheses

 Parentheses, which are always used in pairs, allow you to insert additional
information. There is a space before and after the parentheses; however, there is no space
between the parenthetical phrase and the parentheses. Do not capitalize the first word of a
parenthetical phrase unless it is a stand-alone phrase. The punctuation of a phrase is
always placed outside the parentheses when it occurs within a sentence. If the
parenthetical statement stands alone, the punctuation remains inside the parentheses.

He chewed his food (quite loudly I might add) while contemplating his life.
He made his way north in hopes of finding gold. (He would have little chance of
finding any.)
Sally laughed at the movie (which was quite a funny one) until her stomach hurt.

3. Spacing around commas

 Commas are used to separate grammatical components of a sentence, and can frequently
be identified by saying the sentence out loud and identifying pauses. They are placed
directly after a word with no space, followed by a space to separate the comma from the
following word.

I’m tired. Yet, I still want to go out tonight!

Bruno was hoping to get tickets to the concert, but they sold out early.

4. Spacing around quotation marks

 Quotation marks indicate that the text is given word-for-word. There is no space
between the first and last word within the quotations and the quotation marks. However,
there is a space before and after them within the phrase. There is no space between the
second quotation mark and a period, indicating the end of the sentence, or a comma.

She whispered, “I’m ready to leave.”

They overused the word “hypothetical” in the presentation.

5. Spacing and ordinal number suffixes

Suffixes for ordinal numbers are: -nd, -rd, -st, and –th (e.g. 2nd, 3rd, 1st, and 5th). There is no
space between the number and its suffix. When writing the full date the suffix isn’t
required; however, its is required if just the number is included in the phrase.

I came in 1st place in the race.

The rent is due on the 5th of the month.
Yesterday was January 10, 2016.

6. Spacing and contractions

 There are only a few words that contract in English. Seen most commonly are: subject +
auxiliary verb, questions with "is," and negative phrases with "not."

He’s riding his bike. (He is riding his bike.)

What’s the time? (What is the time?)
That doesn’t make sense. (That does not make sense.)

 The apostrophe (which is added in the place of the excluded letters in between the two
words) is not separated by any spaces from the words.

Doesn’t
Can’t
Shouldn’t
 She’s
Where’s

7. Spacing and slashes

 There are several common ways the slash (/) is used in English. Its punctuation
depends on its use. There will be a space following the slash if it denotes a line-
break. When it doesn’t denote a line-break, no spaces are required before or after the
slash.

 The most common case for a slash to indicate a line-break is in poetry. This is when a
space is needed before and after the slash.

The daisy bloomed / fragile in the wind / gaining strength from the sun

 Frequently, the slash stands in place of per, and, and or. There are no spaces when it is

used in these cases. When the sentence uses the slash as and or or, the reader is often able
to choose one of the two words. This is used in informal writing.

My salary is $800/month.
We were driving around 80km/h.
If/when Cindy gets married, I’d like to attend her wedding.
Let’s stop for some food and/or dessert!

 There are also some common abbreviations that incorporate a slash. These shouldn’t be
used in formal writing.

w/o (without)
P/E ratio (Price-of-earnings ratio)
 The slash is also used with fractions- no spaces required.

4/5
6/7

The period and punctuation

 The period is a full stop, signaling the end of a sentence. This is the most common way
to end a sentence (There also exists the exclamation mark (!), and the question mark
(?).) While there is some disagreement over how many spaces should go after a period, one
space is standard (and two is also acceptable).

It’s cold outside.

 When the sentence ends with quotation marks, the period is placed within the
quotation. This is required whether-or-not the quotation includes a period. If either an
exclamation point or question mark is used, omit the period completely.

He wouldn’t stop saying the word “literally.” NOT “literally”.

In the speech he asked, “Who will join me?”

Semicolon use

We use semicolons to separate two independent clauses that are not connected by a
conjunction or another transitional expression. The semicolon works as a light period
between the phrases; nonetheless, it keeps the two independent clauses in the same
sentence. This is the most common use of the semicolon

The party appeared to be a huge success; all the cake had been eaten quickly.
The children refused to go to bed; they didn’t want to miss the fireworks.

Make sure that both independent clauses could exist independently of one another. If one
of them could not stand as its own sentence, it is not an independent clause and you will
need to reword it in order to use a semicolon.

Another case of correct semicolon use is in a long list wherein the clauses already contain
commas. Since it would be confusing for the detailed items to be listed with commas, a
semicolon is used.

