The Animal Kingdom à each year ~ 13,000 new species are

described
Animals are the largest most diverse ‘kingdom’ of
life on earth à some of the most diverse areas on
earth are just beginning to be
all life on earth can be categorized into 5 major investigated
groups
eg. vertebrates
although more recent information has now expanded that to
6 to 9 major groups; for our purposes we’ll consider 5 here birds: 3 new bird species/yr described

over 2 million individual species have been fish: estimate only 40% of those in South
identified so far in all life America have been described

eg. invertebrates
known species in each group:
insects: ~700 new species of insects are
# of species described each year
Bacteria 10,000
Protista 65,000 eg. of 19 trees in one Panama study 1200
Fungi 100,000 species of beetles were collected and 80% of
Plants 300,000 them were new species
Animals 1,700,000
eg. marine invertebrates of the deep ocean
Animals cleary dominate
only 1.5% of the deep ocean have been
investigated
à over 3/4ths of all know species belong in
animal kingdom on an area the size of a parking lot off New
England coast
Estimates of the total number of living animal
à 800 different species of inverts found
species, known & unknown, are difficult to
make recently discovered whole new kind of
community of 100’s of new species of
organisms
yet all indications are that there are many
more species yet to be discovered:
Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 2

marine biologists estimate there may be up Animal Records

to 10M invertebrate species in the deep
ocean alone
A. Largest Animal
à there are probably ~25 x’s more animal
species that have not yet been named =longest
than those that have been named longest animal in existence is a nemertean
= 60 M (180’) long
Also, all animals alive today comprise <10% of all
"Lions Mane" jellyfish à ~150’ long.
animals that have ever lived
= tallest living animal
perhaps 500 Million species of animals have
lived on this earth in the last billion years giraffe, Giraffa camelopardalis à 19’ (5.8 m)

Even in terms of total numbers of individuals, =most massive

animals are second only to bacteria
a. blue whale, Balaenoptera musculus, would be bigger in
eg. estimate 10,000 Trillion ants on planet every other dimension (weight, girth, displacement)

à all the earth’s ants weigh ~ same as all earth’s eg. Mature blue whales typically measure anywhere
human population from 75 feet (23 m) to 100 feet (30.5 m) from
head to tail
eg. there are more animals on earth than stars in our
galaxy and can weigh as much as 150 tons (136 metric
tons).

The largest blue whale on record is a 110’ female that

weighed 195 tons (177 tonnes).

b. largest of all reptiles: Seismosaurus hallorum

("Earth-shaking lizard")

