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A STUDY OF CARBONATION IN CONCRETE STRUCTUES IN MARINE

ENVIRONMENT

Thesis · October 2007

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A STUDY OF CARBONATION IN CONCRETE STRUCTUES IN MARINE ENVIRONMENT

ABSTRACT

The rate of carbonation in concrete is influenced by both its physical properties and

exposure conditions. Therefore, service life prediction of reinforced concrete structures in an

environment where is a probable cause of corrosion of steel in concrete can be made in terms

of both the physical properties and the exposure conditions. Service life estimation due to

carbonation is defined as the life when the carbonation front reaches the depth of reinforcing

steel. Therefore, some attempts have been made to include an environmental stress factor in

models to predict the service life of the concrete subjected to carbonation. The primary aim of

this project is to study the effect of ambient relative humidity and temperature on the rate of

carbonation in concrete by taking four case studies in marine environment i.e. Visakhapatnam

town. Investigations are made by taking 14 years past ambient relating humidity of vizag

town and its effect on the rate of carbonation in concrete.

The importance of carbonation is

 To indicate corrosion potential near future.

 To estimate service life where penetration of the carbonation front is critical.

 To monitor the effectiveness of procedures for re-alkalization of the cover layer.

 To make a rough estimate of concrete strength from the age of concrete & the relative

humidity.

 To prepare service life model of structures

 To formulate a maintenance strategy for structures.

 To prepare a carbonation model

 1. INTRODUCTION

The need to design durable concrete structures in marine environment and chemically

aggressive environments leads to increasing complete models and experiments to study

deterioration phenomena concrete continuously involves ambient with its environment

condition & physical ,chemical & . Some of these interactions usually induce or facilitate

deterioration processes which may initiate the corrosion of the steel reinforcement embedded

in concrete are given below:

 Chloride attack.

 Sulfate attack.

 Carbonation.

 Alkali-Aggregate reaction.

 Acid attack.

 Expose to sea water.

The present work focuses on carbonation effect on concrete structures, because Co2 is

omnipresent in atmosphere & specially in marine environment due to presence of chloride ,

its affect is more with the related ambient temperature & relative humidity. In the present

scenario four case studies with various aged groups have been presented & carbonation effect

on them also studied & recorded. As co2 is the element of air the study of temperature &

relative humidity is also an important factor .Because in low relative humidity i.e. < 30% &

high relative humidity i.e. >80%, the effect of co2 is very less on concrete structures. In low

relative humidity co2 remains in gaseous form & doesn’t react with Ca(OH)2 .Similarly in

high relative humidity, the diffusion of CO2 is not taking place on account of pores filled

with water. Therefore to study the rate of carbonation in marine environment in connection
with relative humidity the past 9 years weathering data from 1998 -2006 have been collected

& presented here to know why the rate of carbonation is high in marine environment.

1.1 Carbonation:

Carbonation of concrete is a process by which carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air

penetrates into concrete and reacts with calcium hydroxide in the presence of water to form

calcium carbonates.

CO2 + H20 + Ca (OH)2  caco3 + H2O

Generally, the PH value of concrete at the time of construction is in between 12.5 to 13.5

depending upon the alkali content of cement. Due to the high alkalinity value, it forms a thin

passivating layer around steel reinforcement and protects it from action of oxygen and water.

As long as steel is placed in a highly alkaline condition, it is not going to corrode. Such

condition is known as passivation. In actual practice CO2 present in atmosphere in smaller or

greater concentration permeates into concrete and carbonates the concrete and reduces the

alkalinity of concrete. The PH value of pore water in the hardened cement paste which was

around 13 will be reduced to about 9.0. When all the Ca (OH)2 has become carbonated, the

PH value will reduce up to about 8.0. In such a low PH value, the protective layer gets

destroyed and the steel is exposed to corrosion. The carbonation of concrete is one of the

main reasons for corrosion of reinforcement, oxygen and moisture are the other components

required for corrosion of embedding steel. The conversion of Ca (OH) 2 into caco3 by the

action of CO2 results in a small shrinkage. The concentration of CO2 in air in rural areas is as

small as 0.03% by volume. In large cities the concentration may go up to 0.3% and in

exceptional cases it may go up to even 1.0% in industrial towns and high traffic zones. The

concentration of CO2 is comparatively higher in the tunnel, if not well ventilated. Therefore,
effect on structures is also something more. It is quite interesting to note that carbonation will

not occur when concrete is constantly submerged under water.

In marine environment the PH value of sea water varies between 7.5 and 8.4. The

average value is 8.2. Sea water also contains some amount of CO2. These are the primary

reasons for higher carbonation rate in structures exposed to marine environment.

1.2 Rate of Carbonation:

The rate of carbonation depends on the following factors:

1. External factors

 Ambient relative humidity

 Concentration of carbon dioxide

 Surface protection

2. Internal factors

 Grade of concrete

 Permeability of concrete

 Depth of cover

 Water-cement ratio

3. Other factors

 Time of exposure

 Orientation of building

1.2.1 Relative Humidity: Relative humidity plays an important role in carbonation. If pore

is filled with water the diffusion of CO2 is very slow. But whatever CO2 is diffused

into the concrete and formed caco3 reduces the alkalinity. On the other hand if the

pores are rather dry, that is at low relative humidity the CO2 remains in gaseous form

and does not react with hydrated cement. The moisture penetrating from external
 source is necessary to carbonate the concrete. The highest rate of carbonation occurs

at a relative humidity of between 40% to 75%.

