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• Reference profile, Rf
–It is the profile to which the irregularities of the surface is
referred to. it passes through the highest point of the actual
profile.
• Datum profile, Df
–It is the profile, parallel to the reference profile .it passes
through the lowest point B of the actual profile
• Mean Profile, Mf
– It is that profile, within the sampling length chosen (L)
such that the sum of the material-filled areas enclosed
above it by the actual profile is equal to the sum of the
material void area enclosed below it by the profile.
• Peak to valley height, Rt
– It is the distance from the datum profile to the reference
profile.
• Mean roughness index, Ra
– It is the arithmetic mean of the absolute value of the
highest hi between the actual and mean profile.
x=L
– Ra = 1/L ∫x=0 |hi| dx , where L is sampling length
Surface Roughness expected from manufacturing processes
Surface Roughness expected from manufacturing processes
Measurement of roughness
The roughness may be measured, using any of the following :
1. Straight edge
2. Surface gauge
3. Optical flat
4. Tool marker’s microscope
5. Profilometer
6. Profilograph
7. Talysurf
Surface gauge
Tool marker’s microscope
Profilometer
Talysurf
INDICATION OF SURFACE TEXTURE
Basic symbol : only be used alone when its meaning is explained by a note
Indication of Surface Roughness
This symbol may also be used in a drawing, relating to a production process , to indicate that
a surface is to be left in the state ,resulting from a preceding manufacturing process,
whether this state was achieved by removal of material or otherwise
Position of the Specifications of the Surface Texture in the Symbol - The
specifications Of surface texture shall be placed relative to the symbol as
shown in figure.
symbol Interpretation
Parallel to the plane of projection
of the view in which the symbol is used
Multidirectional
Parallel-line Method:
It is used for developing prisms and single curved surfaces like
cylinders, in which all the edges/generation of lateral surfaces
are parallel in each other.
Radial-line Method:
It is employed for pyramids and single curved surfaces like cones in
which the apex is taken as centre and the slant edge or generator as
radius of its development.
Triangulation Method:
It is used for developing transition pieces.
Approximate Method:
It is employed for double curved surfaces like spheres, as they are
theoretically not possible to develop. The surface of the sphere is
developed by approximate method. When the surface is cut by a
series of cutting planes, the cut surfaces is called a zone.
P 1. A hexagonal prism, edge of base 20 mm and axis 50 mm
long, rests with its base on H.P such that one of its rectangular
faces is parallel to V.P. It is cut by a plane perpendicular to V.P,
inclined at 45o to H.P and passing through the right corner of
the top face of the prism. Draw the sectional top view and
develop the lateral surface of the truncated prism.
P2. A cone of base 50 mm diameter and height 65 mm rests
with its base on H.P. A section plane perpendicular to V.P
and inclined at 30o to H.P bisects the axis of the cone. Draw
the development of the lateral surface of the truncated cone.
Toggle Bolt
A straight shank wood screw with a bugle head. Commonly made with a Phillips or square drive 2 1/2" of longer. Coated
to prevent rusting.
Wood Screws
A tapered screw with a round, oval, or flat head. The threaded portion of the screw is tapered with a very coarse thread
and cuts its own thread as it is turned into the wood. Shown L-R oval head, round head, flat head Phillips, and flat head
slotted.
Machine Screw
The head is slotted for a screwdriver and may be either round of flat. Typical sizes 4-12.
Plow Bolt
The bolt has a square or hex head with a tapered wood screw on the other end. Common sizes 1/4 to 1/2 in diameter, 2"
to 12" long. Also called a Lag Screw.
Carriage Bolt
It resembles a short bolt with a hexagon head with either coarse, fine, or metric thread. Term describes machine bolts and
machine screws.
Eye Bolt
It has an eye on one end and coarse or fine threads on the other.
Grade 2 Bolt
Soft bolt commonly used for landscape applications and other applications where strength is not important.
Grade 5 Bolt
Mildly hardened bolt used commonly in machinery and equipment applications. Three markings on the head.
Grade 8 Bolt
Hardened bolt used where high tensile strength is required. 6 markings on the head.
Hex Nut
Used where hand tightening (no wrench) is desired such as inspection covers.
Square Nut
Used on farm implements with carriage bolts, machine bolts, stoves bolts and plow bolts.
Self-Locking Nut
When tightened on a bolt the scored threads bite into the threads of the bolt preventing it from backing off.
Castellated Hex Nut
Used with a cotter pin to prevent loosening or tightening. Top of the nut is smaller in diameter than the base.
Cap Nut
It differs from the castellated nut in that there is no stepped-in castle-like top.
Finishing Washer
This is a chrome plated countersunk washer used with oval head wood or metal screws.
Malleable Iron Washer
Used to prevent the nut from rubbing and becoming imbedded in the bolted material. Also called a Cut Washer.
Fender Washers
The large holes are used for aligning or adjusting for proper fit.
