JARCIA, CHITO CATAPAT

CHEMISTRY
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

ACIDS/BASES/pH

ACIDS
There are certain acid properties which were noted early in the history of chemistry. According to the Arrhenius acid-base concept, a
substance is classified as an acid if it ionizes to form hydrogen(+) ions in aqueous solution. For example, hydrochloric acid reacts with
water to form hydrogen ions which are transferred to a water molecule to form a hydronium ion.

Other systems classify substances as acids if they act as proton donors (Bronsted-Lowry theory) or as electron-pair acceptors (Lewis
theory). These two classification methods are not limited to solutions in water.
Common Acids
Some common molecules which are classified as acids.

Acid Strength
An acid which ionizes almost completely in solution is said to be a strong acid, whereas one which has a small degree of ionization is
a weak acid. Of the common acids, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and sulfuric acid are strong acids. Acetic acid is a weak acid.

The acidity of solutions is measured in terms of the pH of the solution, and strong acids will lower the pH more for a given molarity
of solution.

BASES

There are certain base properties which were noted early in the history of chemistry. According to the Arrhenius acid-base concept,
a substance is classified as a base if it ionizes to form hydroxide ions OH(-) in aqueous solution.

Other systems classify substances as bases if they act as proton receptors (Bronsted-Lowry theory) or as electron-pair donors (Lewis
theory). These two classification methods are not limited to solutions in water.

Common Bases
Some common molecules which are classified as bases.
Base Strength
A base which ionizes almost completely in solution is said to be a strong base, whereas one which has a small degree of ionization is
a weak base. Of the common bases, sodium hydroxide is a strong base. Sodium bicarbonate is a weak base. The basicity of solutions
is measured in terms of the pH of the solution, and strong bases will raise the pH more for a given molarity of solution.

Acids and Bases from http://www.hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu

Acids and bases

Solutions are classified as acidic or basic based on their hydrogen ion concentration relative to pure water. Acidic solutions have a
higher H+ concentration than water (greater than 1 × 10−7 M), while basic (alkaline) solutions have a lower H+ concentration (less than
1 × 10−7 M). Typically, the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution is expressed in terms of pH. pH is calculated as the negative log of
a solution’s hydrogen ion concentration:

pH =−log10[H+]

The square brackets around the H+ just mean that we are referring to its concentration. If you plug the hydrogen ion concentration of
water (1 × 10−7 M) into this equation, you’ll get a value of 7.0, also known as neutral pH. In the human body, both blood and the
cytosol (watery goo) inside of cells have pH values close to neutral.

H+ concentration shifts away from neutral when an acid or base is added to an aqueous (water-based) solution. For our purposes,
an acid is a substance that increases the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution, usually by donating one of its hydrogen
atoms through dissociation. A base, in contrast, raises pH by providing hydroxide (OH−) or another ion or molecule that scoops up
hydrogen ions and removes them from solution.

The stronger the acid, the more readily it dissociates to generate H+. For example, hydrochloric acid (HCl) completely dissociates into
hydrogen and chloride ions when it is placed in water, so it is considered a strong acid. The acids in tomato juice or vinegar, on the
other hand, do not completely dissociate in water and are considered weak acids. Similarly, strong bases like sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
completely dissociate in water, releasing hydroxide ions (or other types of basic ions) that can absorb H +.

The pH scale
The pH scale is used to rank solutions in terms of acidity or basicity (alkalinity). Since the scale is based on pH values, it is logarithmic,
meaning that a change of 1 pH unit corresponds to a ten-fold change in H+ ion concentration. The pH scale is often said to range from
0 to 14, and most solutions do fall within this range, although it’s possible to get a pH below 0 or above 14. Anything below 7.0 is
acidic, and anything above 7.0 is alkaline, or basic.
The pH inside human cells (6.8) and the pH of blood (7.4) are both very close to neutral. Extreme pH values, either above or below 7.0,
are usually considered unfavorable for life. However, the environment inside your stomach is highly acidic, with a pH of 1 to 2. How
does the stomach get around this problem? The answer: disposable cells! Stomach cells, particularly those that come in direct contact
with stomach acid and food, are constantly dying and being replaced by new ones. In fact, the lining of the human stomach is
completely replaced about every seven to ten days.
Buffers
Most organisms, including humans, need to maintain pH within a fairly narrow range in order to survive. For instance, human blood
needs to keep its pH right around 7.4, and avoid shifting significantly higher or lower – even if acidic or basic substances enter or leave
the bloodstream.