120+ feet long (37 m); 30-80 tons

à largest animal ever to have walked on land

b. the sauropod dinosaur, Argentinosaurus, weighed

Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 3 Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 4
 about 90 tons (82 tonnes).
àThat's little more than half the size of an adult blue
whale.
It makes a lot of sense that the world's largest
animal would be a sea creature.
Land animals have to support their own weight, whereas
sea creatures get some help from the water.
c. The largest land animals today are male Savannah
Elephants, up to 11’ tall with one known example
weighing around 7.25 tons(6.7 tonnes)
d. Largest land mammal ever was Baluchitherium
B. Smallest Animal
some unusual invertebrates are microscopic being made up of
<100 cells
C. Longest Lived Animal
Confirmed: The ocean quahog (Arctica islandica), a type of
clam, lived in the deep water off iceland before being
dragged onto a ship, age was confirmed by growth rings on
shell
Invertebrates (unconfirmed estimates):
eg. biochemical and nuclear evidence indicates that some
sea urchins may live up to 200 years
eg. some crinoids may live for 1000’s of years
eg. some sea anemones are essentially immortal, can live
1000’s of years
Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9
What exactly is an Animal?
1. ALL animals are multicellular organisms
the CELL is the basic unit of life
à ALL living things are composed of cells
an organism can consist of one or more cells:
unicellular = solitary cell
eg. bacteria, some protists
multicellular = always consist of many
cells
different cells have become specialized for
different functions
cells are interdependent on each other
àcells never found alone
eg. most fungi, all plants, all animals
animals show the best development of
multicellularity of all kingdoms
2. Most animals are motile; they move around in
some way; walk, run, swim, climb, dig, etc
Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9
Cold Blooded Vertebrates:
eg. Chilean sea bass is claimed to live over 100 yrs
eg. Orange roughy up to 150 years
eg. A Madagascar radiated tortoise (Geochelone radiata)
à ~188-192 years
presented to the Tongan royal family by the British
explorer Captain Cook in either 1773 or 1777, died in
1965, lived to the age of at least 188 years old! The
animal was called Tui Malila.
eg. A Giant Galapagos Tortoise Harriet, collected in
1835, lived in captivity until she died in 2006
at about 177 years old.
Warm Blooded Vertebrates
eg. some Macaw birds may live up to 100 years
eg. unconfirmed report of a bowhead whale living to be 245
yrs old; dated from stone and metal harpoon points
found in the whales & chemical testing
eg. primates are generally the longest lived as a group
and man is the longest lived of the primates: 122
years (Jeanne Louise Calment, 1875 - 1997).
(mammals with shortest lifespan are tiny shrews: maybe 1
to 1.5 years.
àThe faster you live, though, the shorter you live)
5 Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 6
only a few, mostly simple animals are sessile;
they don’t move around
eg. corals, barnacles, etc
but even they are motile at some point in their life cycle
3. most animals have true tissues, organs and
organ systems
4. ALL animals are heterotrophs
a few marine species carry chloroplasts in their skin cells
and can do photosynthesis
à but these chloroplasts are taken from the algae they eat
a newly discovered species of sea slug actually contains some of
the genes for photosynthesis in its own genome
à but still needs to steal chloroplasts to do photosynthesis
all life requires a set of nutrients
à chemicals that are essential to keep the
organism alive
these nutrients may be used as building
blocks or as an energy source
nutrients are used as building blocks to
make cells, tissues, skeletons, blood, etc
organisms also need an energy source to
“power” everything that an organism does
7 Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 8

the direct source of a cell’s energy is the
breakdown of organic molecules (mainly
sugar)
à ie. they use chemical energy
energy is stored in “chemical bonds”
when you break bonds you release energy
organic molecules have lots of bonds and store
lots of energy
ie. they don’t need organic molecules
in their diet
eg. plants, algae and some bacteria
5. Most animlas produce energy by aerobic
respiration
(all but 3 newly discovered animal species)
sugars and organic molecules can be broken down
for energy with or without O2 gas.

organisms have developed two basic ways to get producing energy without the use of O2 is called
these energy molecules: anaerobic respiration and is common in
bacteria and some fungi
Heterotrophs
aerobic respiration extracts much more energy
=organisms that must eat organic from organic food
molecules and then break them down
eg. anaerobic respiration of sugar à 2 units of energy
for energy
aerobic respiration of sugar à 36-38 units of energy
eg. us and other animals (19x’s more)

Autotrophs
= organisms that extract energy from
sunlight or some other source to make
organic molecules
then they can break them down as
needed for energy
Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9
some animals can use anaerobic respiration
temporarily or in specific tissues such as
muscle tissue but primarily rely in aerobic
respiration for most energy
recently, 3 new species of loriciferans have been found to
completely lack mitochondria and get all their energy
from anaerobic respiration
6. most animals store extra energy as fats or oils
9 Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 10

most efficient way to store energy for active 10. most animals show complex development, with
animals extended embryonic phase, often with
free living larval stages
eg. twice as efficient as storing extra energy as starch as
plants do
all organisms (even bacteria) pass through a
7. most animals have a head with distinct sense characteristic life cycle
organs and some kind of brain
changes in size and shape
8. most animals have outgrowths, processes or eg. Frog: embryoà larvaàadult
appendages for sensory functions, collecting food eg. Human: embryoàfetusàjuvenileàadult
eg. Butterfly: embryoàcaterpillar(larva)àpupaàadult
&/or for movement eg. Fly: embryoàmaggot(larva)àpupaàadult
eg. Clam: embryoàlarva(glochidium)àadult
eg mouthparts
antennae some involve alternation of two completely
tentacles
fins
different body forms; one that reproduces
legs asexually, one sexually
wings
the immature forms may be self sufficient or
9. most reproduce both sexually and asexually completely dependent on mother for
nourishment and protection
asexual: exact copies, clones
eg. embryos, larvae, nymphs, etc
easier, quicker, don’t need a mate
the life cycle often involves metamorphosis of
sexual: unique combination of traits one free living form into another

