Thermal Management Power Semiconductor Applications

Philips Semiconductors

CHAPTER 7

Thermal Management

7.1 Thermal Considerations

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Thermal Considerations

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Thermal Management
7.1.1 Thermal Considerations for Power Semiconductors
The perfect power switch is not yet available. All power
semiconductors dissipate power internally both during the
on-state and during the transition between the on and off
states. The amount of power dissipated internally generally
speaking increases in line with the power being switched
by the semiconductor. The capability of a switch to operate
in a particular circuit will therefore depend upon the amount
of power dissipated internally and the rise in the operating
temperature of the silicon junction that this power
dissipation causes. It is therefore important that circuit
designers are familiar with the thermal characteristics of
power semiconductors and are able to calculate power
dissipation limits and junction operating temperatures.
This chapter is divided into two parts. Part One describes
the essential thermal properties of semiconductors and
explains the concept of a limit in terms of continuous mode
and pulse mode operation. Part Two gives worked
examples showing junction temperature calculations for a
variety of applied power pulse waveforms.
PART ONE
The power dissipation limit
The maximum allowable power dissipation forms a limit to
the safe operating area of power transistors. Power
dissipation causes a rise in junction temperature which will,
in turn, start chemical and metallurgical changes. The rate
at which these changes proceed is exponentially related to
temperature, and thus prolonged operation of a power
transistor above its junction temperature rating is liable to
result in reduced life. Operation of a device at, or below, its
power dissipation rating (together with careful
consideration of thermal resistances associated with the
device) ensures that the junction temperature rating is not
exceeded.
All power semiconductors have a power dissipation
limitation. For rectifier products such as diodes, thyristors
and triacs, the power dissipation rating can be easily
translated in terms of current ratings; in the on-state the
voltage drop is well defined. Transistors are, however,
somewhat more complicated. A transistor, be it a power
MOSFET or a bipolar, can operate in its on-state at any
voltage up to its maximum rating depending on the circuit
conditions. It is therefore necessary to specify a Safe
Operating Area (SOA) for transistors which specifies the
power dissipation limit in terms of a series of boundaries in
the current and voltage plane. These operating areas are
usually presented for mounting base temperatures of 25 ˚C.
At higher temperatures, operating conditions must be
checked to ensure that junction temperatures are not
exceeding the desired operating level.
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Continuous power dissipation
The total power dissipation in a semiconductor may be
calculated from the product of the on-state voltage and the
forward conduction current. The heat dissipated in the
junction of the device flows through the thermal resistance
between the junction and the mounting base, Rthj-mb. The
thermal equivalent circuit of Fig. 1 illustrates this heat flow;
Ptot can be regarded as a thermal current, and the
temperature difference between the junction and mounting
base ∆Tj-mb as a thermal voltage. By analogy with Ohm’s
law, it follows that:
T j − Tmb
Ptot = 1
Rthj − mb
Fig. 1 Heat transport in a transistor with power
dissipation constant with respect to time
Fig. 2 shows the dependence of the maximum power
dissipation on the temperature of the mounting base. Ptotmax
is limited either by a maximum temperature difference:
∆T j − mb max = T jmax − Tmb K 2
or by the maximum junction temperature Tjmax (Tmb K is
usually 25˚C and is the value of Tmb above which the
maximum power dissipation must be reduced to maintain
the operating point within the safe operating area).
In the first case, Tmb ≤ Tmb K :
∆T j − mb max
Ptot maxK = ; 3
Rthj − mb
that is, the power dissipation has a fixed limit value (Ptot max K
is the maximum d.c. power dissipation below Tmb K). If the
transistor is subjected to a mounting-base temperature
Tmb 1, its junction temperature will be less than Tjmax by an
amount (TmbK - Tmb 1), as shown by the broken line in Fig. 2.
Thermal Management Power Semiconductor Applications
Philips Semiconductors

Ptotmax / W
100
90
80
70
60
47.5 50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Tmb / C
Fig. 3 Example of the determination of maximum power
dissipation
Fig. 2 Maximum d.c. power dissipation in a transistor
as a function of the mounting-base temperature Pulse power operation
In the second case, Tmb > Tmb K : When a power transistor is subjected to a pulsed load,
higher peak power dissipation is permitted. The materials
T jmax − Tmb in a power transistor have a definite thermal capacity, and
Ptot max = ; 4 thus the critical junction temperature will not be reached
Rthj − mb
instantaneously, even when excessive power is being
that is, the power dissipation must be reduced as the dissipated in the device. The power dissipation limit may
mounting base temperature increases along the sloping be extended for intermittent operation. The size of the
straight line in Fig. 2. Equation 4 shows that the lower the extension will depend on the duration of the operation
thermal resistance Rthj-mb, the steeper is the slope of the period (that is, pulse duration) and the frequency with which
line. In this case, Tmb is the maximum mounting-base operation occurs (that is, duty factor).
temperature that can occur in operation.

Example
The following data is provided for a particular transistor.
Ptot maxK = 75 W
Tjmax = 175 ˚C
Rthj-mb ≤ 2 K/W
The maximum permissible power dissipation for continuous
operation at a maximum mounting-base temperature of
Tmb = 80 ˚C is required. Fig. 4 Heating of a transistor chip
Note that the maximum value of Tmb is chosen to be If power is applied to a transistor, the device will immediately
significantly higher than the maximum ambient temperature start to warm up (Fig. 4). If the power dissipation continues,
to prevent an excessively large heatsink being required. a balance will be struck between heat generation and
From Eq. 4 we obtain: removal resulting in the stabilisation of Tj and ∆Tj-mb. Some
heat energy will be stored by the thermal capacity of the
175 − 80 device, and the stable conditions will be determined by the
Ptot max = W, = 47.5 W thermal resistances associated with the transistor and its
2
thermal environment. When the power dissipation ceases,
Provided that the transistor is operated within SOA limits, the device will cool (the heating and cooling laws will be
this value is permissible since it is below Ptot max K. The same identical, see Fig. 5). However, if the power dissipation
result can be obtained graphically from the Ptot max diagram ceases before the temperature of the transistor stabilises,
(Fig. 3) for the relevant transistor. the peak values of Tj and ∆Tj-mb will be less than the values

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reached for the same level of continuous power dissipation

(Fig. 6). If the second pulse is identical to the first, the peak
temperature attained by the device at the end of the second
pulse will be greater than that at the end of the first pulse.
Further pulses will build up the temperature until some new
stable situation is attained (Fig. 7). The temperature of the
device in this stable condition will fluctuate above and below
the mean. If the upward excursions extend into the region
of excessive Tj then the life expectancy of the device may
be reduced. This can happen with high-power
low-duty-factor pulses, even though the average power is
below the d.c. rating of the device.

Fig. 7 A train of power pulses increases the average

temperature if the device does not have time to cool
between pulses

ID / A BUK553-100
100
A tp =
Fig. 5 Heating and cooling follow the same law ID 10 us
S/
VD B
)=
(ON 100 us
RDS
10
1 ms

10 ms
DC 100 ms
1

0.1
1 10 100
Fig. 6 The peak temperature caused by a short power VDS / V
pulse can be less than the steady-state temperature
Fig. 8 D.C. and rectangular pulse operating areas with
resulting from the same power
fixed parameters δ=0, tp and Tmb=25˚C
Fig. 8 shows a typical safe operating area for d.c. operation In general, the shorter the pulse and the lower the
of a power MOSFET. The corresponding rectangular-pulse frequency, the lower the temperature that the junction
operating areas with a fixed duty factor, δ = 0, and the pulse reaches. By analogy with Eq. 3, it follows that:
time tp as a parameter, are also shown. These boundaries
represent the largest possible extension of the operating T j − Tmb
area for particular pulse times. When the pulse time Ptot M = , 5
Zthj − mb
becomes very short, the power dissipation does not have
a limiting action and the pulse current and maximum voltage where Zthj-mb is the transient thermal impedance between
form the only limits. This rectangle represents the largest the junction and mounting base of the device. It depends
possible pulse operating area. on the pulse duration tp, and the duty factor δ, where:

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tp lim Zthj − mb = δRthj − mb 10

δ= , 6 tp → 0
T
The Zthj-mb curves approach this value asymptotically as tp
and T is the pulse period. Fig. 9 shows a typical family of decreases. Fig. 9 shows that, for duty factors in the range
curves for thermal impedance against pulse duration, with 0.1 to 0.5, the limit values given by Eq. 10 have virtually
duty factor as a parameter. been reached at tp = 10-6 s.