Buffers, solutions that can resist changes in pH, are key to maintaining stable H+ ion concentrations in biological systems. When there
are too many H+ ions, a buffer will absorb some of them, bringing pH back up; and when there are too few, a buffer will donate some
of its own H+ ions to reduce the pH. Buffers typically consist of an acid-base pair, with the acid and base differing by the presence or
absence of a proton (a conjugate acid-base pair).

For instance, one of the buffers that maintain the pH of human blood involves carbonic acid (H 2CO3) and its conjugate base, the
bicarbonate ion (HCO3). Carbonic acid is formed when carbon dioxide enters the bloodstream and combines with water, and it is the
main form in which carbon dioxide travels in the blood between the muscles (where it’s generated) and the lungs (where it’s converted
back into water and CO2, which is released as a waste product).

If too many H+ ions build up, the equation above will be pushed to the right, and bicarbonate ions will absorb the H + to form carbonic
acid. Similarly, if H+ concentrations drop too low, the equation will be pulled the left and carbonic acid will turn into bicarbonate,
donating H+ ions to the solution. Without this buffer system, the body’s pH would fluctuate enough to put survival in jeopardy.

Acids, bases, pH, and buffers from https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-bases/acids-bases-and-

ph/a/acids-bases-ph-and-bufffers

ACID-BASE REACTIONS

When an acid and a base are placed together, they react to neutralize the acid and base properties, producing a salt. The H(+) cation
of the acid combines with the OH(-) anion of the base to form water. The compound formed by the cation of the base and the anion
of the acid is called a salt. The combination of hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide produces common table salt, NaCl:
The word salt is a general term which applies to the products of all such acid-base reactions.

Acid and Base Properties

Substances have long been classified as acids or bases according to some general properties which are summarized below. Their
reactions with each other produce salts.

ACID PROPERTIES BASE PROPERTIES

When dissolved in water, acids When dissolved in water, bases
Conduct Electricity Conduct electricity
Change blue litmus to red Change red litmus to blue
Have a sour taste Have a slippery feeling
React with bases to neutralize their properties React with acids to neutralize their properties
React with active metals to liberate hydrogen

Acid and Base Reaction from http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Chemical/acidbase.html

SALTS

The salt potassium dichromate has the bright orange color characteristic of the dichromate anion.

In chemistry, a salt is an ionic compound that can be formed by the neutralization reaction of an acid and a base.[1] Salts are composed
of related numbers of cations (positively charged ions) and anions (negative ions) so that the product is electrically neutral (without a
net charge). These component ions can be inorganic, such as chloride (Cl −), or organic, such as acetate (CH3CO−2); and can be
monatomic, such as fluoride (F−), or polyatomic, such as sulfate (SO2−4).

Types of salts
Salts can be classified in a variety of ways. Salts that produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in water are called alkali salts. Salts that
produce acidic solutions are acidic salts. Neutral salts are those salts that are neither acidic nor basic. Zwitterions contain an anionic
and a cationic centres in the same molecule, but are not considered to be salts. Examples of zwitterions include amino acids, many
metabolites, peptides, and proteins.
Properties
BMIM+PF6−, an ionic liquid

Color
Solid salts tend to be transparent as illustrated by sodium chloride. In many cases, the apparent opacity or transparency are only
related to the difference in size of the individual monocrystals. Since light reflects from the grain boundaries (boundaries between
crystallites), larger crystals tend to be transparent, while the polycrystalline aggregates look like white powders.