Table: 1.1 – Relative Humidity vs. Rate of Carbonation

Phase Process Relative Rate of

Humidity Carbonation
I Diffusion inwards of CO2  30% Low
II Reaction between CO2 and water 40% - 75% High
molecules
II Reaction between the resultant Low
carbonic acids and the alkaline  75%
components of concrete.

1.2.2 Grade of Concrete: As per SP:25-1984, in good quality of dense concrete,

carbonation is confined mainly to surface layers of concrete and depth of carbonation

may not exceed 20mm in 50 years. In porous concrete, carbonation may reach a depth

of 100mm in 50years.

Table: 1.2 – Grade of concrete vs. Depth of Carbonation

Age in Depth of carbonation (mm)
years M20 M40
2 5.0 0.5
5 8.0 1.0
10 12.0 2.0
50 25.0 4.0

It may be noted that the present code recommends higher grade concrete and large cover

thickness to protect the concrete structures from marine & chemically aggressive

environments.

1.2.3 Permeability of Concrete: With low permeability at lower w/c ratio, the diffusion of

CO2 does not take place first. But as in case of more permeable concrete with higher
 w/c ratio more effect of carbonation takes place. According to “IAEA” (International

Atomic Energy Agency) NDT(Non-Destructive Testing) guide book the following

relation provided:

2
d 
t   Where, t = time for carbonation in years
k

D = concrete cover in mm, k = permeability in cm/sec

Table: 1.3 – Grade of concrete vs. Permeability

Concrete Grade Permeability Cm/sec
15 17
20 10
25 6
30 5
35 4
40 3.5

1.2.4 Water-cement ratio & Depth of cover: Table 1.4 illustrates the relation between w/c

ration depth of cover and time in years for carbonation depth to reach the

reinforcement.

Table: 1.4 – Time in years required for carbonation for

Different w/c ratio & depth of cover
W/C Ratio Depth of cover
15 20 25 30
0.45 100+ 100+ 100+ 100+
0.50 56 99 100+ 100+
0.55 27 49 76 100
0.60 16 29 45 65
0.65 13 23 36 52
0.70. 11 19 30 43

Time in years for carbonation increases as depth of cover increases and decreases as
increase in water-cement ratio from 0.45 to 0.7.
1.2.5 Surface Protection: organized that concrete needs protection for longer durability.

Protective coating is required to be given for long span bridge girders, flyover,

industrial structures, and chimneys etc. As per “IAEA” NDT guide book depth of

carbonation is depending on the surface coating on the concrete is given by

y 1 / 2 .R4.6 x  1.76
C
7.2

Where, C = carbonation depth in mm

Y = age of building in years

X = water cement ratio

R = is a constant =  . 

 = 1.7 for indoor concrete & 1.0 for outdoor concrete

Table: 1.5 – values of 

Finished condition Indoor Outdoor
No layer 1.70 1.0
Plaster 0.79 -
Mortar + plaster 0.41 -
Mortar 0.29 0.28
Mortar + paint 0.15 -
Tiles 0.21 0.07
Paint 0.57 0.80

1.2.6 Time: Carbonation depth increase with respect of time. Generally, the rate of

carbonation is inversely proportional to the square root of the age of the structure.
 According to Hawalli 1991, the carbonation process will proceed at a rate upto 0.04

inch (1mm) per year.

1.2.7 Concentration of CO2: As per SP-25: 1984 industrial town and high traffic zones

having higher percentage of CO2 in atmosphere because of pollution, cracking caused

in concrete due to carbonation is comparatively much more. In large cities the content

may go up to 0.3% or exceptionally it may go up to even 1%. In the tunnel if not well

ventilated the intensity may be much higher.

1.2.8 Orientation of the structures: As per test consultant services (Ireland Ltd Materials

Lab), the rate of carbonation is more on the south side and less on the north side. The

carbonation rates were found to be higher at the bottom of high raised structures than

at higher elevations.

As per international RILEM workshop on life prediction and aging management of

concrete structures (France October-2000), the zone that faces south is being more

sensitive to carbonation than other faces.

 3. EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY

3.1.INTRODUCTION:

Carbonation is one of the two main causes of corrosion of steel in concrete, the other

is chloride attack. The result if the interaction of carbon dioxide gas with the alkaline

hydroxides in the concrete, the carbonation process effectively drops the ph of the concrete to

a level where the steel will corroded. The carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form carbonic

acid, which can migrate to the reinforcing steel if the concrete is of poor quality (open pore

structure, low cement content, high water cement ratio, or pure curing of the concrete).

Carbonation is more common in old structures, particularly in buildings.

3.2.FEATURES:

 Test can be carried out completely on the site.

 Gives depth of carbonation.

 Minimal operator training and no special equipment required.

 Utilizes only one environmentally safe dye.

 Results obtained in less than five minutes are easy to interpreter.

 Economic, fast and easy to use.

3.3. PREPARATION OF PHENOLPHTHALEIN SOLTION:

 The 1% of phenolphthalein solution is made by dissolving 1gm of phenolphthalein in

90cc of ethanol.

 The solution is then made up to 100cc by adding distilled water.

 Then the solution is sprayed over the freshly broken concrete for carbonation test.

3.4. PROCEDURE:

 A fresh concrete must be exposed.

 This can be done by core sampling.

  The suspect surface and splitting the core with a hammer and chisel.

 The surface is cleaned properly with wire brush.

 Otherwise the cross section of column or beam is to be exposed by chiseling and

surface is cleaned properly or the concrete cover of suspected portion can be removed

and cleaned.