Zth j-mb / (K/W) BUK553-100A

1E+01

=
1E+00 0.5

0.2
0.1
1E-01 0.05
0.02

1E-02 PD tp tp
0 =
T

t
T
1E-03
1E-07 1E-05 1E-03 1E-01 1E+01
t/s

Fig. 9 Example of the presentation of the transient

thermal impedance as a function of the pulse time with
duty factor as parameter

Again, the maximum pulse power dissipation is limited

either by the maximum temperature difference ∆Tj-mb max
(Eq. 2), or by the maximum junction temperature Tjmax, and
so by analogy with Eqs. 3 and 4:

∆T j − mb max
Ptot maxK = , 7
Zthj − mb

when Tmb ≤ Tmb K, and: Fig. 10 Three limit cases of rectangular pulse loads:
(a) short pulse duration
T jmax − Tmb
Ptot M max = , 8 (b) long pulse duration
Zthj − mb (c) single-shot pulse

when Tmb > Tmb K. That is, below a mounting-base

temperature of Tmb K, the maximum power dissipation has Long pulse duration (Fig. 10b)
a fixed limit value; and above Tmb K, the power dissipation As the pulse duration increases, the junction temperature
must be reduced linearly with increasing mounting-base approaches a stationary value towards the end of a pulse.
temperature. The transient thermal impedance tends to the thermal
resistance for continuous power dissipation; that is:
Short pulse duration (Fig. 10a)
lim Zthj − mb = Rthj − mb 11
As the pulse duration becomes very short, the fluctuations tp → ∞

of junction temperature become negligible, owing to the

internal thermal capacity of the transistor. Consequently,
the only factor to be considered is the heating of the junction
by the average power dissipation; that is:
Ptot(av) = δPtot M
The transient thermal impedance becomes:
Fig. 9 shows that Zthj-mb approaches this value as tp becomes
large. In general, transient thermal effects die out in most
power transistors within 0.1 to 1.0 seconds. This time
depends on the material and construction of the case, the
9 size of the chip, the way it is mounted, and other factors.
Power pulses with a duration in excess of this time have
approximately the same effect as a continuous load.
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Single-shot pulses (Fig. 10c) where ∆Tj-mb is found from a rearrangement of equation 7.
In all the following examples the mounting base
As the duty factor becomes very small, the junction tends temperature (Tmb) is assumed to be 75˚C.
to cool down completely between pulses so that each pulse
can be treated individually. When considering single Periodic rectangular pulse
pulses, the Zthj-mb values for δ = 0 (Fig. 9) give sufficiently
accurate results. Fig. 11 shows an example of a periodic rectangular pulse.
This type of pulse is commonly found in switching
applications. 100W is dissipated every 400µs for a period
PART TWO of 20µs, representing a duty cycle (δ) of 0.05. The peak
junction temperature is calculated as follows:
Calculating junction temperatures
Peak Tj : t = 2 × 10−5s
Most applications which include power semiconductors
usually involve some form of pulse mode operation. This P = 100W
section gives several worked examples showing how
junction temperatures can be simply calculated. Examples 20
δ= = 0.05
are given for a variety of waveforms: 400

(1) Periodic Waveforms Zth j − mb = 0.12K/W

(2) Single Shot Waveforms ∆Tj − mb = P × Zth j − mb = 100 × 0.12 = 12°C
(3) Composite Waveforms
Tj = Tmb + ∆Tj − mb = 75 + 12 = 87°C
(4) A Pulse Burst
Average Tj : Pav = P × δ = 100 × 0.05 = 5W
(5) Non Rectangular Pulses
From the point of view of reliability it is most important to ∆Tj − mb(av) = Pav × Zthj − mb(δ = 1) = 5 × 2 = 10°C
know what the peak junction temperature will be when the
Tj(av) = Tmb + ∆Tj − mb(av) = 75 + 10 = 85°C
power waveform is applied and also what the average
junction temperature is going to be. The value for Zth j-mb is taken from the δ=0.05 curve shown
Peak junction temperature will usually occur at the end of in Fig. 12 (This diagram repeats Fig. 9 but has been
an applied pulse and its calculation will involve transient simplified for clarity). The above calculation shows that the
thermal impedance. The average junction temperature peak junction temperature will be 85˚C.
(where applicable) is calculated by working out the average
power dissipation using the d.c. thermal resistance. Single shot rectangular pulse
Fig. 13 shows an example of a single shot rectangular
POWER(W)
110
pulse. The pulse used is the same as in the previous
100
90
example, which should highlight the differences between
80
70
periodic and single shot thermal calculations. For a single
60
50
shot pulse, the time period between pulses is infinity, ie the
40
30
duty cycle δ=0. In this example 100W is dissipated for a
20 period of 20µs. To work out the peak junction temperature
10
0 the following steps are used:
0 20 40 60 80 100 400 420 440 460 480

t = 2 × 10−5s
TIME(uS)
Tj

Tjpeak P = 100W

δ=0
Tmb
0 20 40 60 80 100 400 420 440 460 480 Zth j − mb = 0.04K/W
TIME(uS)

Fig. 11 Periodic Rectangular Pulse ∆Tj − mb = P × Zth j − mb = 100 × 0.04 = 4°C

When considering the junction temperature in a device, the The value for Zth j-mb is taken from the δ=0 curve shown in
following formula is used: Fig. 12. The above calculation shows that the peak junction
temperature will be 4˚C above the mounting base
Tj = Tmb + ∆Tj − mb 14 temperature.

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Zth j-mb / (K/W)

Composite rectangular pulse
1E+01
In practice, a power device frequently has to handle
= composite waveforms, rather than the simple rectangular
1E+00
pulses shown so far. This type of signal can be simulated
by superimposing several rectangular pulses which have a
common period, but both positive and negative amplitudes,
0.12
1E-01 0.05 in addition to suitable values of tp and δ.
0.04 By way of an example, consider the composite waveform
tp
shown in Fig. 14. To show the way in which the method
1E-02 PD tp =
0 T used for periodic rectangular pulses is extended to cover
composite waveforms, the waveform shown has been
t
T chosen to be an extension of the periodic rectangular pulse
1E-03
1E-07 1E-05 1E-03 1E-01 1E+01 example. The period is 400µs, and the waveform consists
t/s of three rectangular pulses, namely 40W for 10µs, 20W for
Fig. 12 Thermal impedance curves for δ=0.05 and δ=0 150µs and 100W for 20µs. The peak junction temperature
may be calculated at any point in the cycle. To be able to
add the various effects of the pulses at this time, all the
pulses, both positive and negative, must end at time tx in
the first calculation and ty in the second calculation. Positive
POWER(W) pulses increase the junction temperature, while negative
110
pulses decrease it.
100
90
Calculation for time tx
80
70 ∆Tj − mb@x = P1.Zth j − mb(t1) + P2.Zth j − mb(t3)
60
50 + P3.Zth j − mb(t4) − P1.Zth j − mb(t2)
40
30 − P2.Zth j − mb(t4) 15
20
10
0 In equation 15, the values for P1, P2 and P3 are known:
0 20 40 60 80 100 P1=40W, P2=20W and P3=100W. The Zth values are taken
from Fig. 9. For each term in the equation, the equivalent
Tj duty cycle must be worked out. For instance the first
superimposed pulse in Fig. 14 lasts for a time t1 = 180µs,
representing a duty cycle of 180/400 = 0.45 = δ. These
values can then be used in conjunction with Fig. 9 to find a
Tjpeak
value for Zth, which in this case is 0.9K/W. Table 1a gives
the values calculated for this example.

t1 t2 t3 t4
Tmb 180µs 170µs 150µs 20µs
0 20 40 60 80 100
Repetitive δ 0.450 0.425 0.375 0.050
Fig. 13 Single Shot Pulse
T=400µs Zth 0.900 0.850 0.800 0.130
Single Shot δ 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
T=∞ Zth 0.130 0.125 0.120 0.040
For a single shot pulse, the average power dissipated and
average junction temperature are not relevant. Table 1a. Composite pulse parameters for time tx

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POWER (W) tx ty

100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500
POWER (W)
t1 Time (uS)
200 t2
t3
180 t4
160
140
120
P3
100
80
60
P2
40
20 P1
0
20 P1
40
P2
60 Time (uS)
POWER (W)
160
140
P1
120
100
80
60 P3
40
20
P2
0
P2
20
40
Time (uS)
60
80
P3
100
120
t5
t6
t7
t8

Fig. 14 Periodic Composite Waveform

Substituting these values into equation 15 for Tj-mb@x gives Single Shot: ∆Tj − mb@x = 40 × 0.13 + 20 × 0.125

+ 100 × 0.04 − 40 × 0.125

Repetitive: ∆Tj − mb@x = 40 × 0.9 + 20 × 0.85
− 20 × 0.04
+ 100 × 0.13 − 40 × 0.85
= 5.9°C
− 20 × 0.13
Tj = Tmb + ∆Tj − mb = 75 + 5.9 = 80.9°C
= 29.4°C
Hence the peak values of Tj are 104.4˚C for the repetitive
Tj = Tmb + ∆Tj − mb = 75 + 29.4 = 104.4°C case, and 80.9˚C for the single shot case.
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Calculation for time ty Burst pulses

Power devices are frequently subjected to a burst of pulses.
∆Tj − mb@y = P2.Zth j − mb(t5) + P3.Zth j − mb(t6)
This type of signal can be treated as a composite waveform
+ P1.Zth j − mb(t8) − P2.Zth j − mb(t6) and as in the previous example simulated by superimposing
several rectangular pulses which have a common period,
− P3.Zth j − mb(t7) 16 but both positive and negative amplitudes, in addition to
where Zthj-mb(t) is the transient thermal impedance for a pulse suitable values of tp and δ.
time t.
POWER (W)
T=240us
150
t5 t6 t7 t8 100
50
380µs 250µs 230µs 10µs 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 240 260 280 300 Time (us)
δ
350
Repetitive 0.950 0.625 0.575 0.025 300
250 t5
T=400µs Zth 1.950 1.300 1.250 0.080 200
150 t3

Single Shot δ 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 100

50 t1
T=∞ Zth 0.200 0.160 0.150 0.030 0
50 t2
Time (us)

100
150 t4

Table 1b. Composite pulse parameters for time ty 200

250
300
350
Substituting these values into equation 16 for Tj-mb@y gives
Fig. 15 Burst Mode Waveform
Repetitive: ∆Tj − mb@y = 20 × 1.95 + 100 × 1.3
Consider the waveform shown in Fig. 15. The period is
+ 40 × 0.08 − 20 × 1.3 240µs, and the burst consists of three rectangular pulses
of 100W power and 20µs duration, separated by 30µs. The
− 100 × 1.25 peak junction temperature will occur at the end of each burst
= 21.2°C at time t = tx = 140µs. To be able to add the various effects
of the pulses at this time, all the pulses, both positive and
Tj = Tmb + ∆Tj − mb = 75 + 21.2 = 96.2°C negative, must end at time tx. Positive pulses increase the
junction temperature, while negative pulses decrease it.
Single Shot: ∆Tj − mb@y = 20 × 0.2 + 100 × 0.16
∆Tj − mb@x = P.Zth j − mb(t1) + P.Zth j − mb(t3)
+ 40 × 0.03 − 20 × 0.16
+ P.Zth j − mb(t5) − P.Zth j − mb(t2)
− 100 × 0.15
− P.Zth j − mb(t4) 17
= 3°C
where Zthj-mb(t) is the transient thermal impedance for a pulse
Tj = Tmb + ∆Tj − mb = 75 + 3 = 78°C time t.
Hence the peak values of Tj are 96.2˚C for the repetitive The Zth values are taken from Fig. 9. For each term in the
case, and 78˚C for the single shot case. equation, the equivalent duty cycle must be worked out.
These values can then be used in conjunction with Fig. 9
The average power dissipation and the average junction to find a value for Zth. Table 2 gives the values calculated
temperature can be calculated as follows: for this example.
25 × 10 + 5 × 130 + 20 × 100
Pav = t1 t2 t3 t4 t5
400
120µs 100µs 70µs 50µs 20µs
= 7.25W
Repetitive δ 0.500 0.420 0.290 0.210 0.083
∆Tj − mb(av) = Pav × Zthj − mb(δ = 1) = 7.25 × 2 = 14.5°C T=240µs Zth 1.100 0.800 0.600 0.430 0.210