Salts exist in many different colors, which arise either from the anions or cations. For example:

sodium chromate is yellow by virtue of the chromate ion

potassium dichromate is orange by virtue of the dichromate ion
cobalt nitrate is red owing to the chromophore of hydrated cobalt(II) ([Co(H2O)6]2+).
copper sulfate is blue because of the copper(II) chromophore
potassium permanganate has the violet color of permanganate anion.
nickel chloride is typically green of [NiCl2(H2O)4]
sodium chloride, magnesium sulfate heptahydrate are colorless or white because the constituent cations and anions do not absorb in
the visible part of the spectrum
Few minerals are salts because they would be solubilized by water. Similarly inorganic pigments tend not to be salts, because
insolubility is required for fastness. Some organic dyes are salts, but they are virtually insoluble in water.

Taste
Different salts can elicit all five basic tastes, e.g., salty (sodium chloride), sweet (lead diacetate, which will cause lead poisoning if
ingested), sour (potassium bitartrate), bitter (magnesium sulfate), and umami or savory (monosodium glutamate).

Odor
Salts of strong acids and strong bases ("strong salts") are non-volatile and often odorless, whereas salts of either weak acids or weak
bases ("weak salts") may smell like the conjugate acid (e.g., acetates like acetic acid (vinegar) and cyanides like hydrogen cyanide
(almonds)) or the conjugate base (e.g., ammonium salts like ammonia) of the component ions. That slow, partial decomposition is
usually accelerated by the presence of water, since hydrolysis is the other half of the reversible reaction equation of formation of weak
salts.

Solubility
Many ionic compounds exhibit significant solubility in water or other polar solvents. Unlike molecular compounds, salts dissociate in
solution into anionic and cationic components. The lattice energy, the cohesive forces between these ions within a solid, determines
the solubility. The solubility is dependent on how well each ion interacts with the solvent, so certain patterns become apparent. For
example, salts of sodium, potassium and ammonium are usually soluble in water. Notable exceptions include ammonium
hexachloroplatinate and potassium cobaltinitrite. Most nitrates and many sulfates are water-soluble. Exceptions include barium
sulfate, calcium sulfate (sparingly soluble), and lead(II) sulfate, where the 2 +/2− pairing leads to high lattice energies. For similar
reasons, most alkali metal carbonates are not soluble in water. Some soluble carbonate salts are: sodium carbonate, potassium
carbonate and ammonium carbonate.

Conductivity
Salts are characteristically insulators. Molten salts or solutions of salts conduct electricity. For this reason, liquified (molten) salts and
solutions containing dissolved salts (e.g., sodium chloride in water) are called electrolytes.

Edge-on view of portion of crystal structure of hexamethylene TTF/TCNQ charge transfer salt.

Melting point
Salts characteristically have high melting points. For example, sodium chloride melts at 801 °C. Some salts with low lattice energies
are liquid at or near room temperature. These include molten salts, which are usually mixtures of salts, and ionic liquids, which usually
contain organic cations. These liquids exhibit unusual properties as solvents.

Nomenclature
The name of a salt starts with the name of the cation (e.g., sodium or ammonium) followed by the name of the anion (e.g., chloride
or acetate). Salts are often referred to only by the name of the cation (e.g., sodium salt or ammonium salt) or by the name of the anion
(e.g., chloride salt or acetate salt).

Common salt-forming cations include:

Ammonium NH+4
Calcium Ca2+
Iron Fe2+ and Fe3+
Magnesium Mg2+
Potassium K+
Pyridinium C5H5NH+
Quaternary ammonium NR+4, R being an alkyl group or an aryl group
Sodium Na+
Copper Cu2+

Common salt-forming anions (parent acids in parentheses where available) include:

Acetate CH3COO− (acetic acid)
Carbonate CO2−3 (carbonic acid)
Chloride Cl− (hydrochloric acid)
Citrate HOC(COO−)(CH2COO−)2 (citric acid)
Cyanide C≡N− (hydrocyanic acid)
Fluoride F− (hydrofluoric acid)
Nitrate NO−3 (nitric acid)
Nitrite NO−2 (nitrous acid)
Oxide O2−
Phosphate PO3−4 (phosphoric acid)
Sulfate SO2−4 (sulfuric acid)
Salts with varying number of hydrogen atoms, with respect to the parent acid, replaced by cations can be referred to as monobasic,
dibasic or tribasic salts (polybasic salts refer to those with more than one hydrogen atom replaced):