 Then the phenolphthalein solution is sprayed over the broken surface or exposed

prepared surface as cited above.

 If color is turned into pink, then surface is not affected by carbonation.

 If colorless, then the concrete surface is affected by carbonation.

 This pink color will show even up to a ph value of about 9.5.

 The carbonation front is measured.

3.5. COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

 Sprayer.

 Phenolphthalein solution bottle.

 Wire Brush.

 Hammer.

 Chisel.

 Scale.

 Carrying case.

3.6. RANGE AND LIMITATIONS OF CARBONATION DEPTH MEASUREMENT

TEST:

The phenolphthalein test is a simple and cheap method of determining the depth
Of carbonation in concrete and provides information on the risk of reinforcement corrosion

taking place. The only limitation is the minor amount of damage done to the concrete surface

by drilling or coring or surface dismantling.

 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 . Introduction:

This chapter deals with the review of previous work in the area of condition

assessment and influence of carbonation due to temperature and humidity, chloride and

sulphate, concrete with mineral admixtures and chloride. Case studies related to the

carbonation effect on concrete structures of different ages in the recent past have been

presented.

2.2 . Carbonation influenced by temperature & humidity:

In this part of literature review the previous works related to temperature and

humidity which are influencing the carbonation presented here.

2.2(a). D.S. Prakash Rao et al (1985) discussed that durability of concrete structures

depends among other factors upon the quality of the concrete and the protection it

accords to the steel. Carbonation of concrete which leads to the corrosion of steel

reduces useful life of structures, besides causing maintenance problems.

2.2(b). Mohammed Maslehuddin, C.L.Page & Rasheeduzzafar (1996) presented the effect

of chloride and sulphate contamination and high temperature and humidity on

carbonation in plain and blended cements, the results indicated greater carbonation in

the contaminated specimens then in the uncontaminated specimens, when exposed to

550C, 75% relative humidity and 3% of CO2 in atmosphere, this was observed in both

plain and blended cement.

2.2(c). Studies conducted by Shalon & Raphael (1971) indicated maximum carbonation at

relative humidity between 65% to 75%.

2.2(d). Fattuhi (1978) evaluated the long term effect of the Arabian Gulf environment on

carbonation in concrete made with varying w/c ratios. The rate of carbonation was

observed to be higher then that reported in Europe for similar concrete.

2.2(e) Ho & Lewis (1983) Hobbs (1998) reported the sensitivity of the carbonation process

to compressive strengths.

2.2(f) Parrott (1987) reported the strength and carbonation have a common dependence on

the porosity of the cement paste matrix.

2.2(g) Glass et al. (1991) suggested that low levels of chloride contamination increase the

ionic conductivity of pore solution, while higher levels of favor moisture retention

and slow down the effects of drying.

2.3 Carbonation of concrete influenced by Chloride & Sulphate:

The work which focus the carbonation effect due to chloride and sulphate

contamination , done by various authors in recent and past are listed in this part of

literature and review.

2.3(a) Mc Millan & Treadaway (1990) indicated that the inclusion sodium chloride and

sodium sulphate increased the depth of carbonation in both plain and blended cement

concrete specimens.

2.3(b) Al-Amoudi et al. (1991) evaluated the effect of salt inclusion in plain and fly ash

cement concretes on the alkalinity carbonation depth and rebar corrosion specimens

exposed to the Arabian Gulf environment for 1year. No significant change in the

depth of carbonation was indicated due to salt inclusion.

2.3(c) Kayyali & Haque (1988) investigated the effect of Calcium chloride addition on the

carbonation depth and pore solution chemistry of plain and fly ash cement mortars

specimens. Their results indicated a higher depth of carbonation in the

uncontaminated specimens then in the contaminated specimens.

2.3(d) Maslehuddin et al. (1993) found that addition of sodium chloride and sodium

sulphate like salts is known to increase the alkalinity of the pore solution

2.3(e) Accoridng to Kobayashi & UNO (1989, 1990) the rate of carbonation increases with

the alkalinity of cements.

2.3(f) Bensted (1991) however indicated that enhanced carbonation in the cements with

higher alkalinity can be related to the coarser pore structure formed in the presence of

alkalies. He observed that alkalis concrete the hydration of Portland cement which

results in greater quantities hydrates, such as, C-S-H and attrignite, being formed at

earlier stages of hydration process then under non accelerated condition.

2.3(g) Khan (1993) investigated and average strength reduction of 16% was observed in

sulphate chloride bearing concrete over uncontaminated concrete.

2.3(h) Hughes (1992) reported that a decrease in the strength of plain, fly-ash and silica

fume cement concrete specimen due to chloride & chloride sulphate salts.

2.4. Carbonation influenced by concrete with mineral admixtures:

The conclusions experienced by different investigators regarding the

carbonation with plain and blended cement concrete have been presented in this part.

2.4(a) Cengiz Druan Atis (2001-02) experimentally proved that

 Fly ash concrete made with 70% replacement ratio showed higher carbonation

than that of 50% fly ash replacement concrete and NPC concrete for both moist and dry

curing conditions.

 Fly ash concrete made with 50% replacement ration showed lower or

comparable carbonation than that of control NPC concrete for both curing

conditions.

 The influence of the super plasticizer was found to be significant on the

carbonation depth.
  A longer initial curing period before testing resulted in lower carbonation

depth. The effect is more marked with moist curing.