Tj(av) = Tmb + ∆Tj − mb(av) = 75 + 14.5 = 89.5°C Single Shot δ 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
T=∞ Zth 0.100 0.090 0.075 0.060 0.040
Clearly, the junction temperature at time tx should be higher
Table 2. Burst Mode pulse parameters
than that at time ty, and this is proven in the above
calculations. Substituting these values into equation 17 gives
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Repetitive: ∆Tj − mb@x = 100 × 1.10 + 100 × 0.60

50 50

+ 100 × 0.21 − 100 × 0.80 40 40

30 30

− 100 × 0.43 20 20
10 10

= 68°C 0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100

Tj = 75 + 68 = 143°C
100 100
90 90
Single Shot: ∆Tj − mb@x = 100 × 0.10 + 100 × 0.075 80 80
70 70
+ 100 × 0.04 − 100 × 0.09 60 60
50 50 P3

− 100 × 0.06 40 40
t3
30 30
= 6.5°C 20 20
10 10 P2 t2
Tj = 75 + 6.5 = 81.5°C 0 0
10 10 P1
t1
Hence the peak value of Tj is 143˚C for the repetitive case 20 20
30 30
and 81.5˚C for the single shot case. To calculate the
average junction temperature Tj(av): Fig. 16 Non Rectangular Waveform

3 × 100 × 20
Pav = ∆Tj − mb = Ptot M × Zthj − mb
240
= 25W Single Shot ∆Tj − mb = 50 × 0.065 = 3.25°C

∆Tj − mb(av) = Pav × Zthj − mb(δ = 1) = 25 × 2 = 50°C Tjpeak = 75 + 3.25 = 78.5°C

Tj(av) = 75 + 50 = 125°C 10% Duty cycle ∆Tj − mb = 50 × 0.230 = 11.5°C

The above example for the repetitive waveform highlights Tjpeak = 75 + 11.5 = 86.5°C
a case where the average junction temperature (125˚C) is
well within limits but the composite pulse calculation shows 50% Duty cycle ∆Tj − mb = 50 × 1.000 = 50°C
the peak junction temperature to be significantly higher. For
reasons of improved long term reliability it is usual to Tjpeak = 75 + 50 = 125°C
operate devices with a peak junction temperature below
125˚C. When the waveform is split into two rectangular pulses:

Non-rectangular pulses ∆Tj − mb = P3.Zth j − mb(t3) + P1.Zth j − mb(t1) − P2.Zth j − mb(t2) 18

So far, the worked examples have only covered rectangular
waveforms. However, triangular, trapeziodal and For this example P1 = 25W, P2 = 25W, P3 = 50W. Table 3
sinusoidal waveforms are also common. In order to apply below shows the rest of the parameters:
the above thermal calculations to non rectangular
waveforms, the waveform is approximated by a series of
rectangles. Each rectangle represents part of the t1 t2 t3
waveform. The equivalent rectangle must be equal in area 75µs 50µs 37.5µs
to the section of the waveform it represents (ie the same
energy) and also be of the same peak power. With reference Single Shot D 0.000 0.000 0.000
to Fig. 16, a triangular waveform has been approximated T=∞ Zth 0.085 0.065 0.055
to one rectangle in the first example, and two rectangles in 10% Duty Cycle D 0.075 0.050 0.037
the second. Obviously, increasing the number of sections T=1000µs Zth 0.210 0.140 0.120
the waveform is split into will improve the accuracy of the
thermal calculations. 50% Duty Cycle D 0.375 0.250 0.188
T=200µs Zth 0.700 0.500 0.420
In the first example, there is only one rectanglular pulse ,
of duration 50µs, dissipating 50W. So again using equation
14 and a rearrangement of equation 7: Table 3. Non Rectangular Pulse Calculations

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Sustituting these values into equation 18 gives:

Single shot ∆Tj − mb = 50 × 0.055 + 25 × 0.085 − 25 × 0.065
50 × 50
50% Duty Cycle Pav =
= 3.25°C 200
Tjpeak = 75 + 3.25 = 78.5°C = 12.5W

10% Duty cycle ∆Tj − mb = 50 × 0.12 + 25 × 0.21 − 25 × 0.14 ∆Tj − mb(av) = Pav × Zthj − mb(δ = 1) = 12.5 × 2 = 25°C

= 7.75°C Tj(av) = 75 + 25 = 100°C

Tjpeak = 75 + 7.75 = 82.5°C

50% Duty cycle ∆Tj − mb = 50 × 0.42 + 25 × 0.7 − 25 × 0.5 Conclusion

= 26°C
A method has been presented to allow the calculation of
Tjpeak = 75 + 26 = 101°C average and peak junction temperatures for a variety of
pulse types. Several worked examples have shown
To calculate the average junction temperature: calculations for various common waveforms. The method
for non rectangular pulses can be applied to any wave
50 × 50
10% Duty Cycle Pav = shape, allowing temperature calculations for waveforms
1000
such as exponential and sinusoidal power pulses. For
= 2.5W pulses such as these, care must be taken to ensure that
the calculation gives the peak junction temperature, as it
∆Tj − mb(av) = Pav × Zthj − mb(δ = 1) = 2.5 × 2 = 5°C may not occur at the end of the pulse. In this instance
several calculations must be performed with different
Tj(av) = 75 + 5 = 80°C endpoints to find the maximum junction temperature.

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7.1.2 Heat Dissipation

All semiconductor failure mechanisms are temperature
dependent and so the lower the junction temperature, the
higher the reliability of the circuit. Thus our data specifies
a maximum junction temperature which should not be
exceeded under the worst probable conditions. However,
derating the operating temperature from Tjmax is always
desirable to improve the reliability still further. The junction
temperature depends on both the power dissipated in the
device and the thermal resistances (or impedances)
associated with the device. Thus careful consideration of
these thermal resistances (or impedances) allows the user
to calculate the maximum power dissipation that will keep
the junction temperature below a chosen value.
The formulae and diagrams given in this section can only
be considered as a guide for determining the nature of a
heatsink. This is because the thermal resistance of a
heatsink depends on numerous parameters which cannot
be predetermined. They include the position of the
transistor on the heatsink, the extent to which air can flow
unhindered, the ratio of the lengths of the sides of the
heatsink, the screening effect of nearby components, and
heating from these components. It is always advisable to
check important temperatures in the finished equipment
under the worst probable operating conditions. The more
complex the heat dissipation conditions, the more important
it becomes to carry out such checks.
metal, and both mating surfaces should be clean. Paint
finishes of normal thickness, up to 50 um (as a protection
against electrolytic voltage corrosion), barely affect the
thermal resistance. Transistor case and heatsink surfaces
can never be perfectly flat, and so contact will take place
on several points only, with a small air-gap over the rest of
the area. The use of a soft substance to fill this gap lowers
the contact thermal resistance. Normally, the gap is filled
with a heatsinking compound which remains fairly viscous
at normal transistor operating temperatures and has a high
thermal conductivity. The use of such a compound also
prevents moisture from penetrating between the contact
surfaces. Proprietary heatsinking compounds are available
which consist of a silicone grease loaded with some
electrically insulating good thermally conducting powder
such as alumina. The contact thermal resistance Rth mb-h is
usually small with respect to (Rth j-mb + Rth h-amb) when cooling
is by natural convection. However, the heatsink thermal
resistance Rth h-amb can be very small when either forced
ventilation or water cooling are used, and thus a close
thermal contact between the transistor case and heatsink
becomes particularly important.

Heat flow path

The heat generated in a semiconductor chip flows by
various paths to the surroundings. Small signal devices do
not usually require heatsinking; the heat flows from the
junction to the mounting base which is in close contact with
the case. Heat is then lost by the case to the surroundings
Fig. 1 Thermal resistances in the heat flow process:
by convection and radiation (Fig. 1a). Power transistors,
(a) Without a heatsink
however, are usually mounted on heatsinks because of the
(b) With a heatsink
higher power dissipation they experience. Heat flows from
the transistor case to the heatsink by way of contact
pressure, and the heatsink loses heat to the surroundings Thermal resistance calculations
by convection and radiation, or by conduction to cooling
Fig. 1a shows that, when a heatsink is not used, the total
water (Fig. 1b). Generally air cooling is used so that the
thermal resistance between junction and ambient is given
ambient referred to in Fig.1 is usually the surrounding air.
by:
Note that if this is the air inside an equipment case, the
additional thermal resistance between the inside and Rth j − amb = Rth j − mb + Rthmb − amb 1
outside of the equipment case should be taken into account.
However, power transistors are generally mounted on a
Contact thermal resistance Rth mb-h heatsink since Rth j-amb is not usually small enough to
maintain temperatures within the chip below desired levels.
The thermal resistance between the transistor mounting
base and the heatsink depends on the quality and size of Fig. 1b shows that, when a heatsink is used, the total
the contact areas, the type of any intermediate plates used, thermal resistance is given by:
and the contact pressure. Care should be taken when
drilling holes in heatsinks to avoid burring and distorting the Rth j − amb = Rth j − mb + Rthmb − h + Rthh − amb 2

567
Thermal Management Power Semiconductor Applications
Philips Semiconductors

Note that the direct heat loss from the transistor case to the
surroundings through Rth mb-amb is negligibly small.
The first stage in determining the size and nature of the
required heatsink is to calculate the maximum heatsink
thermal resistance Rth h-amb that will maintain the junction
temperature below the desired value

Continuous operation
Under dc conditions, the maximum heatsink thermal
resistance can be calculated directly from the maximum
desired junction temperature.

