Journal of
Materials Chemistry A
COMMUNICATION
Universal dispersion of single-walled carbon nanotubes
in the liquid phase inspired by Maya Blue†
Cite this: J. Mater. Chem. A, 2013, 1,
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10626
Junping Zhang* and Bucheng Li
Received 13th June 2013
Accepted 24th July 2013
DOI: 10.1039/c3ta12284k
www.rsc.org/MaterialsA
Universal dispersion of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) in
the liquid phase using Laponite RD (LRD) is achieved via a simple
grinding–ultrasonication procedure inspired by Maya Blue. The
marriage between SWNTs and water-soluble LRD via van der Waals
interactions and electron donating–accepting interactions generates
a water-dispersible hybrid, which we term LRD/SWNTs. The
concentration of LRD and hand-grinding play important roles in
effectively dispersing SWNTs. The LRD/SWNT aqueous dispersion
features excellent stability (over 6 months without any sediment)
and a high SWNT concentration of 1.83 mg mL 1, which is obviously
superior to the frequently used surfactants and other materials
for noncovalent dispersion of carbon nanotubes. Moreover, the
LRD/SWNT aqueous dispersion is miscible with and stable in the
other common organic solvents, e.g., methanol, DMF and DMSO.
Introduction
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have drawn much attention since
their discovery in 1991 owing to their unique electronic and
mechanical properties.1–3 However, CNTs tend to form entan-
gled bundles and aggregates in solution, especially in aqueous
solution, because of strong van der Waals forces.3,4 Thus, stable
dispersion of CNTs is a major challenge but a prerequisite for
many of their potential applications such as high performance
polymer/CNT nanocomposites, conductive plastics or adhe-
sives, electronics, sensors and actuators.5–8
In general, CNTs are dispersed in solution by two ways:
chemical modication and noncovalent functionalization.9,10
Chemical modication by introducing appropriate solubiliza-
tion groups (such as –COOH, –OH and –NH2) or graing poly-
mers on to the surface defects or sp2 sidewalls of CNTs would
Center of Eco-material and Green Chemistry, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, 730000, P. R. China. E-mail: jpzhang@licp.
cas.cn; Tel: +86 931 4968251
† Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available: SWNT concentration,
viscosity, TEM images, IR spectra and digital images. See DOI: 10.1039/c3ta12284k
10626 | J. Mater. Chem. A, 2013, 1, 10626–10630
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inevitably damage the electronic structure, and then their
inherent functionalities.11–13 Alternatively, noncovalent func-
tionalization is proved to be a powerful strategy for stabilizing
CNTs in aqueous solution while maintaining the intact elec-
tronic structure.3,14,15 Pyrene-containing compounds,16 surfac-
tants17,18 (e.g., sodium dodecyl benzenosulfonate (SDBS),
sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) and Pluronic F-127), bio-
macromolecules19–23 (e.g., chitosan, peptides and DNA) and
synthetic polymers24,25 (e.g., poly(acrylic acid) and poly(N-iso-
propylacrylamide)) have been successfully used for noncovalent
dispersion of CNTs. The pioneering work on dispersing CNTs is
encouraging but has some limitations.5 For example, each
modication is specic of the solvent (polar/apolar, hydro-
philic/hydrophobic) and the effectiveness of dispersants for
CNTs remains to be improved.
In fact, dispersion and/or solubility issues are among the
most frequently encountered problems for chemical experi-
mentalists owing to the big difference in polarity between
the solid and liquid phase. Recently, Kynast et al. found that the
apolar dye indigo, which is not normally encountered in
aqueous solution owing to the intra- and intermolecular
hydrogen bonds, can be solubilized in the aqueous phase by the
aid of nanoscopic clay shuttles.26 Also, montmorillonite clay has
an affinity for single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) and
could improve dispersibility of SWNTs.27
Here, inspired by the ancient Maya Blue, we present the
effective dispersion of SWNTs in aqueous solution using a
commercially available clay mineral, Laponite RD (LRD). Maya
Blue, a pigment used by Mayas in the Yucatan, is an inorganic/
organic hybrid composed of rodlike clay mineral palygorskite
and indigo.28–30 Typically, Maya Blue pigments are prepared by
dry mixing and grinding palygorskite with indigo, and then
dispersed with deionized H2O and heated up to 190  C for a
period of time.29 LRD, Na0.7[Mg5.5Li0.3Si8O20(OH)4](H2O)n, is a
synthetic hectorite-type clay mineral consisting of relatively
mono-dispersed and well-dened platelets with a diameter of
25–30 nm and a thickness of approximately 1 nm.31 LRD is
soluble in aqueous solution at concentrations below 5 wt% with
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Communication Journal of Materials Chemistry A

negative face charges and positive edge charges on the platelets.