produces variation which allows in some animals the embryonic or immature stage
adaptation and evolution is a dormant or resistant stage

involves specialized sex cells: 11. behavior is an important tool for animal survival
sperm and egg
Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 11 Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 12

behavior plays a major role in how they interact
with their environment and with each other
behaviors play a major roll in food gathering,
social interactions, mating and care of young
all behavior has a genetic basis
à follows Darwinian evolution to some degree
predictable
programmed
adaptive (reproductive advantage)
behaviors are either:
Instinctive
taxes
reflexes
fixed action patterns
mimicry, camoflage
the most basic type of behavior:
stimulus à response
may or not be aware of the stimulus
stimulus may be internal or external
à perceived by sensory organ or cell
Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9
behaviors in invertebrates are usually highly rigid,
stereotyped, patterns
àalmost all are genetically preprogrammed
in more complex animals (vertebrates) learning
plays a larger role
12. Probably some of the most unique chemicals
produced by animals are a huge variety of
venoms
venomous creatures are found throughout the
animal kingdom
estimated 100,000 venomous animals from
corals and sponges to spiders, scorpions,
snakes, etc
each carries its own unique coctail of toxins,
mostly, various kinds of proteins
13. all living organisms (including animals) constantly
adapt to their environment in many ways through
physiological, anatomical or behavioral changes
some adaptations can be in the form of changes in
growth and physiology
eg. fur color of the same species may vary across habitats
adapting to temperature or amount of sunlight
Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9
response is controlled or modified by nervous or
endocrine system
Taxes à response to single stimulus by
motile organism
eg. attraction to light, food, etc
Reflexes àmore complex but unlearned,
unmodifiable response in organisms with
well developed nervous systems
involves a complete functional circuit
of nervous system:from receptor to
effector
or Learned
imprinting
eg. blinking as a reflex arc
habituation
eg. touching hot skillet
conditioning
social:
courtship Learned Behaviors --> from simple to very
reproductive complex
family
group eg. predator avoidance
eg. abstract thought & planning
but what is learned vs. innate
eg. Newborns don’t blink when object is brought close
to their eyes
à learned
à maturation of pathways for reflex
eg. right or left thumb on top when folding hands
13 Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 14
eg. same species of bird may have harder stronger beak in
one habitat than another depending on type of food
available
some adaptations involve behavioral changes and
learning
eg. tool use among animals
14. adaptations also occur across generations as the
most useful traits are selected for and passed on
while harmful traits are eliminated
à =evolution by natural selection
eg. same species in different ecosystems
eg. reproductive displays
eg. niches and evolution à marsupials in australia
15 Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 16
Animal Cells eg. lysosomes à cellular digestion

animals are generally much more active, have a

animal cells are “eukaryotic” cells
much higher metabolism than the members
of other kingdoms
much larger, much more complex,
they therefore require much more energy than
most genetic material is contained in prominent
species in any other kingdom
nucleus
almost all this energy is the product of
lots of internal and surface structures including
aerobic respiration inside mitochondria
organelles
àanimal cells have many more
animal cells lack cell walls mitochondria than those of other
organisms
the thin flexible cell membrane forms the
outer boundary of each cell animal cells make much more use of proteins for
structure, movement, nerve impulses and
not rigid, but flexible metabolism

also acts as a gateway for things moving into and àmany more ribosomes (protein
out of the cell factories)

organelles and other internal structures provide a

division of labor and allow the cells to work much
more efficiently
eg. mitochondria à energy factories

eg. vacuoles à storage containers

eg. ribosomes à energy factories

Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 17 Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 18

Animal Tissues
1. epithelial
single celled organisms like protozoa are “jacks of all
2. connective
trades”
move
feed 3. muscular
produce energy
respond to stimuli 4. nervous
reproduce
etc
1. Epithelial Tissues
in multicellular organisms such as animals the large
size and complexity dictates that individual cells this is the most primitive animal tissue
specialize àpresumably the first true animal tissue to evolve.