T j − Tamb
Rth j − amb = 3 Fig. 2 Variation of junction and mounting base
Ptot(av)
temperature when the pulse time is small compared
T j − Tmb with the thermal time constant of the heatsink
and Rth j − mb = 4
Ptot(av) The thermal time constant of a transistor is defined as that
time at which the junction temperature has reached 70%
Combining equations 2 and 3 gives:
of its final value after being subjected to a constant power
T j − Tamb dissipation at a constant mounting base temperature.
Rthh − amb = − Rth j − mb − Rthmb − h 5
Ptot(av) Now, if the pulse duration tp exceeds one second, the
transistor is temporarily in thermal equilibrium since such
and substituting Eq 4 into Eq 5 gives: a pulse duration is significantly greater than the thermal
time-constant of most transistors. Consequently, for pulse
Tmb − Tamb
Rthh − amb = − Rthmb − h 6 times of more than one second, the temperature difference
Ptot(av) Tj - Tmb reaches a stationary final value (Fig. 3) and Eq.7
should be replaced by:
The values of Rth j-mb and Rth mb-h are given in the published
data. Thus, either Eq. 5 or Eq.6 can be used to find the Tmb = T j − PtotM .Rth j − mb 8
maximum heatsink thermal resistance.
In addition, it is no longer valid to assume that the mounting
base temperature is constant since the pulse time is also
Intermittent operation no longer small with respect to the thermal time constant
The thermal equivalent circuits of Fig. 1 are inappropriate of the heatsink.
for intermittent operation, and the thermal impedance Zth j-mb
should be considered.

T j − Tmb
PtotM =
Zth j − mb

thus: Tmb = T j − PtotM .Zth j − mb 7

The mounting-base temperature has always been

assumed to remain constant under intermittent operation.
This assumption is known to be valid in practice provided
that the pulse time is less than about one second. The
mounting-base temperature does not change significantly
under these conditions as indicated in Fig. 2. This is
because heatsinks have a high thermal capacity and thus
a high thermal time-constant.
Thus Eq.6 is valid for intermittent operation, provided that
Fig. 3 Variation of junction and mounting base
the pulse time is less than one second. The value of Tmb
temperature when the pulse time is not small compared
can be calculated from Eq. 7, and the heatsink thermal
with the thermal time constant of the heatsink
resistance can be obtained from Eq.6.
568
Thermal Management Power Semiconductor Applications
Philips Semiconductors

Smaller heatsinks for intermittent
operation
In many instances, the thermal capacity of a heatsink can
be utilised to design a smaller heatsink for intermittent
operation than would be necessary for the same level of
continuous power dissipation. The average power
dissipation in Eq. 6 is replaced by the peak power
dissipation to obtain the value of the thermal impedance
between the heatsink and the surroundings
Tmb − Tamb
Zthh − amb = − Rthmb − h
PtotM
The value of Zth h-amb will be less than the comparable
thermal resistance and thus a smaller heatsink can be
designed than that obtained using the too large value
calculated from Eq.6.
In Fig. 4, the thermal resistance of a blackened heatsink is
plotted against surface area (one side) with power
dissipation as a parameter. The graph is accurate to within
25% for nearly square plates, where the ratio of the lengths
of the sides is less than 1.25:1.
Finned heatsinks
Finned heatsinks may be made by stacking flat plates,
although it is usually more economical to use ready made
9 diecast or extruded heatsinks. Since most commercially
available finned heatsinks are of reasonably optimum
design, it is possible to compare them on the basis of the
overall volume which they occupy. This comparison is made
in Fig. 5 for heatsinks with their fins mounted vertically;
again, the graph is accurate to 25%.

Heatsinks
Three varieties of heatsink are in common use: flat plates
(including chassis), diecast finned heatsinks, and extruded
finned heatsinks. The material normally used for heatsink
construction is aluminium although copper may be used
with advantage for flat-sheet heatsinks. Small finned clips
are sometimes used to improve the dissipation of low-power
transistors.

Heatsink finish
Heatsink thermal resistance is a function of surface finish.
A painted surface will have a greater emissivity than a bright
unpainted one. The effect is most marked with flat plate Fig. 4 Generalised heatsink characteristics: flat vertical
heatsinks, where about one third of the heat is dissipated black aluminium plates, 3mm thick, approximately
by radiation. The colour of the paint used is relatively square
unimportant, and the thermal resistance of a flat plate
heatsink painted gloss white will be only about 3% higher
than that of the same heatsink painted matt black. With
finned heatsinks, painting is less effective since heat
radiated from most fins will fall on adjacent fins but it is still
worthwhile. Both anodising and etching will decrease the
thermal resistivity. Metallic type paints, such as aluminium
paint, have the lowest emissivities, although they are
approximately ten times better than a bright aluminium
metal finish.

Flat-plate heatsinks
The simplest type of heatsink is a flat metal plate to which
the transistor is attached. Such heatsinks are used both in
the form of separate plates and as the equipment chassis
itself. The thermal resistance obtained depends on the
thickness, area and orientation of the plate, as well as on
the finish and power dissipated. A plate mounted
horizontally will have about twice the thermal resistance of
Fig. 5 Generalised heatsink characteristic: blackened
a vertically mounted plate. This is particularly important
aluminium finned heatsinks
where the equipment chassis itself is used as the heatsink.

569
Thermal Management Power Semiconductor Applications
Philips Semiconductors

Length of Extruded Heatsink (mm)

10 100 1000

1mm
FLAT PLATE

1W
2mm 2W
30D 5W
3mm
10W
EXTRUDED 20W
5 50W
40D
10 100W 100
Area
of Bright Horizontal
one Bright Vertical
side Blackened Horizontal
2 4
mm 10 Blackened Vertical 10

SOT93
TO220
SOT82
3
10 1
Fig. 6 Heatsink nomogram

Heatsink dimensions • natural air cooling (unimpeded natural convection with no

The maximum thermal resistance through which sufficient
power can be dissipated without damaging the transistor
can be calculated as discussed previously. This section
explains how to arrive at a type and size of heatsink that
gives a sufficiently low thermal resistance.
Natural air cooling
The required size of aluminium heatsinks - whether flat or
extruded (finned) can be derived from the nomogram in
Fig. 6. Like all heatsink diagrams, the nomogram does not
give exact values for Rth h-amb as a function of the dimensions
since the practical conditions always deviate to some extent
from those under which the nomogram was drawn up. The
actual values for the heatsink thermal resistance may differ
by up to 10% from the nomogram values. Consequently, it
is advisable to take temperature measurements in the
finished equipment, particularly where the thermal
conditions are critical.
The conditions to which the nomogram applies are as
follows:
build up of heat);
• ambient temperature about 25˚C, measured about 50mm
below the lower edge of the heatsink (see Fig. 7);
• atmospheric pressure about 10 N/m2;
• single mounting (that is, not affected by nearby heatsinks);
• distance between the bottom of the heatsink and the base
of a draught-free space about 100mm (see Fig. 7);
• transistor mounted roughly in the centre of the heatsink
(this is not so important for finned heatsinks because of
the good thermal conduction).
The appropriately-sized heatsink is found as follows.
1. Enter the nomogram from the right hand side of section
1 at the appropriate Rth h-amb value (see Fig. 8). Move
horizontally to the left, until the appropriate curve for
orientation and surface finish is reached.
2. Move vertically upwards to intersect the appropriate
power dissipation curve in section 2.

570
Thermal Management Power Semiconductor Applications
Philips Semiconductors

3. Move horizontally to the left into section 3 for the desired

thickness of a flat-plate heatsink, or the type of extrusion.
4. If an extruded heatsink is required, move vertically
upwards to obtain its length (Figs. 9a and 9b give the
outlines of the extrusions).
5. If a flat-plate heatsink is to be used, move vertically
downwards to intersect the appropriate curve for
envelope type in section 4.
6. Move horizontally to the left to obtain heatsink area. Fig. 9a Outline of Extrusion 30D

7. The heatsink dimensions should not exceed the ratio of

1.25:1.

Th

Fig. 9b Outline of Extrusion 40D

Approx
50mm The curves in section 2 take account of the non linear nature
Approx
of the relationship between the temperature drop across
100mm
the heatsink and the power dissipation loss. Thus, at a
Tamb Tamb constant value of the heatsink thermal resistance, the
greater the power dissipation, the smaller is the required
size of heatsink. This is illustrated by the following example.

Example
Fig. 7 Conditions applicable to nomogram in Fig. 6 An extruded heatsink mounted vertically and with a painted
surface is required to have a maximum thermal resistance
of Rth h-amb = 2.6 ˚C/W at the following powers:
(a)Ptot(av) = 5W (b)Ptot(av) = 50W

Enter the nomogram at the appropriate value of the thermal

resistance in section 1, and via either the 50W or 5W line
in section 2, the appropriate lengths of the extruded
heatsink 30D are found to be:
(a) length = 110mm and (b) length = 44mm.