2.4(b) Ho & Lewis & Byfors (1983, 1985) have reported that higher rate of carbonation has

been found in concrete containing fly ash when compared to NPC concrete.

2.4(c) Ogha & Nagataki (1989) concluded that the carbonation coefficient increases with an

increase in the replacement ratio of fly ash and air content. However, Carbrera &

Wolley (1995) examined 25 years old fly ash concrete and they reported that there

had been no carbonation in fly ash concrete specimens.

2.4(d) Tahir Gowen & Salih Yazicioglu (2006) concluded that both silica fume and double

approach are useful for the improvement of performance of concrete against

carbonation, capillary absorption and wetting & drying.

2.4(e) Khan & Lynsdale (2002) reported that silica fume slightly increased the depth of

carbonation as compared to the OPC control.

2.5.Carbonation effects in presence of chlorine:

In this present scenario studies done by different authors regarding the effect of only

chlorine on carbonation are listed out.

2.5(a) Vladmir Zivica (2003) presented that the carbonation of concrete forging the action

of chlorides solution may intensify the process of corrosion of steel reinforcements in

comparison to the converse sequence of the action of mentioned media. At the same

time the natrium chloride solution has been shown as a more aggressive medium.

Opposite to the calcium and magnesium chloride solutions.

2.5(b) Bernander & Oberg (1966), Nurnberger (1984), Jones et al. (1996) studied the

mechanism involved in the carbonation, chloride attack and corrosion of

reinforcement.
2.5(c) Broomfield (1992) reported that a reduction in PH in concrete due its carbonation will

increase the severity of the attack in the presence of chlorides.

2.5(d) According to Roper & Baweja (1991) the interactive effects of carbonation and

chloride lead to much more rapid corrosion of reinforcement then where both the

phenomena acts separately.

2.6. Case studies related to carbonation:

Case studies in this relevant arch have been conducted by different investigators

regarding the depth of carbonation on various aged structures are presented in this part

of review.

2.6(a) Shalaby (1985) investigated the causes of failure of five deteriorated reinforced

concrete structures exposed to marine & non marine environments in Kuwait. After

about 10years in service, carbonation depths of 10-35mm were measured in these

structures. Shalaby attributed the deterioration of non marine structures to excessive

carbonation. After 3 years of service, the depth of carbonation was found to be 13mm

for cause way.

2.6(b) Hussain et al. (1994) already conducted in-situ tests on a reinforced concrete

structures in an industrial area along the Arabian Gulf indicated carbonation to a

depth of 15mm on the exterior components where as on the interior components it

was 3 to 5mm after about 6years in service.

2.6(c) Suad Al-Bahan et al. (1998) investigated the corrosion induced deterioration of a 25

years old reinforced concrete building in Kuwait to deter the extent and causes of

deterioration. The investigative techniques employed involved visual inspection of

the structure, Non-Destructive Testing laboratory testing and analysis of material

samples removed from the structure. This technique provided information on the
 nature of the service environment and its role in promoting corrosion of steel

reinforcement in the structure. Both chloride induced corrosion and carbonation

induced corrosion were found to occur with extensive loss of steel section in some

concrete elements.

2.6(d) Prof. B. Bhattacharjee (IIT Delhi) illustrated followed by discussion on case

investigations:

 Survey of corrosion distress buildings.

 Diagnosis of cracks in Pre-cast elements.

 Most of the part of the northern & central India belongs to composite

monsoon climatic zone where humidity is low for the most part of the year

and rainfall is relative less compared to warm humid climate. Yet a large

number of buildings are distressed due to rebar corrosion. The results of

some in-situ investigations carried out on RCC structures are presented

and carbonation depth was found as per exposure, age and depending upon

the climatic conditions.

 CASE STUDY-I

OFF-SHORE CUM ON-SHORE STRUCTURE; CHINTAPALLI

SALIENT FEATURES:

Type of structure : It is an open channel supported on columns

to carry the sea water for Aqua farming

cultivation. The length of the structure is

681.96m, out of which 163.93m is on the

sea and the remaining length is on the shore.

Year of Construction : March 1992

Distressed Reported : May 1998

Period of investigation : April 2007

Distance from Sea Coast : 0 Km

VISUAL OBERVATIONS:

1. Severe spalling of concrete is noticed in columns beyond the reinforcement.

2. Spalling, cracking and splitting of concrete in RCC elements like columns, beams,

slabs etc.

3. Minor to considerable spalling of concrete noticed in beams.

4. Minor peeling to total loss of plaster seen in the RCC columns and beams.

5. Excessive distortion observed in a few columns.

6. Windward columns were distressed more as compared to leeward columns.

7. The damage to exposed surface was mostly on eastern side of the approaches.

8. Windward side of channel is severely affected and the corrosion of reinforcement also

is clearly visible rather than the leeward side.

9. The soffit of the stair case from channel to pump house which is on the sea is

completely deteriorated and the reinforcement is completely corroded.

 10. On walkway beside channel of windward side, the RCC railings are completely

collapsed.

11. The cross-sectional area in some of the reinforcement bars has been reduced to 10%

and some other reinforcement bars had completely snapped.