Sodium phosphate monobasic (NaH2PO4)

Sodium phosphate dibasic (Na2HPO4)
Sodium phosphate tribasic (Na3PO4)

Formation
Salts are formed by a chemical reaction between:

A base and an acid, e.g., NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl

A metal and an acid, e.g., Mg + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2
A metal and a non-metal, e.g., Ca + Cl2 → CaCl2
A base and an acid anhydride, e.g., 2 NaOH + Cl2O → 2 NaClO + H2O
An acid and a base anhydride, e.g., 2 HNO3 + Na2O → 2 NaNO3 + H2O
Salts can also form if solutions of different salts are mixed, their ions recombine, and the new salt is insoluble and precipitates (see:
solubility equilibrium), for example:
Pb(NO3)2 + Na2SO4 → PbSO4↓ + 2 NaNO3

Strong salt
Strong salts or strong electrolyte salts are chemical salts composed of strong electrolytes. These ionic compounds dissociate
completely in water. They are generally odourless and nonvolatile.

Strong salts start with Na__, K__, NH4__, or they end with __NO3, __ClO4, or __CH3COO. Most group 1 and 2 metals form strong salts.
Strong salts are especially useful when creating conductive compounds as their constituent ions allow for greater conductivity.
Weak salts
Weak salts or "weak electrolyte salts" are, as the name suggests, composed of weak electrolytes. They are generally more volatile
than strong salts. They may be similar in odor to the acid or base they are derived from. For example, sodium acetate, NaCH 3COO,
smells similar to acetic acid CH3COOH.

SALT (CHEMISTRY) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)

ACID, BASES AND SALT IN THE HOUSEHOLD

A chemical base (or alkaline) is a substance that accepts H+ or hydrogen ions. It dissociates in water and is a good conductor of
electricity. A base turns litmus paper blue, which indicates its alkalinity. An acid is a compound that dissolves in water to release
hydrogen ions. Acids and bases are generally chemically active in that they can react with many other substances. As a result, they are
commonly found in various household applications, especially as cleaners and in the kitchen.

Baking Soda
Baking soda is the common name for sodium bicarbonate, known chemically as NaHCO3. It is also called bicarbonate of soda, cooking
soda and bread soda. Baking soda is produced by the reaction of carbon dioxide, ammonia, sodium chloride (salt) and calcium
carbonate in water. Naturally occurring deposits of the compound are mined from geological formations of the Eocene age
(approximately 48 million years ago). The Green River Formation (Piceance Basin) in Colorado is a major source of sodium bicarbonate.
Baking soda is primarily used for baking. It reacts with other ingredients to release carbon dioxide, which helps the dough rise. A
diluted solution of household baking soda can treat heartburn and indigestion. It functions as a mouthwash, treats gum diseases and
relieves insect bites. A hydrogen peroxide and sodium bicarbonate paste can be used as an alternative to commercial toothpaste.
Baking soda is an effective cleaning agent and removes heavy stains (wine, tea and coffee) from cups and fabric.

Diluted Soaps
Potassium or sodium hydroxide (KOH or NaOH) react with triglycerides to form soap (the process is called saponification, the reaction
of a strong alkali with fats and oils). Soap is alkaline in nature and is an effective cleansing agent. It is a useful mild antiseptic and can
treat heavy metal poisoning. A diluted solution of soap makes an effective insecticide when sprayed on garden plants.

Household Ammonia
Household ammonia (ammonium hydroxide) is a common base, and is an effective tarnish and stain remover. It is used to clean gold
and silver jewelry, porcelain, glass, stainless steel, brassware and a variety of stains (blood, perspiration, red wine stains and pen
markings).
Household Vinegars
Vinegar is a common household acid that is made from fermented ethanol, acetic acid and small amounts of citric acid and tartaric
acid. There are various varieties of vinegar, including malt, wine, apple cider, palm, date, balsamic and honey vinegar. Vinegar is
commonly used in the preparation of pickles, vinaigrettes, salad dressings and sushi rice and flavorings. White vinegar is a common
cleaning agent, and is used to remove tough deposits from coffee makers, glass and other smooth surfaces. It is also effective against
lawn weeds.

