You are on page 1of 3

Lecture Notes

Module 1-1
Approaches to the Study of the History of Science

 There is a need to study science and technology vis-à-vis society through a critical
historical perspective. Science and technology have positive contributions to the
development of humankind. Scientific knowledge and technological know how have
facilitated progress in all aspects of human existence. These have helped human
societies solve their many problems. However, even as great benefits have been
brought by science and technology, they also inflicted some costs. While advances in
telecommunications, transport and information technology, medical sciences and
technology, and agricultural and industrial technologies have led to progress, these have
also resulted to environmental degradation and the breakdown of social institutions,
among others.
 Science refers to the body of knowledge that has been produced through and validated
by systematic processes of inquiry. It also refers to that dynamic, cumulative system of
verifiable concepts, principles, methods, laws, theories and processes which seek to
describe, understand, and predict natural phenomena (Posadas, 1982). In other words,
scientific knowledge is a product of discovery.
o When we talk of science in its generic meaning, most people usually refer to the
natural and physical sciences, which include biology, physics, chemistry and
mathematics, and their allied disciplines
 Technology is the translation of scientific knowledge into machines, tools, designs,
methods and processes that are used by human beings in their practical endeavors. It
is that dynamic cumulative system of reproducible methods, techniques, and processes
which may be derived from empirical know-how or scientific knowledge and which are
used by human societies for the production, improvement, and distribution of goods and
services as well as the satisfaction of other material needs (Posadas, 1982). Thus,
invention leads to technology, manifested through new and improved tools, or
“hardware,” and better means of doing things, or “software.”
 As Posadas (1982) posits, science focuses on “know-why” and technology on “know-
how.” Scientific activity enables the production of knowledge that answers questions
about the natural world. This, in turn, is used by other scientists, or as input to the
development of technologies. On the other hand, technological activity leads to products
and processes that are commercially available to society at large. Thus, even as there
are important differences between science and technology, there are also important
linkages between them. Developments in science are used in the development of
technology. On the other hand, the creation of new machines and methods facilitate the
discovery of knowledge about the natural world, as seen for example in the invention of
advanced laboratory equipment and techniques that enable the research work of
scientists.
 Scientists are also human beings who work in the context of the problems that exist in
their societies and communities. Thus, they are influenced by the manner by which they
perceive such problems as well as the manner by which they respond to such problems.
The type of research activity which a scientist does could be classified according to how
they engage societal problems and issues.
o Basic research, or fundamental research—refers to a research activity where
the goal is to discover knowledge for its own sake, without considering its
application to societal problems.
o Applied research—refers to a research activity where the objective is to
discover knowledge which has direct implications on some specific and socially
relevant objective.
o Mission-oriented research—refers to an integrated approach consisting of basic
and applied researches with a focus on the development of strategies that are
relevant to a specific set of well-defined social, economic, political, or strategic
goals.
 There are two main approaches to the study of the history of science— internalist and
externalist.
o Internalist approach—Science is autonomous and independent from the forces
of society, in that it has an internal logic of its own. Scientific knowledge is an
outcome of the work of scientists working independently to satisfy their natural
curiosity. Scientists, in this view, are considered as individuals pursuing research
for its own sake, and not for its social purpose.
o Externalist approach—Science and technology develop within a societal
context. As such, they are shaped by and respond to the social, economic,
political and ideological forces in society. There are two views in this approach.
 Deterministic view—there is only one force that acts as the main driver for
the development of science.
 Non-deterministic view—a more holistic view wherein science develops
as an outcome of the complex interplay of social, economic, political and
ideological forces.
 There are four different frameworks in analyzing and interpreting the relationships
between science, technology and society.
o Instrumentalism—this considers technology as merely a tool or instrument for
humans to achieve certain goals or to meet certain needs. In this framework,
technologies are considered neutral and without inherent morality. Their use is
what determines their morality. For example, a gun is just a tool. It has no
inherent moral property. If it is used for murder, then it is bad. On the other hand,
if it is used to save lives, then it is good. In this framework, the following
questions are relevant in analyzing the relationship of technology to society:
 Does the technology have a goal acceptable to human beings?
 Can the technology be used?
 Is the technology effective in achieving the goal for which it was
designed?
o Socio-determinism or contextualism—this argues that technologies are not
neutral but are expressions of particular social, political and cultural systems of
values that exist in the society within which the technologies emerge. Thus,
technologies can only be understood within such societal context. The key
questions that are relevant in this framework are the following:
 What are the conditions or problems that led to the development of the
technology?
 Who are the actors involved in the development of the technology
(inventors, scientists, funders, support institutions) and what are their
agenda?
 What are the opposing voices, if any? Were they given opportunity to
articulate their views? If so, how did this affect the development of the
technology?
o Techno-determinism—this posits that technology, as social products, eventually
become independent of the forces that influenced its development. In fact,
technology could now be a force that can influence societal development. This
could be facilitated by the fact that technology acts as input to the production
process. One line of argument in this view is the fear that human beings might
lose control of technology, and that technology might even reshape human
behavior, by rigidly specifying the parameters for their effective use. The latter
can be seen when human beings are “forced” to acquire skills that could enable
them to use a given technology. Some examples of these include computer
literacy to be able to use computers; or advanced degrees, special training and
licensing to be able to use sophisticated laboratory equipment. The key
questions relevant in using this framework are the following:
 In what ways are the technology used? Is it to further scientific
knowledge, to aid human beings in their activities, or to facilitate the
development process?
 Is there any evidence that the technology has reshaped, or may reshape
human behavior?
 Are there rigid requirements for one to be able to use the technology? If
so, what are these? What are the impacts of these on social relations?
o Soft-determinism—this argues that not all technologies are centralized mega-
systems that could control the behavior of human beings. While it agrees to the
claim that the morality of the technology is shaped by its social context, it also
adheres to the belief that that technology can only condition, and not force,
society to assume a particular order or social arrangement. The key questions
when using this framework are the following:
 What are the possible impacts of the technology on society in terms
social, cultural, and economic aspects?
 Are these impacts positive or negative?
 Are they significant enough to change or alter the social, cultural, and
economic structures of society?

You might also like