Lock Washer
When screwed into a set collar the cup point makes an indentation in the shaft preventing the collar from vibrating loose.
Sheet Metal Screws
The head is similar to the Phillips but having a six point star shaped opening in the center of the head rather than a four
point star.
Self Tapping Screws
Screw has a sharp point with coarse threads that make their own threads when screwed into a pre-drilled hole that is
smaller than the diameter of the screw.
Self Drilling Screws
All Are Phillips Except the Hex Wafer Head. Used to fasten drywall. Bugle shaped flat head.
Screw Hook
Can be screw into wood walls or concrete or masonry when pre-drilled and a plastic or lead anchor is used.
Duplex-Head Nail
The point is sharp, and there are two heads, one above the other, to make removal easy. Common sizes 6d, 8d, 16d.
Box Nail
Roughly speaking, d equals 1/4 inch in length, but this is not constant. The shank is smaller in diameter than the common
nail to prevent splitting of the wood. Common sizes 2d to 16d
Common Nail
Roughly speaking, d equals 1/4 inch in length, but this is not constant. The shank is larger in diameter than the box nail
making the nail less likely to bend. Common sizes 2d – 20d. Sizes larger then 20d are often called spikes.
Finish Nail
The sizes range from 2d to 20d. The nail is designed to be counter sunk and the hole filled.
Galvanized Nail
Common, box, and finish nails are available for exterior use with a galvanized coating. The coating may be hot dipped
(thicker) or electro-plated (EG).
Spiral Shank Nails
Designed for the construction and repair of wood pallets. These spiral shank nails are also good for re-nailing wagon
beds, trailers.
Wire Brad
The size is expressed in wire gauge and ranges from 1/4 to 1 1/2 inches long.
Cement Coated Nails
Sizes range from 2d to 16d. Commonly found in a green coating in 8d and 16d ("sinkers").
Blue Plaster Board Nail
Sizes range from 1 to 1 1/2 inches long. Used to apply aluminum roofing.
Lead-Head Nails
Lead washer is to prevent oxidation between the head of the nail and the galvanized roofing and also prevents leakage.
Galvanized Shingle Nail
The head is about 1/2 inch in diameter, and the length ranges from ¾ to 2 inches.
Furring Nail
This allows the wire to become a reinforcing agent and the nails hold the plaster to the wall.
Corrugated Fastener
The size is 1/4 to 1 inch in depth and 2 to 7 corrugations. Used to fasten wood.
Cotter Pin
This prevents the nut from working loose. Also called a Cotter Key.
Soft Iron Rivet
A rivet set is a small bar of steel with a hole drilled in the end to receive the rivet, and with a cup-like depression for
forming a round head on the rivet.
Nomenclature of screw threads
This thread profile has a larger contact area, providing more
frictional resistance to motion. Hence, it is used where effective
positioning is required. It is also used in brass pipe work.
This thread form is adopted in Britain in inch units. The
profile has rounded ends, making it less liable to damage
than sharp V-thread.
This thread is a combination of V-and square threads. It exhibits
the advantages of square thread, like the ability to transmit
power and low frictional resistance, with the strength of the V-
thread. It is used where power transmission takes place in one
direction only such as screw press, quick acting carpenter’s vice,
etc.
Square thread is an ideal thread form for power transmission.
In this, as the thread flank is at right angle to the axis, the
normal force between the threads, acts parallel to the axis, with
zero radial component. This enables the nut to transmit very
high pressures, as in the case of a screw jack and other similar
applications
It is a modified form of square thread. It is much stronger than
square thread because of the wider base and it is easy to cut. The
inclined sides of the thread facilitate quick and easy engagement
and disengagement as for example, the split nut with the lead
screw of a lathe.
Worm thread is similar to the ACME thread, but is deeper. It is
used on shafts to carry power to worm wheels.
Forms of V-threads
•British Standard Whitworth Threads (BSW)
•British Association Threads (BA)
•Sellers Threads
•Unified Standard Threads
•ISO Metric Thread
•ISO Metric Trapezoidal Threads
Forms of square threads
•Square Threads
•Acme Threads
•Knuckle Threads
•Buttress Threads
British Standard
Whitworth
Threads
1. steel pipes and
tubes carrying
fluids
2. leak-proof joint
due to their fine
pitches and form
British association
thread (BA)
precision work
Sellers thread
Unified standard
thread form
Cup-headed bolt
Cylindrical-headed bolt
T-Headed bolt
Eye bolt
Square-headed nut
preventing its rotation Cap nut or domed nut
to prevent corrosion at the end of
the bolt
Capstan nut
Wing nut
Ring nut
SCREWS
Locking devices, Keys and Cotter joints, Knuckle
Joint, Shaft Couplings, Bearings and Pipe joints
Locking devices
W = 0.2 D + 2 mm, H =
0.288 D,
T = 0.2 D + 2 mm, B =
0.2475 D, L = D to 1.5 D