Citric Acid
Citric acid is used as an additive in foods, as a preservative and an effective cleaning agent. It is naturally found in certain fruits, such
as oranges and lemons.

List of Household Bases & Acids from https://sciencing.com/list-household-bases-acids-7228196.html

The reaction of an acid with a base to produce only salt and water is called a neutralization reaction.

Acids
Acids are sour in taste.

If hydronium ions are found in a solution, the solution is acidic in nature. Hydronium ions are the only positively-charged ions (cations)
formed when an acid dissolves in water. All the properties of an acid are due to the presence of these ions. The chemical formula of
an hydronium ion is H3O1+.

An acid is known as a 'proton donor'.

Examples of Acids

Aqua Regia contains concentrated Nitric acid and concentrated Hydrochloric acid in the ratio 1:3. Aqua Regia means 'Royal Water' in
Latin. It is used to dissolve noble metals like gold and platinum.

Milk contains lactic acid. Lactic acid is named after the Latin word 'lac', which means milk.

Vinegar is very dilute acetic acid. The vinegar used in cooking contains approximately 4% of acetic acid. The chemical formula of acetic
acid is CH3COOH.

Sulfuric acid is used in the manufacture of many car batteries. It is also known as 'Oil of Vitriol'. The chemical formula of Sulfuric acid
is H2SO4.
Carbonic acid is responsible for the 'fizz' in soft drinks. The carbonic acid decomposes into Carbon dioxide bubbles. The chemical
formula of Carbonic acid is H2CO3.

Ascorbic acid is the chemical name of Vitamin C. Deficiency of Vitamin C in the body may result in a disease known as scurvy. The
chemical formula of ascorbic acid is C6H8O6.

Bases
Bases are bitter in taste and soapy to touch.

If hydroxyl ions are found in a solution, the solution is basic in nature. Hydroxyl ions are the only negatively-charged ions (anions)
formed when a base dissolves in water. All the properties of a base are due to the presence of these ions. The chemical formula of an
hydroxyl ion is OH1-.

A base is known as a 'proton acceptor'.

Examples of Bases

Antacids help to neutralize the acidity (of hydrochloric acid) in the stomach. They chiefly contain two bases, namely Magnesium
hydroxide and Aluminum hydroxide. The chemical formula of Magnesium hydroxide and Aluminum hydroxide is Mg(OH)2 and Al(OH)3
respectively.

Sodium hydroxide is also known as 'Caustic Soda'. Its chemical formula is NaOH.

Potassium hydroxide is also known as 'Caustic Potash'. It is used in the manufacture of alkaline batteries. Its chemical formula is KOH.

Ammonia is a basic gas which is used in the manufacture of fertilizers such as Urea, Ammonium nitrate, and Ammonium sulfate.
Ammonia is produced for commercial purposes by the Haber's Process. When dissolved in water, Ammonia forms a base known as
Ammonium hydroxide. The chemical formula of Ammonia is NH3.

Salts
A salt is defined as a compound formed by the complete or incomplete replacement of the hydrogen ion of an acid by a basic radical.

A normal salt is formed by the complete replacement of the hydrogen ion of an acid by a basic radical whereas an acid salt is formed
by the incomplete replacement of the hydrogen ion of an acid by a basic radical.
Examples of Salts

Sodium sulfate is a normal salt whereas Sodium bisulfate is an acid salt.

Sodium sulfide is soluble in water whereas Copper carbonate, Lead chloride, and Barium sulfate are insoluble in water.

Sodium carbonate is used in the manufacture of detergents and glass.

Zinc sulfide is insoluble in water whereas Potassium phosphate, Ammonium carbonate, and Barium chloride are soluble in water.

Ammonium nitrate is used in the manufacture of fertilizers.

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