She ran in the morning, without any shoes on; stepped on some glass, which
surprised no one; and spent the afternoon getting stitches.

When a conjunctive adverb is used to link two independent clauses, it is preceded by a

semicolon and followed by a comma.

You’re my brother; nonetheless, I feel like you’re taking advantage of me.

Sea turtles are an endangered species; however, many people still illegally kill them
and take theirs eggs on beaches around the world.

The question mark

 Question marks are used at the end of a direct question, as either the final punctuation,
or within the sentence. There is no space between the question mark and the previous
word.

How many students are in Sarah’s class?

What did you say? Neither Sarah nor I could hear you.
 Indirect questions and requests do not use a question mark, but instead a
period. Rhetorical questions should also be written with a period because the speakery
does not expect an answer.

Would you please do the dishes.

I wonder how I did on the exam.
Why not.
Are you crazy!

Multiple punctuation marks

While we do see multiple punctuation marks used frequently in informal writing, it is best
to avoid this. In the case you decide to use multiple punctuations to end a sentence, never
include a period.

How are you doing?

How are you doing!
Very informal: How are you doing?!

Confusion in hyphens
1. Compound adjectives

 Compound adjectives are a combination of two or more adjectives that modify the same
noun. They require a hyphen to avoid confusion. Examples include:

French- Small-town Slow-moving Up-to-date

speaking
All-too- Low-risk Ill-equipped Sure-footed
common
 Long-winded Part-time Open-minded Four-year

Erin received high marks on her well-written essay.

Luna installed state-of-the-art technology in her office.

Phrases with compound adjectives require a hyphen to avoid confusion and ambiguity.
Note that once the words are combined, they form an adjective to modify the noun.

2. Hyphens in numbers

Note that numbers written out should include a hyphen between each individual number.
Eighty-two
Thirty-five

3. Hyphenated prefixes

 A prefix is an affix placed at the beginning of another word to modify the word’s meaning.
But, when does a prefix need a hyphen? Here are some general rules to follow about hyphenating
prefixes.
Common prefixes (sometimes used with the hyphen, sometimes without)
Pre- Post- Anti- Pro-
Con- Ex- Non- Omni-
Inter- Intra- Macro- Micro-
Auto- Extra- Homo- Hetero-

 Always use a hyphen with a proper noun and the prefixes ex- and self-. Always use a hyphen
is there are two of the same vowels in a row. However, different vowels in a row do not require a
hyphen. When in doubt, add a hyphen to eliminate confusion.

Self-aware
Ex-wife
Re-enter
Re-press (without a hyphen, this could be confused with repress)

Number format
1. General format

 In all numbers over three digits, at least one comma will be required. Counting from
right to left, place a comma after every third number. It is important to note that this is
different from many European countries, where the comma and period have reverse roles.

3,000
450,000
30,000,000

2. Ordinal number endings

 To create the abbreviated version of an ordinal number, write the numeral form followed by
the last two letters of the word.

First  1 + st = 1st
Second  2 + nd = 2nd
Third  3 + rd = 3rd
Fourth  4 + th = 4th

3. When to write out numbers

 Here are some simple rules to keep in mind about when to write out numbers. All numbers
under 10 should be written out, as well as any number at the beginning of a sentence. Fractions
can be written out as well (and usually require a hyphen).

Eighty people boarded a plane to Amsterdam last night.

My daughter will be four next week.
One-third of the earth’s population cannot see the Milky Way due to pollution.

 Numbers should be written as numeral for any numbers 10 and above, as well as dates and
years. Percentages, decimals, and weights should also stay in numeral form. Finally, lists of
numbers will be easier to read when in numeral form.

Approximately 60% of the student body voted for Kathleen.

I worked 45 hours last week.
Liam has three brothers aged 4, 7, and 15.
 NOT: Liam has three brothers aged four, seven, and 15.

 Note that numbers written out should include a hyphen between each individual number.

Eighty-two
Thirty-five

Currency format

 All currency symbols are placed before the number amount without any
spacing. Likewise, the abbreviation of a currency (e.g. USD or, EUR) should precede the
number amount with a space.

She received $500 from her grandmother.

I only brought EUR 400 with me for the week.

 It’s worth noting that while the symbol or abbreviation precedes the number in text, it is
still said aloud as, “five-hundred dollars” or, “four-hundred euros”.