12. The condition of slab is good in nature.

13. Thickness of concrete cover over steel reinforcement was not uniform.

IN-SITU EVALUATION:

Carbonation Test:

The average depths of Carbonation in columns are as follows:

East : 38.5mm

West : 10.0mm

North : 3mm

South : 33mm

Plate:1 – Off-Shore cum On-shore Structure; Chintapalli

 Plate:2 – Off-Shore cum On-shore Structure; Chintapalli

Plate:3 – Spalling of concrete on wind

ward side Plate:4 – Spalling of concrete on wind
ward side
Plate:5 – Concrete on Lee-ward side Plate:6– Concrete on Lee-ward side

Plate:7 – Spalling of Concrete Plate:8 – Spalling of Concrete

Plate:9 – Spalling of Concrete
Plate:10 – Spalling of Concrete

Plate:11 – Spalling of Staircase Plate:12 – Spalling of Beam

Plate:13 – Spalling of Longitudinal Plate:14 – Deterioration of railing
Beam
Plate:15 – Profile of Carbonation Plate:16 – Bottom portion
of walkway

CASE STUDY – II

AN OVER HEAD TANK WITH RCC FRAMED STAGING NEAR GVMC;

VISAKHAPATNAM
SALIENT FEATURES:

Year of Construction : August 1964

Distressed Reported : December 2000

Period of investigation : March 2007

Distance from Sea Coast : about 1.74Km

VISUAL OBSERVATIONS:

1. No signs of distress observed in RCC container.

2. Signs of initial leakage at the bottom slab of tank could be noticed but no leakage

history was reported for the known past.

3. Spalling of concrete cover in columns and bracing beams and columns of staging.

4. Bottom reinforcement of bracing beams exposed and corroded.

5. Congestion of reinforcement in columns was observed to be responsible for

honeycombed and hollow cover concrete.

6. Corrosion stains and cracks observed in slab of gallery around water container.

7. Cracks running along the reinforcement were observed in bracing beams and

columns.

8. Stair case is completely collapsed and no sign of landings and soffit available.

IN-SITU EVALUATION:

Carbonation Test:

The depth of Carbonation in columns and bracing beams, wherever tested, is beyond

the reinforcement level.

Plate:17 – Over Head Water Tank Plate:18– Severely affected
column

Plate:19 – Water Container

Plate:20 – Water Container

Plate:21 – Spalling of concrete from Plate:22 – Spalling of concrete from
columns columns
 Plate:24 – Spalling of Bracing Beam
Plate:23 – Landing of Staircase

CASE STUDY-III

RAILWAY QUARTER; TYPE-II; NEAR ORE-EXCHANGE YARD;

VISAKHAPATNAM
SALIENT FEATURES:

Period of Construction : 1973

Investigation done : April 2007

Type of Structure : Two-Storied RCC frame structure.

Location : 4.61 Km from sea shore.

VISUAL OBSERVATIONS:

1. Extensive cracking and spalling of concrete in slabs, cantilevers, chajjas, sunshades,

staircase.

2. The columns are very good in condition.

3. Reinforcements in most of the external members were found to be severely corroded.

4. Plastering of walls are completely damaged.

5. The external plaster damaged at places.

6. Severe seepage seen in most of the roof slab and external walls.

IN-SITU EVALUATION TEST:

Carbonation Test:
 The depth of Carbonation in R.C.C sunshades and chajjas, wherever tested, is beyond

the reinforcement level.

Plate: 25 – Railway Quarter

Plate: 26 – Spalling of Beam Plate: 27 – Spalling of Cantilever slab

Plate: 28 – Spalling of Sunshade

Plate: 29 – Spalling of Ceiling Slab

 Plate:30 – Spalling of Ceiling Slab

CASE STUDY-IV

R.C.C. BEAM SAMPLES

Carbonation Test:

The age of the R.C.C. beam sample is 2years which is located some 200 meters from

the sea coast. The phenolphthalein solution is sprayed over the cross section of the R.C.C

beam samples, after chiseling and cleaning the surface. The color is found pink on the entire

cross section. Therefore, it is not affected by carbonation.

Plate:31 – Beam Samples of one years

Plate:32 – Beam Samples of two years
 INTRODUCTION

In this present scenario, the experiment of carbonation has been done on each case study as
per the procedure. The results are found for various age of structures and samples .We have
also taken 14 years past ambient relative humidity and temperature from cyclone warning
centre, Visakhapatnam and from which we can conform why carbonation is aggressive in
marine climates. The data related to relative humidity and temperature presented here for
smooth discussion and conclusions. The first case study is on-shore cum off-shore structure at
chintapalli village, second is water tank at GVMC at VIZAG. The third is railway quarters
and fourth is beam samples of one year and two years.

CASE STUDY-I
OFF-SHORE CUM ON-SHORE STRUCTURE; CHINTAPALLI

Carbonation Test:

The average depths of Carbonation in columns are as follows:

East : 38.5mm

West : 10.0mm

North : 3mm

South : 33mm
Plate:1 – Off-Shore cum On-shore Structure; Chintapalli

Plate:2 – Off-Shore cum On-shore Structure; Chintapalli

Case Study-II

Plate:1 7– Over Head Water Tank Plate:18 – Severely affected column

Carbonation Test:

The depth of Carbonation in columns and bracing beams, wherever tested, is beyond

the reinforcement level.

CASE STUDY-III
 Plate-26: Spaling of Beam

Carbonation Test:

The depth of Carbonation in R.C.C sunshades and chajjas, wherever tested, is beyond
the reinforcement level.

CASE STUDY-IV
The depth of carbonation in two years sample tested and found to be 1.5 mm -2mm and in
one year sample there is no carbonation attack as shown in the following figure .