rather than performing all tasks each group of It forms the outer coverings of animals
cells becomes specialized to do one or a few
tasks very well ( much more efficiently): lines the inner and outer surfaces of all organs.
eg. muscle cells à contraction & movement
eg. bone cells à support
consists of cells fitted tightly together
eg. blood à circulation
Functions of Epithelial Tissues:
while they become more efficient at one or a few
specific jobs, they lose their independence and 1. protection
can no longer exist on their own
from microbes, physical injury, water loss, etc

tissues are groups of similar cells performing similar

2. absorption
functions
of food, water etc in the intestine
includes cells and any secretions (=matrix) they
produce 3. transport
sometimes have cilia (tiny hairlike processes)
There are 4 basic animal tissues: that move things along a tube
Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 19 Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 20
 the nature of the matrix and the fibers it
eg. oviducts à move egg toward uterus
contains identifies the specific kind of
eg. respiratory tract à move dust and bacteria connective tissue
out of lungs
fibers composed mainly of collagen
4. filtration
a uniquely “animal” protein
in kidneys

(esp. skin, tendons, ligaments, cartilage)

5. gas exchange
lungs Functions of Connective Tissue:

6. secretion 1. Glue
eg. form glands that secrete various substances eg. areolar tissue

eg. mucous, sweat, digestive juices 2. Support & movement

2. Connective Tissues eg. bone & cartilage

the most widespread and abundant type of tissue 3. Nutrient Storage

in animals eg. bone, adipose

the most diverse in structure and function 4. Temperature Homeostasis

most connective tissues are heavily vascularized eg. fat for heat production and cold insulation

5. Transport
connective tissues have an abundance of matrix
eg. blood, lymph
àthe noncellular matrix often comprise the majority of the
tissue volume 3. Muscle Tissues

elongated cells, spindle shaped, up to 1 ft long

Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 21 Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 22

= muscle fibers
4. Nervous Tissues
highly contractile and elastic cells
nerve cells are also elongated into long fibers
all cells contract to some degree, but muscle
cells are much stronger and contract much typically large cell body with one or more long
more efficiently fibers extending from it
eg. our calf muscles can support 1 ton
grouped together to form extensive interconnected
muscle cells generally stop dividing at birth network of “wires” that extend throughout the
body
(# fixed at birth)
nerve cells are able to conduct impulses to send
but each cell can expand greatly in volume signals throughout the animal body

Functions of Muscle Tissue: Functions of Nervous Tissue

1. movement 1. to sense internal and external

environmental changes,
both voluntary movements such as
swimming or running 2. coordination and control of muscles
and glands.
and internal involuntary movements of
various organs such as the pumping Stem Cells
heart, and peristalsis of the digestive
organs. Most adults retain some kinds of “embryonic
cells” called stem cells
2. posture
can later differentiate into replacement cells
3. heat generation and tissues.

used for movement

Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 23 Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 24
 Animal (Including Human) à in some skin is hardened to offer support
Organ Systems àin some animals the skin color is important in
The greater specialization of cells and tissues behaviors:
communication
increases the efficiency by which animals can camoflage
carry out life’s basic processes and allows for reproductive behaviors
almost limitless opportunities for evolutionary etc
variations and adaptations to numerous kinds of
many animals can quickly change the color of their
habitats and environmental conditions.
skin
à chromatophores
to understand and appreciate the complexity of
different kinds of animals we’ll focus on the most 2. Skeletal System
familiar (and most complex) animal à US
especially terrestrial animals
1. Skin (integumentary system)
(in land plants support was also an important
outer covering of the animal consideration à cellulose & lignin)

(plants also have outer covering, epidermis, but it’s much 3 main kinds of support system in animals:
simpler in structure and function)
exoskeleton
àin some animals (usually relatively small
ones) is a simple covering that allows on the outside à especially good protection
food, gasses and waste products to easily (eg. clams, snails, insects)
secreted by the skin
diffuse in and out of the animal grows at edges (clams & snails)
or must be shed periodically for growth
à in terrestrial animals it may serve as a (insects and other arthropods)
waterproofing layer to keep animal from
drying out endoskeleton
internal à grows with the body
à skin often contains various sense organs eg. vertebrates including us

Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 25 Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 26

hydrostatic skeleton à animals are much more active than any

muscles of body wall control fluid pressure other kingdom
eg. most worms, jellyfish, octopus