The marriage between SWNTs and LRD generates a water-
dispersible hybrid, which we term LRD/SWNTs. The LRD/SWNT
hybrids feature high dispersion stability in water (over 6 months
without any sediment) with a high SWNT concentration of 1.83
mg mL 1. Moreover, the LRD/SWNT aqueous dispersion is
stable in the other organic liquids, e.g., methanol, DMF and
DMSO. The concentration of LRD and hand-grinding play
crucial roles in dispersing SWNTs.
Experimental section
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The micrographs of the samples were taken using a eld
emission transmission electron microscope (TEM, JEM-1200EX,
FEI). A drop of the LRD-SWNT aqueous dispersion was put on a
copper microgrid and dried in the open atmosphere. FTIR
spectra of samples were recorded on a Thermo Nicolet NEXUS
TM spectrophotometer using KBr pellets.
Results and discussion
The LRD/SWNT hybrids were prepared simply by hand-grinding
the physical mixture of LRD and SWNT powders with an

appropriate ratio in a mortar, and then ultrasonicating in water

Materials for a period of time (Fig. 1a). Solid-state grinding is a very
Pristine SWNTs (purity > 90%, diameter < 2 nm) prepared using important procedure for preparing Maya Blue and other func-
the chemical vapor deposition method were purchased from tional materials by promoting the interactions between guest
Shenzhen Nanotech Port Co., Ltd (China). The SWNTs were and host species.32–35 Upon grinding for a few minutes, the
used without further purication in order to keep their mixture of white LRD and black SWNTs becomes a homoge-
intact electronic structure. LRD was supplied by Southern Clay neous black powder. Such a color change implies interaction
Products, Inc. Deionized water was used for preparing the between LRD and SWNTs. Grinding of SWNTs in the presence
LRD/SWNT aqueous dispersion. Other reagents used were all of of LRD surprisingly brings the hydrophobic SWNTs (Fig. 1b)
analytical grade. into aqueous solution (Fig. 1c). The interaction between SWNTs
and LRD together with the excellent solubility of LRD in water
Preparation of LRD/SWNT aqueous dispersion should be responsible for the transportation of SWNTs into
aqueous solution. Once encountered with water, the stacked
The LRD/SWNT hybrids were prepared according to the
platelets of LRD automatically exfoliate into individual platelets
following procedure. Typically, 200 mg of LRD powder was
mixed with 20 mg of SWNTs and hand-ground for 5 min to give
a homogeneous mixture. During grinding, the powder adhered
to the mortar and pestle surfaces. The ne powder was scraped
off with a spatula and ground again. The process was repeated
several times until a homogeneous black powder was formed.
The mixture was then dispersed in 10 mL of deionized water in
a 20 mL vial and stirred magnetically for 10 min, followed by
ultrasonication for 30 min at 25  C. The stock LRD/SWNT
dispersion was then obtained by centrifugating the mixture at
5000 rpm for 30 min to remove any aggregates. Working
dispersions for further analysis were prepared by diluting the
stock dispersion with water or other organic solvents. For
comparison, SDS and SDBS of various concentrations were also
used for dispersing SWNTs according to the same procedure.

Characterization
To evaluate the concentration of SWNTs in the liquid phase, the
nal solutions were analyzed by measuring the absorbance
at 600 nm using a UV-vis spectrophotometer (Specord 200,
Analytik Jena AG). At this wavelength, LRD does not interfere
with the absorbance of SWNTs (Fig. S1†). The corresponding
LRD solution was used as the blank. The relationship between
the concentration of SWNTs in the liquid phase and the
absorbance at 600 nm can be seen from the standard curve
(Fig. S2†). The standard curve was obtained according to the Fig. 1 (a) Schematic illustration of solid LRD, SWNT bundles and homogeneous
following procedure. First, the stock LRD/SWNT dispersion was dispersion of LRD/SWNTs in aqueous solution. Photographic images of (b) pristine
obtained by centrifugation at 5000 rpm for 30 min to remove SWNTs in water, (c) LRD/SWNT hybrid of various concentrations in water (from
left to right: 0.007, 0.018, 0.037, 0.092, 0.366 and 1.83 mg mL 1 SWNTs), SWNTs
any aggregates. Then, working dispersions for preparing the
modified with (d) SDBS (0.04 mg mL 1 SWNTs in 4 mg mL 1 SDBS) and (e) SDS
standard curve were prepared by diluting the stock dispersion (0.02 mg mL 1 SWNTs in 4 mg mL 1 SDS) in water. (f) Optical micrograph of
with water. The viscosity of the samples was measured using a (b). (g) Optical micrograph of (c, 1.83 mg mL 1 SWNTs). (h) TEM image of (c,
rheometer (Anton Paar Physica, MCR301) at 25  C and 30 rpm. 0.366 mg mL 1 SWNTs).