Case (b) requires a shorter length since the temperature

difference is ten times greater than in case (a).
As the ambient temperature increases beyond 25˚C, so
does the temperature of the heatsink and thus the thermal
resistance (at constant power) decreases owing to the
increasing role of radiation in the heat removal process.
Consequently, a heatsink with dimensions derived from
Fig. 6 at Tamb > 25˚C will be more than adequate. If the
maximum ambient temperature is less than 25˚C, then the
Fig. 8 Use of the heatsink nomogram
thermal resistance will increase slightly. However, any

571
Thermal Management Power Semiconductor Applications
Philips Semiconductors

increase will lie within the limits of accuracy of the
nomogram and within the limits set by other uncertainties
associated with heatsink calculations.
For heatsinks with relatively small areas, a considerable
part of the heat is dissipated from the transistor case. This
is why the curves in section 4 tend to flatten out with
decreasing heatsink area. The area of extruded heatsinks
is always large with respect to the surface of the transistor
case, even when the length is small.
Fig. 10 Arrangement of two equally loaded transistors
mounted on a common heatsink
If several transistors are mounted on a common heatsink,
each transistor should be associated with a particular
section of the heatsink (either an area or length according
to type) whose maximum thermal resistance is calculated
from equations 5 or 6; that is, without taking the heat
produced by nearby transistors into account. From the sum
of these areas or lengths, the size of the common heatsink
can then be obtained. If a flat heatsink is used, the
transistors are best arranged as shown in Fig. 10. The
maximum mounting base temperatures of transistors in
such a grouping should always be checked once the
equipment has been constructed.
Forced air cooling
If the thermal resistance needs to be much less than 1˚C/W,
or the heatsink not too large, forced air cooling by means
of fans can be provided. Apart from the size of the heatsink,
the thermal resistance now only depends on the speed of
the cooling air. Provided that the cooling air flows parallel
to the fins and with sufficient speed (>0.5m/s), the thermal
resistance hardly depends on the power dissipation and the
orientation of the heatsink. Note that turbulence in the air
current can result in practical values deviating from
theoretical values.
Fig. 11 shows the form in which the thermal resistances for
forced air cooling are given in the case of extruded
heatsinks. It also shows the reduction in thermal resistance
or length of heatsink which may be obtained with forced air
cooling.
The effect of forced air cooling in the case of flat heatsinks
is seen from Fig. 12. Here, too, the dissipated power and
the orientation of the heatsink have only a slight effect on
the thermal resistance, provided that the air flow is
sufficiently fast.

Rth h-amb (K/W)

2.5
Blackened

2
Natural
Convection
1.5 (Vertical)

P=3W

1 P=10W
P=30W
Forced
P=100W
0.5 Cooling
1m/s
2m/s
5m/s

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Length (mm)
Fig. 11 Thermal Resistance of a finned heatsink (type 40D) as a function of the length with natural and forced air
cooling

572
Thermal Management Power Semiconductor Applications
Philips Semiconductors

Fig. 12 Thermal Resistances of heatsinks (2mm thick copper or 3mm thick aluminium) under natural convection and
forced cooling conditions, with a SOT93 envelope.
(a) blackened
(b) bright

Summary considerations used to determine the required heatsink,

and thus temperatures should always be checked in the
The majority of power transistors require heatsinking, and
finished equipment. Finally, some applications require a
once the maximum thermal resistance that will maintain the
small heatsink, or one with a very low thermal resistance,
device’s junction temperature below its rating has been
in which case forced air cooling by means of fans should
calculated, a heatsink of appropriate type and size can be
be provided.
chosen. The practical conditions under which a transistor
will be operated are likely to differ from the theoretical

573
Preface Power Semiconductor Applications
Philips Semiconductors

Acknowledgments

We are grateful for all the contributions from our colleagues within Philips and to the Application Laboratories in Eindhoven
and Hamburg.
We would also like to thank Dr.P.H.Mellor of the University of Sheffield for contributing the application note of section 3.1.5.
The authors thank Mrs.R.Hayes for her considerable help in the preparation of this book.
The authors also thank Mr.D.F.Haslam for his assistance in the formatting and printing of the manuscripts.

Contributing Authors

N.Bennett D.J.Harper J.Oosterling

M.Bennion W.Hettersheid N.Pichowicz
D.Brown J.v.d.Hooff W.B.Rosink
C.Buethker J.Houldsworth D.C. de Ruiter
L.Burley M.J.Humphreys D.Sharples
G.M.Fry P.H.Mellor H.Simons
R.P.Gant R.Miller T.Stork
J.Gilliam H.Misdom D.Tebb
D.Grant P.Moody H.Verhees
N.J.Ham S.A.Mulder F.A.Woodworth
C.J.Hammerton E.B.G. Nijhof T.van de Wouw

This book was originally prepared by the Power Semiconductor Applications Laboratory, of the Philips Semiconductors
product division, Hazel Grove:

M.J.Humphreys D.Brown L.Burley

C.J.Hammerton R.Miller

It was revised and updated, in 1994, by:

N.J.Ham C.J.Hammerton D.Sharples

Preface Power Semiconductor Applications
Philips Semiconductors

Preface

This book was prepared by the Power Semiconductor Applications Laboratory of the Philips Semiconductors product
division, Hazel Grove. The book is intended as a guide to using power semiconductors both efficiently and reliably in power
conversion applications. It is made up of eight main chapters each of which contains a number of application notes aimed
at making it easier to select and use power semiconductors.
CHAPTER 1 forms an introduction to power semiconductors concentrating particularly on the two major power transistor
technologies, Power MOSFETs and High Voltage Bipolar Transistors.
CHAPTER 2 is devoted to Switched Mode Power Supplies. It begins with a basic description of the most commonly used
topologies and discusses the major issues surrounding the use of power semiconductors including rectifiers. Specific
design examples are given as well as a look at designing the magnetic components. The end of this chapter describes
resonant power supply technology.
CHAPTER 3 describes motion control in terms of ac, dc and stepper motor operation and control. This chapter looks only
at transistor controls, phase control using thyristors and triacs is discussed separately in chapter 6.
CHAPTER 4 looks at television and monitor applications. A description of the operation of horizontal deflection circuits is
given followed by transistor selection guides for both deflection and power supply applications. Deflection and power supply
circuit examples are also given based on circuits designed by the Product Concept and Application Laboratories (Eindhoven).
CHAPTER 5 concentrates on automotive electronics looking in detail at the requirements for the electronic switches taking
into consideration the harsh environment in which they must operate.
CHAPTER 6 reviews thyristor and triac applications from the basics of device technology and operation to the simple design
rules which should be followed to achieve maximum reliability. Specific examples are given in this chapter for a number
of the common applications.
CHAPTER 7 looks at the thermal considerations for power semiconductors in terms of power dissipation and junction
temperature limits. Part of this chapter is devoted to worked examples showing how junction temperatures can be calculated
to ensure the limits are not exceeded. Heatsink requirements and designs are also discussed in the second half of this
chapter.
CHAPTER 8 is an introduction to the use of high voltage bipolar transistors in electronic lighting ballasts. Many of the
possible topologies are described.
Contents Power Semiconductor Applications
Philips Semiconductors

Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Power Semiconductors 1

General 3

1.1.1 An Introduction To Power Devices ............................................................ 5

Power MOSFET 17

1.2.1 PowerMOS Introduction ............................................................................. 19

1.2.2 Understanding Power MOSFET Switching Behaviour ............................... 29
1.2.3 Power MOSFET Drive Circuits .................................................................. 39
1.2.4 Parallel Operation of Power MOSFETs ..................................................... 49
1.2.5 Series Operation of Power MOSFETs ....................................................... 53
1.2.6 Logic Level FETS ...................................................................................... 57
1.2.7 Avalanche Ruggedness ............................................................................. 61
1.2.8 Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) Considerations .......................................... 67
1.2.9 Understanding the Data Sheet: PowerMOS .............................................. 69

High Voltage Bipolar Transistor 77

1.3.1 Introduction To High Voltage Bipolar Transistors ...................................... 79

1.3.2 Effects of Base Drive on Switching Times ................................................. 83
1.3.3 Using High Voltage Bipolar Transistors ..................................................... 91
1.3.4 Understanding The Data Sheet: High Voltage Transistors ....................... 97

CHAPTER 2 Switched Mode Power Supplies 103

Using Power Semiconductors in Switched Mode Topologies 105

2.1.1 An Introduction to Switched Mode Power Supply Topologies ................... 107

2.1.2 The Power Supply Designer’s Guide to High Voltage Transistors ............ 129
2.1.3 Base Circuit Design for High Voltage Bipolar Transistors in Power
Converters ........................................................................................................... 141
2.1.4 Isolated Power Semiconductors for High Frequency Power Supply
Applications ......................................................................................................... 153

Output Rectification 159

2.2.1 Fast Recovery Epitaxial Diodes for use in High Frequency Rectification 161
2.2.2 Schottky Diodes from Philips Semiconductors .......................................... 173
2.2.3 An Introduction to Synchronous Rectifier Circuits using PowerMOS
Transistors ........................................................................................................... 179
i
Contents Power Semiconductor Applications
Philips Semiconductors

Design Examples 185

2.3.1 Mains Input 100 W Forward Converter SMPS: MOSFET and Bipolar
Transistor Solutions featuring ETD Cores ........................................................... 187
2.3.2 Flexible, Low Cost, Self-Oscillating Power Supply using an ETD34
Two-Part Coil Former and 3C85 Ferrite .............................................................. 199

Magnetics Design 205

2.4.1 Improved Ferrite Materials and Core Outlines for High Frequency Power
Supplies ............................................................................................................... 207

Resonant Power Supplies 217

2.5.1. An Introduction To Resonant Power Supplies .......................................... 219

2.5.2. Resonant Power Supply Converters - The Solution For Mains Pollution
Problems .............................................................................................................. 225

CHAPTER 3 Motor Control 241

AC Motor Control 243

3.1.1 Noiseless A.C. Motor Control: Introduction to a 20 kHz System ............... 245
3.1.2 The Effect of a MOSFET’s Peak to Average Current Rating on Invertor
Efficiency ............................................................................................................. 251
3.1.3 MOSFETs and FREDFETs for Motor Drive Equipment ............................. 253
3.1.4 A Designers Guide to PowerMOS Devices for Motor Control ................... 259
3.1.5 A 300V, 40A High Frequency Inverter Pole Using Paralleled FREDFET
Modules ............................................................................................................... 273