Plate-31: BEAM SAMPLES OF ONE YEAR

 Plate-32: BEAM SAMPLES OF TWO YEARS

DISCUSSIONS
THE DATA OF TEMPERATURE & RELATIVE HUMIDITY IS OBTAINED FROM
CYCLONE WARNING CENTER; WALTAIR

Weather Data of Year 1993

Mean
Mean Relative
Month Temperature
Humidity(%ge)
(C)
Max. Min.
January 26.50 19.60 72.65
February 28.30 21.40 76.83
March 30.80 24.30 73.25
April 31.50 25.80 70.23
May 32.10 27.20 76.00
June 32.70 27.60 73.50
July 30.90 26.70 80.00
August 31.90 26.80 75.00
September 30.60 25.70 82.00
October 31.20 25.60 75.50
November 29.90 23.30 65.50
December 27.60 21.10 62.00
30.33 24.59
Average 27.46 73.54
 Weather Data of Year 1994
Mean Mean
Month Temperature Relative
(C) Humidity
Max. Min.
January 28.60 20.70 73.25
February 29.10 22.50 78.50
March 31.00 25.20 74.52
April 31.20 26.80 71.82
May 32.60 27.70 76.10
June 32.30 27.70 74.18
July 30.50 25.60 78.50
August 29.70 25.80 80.50
September 30.80 26.10 81.00
October 30.30 25.00 81.50
November 28.60 22.90 73.00
December 27.90 20.40 64.50
30.217 24.700
Average 27.46 75.61

Weather Data of Year 1995

Mean Mean
Month Temperature Relative
(C) Humidity
Max. Min.
January 26.30 20.50 72.00
February 28.60 22.40 75.50
March 31.30 24.90 68.50
April 31.60 26.50 74.50
May 32.20 26.90 79.00
June 32.50 27.40 77.00
July 30.30 25.90 82.00
August 31.30 26.60 81.50
September 30.90 26.00 81.00
October 30.20 25.00 77.50
November 29.60 23.30 67.00
December 28.20 20.80 69.50
30.25 24.68
Average 27.47 75.42
 Weather Data of Year 1996
Mean Mean
Month Temperature Relative
(C) Humidity
Max. Min.
January 28.30 21.50 74.00
February 29.10 22.10 72.50
March 30.40 24.30 73.50
April 31.10 25.90 76.00
May 33.00 28.20 80.50
June 31.30 26.40 79.85
July 31.10 26.40 79.50
August 30.70 25.50 82.00
September 31.30 25.60 79.50
October 30.70 25.20 78.50
November 30.10 23.30 63.50
December 27.80 29.90 60.00
30.41 25.36
Average 27.88 74.95

Weather Data of Year 1997

Mean Mean
Month Temperature Relative
(C) Humidity
Max. Min.
January 27.20 20.10 67.5
February 29.30 22.00 71
March 30.50 24.50 74.5
April 31.30 25.10 71
May 32.90 27.70 73.75
June 32.80 27.80 73
July 31.90 26.60 77.55
August 31.80 25.90 77.2
September 30.90 25.90 82.55
October 31.10 24.90 76.4
November 30.10 24.30 77
December 27.50 22.80 78.99
30.61 24.80
Average 27.70 75.04
 Weather Data of Year 1998
Mean Mean
Month Temperature Relative
(C) Humidity
Max. Min.
January 28.50 21.70 76.95
February 29.20 23.10 75.7
March 31.00 25.30 76.3
April 31.50 26.10 76.5
May 33.70 28.00 76
June 32.90 28.30 77.5
July 30.80 26.20 83.1
August 30.80 26.30 84
September 31.10 25.90 83
October 31.20 25.50 80
November 30.70 23.90 72.25
December 28.60 20.20 59.5
30.83 25.04
Average 27.94 76.73

Weather Data of Year 1999

Mean Mean
Month Temperature Relative
(C) Humidity
Max. Min.
January 27.90 19.80 65.65
February 30.20 22.40 68.5
March 31.60 25.00 75.5
April 33.10 27.50 75.05
May 33.10 27.20 76.5
June 31.90 27.00 76.55
July 31.30 26.30 77
August 31.50 25.70 80
September 31.20 26.14 80.5
October 31.20 24.60 78.2
November 30.10 22.80 64.9
December 28.70 21.00 61.25
30.98 24.62
Average 27.80 73.30
 Weather Data of Year 2000
Mean Mean
Month Temperature Relative
(C) Humidity
Max. Min.
January 28.30 20.30 70.5
February 29.00 22.90 76
March 31.20 24.10 74.5
April 32.70 27.10 74.75
May 34.10 27.70 71.6
June 32.30 26.90 78.25
July 31.50 26.20 75.25
August 31.40 26.00 79.2
September 31.70 25.60 79.7
October 32.10 25.10 69
November 30.50 23.10 65.55
December 28.30 19.70 60
31.09 24.56
Average 27.83 72.86

Weather Data of Year 2001

Mean Mean
Month Temperature Relative
(C) Humidity
Max. Min.
January 27.50 19.80 72
February 29.60 22.30 75.8
March 31.20 24.70 73.5
April 31.90 26.50 74.5
May 33.70 28.10 74
June 33.50 27.10 72.5
July 32.57 26.86 75.79
August 31.00 25.90 80.5
September 32.40 26.40 78.5
October 31.50 25.40 77.5
November 29.44 23.43 74.48
December 27.80 19.90 66.53
31.01 24.70
Average 27.85 74.63
 Weather Data of Year 2002
Mean Mean
Month Temperature Relative
(C) Humidity
Max. Min.
January 26.98 20.45 73.53
February 29.46 21.49 65.55
March 28.23 23.45 73.45
April 32.60 25.64 72.68
May 33.48 28.06 71.53
June 32.00 26.80 76.16
July 33.80 27.72 71.77
August 30.90 25.56 80.58
September 29.36 23.98 79.25
October 31.33 22.64 60.34
November 30.07 22.44 62.5
December 28.89 20.36 68.88
30.59 24.05
Average 27.32 71.35