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via electrostatic interaction,36 which contributes to the excellent
stability of the LRD/SWNT aqueous dispersion. The subsequent
ultrasonication helps to disintegrate and disperse the agglom-
erated LRD/SWNT hybrid formed during hand-grinding, and
then further enhances the concentration of SWNTs in the
aqueous solution. The performance of LRD in dispersing
SWNTs is obviously superior to the frequently used surfactants,
e.g., SDBS and SDS (Fig. 1d and e, S3 and S4†), and other
materials for noncovalent dispersion of CNTs. The aggregates of
pristine SWNTs can be seen clearly via an optical microscope
and a TEM (Fig. 1f and S5b†). Whereas a well-dispersed LRD/
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SWNT hybrid can be seen via the TEM (Fig. 1h and S5c†) and no
aggregate of SWNTs was detected by the optical microscope
(Fig. 1g).
The concentration of LRD in the aqueous solution has a
predominant inuence on the dispersibility of SWNTs (Fig. 2a).
The concentration of SWNTs in the aqueous phase was deter-
mined according to their absorbance at 600 nm using a UV-vis
spectrophotometer (Fig. S1 and S2†). There is a critical
concentration of 20 mg mL 1 LRD for effectively dispersing
SWNTs. Below the critical concentration, the concentration of
SWNTs in the aqueous solution increases slowly with increasing
the LRD concentration and remains less than 0.2 mg mL 1. The
concentration of SWNTs suddenly increases to 1.83 mg mL 1
with further increasing the LRD concentration to 20 mg mL 1.
Fig. 2 Variation of concentration and percentage of dispersed SWNTs in
aqueous solution with (a) concentration of LRD (2 mg mL 1 of SWNTs) and (b)
dosage of SWNTs (20 mg mL 1 of LRD). The inset in (a) is the variation of SWNT
concentration with LRD concentration below 15 mg mL 1. The mixture of SWNTs
and LRD was ground for 5 min and ultrasonicated for 30 min, and then centri-
fuged at 5000 rpm for 30 min.
10628 | J. Mater. Chem. A, 2013, 1, 10626–10630
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Communication
More than 90% of SWNTs are successfully transported into the
aqueous phase. LRD is capable of adsorbing neutral organic
molecules and eventually brings them into aqueous solution.26
For example, pyrene could be adsorbed onto LRD by van der
Waals interactions with the siloxane planes of LRD and by the
electron accepting ability of the lateral surface of LRD.37,38 As is
well known, pyrene-containing compounds are frequently used
for noncovalent functionalization of the graphitic surface of
CNTs via p–p stacking interactions, and then bring them into
the aqueous phase.16,39 Thus, SWNTs may interact with LRD
according to the same mechanism like the adsorption of pyrene
onto LRD since pyrene and SWNTs have a similar well-ordered
benzene ring array. The shi of the FTIR absorption band of
LRD from 3684.1 cm 1 (stretching vibration of MgO–H) to
3675.8 cm 1 and the broadening of the absorption band of LRD
at 3421.0 cm 1 (stretching vibration of SiO–H) support the
proposed mechanism (Fig. S6†).37,40 Sufficient LRD is needed to
fully modify the surface of SWNTs, and then disperses them
well in water. The increase in the viscosity of the LRD/SWNT
aqueous dispersion with increasing LRD concentration may
also contribute to the high concentration of SWNTs (Fig. S7†).
The dispersed SWNTs could slightly increase the viscosity of the
aqueous dispersion.
With a LRD concentration of 20 mg mL 1, SWNTs of various
dosages can be dispersed very well in aqueous solution (Fig. 2b).
The concentration of SWNTs increases linearly and more than
90% of SWNTs are transported into aqueous solution with
increasing dosage of SWNTs when the dosage is not more than
2 mg mL 1. The SWNT concentration reaches 2.18 mg mL 1
with further increasing the SWNT dosage to 4 mg mL 1, but the
percentage of dispersed SWNTs drops to 54.5%.
Hand-grinding is another important factor besides the
concentration of LRD in dispersing SWNTs (Fig. 3). Solid-state
grinding could enhance the interaction between LRD and
SWNTs. In addition, grinding could generate more electron
acceptor sites on LRD,37 which also facilitates the modication
of SWNTs with LRD. Grinding is necessary to fabricate a LRD/
SWNT hybrid dispersible in water. Without grinding, the
concentration of SWNTs is only 0.06 mg mL 1. Two minutes of
Fig. 3 Variation of concentration of dispersed SWNTs in aqueous solution with
grinding time. The mixture of 20 mg of SWNTs and 200 mg of LRD was ground
and ultrasonicated for 30 min, and then centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 30 min.
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hand-grinding surprisingly increases the concentration of
SWNTs to 1.65 mg mL 1. The concentration further increases to
1.83 mg mL 1 with increasing the grinding time to 5 min.