DC Motor Control 283

3.2.1 Chopper circuits for DC motor control ....................................................... 285

3.2.2 A switched-mode controller for DC motors ................................................ 293
3.2.3 Brushless DC Motor Systems .................................................................... 301

Stepper Motor Control 307

3.3.1 Stepper Motor Control ............................................................................... 309

CHAPTER 4 Televisions and Monitors 317

Power Devices in TV & Monitor Applications (including selection

guides) 319

4.1.1 An Introduction to Horizontal Deflection .................................................... 321

4.1.2 The BU25XXA/D Range of Deflection Transistors .................................... 331
ii
Contents Power Semiconductor Applications
Philips Semiconductors

4.1.3 Philips HVT’s for TV & Monitor Applications .............................................. 339

4.1.4 TV and Monitor Damper Diodes ................................................................ 345

TV Deflection Circuit Examples 349

4.2.1 Application Information for the 16 kHz Black Line Picture Tubes .............. 351
4.2.2 32 kHz / 100 Hz Deflection Circuits for the 66FS Black Line Picture Tube 361

SMPS Circuit Examples 377

4.3.1 A 70W Full Performance TV SMPS Using The TDA8380 ......................... 379
4.3.2 A Synchronous 200W SMPS for 16 and 32 kHz TV .................................. 389

Monitor Deflection Circuit Example 397

4.4.1 A Versatile 30 - 64 kHz Autosync Monitor ................................................. 399

CHAPTER 5 Automotive Power Electronics 421

Automotive Motor Control (including selection guides) 423

5.1.1 Automotive Motor Control With Philips MOSFETS .................................... 425

Automotive Lamp Control (including selection guides) 433

5.2.1 Automotive Lamp Control With Philips MOSFETS .................................... 435

The TOPFET 443

5.3.1 An Introduction to the 3 pin TOPFET ......................................................... 445

5.3.2 An Introduction to the 5 pin TOPFET ......................................................... 447
5.3.3 BUK101-50DL - a Microcontroller compatible TOPFET ............................ 449
5.3.4 Protection with 5 pin TOPFETs ................................................................. 451
5.3.5 Driving TOPFETs ....................................................................................... 453
5.3.6 High Side PWM Lamp Dimmer using TOPFET ......................................... 455
5.3.7 Linear Control with TOPFET ...................................................................... 457
5.3.8 PWM Control with TOPFET ....................................................................... 459
5.3.9 Isolated Drive for TOPFET ........................................................................ 461
5.3.10 3 pin and 5 pin TOPFET Leadforms ........................................................ 463
5.3.11 TOPFET Input Voltage ............................................................................ 465
5.3.12 Negative Input and TOPFET ................................................................... 467
5.3.13 Switching Inductive Loads with TOPFET ................................................. 469
5.3.14 Driving DC Motors with TOPFET ............................................................. 471
5.3.15 An Introduction to the High Side TOPFET ............................................... 473
5.3.16 High Side Linear Drive with TOPFET ...................................................... 475
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Contents Power Semiconductor Applications
Philips Semiconductors

Automotive Ignition 477

5.4.1 An Introduction to Electronic Automotive Ignition ...................................... 479

5.4.2 IGBTs for Automotive Ignition .................................................................... 481
5.4.3 Electronic Switches for Automotive Ignition ............................................... 483

CHAPTER 6 Power Control with Thyristors and Triacs 485

Using Thyristors and Triacs 487

6.1.1 Introduction to Thyristors and Triacs ......................................................... 489

6.1.2 Using Thyristors and Triacs ....................................................................... 497
6.1.3 The Peak Current Handling Capability of Thyristors .................................. 505
6.1.4 Understanding Thyristor and Triac Data .................................................... 509

Thyristor and Triac Applications 521

6.2.1 Triac Control of DC Inductive Loads .......................................................... 523

6.2.2 Domestic Power Control with Triacs and Thyristors .................................. 527
6.2.3 Design of a Time Proportional Temperature Controller ............................. 537

Hi-Com Triacs 547

6.3.1 Understanding Hi-Com Triacs ................................................................... 549

6.3.2 Using Hi-Com Triacs .................................................................................. 551

CHAPTER 7 Thermal Management 553

Thermal Considerations 555

7.1.1 Thermal Considerations for Power Semiconductors ................................. 557

7.1.2 Heat Dissipation ......................................................................................... 567

CHAPTER 8 Lighting 575

Fluorescent Lamp Control 577

8.1.1 Efficient Fluorescent Lighting using Electronic Ballasts ............................. 579

8.1.2 Electronic Ballasts - Philips Transistor Selection Guide ............................ 587
8.1.3 An Electronic Ballast - Base Drive Optimisation ........................................ 589

iv
Index Power Semiconductor Applications
Philips Semiconductors

Index
Airgap, transformer core, 111, 113 Bridge circuits
Anti saturation diode, 590 see Motor Control - AC
Asynchronous, 497 Brushless motor, 301, 303
Automotive Buck-boost converter, 110
fans Buck converter, 108 - 109
see motor control Burst firing, 537
IGBT, 481, 483 Burst pulses, 564
ignition, 479, 481, 483
lamps, 435, 455 Capacitance
motor control, 425, 457, 459, 471, 475 junction, 29
resistive loads, 442 Capacitor
reverse battery, 452, 473, 479 mains dropper, 544
screen heater, 442 CENELEC, 537
seat heater, 442 Charge carriers, 133
solenoids, 469 triac commutation, 549
TOPFET, 473 Choke
Avalanche, 61 fluorescent lamp, 580
Avalanche breakdown Choppers, 285
thyristor, 490 Clamp diode, 117
Avalanche multiplication, 134 Clamp winding, 113
Commutation
Baker clamp, 138, 187, 190 diode, 164
Ballast Hi-Com triac, 551
electronic, 580 thyristor, 492
fluorescent lamp, 579 triac, 494, 523, 529
switchstart, 579 Compact fluorescent lamp, 585
Base drive, 136 Continuous mode
base inductor, 147 see Switched Mode Power Supplies
base inductor, diode assisted, 148 Continuous operation, 557
base resistor, 146 Converter (dc-dc)
drive transformer, 145 switched mode power supply, 107
drive transformer leakage inductance, 149 Cookers, 537
electronic ballast, 589 Cooling
forward converter, 187 forced, 572
power converters, 141 natural, 570
speed-up capacitor, 143 Crest factor, 529
Base inductor, 144, 147 Critical electric field, 134
Base inductor, diode assisted, 148 Cross regulation, 114, 117
Boost converter, 109 Current fed resonant inverter, 589
continuous mode, 109 Current Mode Control, 120
discontinuous mode, 109 Current tail, 138, 143
output ripple, 109
Bootstrap, 303 Damper Diodes, 345, 367
Breakback voltage forward recovery, 328, 348
diac, 492 losses, 347
Breakdown voltage, 70 outlines, 345
Breakover current picture distortion, 328, 348
diac, 492 selection guide, 345
Breakover voltage Darlington, 13
diac, 492, 592 Data Sheets
thyristor, 490 High Voltage Bipolar Transistor, 92,97,331
MOSFET, 69
i
Index Power Semiconductor Applications
Philips Semiconductors

dc-dc converter, 119 ESD, 67

Depletion region, 133 see Protection, ESD
Desaturation networks, 86 precautions, 67
Baker clamp, 91, 138 ETD core
dI/dt see magnetics
triac, 531
Diac, 492, 500, 527, 530, 591 F-pack
Diode, 6 see isolated package
double diffused, 162 Fall time, 143, 144
epitaxial, 161 Fast Recovery Epitaxial Diode (FRED)
schottky, 173 see epitaxial diode
structure, 161 FBSOA, 134
Diode Modulator, 327, 367 Ferrites
Disc drives, 302 see magnetics
Discontinuous mode Flicker
see Switched Mode Power Supplies fluorescent lamp, 580
Domestic Appliances, 527 Fluorescent lamp, 579
Dropper colour rendering, 579
capacitive, 544 colour temperature, 579
resistive, 544, 545 efficacy, 579, 580
Duty cycle, 561 triphosphor, 579
Flyback converter, 110, 111, 113
EFD core advantages, 114
see magnetics clamp winding, 113
Efficiency Diodes continuous mode, 114
see Damper Diodes coupled inductor, 113
Electric drill, 531 cross regulation, 114
Electronic ballast, 580 diodes, 115
base drive optimisation, 589 disadvantages, 114
current fed half bridge, 584, 587, 589 discontinuous mode, 114
current fed push pull, 583, 587 electronic ballast, 582
flyback, 582 leakage inductance, 113
transistor selection guide, 587 magnetics, 213
voltage fed half bridge, 584, 588 operation, 113
voltage fed push pull, 583, 587 rectifier circuit, 180
EMC, 260, 455 self oscillating power supply, 199
see RFI, ESD synchronous rectifier, 156, 181
TOPFET, 473 transformer core airgap, 111, 113
Emitter shorting transistors, 115
triac, 549 Flyback converter (two transistor), 111, 114
Epitaxial diode, 161 Food mixer, 531
characteristics, 163 Forward converter, 111, 116
dI/dt, 164 advantages, 116
forward recovery, 168 clamp diode, 117
lifetime control, 162 conduction loss, 197
operating frequency, 165 continuous mode, 116
passivation, 162 core loss, 116
reverse leakage, 169 core saturation, 117
reverse recovery, 162, 164 cross regulation, 117
reverse recovery softness, 167 diodes, 118
selection guide, 171 disadvantages, 117
snap-off, 167 duty ratio, 117
softness factor, 167 ferrite cores, 116
stored charge, 162 magnetics, 213
technology, 162 magnetisation energy, 116, 117
ii
Index Power Semiconductor Applications
Philips Semiconductors