Weather Data of Year 2003

Mean Mean
Month Temperature Relative
(C) Humidity
Max. Min.
January 27.79 20.06 69.98
February 29.30 22.80 73.50
March 31.80 24.61 72.70
April 32.10 26.60 73.50
May 34.72 27.96 74.31
June 33.00 28.30 73.50
July 30.90 25.60 81.50
August 31.40 25.90 79.50
September 32.10 25.90 77.00
October 30.30 24.80 81.50
November 30.50 22.50 64.00
December 27.90 20.40 64.32
30.98 24.62
Average 27.80 73.78
 Weather Data of Year 2004
Mean Mean
Month Temperature Relative
(C) Humidity
Max. Min.
January 26.21 19.40 71.60
February 29.07 28.00 67.79
March 30.30 22.77 72.47
April 32.10 26.30 73.60
May 32.21 27.62 71.02
June 32.56 26.10 70.38
July 31.50 25.90 81.00
August 32.00 26.30 75.00
September 31.80 26.00 78.03
October 31.20 24.90 75.00
November 30.62 22.20 62.00
December 29.10 20.70 67.45
30.72 24.68
Average 27.70 72.11

Weather Data of Year 2005

Mean Mean
Month Temperature Relative
(C) Humidity
Max. Min.
January 27.60 20.60 73.66
February 29.82 22.08 71.00
March 31.02 22.66 72.93
April 32.40 26.61 72.60
May 33.60 30.00 71.16
June 34.17 30.00 70.35
July 31.26 27.30 79.85
August 29.98 26.50 75.20
September 20.90 25.71 80.20
October 28.35 24.07 84.32
November 27.91 22.15 61.27
December 27.35 18.14 58.59
29.53 24.65
Average 27.09 72.59
 Weather Data of Year 2006
Mean Mean
Month Temperature Relative
(C) Humidity
Max. Min.
January 28.40 20.00 67.00
February 30.01 20.75 68.87
March 31.50 24.38 72.80
April 31.51 26.32 71.50
May 32.67 27.20 75.69
June 32.10 27.10 78.95
July 31.81 26.45 76.43
August 30.38 25.51 81.58
September 31.00 25.40 80.55
October 31.40 24.90 73.00
November 29.50 22.91 66.20
December 29.78 21.03 67.53
30.84 24.33
Average 27.58 73.34

Total Average Year wise data of Temperature & Relative Humidity

Table-5.1
Year Average Average
Temperature Humidity
Year Wise (°C) Year Wise
(%) 1993 -
2006
1993 27.46 73.54
1994 27.46 75.61
1995 27.47 75.42
1996 27.88 74.95
1997 27.70 75.04
1998 27.94 76.73
1999 27.80 73.30
2000 27.83 72.86
2001 27.85 74.63
2002 27.32 71.35
2003 27.80 73.78
2004 27.70 72.11
2005 27.09 72.59
2006 27.58 73.34
Total
27.64 73.95
Average
 1. As per literature review and RILEM laboratories consultants’ south-east corner is
more sensitive than the north-east side and air pressure is more and situated facing
sea. Therefore in presence of chloride the carbonation effect is more.
2. As the age of water tank is more than forty years and situated near high traffic zone
i.e. At RTC complex. Carbonation effect is more generally, that’s why colorless.
3. Railway quarters are also more than forty years ,but columns and beams are
somewhat good by visual survey .Where ever phenolphthalein liquid is spread over
lintels and sunshades , no color has come .These are carbon attacked and spalling and
reinforcements are visible .
4. One year beam samples are made of M20 grade of concrete and not affected by
carbonation, because color came .But two years samples are little bit affected of 1.5
mm – 2 mm carbonation depth and it is common for all.
5. Because of average relative humidity 73.95 % in Vishakhapatnam town which has
been collected for fourteen years data. As per the literature review carbonation effect
is more in the above cited relative humidity.

Table: 5.2 – Relative Humidity vs. Rate of Carbonation

Phase Process Relative Humidity Rate of Carbonation

I Diffusion inwards of CO2  30% Low
II Reaction between CO2 and water 40% - 75% High
molecules
II Reaction between the resultant Low
carbonic acids and the alkaline  75%
components of concrete.

As the rate of carbonation is high in between 40 % - 75 % relative humidity, therefore the

relative humidity in Vishakhapatnam town is 73.95 % and in presence of chloride due to
marine environment the effect of carbonation is more in this area.
 Table: 5.3 – Interpretation of Relative Humidity Data