However, beyond our expectation, the concentration of SWNTs
sharply decreases to 0.09 mg mL 1 with prolonging the
grinding time to 20 min. Intensive grinding for a long period of
time damages the platelets of LRD, which is proven by the
evident decrease in the viscosity of the LRD/SWNT aqueous
dispersion from 1260 mPa s to 120 mPa s aer 20 min of
grinding (Fig. S8†). This phenomenon indicates that the
viscosity of the LRD/SWNT dispersion has a great inuence on
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the dispersibility of SWNTs.
The LRD/SWNT hybrid is very hydrophilic and disperses very
well in water. Different from the intensive ultrasonication
frequently used in noncovalent functionalization of CNTs, the
LRD/SWNT hybrid disperses very well (1.65 mg mL 1) in water
without ultrasonication (Fig. S9†), indicating the very high
hydrophilicity of the hybrid. Whereas, ultrasonication also
contributes to improve the dispersibility of the LRD/SWNT
hybrid in aqueous solution by disintegrating and dispersing the
agglomerated LRD/SWNT hybrid formed during grinding.
The LRD/SWNT aqueous dispersion is very stable. Centrifu-
gation at 10 000 rpm for 30 min has no inuence on its stability
(Fig. S10a†). The concentration of SWNTs is still as high as 1.25
mg mL 1 aer increasing the centrifugation speed to 15 000
rpm. The inuence of 2 h of centrifugation at 5000 rpm on the
concentration of SWNTs is negligible (Fig. S10b†). In addition,
no sediment can be seen aer being le to stand under
ambient conditions for over 6 months. The LRD/SWNT
aqueous dispersion is also resistant to electrolyte of moderate
concentration (Fig. S11†). The concentration of SWNTs is
1.68 mg mL 1 in 10 mM NaCl solution.
The LRD/SWNT aqueous dispersion is miscible with and
stable in the other common organic solvents, e.g., methanol,
DMF and DMSO (Fig. 4). Most of the reported methods for
Fig. 4 Variation of concentration of SWNTs with volume fraction of organic
solvents. The LRD/SWNT aqueous dispersion (prepared using the mixture of 20
mg of SWNTs and 200 mg of LRD, ground for 5 min and ultrasonicated for 30 min,
and then centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 30 min) was diluted with methanol, DMF or
DMSO, ultrasonicated for 5 min and centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 30 min before
tests. The theoretical concentration of SWNTs after dilution was also shown
(dotted line) for comparison. Photographic images of LRD/SWNTs in methanol
(0.007, 0.033 and 0.333 mg mL 1 SWNTs), DMF (0.004, 0.020 and 0.204 mg mL 1
SWNTs) and DMSO (0.004, 0.021 and 0.216 mg mL 1 SWNTs).
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noncovalent functionalization of CNTs are specic of the
solvent, thus limiting their wide applications.5 For example,
CNTs modied with chitosan are dispersible in acidic aqueous
solution10 but will quickly precipitate once they come into
contact with organic solvents. The concentration of SWNTs
aer dilution with methanol is very close to the theoretical
concentration, indicating the very high stability of the LRD/
SWNT aqueous dispersion in methanol. The concentration of
SWNTs only slightly decreases from 0.368 mg mL 1 (the theo-
retical concentration) to 0.333 mg mL 1 when the liquid phase
is composed of 80% of methanol. The LRD/SWNT aqueous
dispersion could withstand further dilution with methanol even
when the liquid phase is composed of 98% (0.033 mg mL 1
SWNTs) or 99.6% (0.007 mg mL 1 SWNTs) methanol. DMF and
DMSO have more inuence on the stability of the LRD/SWNT
hybrid compared with methanol, but the concentration of
SWNTs is still in a reasonable range.
We also found that bringing hydrophobic materials into
aqueous solution is a universal feature of LRD. Besides SWNTs,
LRD can also disperse multi-walled carbon nanotubes and oil-
soluble dyes e.g., Sudan I and Oil Red O, very well in aqueous
solution according to the same grinding–ultrasonication
procedure (Fig. S12†).
Conclusions
In summary, we fabricated a water-dispersible LRD/SWNT
hybrid using a simple grinding–ultrasonication procedure
inspired by Maya Blue. The concentration of LRD and hand-
grinding play important roles in effectively dispersing SWNTs.
The LRD/SWNT aqueous dispersion features high stability and
a high SWNT concentration. Moreover, the LRD/SWNT aqueous
dispersion is miscible with and stable in the other common
organic solvents. We believe that the LRD/SWNT hybrid will
nd applications in various elds, such as the reinforcement of
polymers and hydrogels. In addition, LRD may nd applications
in transporting other hydrophobic materials, e.g., graphene and
quantum dots, into aqueous solution via a similar procedure.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful for nancial support from the “Hundred Talents
Program” of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
Notes and references
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