operation, 116 Heat sink compound, 567

output diodes, 117 Heater controller, 544
output ripple, 116 Heaters, 537
rectifier circuit, 180 Heatsink, 569
reset winding, 117 Heatsink compound, 514
switched mode power supply, 187 Hi-Com triac, 519, 549, 551
switching frequency, 195 commutation, 551
switching losses, 196 dIcom/dt, 552
synchronous rectifier, 157, 181 gate trigger current, 552
transistors, 118 inductive load control, 551
Forward converter (two transistor), 111, 117 High side switch
Forward recovery, 168 MOSFET, 44, 436
FREDFET, 250, 253, 305 TOPFET, 430, 473
bridge circuit, 255 High Voltage Bipolar Transistor, 8, 79, 91,
charge, 254 141, 341
diode, 254 ‘bathtub’ curves, 333
drive, 262 avalanche breakdown, 131
loss, 256 avalanche multiplication, 134
reverse recovery, 254 Baker clamp, 91, 138
FREDFETs base-emitter breakdown, 144
motor control, 259 base drive, 83, 92, 96, 136, 336, 385
Full bridge converter, 111, 125 base drive circuit, 145
advantages, 125 base inductor, 138, 144, 147
diodes, 126 base inductor, diode assisted, 148
disadvantages, 125 base resistor, 146
operation, 125 breakdown voltage, 79, 86, 92
transistors, 126 carrier concentration, 151
carrier injection, 150
Gate conductivity modulation, 135, 150
triac, 538 critical electric field, 134
Gate drive current crowding, 135, 136
forward converter, 195 current limiting values, 132
Gold doping, 162, 169 current tail, 138, 143
GTO, 11 current tails, 86, 91
Guard ring d-type, 346
schottky diode, 174 data sheet, 92, 97, 331
depletion region, 133
Half bridge, 253 desaturation, 86, 88, 91
Half bridge circuits device construction, 79
see also Motor Control - AC dI/dt, 139
Half bridge converter, 111, 122 drive transformer, 145
advantages, 122 drive transformer leakage inductance, 149
clamp diodes, 122 dV/dt, 139
cross conduction, 122 electric field, 133
diodes, 124 electronic ballast, 581, 585, 587, 589
disadvantages, 122 Fact Sheets, 334
electronic ballast, 584, 587, 589 fall time, 86, 99, 143, 144
flux symmetry, 122 FBSOA, 92, 99, 134
magnetics, 214 hard turn-off, 86
operation, 122 horizontal deflection, 321, 331, 341
synchronous rectifier, 157 leakage current, 98
transistor voltage, 122 limiting values, 97
transistors, 124 losses, 92, 333, 342
voltage doubling, 122 Miller capacitance, 139
Heat dissipation, 567 operation, 150
iii
Index Power Semiconductor Applications
Philips Semiconductors

optimum drive, 88 Ignition

outlines, 332, 346 automotive, 479, 481, 483
over current, 92, 98 darlington, 483
over voltage, 92, 97 Induction heating, 53
overdrive, 85, 88, 137, 138 Induction motor
passivation, 131 see Motor Control - AC
power limiting value, 132 Inductive load
process technology, 80 see Solenoid
ratings, 97 Inrush current, 528, 530
RBSOA, 93, 99, 135, 138, 139 Intrinsic silicon, 133
RC network, 148 Inverter, 260, 273
reverse recovery, 143, 151 see motor control ac
safe operating area, 99, 134 current fed, 52, 53
saturation, 150 switched mode power supply, 107
saturation current, 79, 98, 341 Irons, electric, 537
secondary breakdown, 92, 133 Isolated package, 154
smooth turn-off, 86 stray capacitance, 154, 155
SMPS, 94, 339, 383 thermal resistance, 154
snubber, 139 Isolation, 153
space charge, 133
speed-up capacitor, 143 J-FET, 9
storage time, 86, 91, 92, 99, 138, 144, 342 Junction temperature, 470, 557, 561
sub emitter resistance, 135 burst pulses, 564
switching, 80, 83, 86, 91, 98, 342 non-rectangular pulse, 565
technology, 129, 149 rectangular pulse, composite, 562
thermal breakdown, 134 rectangular pulse, periodic, 561
thermal runaway, 152 rectangular pulse, single shot, 561
turn-off, 91, 92, 138, 142, 146, 151
turn-on, 91, 136, 141, 149, 150 Lamp dimmer, 530
underdrive, 85, 88 Lamps, 435
voltage limiting values, 130 dI/dt, 438
Horizontal Deflection, 321, 367 inrush current, 438
base drive, 336 MOSFET, 435
control ic, 401 PWM control, 455
d-type transistors, 346 switch rate, 438
damper diodes, 345, 367 TOPFET, 455
diode modulator, 327, 347, 352, 367 Latching current
drive circuit, 352, 365, 406 thyristor, 490
east-west correction, 325, 352, 367 Leakage inductance, 113, 200, 523
line output transformer, 354 Lifetime control, 162
linearity correction, 323 Lighting
operating cycle, 321, 332, 347 fluorescent, 579
s-correction, 323, 352, 404 phase control, 530
TDA2595, 364, 368 Logic Level FET
TDA4851, 400 motor control, 432
TDA8433, 363, 369 Logic level MOSFET, 436
test circuit, 321
transistors, 331, 341, 408 Magnetics, 207
waveforms, 322 100W 100kHz forward converter, 197
100W 50kHz forward converter, 191
IGBT, 11, 305 50W flyback converter, 199
automotive, 481, 483 core losses, 208
clamped, 482, 484 core materials, 207
ignition, 481, 483 EFD core, 210
ETD core, 199, 207
iv
Index Power Semiconductor Applications
Philips Semiconductors

flyback converter, 213 safe operating area, 25, 74

forward converter, 213 series operation, 53
half bridge converter, 214 SMPS, 339, 384
power density, 211 solenoid, 62
push-pull converter, 213 structure, 19
switched mode power supply, 187 switching, 24, 29, 58, 73, 194, 262
switching frequency, 215 switching loss, 196
transformer construction, 215 synchronous rectifier, 179
Mains Flicker, 537 thermal impedance, 74
Mains pollution, 225 thermal resistance, 70
pre-converter, 225 threshold voltage, 21, 70
Mains transient, 544 transconductance, 57, 72
Mesa glass, 162 turn-off, 34, 36
Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV), 503 turn-on, 32, 34, 35, 155, 256
Miller capacitance, 139 Motor, universal
Modelling, 236, 265 back EMF, 531
MOS Controlled Thyristor, 13 starting, 528
MOSFET, 9, 19, 153, 253 Motor Control - AC, 245, 273
bootstrap, 303 anti-parallel diode, 253
breakdown voltage, 22, 70 antiparallel diode, 250
capacitance, 30, 57, 72, 155, 156 carrier frequency, 245
capacitances, 24 control, 248
characteristics, 23, 70 - 72 current rating, 262
charge, 32, 57 dc link, 249
data sheet, 69 diode, 261
dI/dt, 36 diode recovery, 250
diode, 253 duty ratio, 246
drive, 262, 264 efficiency, 262
drive circuit loss, 156 EMC, 260
driving, 39, 250 filter, 250
dV/dt, 36, 39, 264 FREDFET, 250, 259, 276
ESD, 67 gate drives, 249
gate-source protection, 264 half bridge, 245
gate charge, 195 inverter, 250, 260, 273
gate drive, 195 line voltage, 262
gate resistor, 156 loss, 267
high side, 436 MOSFET, 259
high side drive, 44 Parallel MOSFETs, 276
inductive load, 62 peak current, 251
lamps, 435 phase voltage, 262
leakage current, 71 power factor, 262
linear mode, parallelling, 52 pulse width modulation, 245, 260
logic level, 37, 57, 305 ripple, 246
loss, 26, 34 short circuit, 251
maximum current, 69 signal isolation, 250
motor control, 259, 429 snubber, 276
modelling, 265 speed control, 248
on-resistance, 21, 71 switching frequency, 246
package inductance, 49, 73 three phase bridge, 246
parallel operation, 26, 47, 49, 265 underlap, 248
parasitic oscillations, 51 Motor Control - DC, 285, 293, 425
peak current rating, 251 braking, 285, 299
Resonant supply, 53 brushless, 301
reverse diode, 73 control, 290, 295, 303
ruggedness, 61, 73 current rating, 288
v
Index Power Semiconductor Applications
Philips Semiconductors

drive, 303 Power MOSFET

duty cycle, 286 see MOSFET
efficiency, 293 Proportional control, 537
FREDFET, 287 Protection
freewheel diode, 286 ESD, 446, 448, 482
full bridge, 287 overvoltage, 446, 448, 469
half bridge, 287 reverse battery, 452, 473, 479
high side switch, 429 short circuit, 251, 446, 448
IGBT, 305 temperature, 446, 447, 471
inrush, 430 TOPFET, 445, 447, 451
inverter, 302 Pulse operation, 558
linear, 457, 475 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), 108
logic level FET, 432 Push-pull converter, 111, 119
loss, 288 advantages, 119
MOSFET, 287, 429 clamp diodes, 119
motor current, 295 cross conduction, 119
overload, 430 current mode control, 120
permanent magnet, 293, 301 diodes, 121
permanent magnet motor, 285 disadvantages, 119
PWM, 286, 293, 459, 471 duty ratio, 119
servo, 298 electronic ballast, 582, 587
short circuit, 431 flux symmetry, 119, 120
stall, 431 magnetics, 213
TOPFET, 430, 457, 459, 475 multiple outputs, 119
topologies, 286 operation, 119
torque, 285, 294 output filter, 119
triac, 525 output ripple, 119
voltage rating, 288 rectifier circuit, 180
Motor Control - Stepper, 309 switching frequency, 119
bipolar, 310 transformer, 119
chopper, 314 transistor voltage, 119
drive, 313 transistors, 121
hybrid, 312
permanent magnet, 309 Qs (stored charge), 162
reluctance, 311
step angle, 309 RBSOA, 93, 99, 135, 138, 139
unipolar, 310 Rectification, synchronous, 179
Mounting, transistor, 154 Reset winding, 117
Mounting base temperature, 557 Resistor
Mounting torque, 514 mains dropper, 544, 545
Resonant power supply, 219, 225
Parasitic oscillation, 149 modelling, 236
Passivation, 131, 162 MOSFET, 52, 53
PCB Design, 368, 419 pre-converter, 225
Phase angle, 500 Reverse leakage, 169
Phase control, 546 Reverse recovery, 143, 162
thyristors and triacs, 498 RFI, 154, 158, 167, 393, 396, 497, 529, 530,
triac, 523 537
Phase voltage Ruggedness
see motor control - ac MOSFET, 62, 73
Power dissipation, 557 schottky diode, 173
see High Voltage Bipolar Transistor loss,
MOSFET loss Safe Operating Area (SOA), 25, 74, 134, 557
Power factor correction, 580 forward biased, 92, 99, 134
active, boost converted, 581 reverse biased, 93, 99, 135, 138, 139
vi
Index Power Semiconductor Applications
Philips Semiconductors