General Functions of muscles:

eg. human skeleton(endoskeleton)
1. movement
is made of over 200 bones
most animals are motile
grows continuously throughout life
à very active tissue à walk, run, crawl, swim, fly, climb, etc
à recycled every ~7 years
a few animals are sessile
subdivided in axial (skull, vertebrae, rib cage)
& appendicular skeleton (arms & legs) but even these have internal muscles
that circulate blood, move food
functions in through digestive tract, etc

1. support some muscle are voluntary

strong and relatively light; 10% body weight
some are involuntary
2. movement
framework on which muscles act
àact as levers and pivots 2. Heat Production

3. protection important for warm blooded animals like

some of our most delicate organs are well
us
protected by being encased in bone
à muscle generate lots of heat
eg. brain, lungs, heart, reproductive system
warm blooded vs coldblooded
3. Muscular System
all animals alive today except birds and mammals
are “cold blooded”
unique to animals:
bird & mammals are warm blooded
Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 27 Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 28
 à much more active in most animals the organs of digestive system
à require much more food to maintain
heat production
form essentially a long continuous tube that
is open at both ends
4. Digestive System
à alimentary canal (GI tract)
like fungi, and many protists and bacteria, animals are
heterotrophs à take in organic food mouthà pharynxà esophagusà stomachà
small intestineà large intestineà anus
animal food needs are much more complex
near the beginning of the system food is
physically and chemically digested
digestive system functions to break down the food
so that it can be absorbed and used by the eg. typically the mouth is armed with the appropriate
body tools to rip and tear the food into smaller pieces

most animals digest the food after it is eaten, eg. the stomach and beginning of the small intestine
produces enzymes and other chemicals to break
not before as in fungi or some plants large proteins and starches into smaller molecules

but a few (eg. spiders) predigest their food the rest of the system is used to absorb the
nutrients released by digestion and to get
lots of specialization in structures depending on rid of undigestible wastes
how an animal gets its food & what kind of
food it prefers eg. most absorption occurs in the small intestine

a few things (water, alcohol) can be absorbed by

eg. predator, herbivore, parasite, filter feeder, fluid feeder
the stomach; and the large intestine can absorb
additional water and nutrients released by
in some animals the digestive system is a simple bacterial action
sac, opened at one end
our small intestine is greatly modified for absorption
surface area is greatly increased for more
à food is eaten, digested and the wastes efficient absorption of nutrients:
are “spit out” the mouth
1” diameter x 10’ long
eg. corals, jellyfish, flatworms à if smooth tube= 0.33 m2 (3 sq ft)

Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 29 Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 30

but: interior is folded aquatic animals

also has fingerlike projections = villi &
microvilli Gasses diffuse much slower in water than in air

àTotal Area = 200m2 (1800 sq ft) water contains 20 times less oxygen than air
à aquatic organisms must have more efficient
in us, once the nutrients are absorbed they go to the respiratory systems
liver for processing and storage
high surface area provided by gills, book
5. The Respiratory System gills, etc

like plants, all animals require O2 to produce numerous flaps or feather-like

energy and release C02 as a waste product structures exposed on the sides of
the animal
oxygen gas is needed as a nutrient;

carbon dioxide gas is a waste product of must keep water moving across gills
respiration (energy production) àgills in constant motion
àwater is constantly pumped over
since animals are more active than plants they gills
require more efficient ways to get oxygen
(plants just used simple pores: stomata or lenticels, air breathers:
or pneumatophores)
easier to extract O2 from air
Respiratory system functions as this gas exchange air contains 20 times more air than water
system in animals
but air dries respiratory surface
in very small animals there is no specific
“organ” àrespiratory organs must be
à breath through their skin protected and kept moist

air breathing animals have different lungs, trachea, book lungs, etc
requirements than those that extract oxygen
from water
Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 31 Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 32
 often the respiratory system is closely associated =blood vessels: arteries, capillaries, veins
with some kind of circulatory system to more
effectively collect and distribute the oxygen “pumps”
= heart
eg. Human lungs
can be “open” or “closed” system:
some of the most efficient
open system (eg. insects)
à lots of area for gas exchange fluid sloshes around in body cavity
pumping heart keeps fluid in motion