 Many European countries use the comma to mark decimals (cents, pennies, etc.); In
English, however, the period (or full stop) is used to make decimals.
Correct: the book cost $8.50 (eight dollars and fifty cents)
Incorrect: the book cost $8,50Commas in numbers

 In all numbers greater than three digits, at least one comma will be required. Counting
from right to left, place a comma after every third number. It is important to note that this
is different from many European countries, where the comma and period have reverse
roles.

3,000
450,000
30,000,000

Writing dates

When and where commas are used for dates depends on the information
provided. When a phrase contains only the month and year, no punctuation is needed.

I visited Vietnam in May 2011.

Signe graduated from high school in June 2007.

When the date of the month is also included, there must be a comma before the year.

The ceremony took place on May 17, 2001.

I arrived in France on August 26, 2015.

 Furthermore, if the day of the week is included, there is a comma after it.

The grocery store will be closed Wednesday, July 13, 2016.

 There are a variety of ways to write a decade. The important thing to remember is avoid
using two apostrophes.

Acceptable formats include:

1980’s
1980s
The ‘80s
The 80’s

*Remember to avoid something like the ‘80’s

Writing times

 Writing the time out in a text has quite a variety of possibilities these days. First of all,
AM and PM have a range of acceptable formats, such as: A.M., P.M., am, pm, a.m., and p.m. It
is your choice whether you wish to separate the AM or PM from the time of day with a
space or not. Furthermore, some choose to write just the hour (e.g. 9pm), while others
include the semicolon and minutes (e.g. 9:00pm). Remember to stay consistent within a
single text!

All of the following examples are accepted ways to write the time:

10am
10 A.M.
3 pm
3:15P.M.
 Use of Et cetera

"Et cetera" is Latin and is usually abbreviated as "etc." It’s used for two reasons: when
the omitted material is obvious, and when additional information is unnecessary.

When used at the end of a sentence, it is preceded by a comma and followed by a period.

I have all the necessary items to make a cake, like flour, sugar, etc.
You’ll find tissues in the bathroom, living room, kitchen, etc.

If the et cetera (etc.) appears in the middle of a phrase it is followed by both the period it
always keeps as well as a comma.

I ate so much chocolate, fudge, cake, etc., that I gave myself a stomach ache.

Em dash, en dash, and hyphen

While these three symbols are quite similar, they each serve a different purpose.

 Hyphen - : The hyphen is mainly to create compound adjectives.

Luna installed state-of-the-art technology in her office.

Stephanie was broken-hearted after her soccer team lost.

 En dash – : this symbol is most often used to indicate a range of numbers or span of time.
It is also used to show results or scores.

Please read chapters 4–7 for next week.

The 1992–1993 basketball season was amazing.

I will be in a meeting every Wednesday 11am–12pm.

The Portland Timbers won 3–1.

 Em dash — : this symbol can be used in place of commas, parentheses, or missing

letters. Inserting a pair of em dashes may make a sentence appear more clear to the reader.

My sister, who is a lawyer, will help me move tomorrow.

or My sister — who is a lawyer — will help me move tomorrow.

When the em dash is used instead of parentheses, omit any punctuation surrounding the
parentheses.

They searched for eggs (very loudly I might add), but didn’t find enough for
breakfast.
They searched for eggs — very loudly I might add — but didn’t find enough for
breakfast.

The em dash is also inserted when the full word is not desired in the sentence.

Mr. D— — — testified against the mafia on June 15, 2001.

Note: you may need to go into "symbols" or "special characters" in your word processor to
access these dashes.

Parentheses and brackets

 Parentheses are often used to enclose additional information. You need to place the period
outside the parentheses unless the entire sentence is inside the parentheses. Part of the subject of
a sentence should not be in parentheses.
Rebecca’s salary was higher (40K per year) last year.
Rebecca’s salary was higher last year. (She still earned more than her husband.)
Todd (and his cousin) went fishing for the weekend.
Todd (accompanied by his cousin) went fishing for the weekend.

 Brackets play a different role than parentheses. They are an interruption or change to a phrase
added by someone other than the original speaker or writer to either clarify information or
indicate an alteration of a quotes. They are mainly used in academic writing.

"[T]he wedding day was magical for everyone involved."

*The brackets indicate that in the original quote "the" wasn’t capitalized and has been changed
here.

Reference
During this reference book preparation different internet materials and books are referred as a
reference.