Saturable choke Storage time, 144

triac, 523 Stored charge, 162
Schottky diode, 173 Suppression
bulk leakage, 174 mains transient, 544
edge leakage, 174 Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS)
guard ring, 174 see also self oscillating power supply
reverse leakage, 174 100W 100kHz MOSFET forward converter,
ruggedness, 173 192
selection guide, 176 100W 500kHz half bridge converter, 153
technology, 173 100W 50kHz bipolar forward converter, 187
SCR 16 & 32 kHz TV, 389
see Thyristor asymmetrical, 111, 113
Secondary breakdown, 133 base circuit design, 149
Selection Guides boost converter, 109
BU25XXA, 331 buck-boost converter, 110
BU25XXD, 331 buck converter, 108
damper diodes, 345 ceramic output filter, 153
EPI diodes, 171 continuous mode, 109, 379
horizontal deflection, 343 control ic, 391
MOSFETs driving heaters, 442 control loop, 108
MOSFETs driving lamps, 441 core excitation, 113
MOSFETs driving motors, 426 core loss, 167
Schottky diodes, 176 current mode control, 120
SMPS, 339 dc-dc converter, 119
Self Oscillating Power Supply (SOPS) diode loss, 166
50W microcomputer flyback converter, 199 diode reverse recovery effects, 166
ETD transformer, 199 diode reverse recovery softness, 167
Servo, 298 diodes, 115, 118, 121, 124, 126
Single ended push-pull discontinuous mode, 109, 379
see half bridge converter epitaxial diodes, 112, 161
Snap-off, 167 flux swing, 111
Snubber, 93, 139, 495, 502, 523, 529, 549 flyback converter, 92, 111, 113, 123
active, 279 forward converter, 111, 116, 379
Softness factor, 167 full bridge converter, 111, 125
Solenoid half bridge converter, 111, 122
TOPFET, 469, 473 high voltage bipolar transistor, 94, 112, 115,
turn off, 469, 473 118, 121, 124, 126, 129, 339, 383, 392
Solid state relay, 501 isolated, 113
SOT186, 154 isolated packages, 153
SOT186A, 154 isolation, 108, 111
SOT199, 154 magnetics design, 191, 197
Space charge, 133 magnetisation energy, 113
Speed-up capacitor, 143 mains filter, 380
Speed control mains input, 390
thyristor, 531 MOSFET, 112, 153, 33, 384
triac, 527 multiple output, 111, 156
Starter non-isolated, 108
fluorescent lamp, 580 opto-coupler, 392
Startup circuit output rectifiers, 163
electronic ballast, 591 parasitic oscillation, 149
self oscillating power supply, 201 power-down, 136
Static Induction Thyristor, 11 power-up, 136, 137, 139
Stepdown converter, 109 power MOSFET, 153, 339, 384
Stepper motor, 309 pulse width modulation, 108
Stepup converter, 109 push-pull converter, 111, 119
vii
Index Power Semiconductor Applications
Philips Semiconductors

RBSOA failure, 139 Thermal characteristics

rectification, 381, 392 power semiconductors, 557
rectification efficiency, 163 Thermal impedance, 74, 568
rectifier selection, 112 Thermal resistance, 70, 154, 557
regulation, 108 Thermal time constant, 568
reliability, 139 Thyristor, 10, 497, 509
resonant ’two transistor’ model, 490
see resonant power supply applications, 527
RFI, 154, 158, 167 asynchronous control, 497
schottky diode, 112, 154, 173 avalanche breakdown, 490
snubber, 93, 139, 383 breakover voltage, 490, 509
soft start, 138 cascading, 501
standby, 382 commutation, 492
standby supply, 392 control, 497
start-up, 391 current rating, 511
stepdown, 109 dI/dt, 490
stepup, 109 dIf/dt, 491
symmetrical, 111, 119, 122 dV/dt, 490
synchronisation, 382 energy handling, 505
synchronous rectification, 156, 179 external commutation, 493
TDA8380, 381, 391 full wave control, 499
topologies, 107 fusing I2t, 503, 512
topology output powers, 111 gate cathode resistor, 500
transformer, 111 gate circuits, 500
transformer saturation, 138 gate current, 490
transformers, 391 gate power, 492
transistor current limiting value, 112 gate requirements, 492
transistor mounting, 154 gate specifications, 512
transistor selection, 112 gate triggering, 490
transistor turn-off, 138 half wave control, 499
transistor turn-on, 136 holding current, 490, 509
transistor voltage limiting value, 112 inductive loads, 500
transistors, 115, 118, 121, 124, 126 inrush current, 503
turns ratio, 111 latching current, 490, 509
TV & Monitors, 339, 379, 399 leakage current, 490
two transistor flyback, 111, 114 load line, 492
two transistor forward, 111, 117 mounting, 514
Switching loss, 230 operation, 490
Synchronous, 497 overcurrent, 503
Synchronous rectification, 156, 179 peak current, 505
self driven, 181 phase angle, 500
transformer driven, 180 phase control, 498, 527
pulsed gate, 500
Temperature control, 537 resistive loads, 498
Thermal resonant circuit, 493
continuous operation, 557, 568 reverse characteristic, 489
intermittent operation, 568 reverse recovery, 493
non-rectangular pulse, 565 RFI, 497
pulse operation, 558 self commutation, 493
rectangular pulse, composite, 562 series choke, 502
rectangular pulse, periodic, 561 snubber, 502
rectangular pulse, single shot, 561 speed controller, 531
single shot operation, 561 static switching, 497
Thermal capacity, 558, 568 structure, 489
switching, 489
viii
Index Power Semiconductor Applications
Philips Semiconductors

switching characteristics, 517 gate requirements, 492

synchronous control, 497 gate resistor, 540, 545
temperature rating, 512 gate sensitivity, 491
thermal specifications, 512 gate triggering, 538
time proportional control, 497 holding current, 491, 510
transient protection, 502 Hi-Com, 549, 551
trigger angle, 500 inductive loads, 500
turn-off time, 494 inrush current, 503
turn-on, 490, 509 isolated trigger, 501
turn-on dI/dt, 502 latching current, 491, 510
varistor, 503 operation, 491
voltage rating, 510 overcurrent, 503
Thyristor data, 509 phase angle, 500
Time proportional control, 537 phase control, 498, 527, 546
TOPFET protection, 544
3 pin, 445, 449, 461 pulse triggering, 492
5 pin, 447, 451, 457, 459, 463 pulsed gate, 500
driving, 449, 453, 461, 465, 467, 475 quadrants, 491, 510
high side, 473, 475 resistive loads, 498
lamps, 455 RFI, 497
leadforms, 463 saturable choke, 523
linear control, 451, 457 series choke, 502
motor control, 430, 457, 459 snubber, 495, 502, 523, 529, 549
negative input, 456, 465, 467 speed controller, 527
protection, 445, 447, 451, 469, 473 static switching, 497
PWM control, 451, 455, 459 structure, 489
solenoids, 469 switching, 489
Transformer synchronous control, 497
triac controlled, 523 transformer load, 523
Transformer core airgap, 111, 113 transient protection, 502
Transformers trigger angle, 492, 500
see magnetics triggering, 550
Transient thermal impedance, 559 turn-on dI/dt, 502
Transient thermal response, 154 varistor, 503
Triac, 497, 510, 518 zero crossing, 537
400Hz operation, 489, 518 Trigger angle, 500
applications, 527, 537 TV & Monitors
asynchronous control, 497 16 kHz black line, 351
breakover voltage, 510 30-64 kHz autosync, 399
charge carriers, 549 32 kHz black line, 361
commutating dI/dt, 494 damper diodes, 345, 367
commutating dV/dt, 494 diode modulator, 327, 367
commutation, 494, 518, 523, 529, 549 EHT, 352 - 354, 368, 409, 410
control, 497 high voltage bipolar transistor, 339, 341
dc inductive load, 523 horizontal deflection, 341
dc motor control, 525 picture distortion, 348
dI/dt, 531, 549 power MOSFET, 339
dIcom/dt, 523 SMPS, 339, 354, 379, 389, 399
dV/dt, 523, 549 vertical deflection, 358, 364, 402
emitter shorting, 549 Two transistor flyback converter, 111, 114
full wave control, 499 Two transistor forward converter, 111, 117
fusing I2t, 503, 512
gate cathode resistor, 500 Universal motor
gate circuits, 500 back EMF, 531
gate current, 491
ix
Index Power Semiconductor Applications
Philips Semiconductors

starting, 528
Vacuum cleaner, 527
Varistor, 503
Vertical Deflection, 358, 364, 402
Voltage doubling, 122
Water heaters, 537

Zero crossing, 537

Zero voltage switching, 537