contain millions of microscopic alveoli

surrounded by capillaries closed system (vertebrates; us)
2 2
total surface area ~ 70M (=760 ft ~20’x38’)
blood flows in closed system of vessels
6. Circulatory System over 60,000 miles of vessels (mainly capillaries)

the circulatory system is the major connection arteries à capillaries à veins

between external and internal environment
7. The Endocrine System
àeverything going in or out of body must go
through the circulatory system to get to virtually all multicellular organisms use chemicals
where its going to coordinate activities and communicate

in small organisms gas exchange and food and wastes
enter and leave by simple diffusion
in large, multicellular organisms some kind of
circulatory system is needed to move things
around
typically, the circulatory system consists of
“plumbing”
Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9
in animals, chemicals (= hormones) are used to
help control long term activities such as
growth, development, reproductive cycles, etc
virtually all organs produce various hormones but
in some organs hormone production is their
main job
eg. thyroid gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, etc
33 Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 34

O2
8. Nervous System
many of an animals coordination is hard wired into
animals are much more active than members of circuits that produce predictable responses to
the other two multicellular kingdoms stimuli

animals move much more quickly, must reflex = a rapid, automatic, predictable motor
respond to things much quicker response to a stimulus
chemicals may take minutes or hours to unlearned
unplanned
produce a response involuntary
à “hard wired” into our neural anatomy
animals need a system to control quick reactions:
movements, emergencies, etc Kinds of Nervous Systems

à only members of the animal kingdom have animal nervous systems range from very
an additional systems of control simple to increasingly complex:

all major animal groups except sponges have eg. Nerve net:
some kind of nervous system
no brain

cells of the nervous system are highly specialized simple coordination of swimming or
for receiving stimuli and conducting impulses feeding movements
to various parts of the body eg. jellyfish & corals

made up mainly of neurons eg. Ganglia and nerve cords

long thin fiber like cells up to 4 ft long
very minimal “central processing”
very high metabolic rate (highest of any cells in body)
nerve cords can be paired; dorsal, ventral,
require glucose, can’t use alternate fuels lateral, etc

require lots of O2 – only aerobic metabolism eg. flatworms, segmented worms, arthropods
can’t survive more than a few minutes without
Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 35 Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 36
 eg. True brain and spinal cord à receptors convert one form of energy
into nerve impulses that the brain can
in vertebrates only
interpret
nervous system is organized into 2 major
subdivisions: our body has millions of sensory receptors
à some we are consciously aware of
CNS: brain and spinal cord
PNS: cranial nerves and spinal nerves à most are internal, and help maintain body
at an unconscious level

9. The Senses kinds of transducers:

monitor and allow organism to respond to its photoreceptor - light

chemoreceptor - chemicals
environment mechanoreceptor - bending, pressure, touch
thermoreceptor - temperature
senses provide direct contact between animal and osmoreceptor – salt/water conc
its surroundings nocioceptor (“to injure”) – pain

no animal is completely aware of its environment
à only selectively aware
eg. those that live in caves depend more on smell and
sound
eg. those that live on surface of land rely heavily on sight
10. Excretory System (Urinary System)
excretory wastes = metabolic wastes
à chemicals & toxins produced by cells during
metabolism

eg. those that live in water use smell, currents and all organisms must get rid of excess materials and wastes
vibrations fungi, protists, bacteria à diffusion;
plants àstomata, converted to “secondary plant
sensory receptors are transducers products” for defense or support or stored
in woody tissue)

information presents itself in different energy having greater metabolism, animals generate
forms more wastes

Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 37 Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 38

à need more effective way to get rid of only major human system that doesn’t work
wastes continuously

à only activated at puberty

main job of excretory system is to collect and
eliminate toxic wastes

may also help to stabilize salt and water balance

in body

12. Reproductive System

most animals reproduce both asexually and

sexually

à most vertebrates reproduce only sexually

animals typically go through more complex stages

of development

sometimes spending years in immature forms

some animals go through an alternation of

generations

contains ovaries and testes for sexual

reproduction

sometimes contains organ for development of

young
Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 39 Animals – Introduction to Zoology; Ziser, lecture notes, 2016.9 40