YEAR
WISE
YEAR JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC AVG
1993 72.65 76.83 73.25 70.23 76.00 73.50 80.00 75.00 82.00 75.50 65.50 62.00 73.54
1994 73.25 78.50 74.52 71.82 76.10 74.18 78.50 80.50 81.00 81.50 73.00 64.50 75.61
1995 72.00 75.50 68.50 74.50 79.00 77.00 82.00 81.50 81.00 77.50 67.00 69.50 75.42
1996 74.00 72.50 73.50 76.00 80.50 79.85 79.50 82.00 79.50 78.50 63.50 60.00 74.95
1997 67..50 71.00 74.50 71.00 73.75 73.00 77.55 77.20 82.55 76.40 77.00 78.99 75.04
1998 76.95 75.70 76.30 76.50 76.00 77.50 83.10 84.00 83.00 80.00 72.25 59.50 76.73
1999 65.65 68.50 75.50 75.05 76.50 76.55 77.00 80.00 80.50 78.20 64.90 61.25 73.30
2000 70.50 76.00 74.50 74.75 71.60 78.25 75.25 79.20 79.70 69.00 65.55 60.00 72.86
2001 72.00 75.80 73.50 74.50 74.00 72.50 75.79 80.50 78.50 77.50 74.48 66.53 74.63
2002 73.53 65.55 73.45 72.68 71.53 76.16 71.77 80.58 79.25 60.34 62.50 68.88 71.35
2003 69.98 73.50 72.70 73.50 74.31 73.50 81.50 79.50 77.00 81.50 64.00 64.32 73.78
2004 71.60 67.79 72.47 73.60 71.02 70.38 81.00 75.00 78.03 75.00 62.00 67.45 72.11
2005 73.66 71.00 72.93 72.60 71.16 70.35 79.85 75.20 80.20 84.32 61.27 58.59 72.59
2006 67.00 68.87 72.80 71.50 75.69 78.95 76.43 81.58 80.55 73.00 66.20 67.53 73.34
Month
Wise 71.45 72.65 73.46 73.45 74.80 75.12 78.52 79.41 80.20 76.30 67.08 64.93 73.95
Average

R.H. 73.95

The observation in Table-5.3 reveals that

1. In Visakhapatnam, from 1998 onwards up to 2006 relative humidity is  75%

therefore high risk for carbonation.

2. The relative humidity is in the range of 40% - 75% during May, June, July, august,

September & October i.e. Carbonation effect is more during these six months of each

year & other six months may be moderate.

3. Protection to be provided in between February/ March but not in October/ November.

4. From our data interpretation in the month of July, august, September & October are

more vulnerable for carbonation, because all most all from 1993-2006 each year

during the above months the relative humidity is about 75%.

5. The average relative humidity is equal to 73.95% which says the carbonation is as

much as high on structures in Vishakhapatnam town.

6. The rate of corrosion is directly proportional to the ambient temperature .the rate of

carbonation increases with increase in temperature.

 CONCLUSION
Carbonation occurs in the beginning stages of the deterioration process of concrete structures

and the depth of carbonation indicates the depth to which concrete structure is likely to be

affected. It also indicates the deterioration rate to assess the age of the structure. The effects

of carbonation on the structures located in the coastal region at varying distances from sea

coast are studied by taking four case studies. The structures taken for the study are ranging

from 2 years to 40 years. One of the structures is located in high traffic zone. The statistics

related to the temperature and relative humidity of the place which influences the carbonation

is collected for the last 14 years from cyclone warning centre, waltair and is presented here.

The following conclusions are arrived based on the statistics collected, tests conducted and

interpretation.

1. The off shore cum on shore structure at chintapalli is a 12 years old RCC structure

exposing reinforcement at number of locations with cover concrete totally damaged and

the reinforcement in some locations is corroded to such an extent that the area of cross

section of the reinforcement left is less than the half of the reinforcement originally

provided. The carbonation test on the structure at various locations also indicates that the

structure is severely affected in a very short duration of 12 years. Further it could also be

seen that the structure is more affected towards south side and east side when compared

to north side and west side which could be attributed to the prevailing wind direction at

that location.

2. The residential buildings taken for the study are at about 3 km from the sea coast

surrounded by a number of other similar structures. The age of this structure is about 40

years. These structures are abandoned and the depth of carbonation is more (greater than
 25 mm) for the components exposed outside and much less ( less than 15 mm) for the

components inside the building.

3. The water tank taken for study is located at about 3 km from coast surrounded by a

number of other structures. The age of the structure is about 40 years and is in a high

traffic zone. The structure is abandoned and most of the components of the structure are

deteriorated with exposure of reinforcement at many locations. The carbonation test

indicates that the depth of carbonation is more than the depth of cover consistently at

many locations. It appears that the depth of carbonation in this structure is accelerated

further due to high traffic in that zone.

4. The depth of carbonation on two beams casted in controlled condition with well

maintained water cement ratio is studied by exposing them to sea weather at an age of 2

years. These beams located at a distance of less than 1 km from sea do not show any

carbonation even after 2 years of direct exposure to such severe aggressive environmental

condition. This reveals the importance of water cement ratio and the importance of

quality control which prevents corrosion to a great extent.

5. The relative humidity is falling more in the range of 40% - 75% during May, June, July,

august, September & October during the last 9 years. This indicates that the structures

located in this zone might have been affected to carbonation in the last 9 years.

6. The carbonation of concrete increases with increase in temperature. However, the

temperatures remain in a narrow range throughout the year and similar trend is existing
 for the last one decade. The temperature plays a significant role if the temperature

increases further in this region.

7. The test of carbonation is simple, economic, fast and easy to use. The results from this

test can be obtained within 5 minutes to assess the structure.

8. The various cases considered in this study reveals that the structures proximity to the sea (

less than 1 km ) are severely affected and the life of the structure drastically comes down

to as low as 12 years. The study also reveals that the structures also affected due to high

traffic intensity. The beams casted in controlled condition indicate that that low water

cement ratio and skilled supervision, good quality control effectively combat the

carbonation. The outside portions of the structures are more effected than the inside

portion of the structure which are well protected.

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