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Preadolescent antecedents of depressive symptomatology at age 18: A

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Journal of Abnormal Psychology Copyright 1988 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.
1988, VA 97, No. 4,475-486 0021-S43X/S8/S00.75

Depressive Symptoms and Personality During Late Adolescence:

Gender Differences in the Externalization-Internalization
of Symptom Expression

Per F. Gjerde, Jack Block, and Jeanne H. Block

University of California at Berkeley

This study examined the observed and self-attributed personality characteristics associated with
depressive symptoms in nondinical adolescents. Eighty-seven 18-year-olds completed the Center for
Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D) Scale, adjective self-descriptions, and the Multidimen-
sional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ). Separately, California Adult Q-sort (CAQ) ratings of the
subjects were obtained. Although mean CES-D scores did not differ for the sexes, dysthymic young
men were consistently more negatively evaluated than were dysthymic young women and nondysthy-
mic young persons of both sexes. Extensive differences were also observed between male and female
subjects in observer (CAQ) correlates of CES-D scores: 18-year-old dysthymic young men were seen
as disagreeable, aggressive, and antagonistic—an externalizing pattern of characteristics; 18-year-old
dysthymic young women, by contrast, were seen as ego-brittle, unconventional, and ruminating—
an internalizing pattern of characteristics, [n their self-recognition, however, both male and female
adolescents described themselves as aggressive and alienated. Nonlinear relations between CES-D
scores and personality were also observed. The discussion focused on gender differences in depressive
tendencies, on the role of hostility and aggression in dysthymia, and on the psychological implica-
tions of nonlinear relations between dysthymia and personality.

Appreciable changes occur in the frequency and nature of
depressive symptoms as individuals approach and pass through
adolescence. Following puberty, depression becomes more com-
mon, especially among girls (Kandel & Davies, 1982; Rutter,
1986). Although depressive states comparable to those seen in
adults also begin to appear (Bemporad & Wilson, 1978; Weiner,
1975), adolescents sometimes seem to express their underlying
depression through behaviors differing from the traditional
manifestations of adult depression. For example, maladaptive
adolescent behavior (e.g., drug abuse) has been viewed as de-
pression related (Malmquist, 1971a, 1971b; Weiner, 1975).
The severity of a depressive episode during adolescence may,
at least partly, be influenced by the extent of vulnerability inher-
ent in the individual's underlying personality organization
(Chodoff, 1970, 1972; Salzman, 1975). Although much re-
search has been devoted to identifying attributes of a depres-
This study was supported by National Institute of Mental Health
Grant MH 16080 to Jack Block. Per F. Gjerde gratefully acknowledges
additional support from the Japanese Society for the Promotion of Sci-
ence. Portions of this article were presented at the second biannual
meeting of the Society for Research on Adolescence, Alexandria, Vir-
ginia, 1988.
Jeanne H. Block is now deceased.
We are indebted to Dan Ozer, Ruth Sharabany, Auke Tellegen, Brian
Vaughn, and two anonymous reviewers for their most thoughtful com-
ments on an earlier version of this manuscript
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Per F.
Gjerde or Jack Block, Department of Psychology, Tolman Hall, Univer-
sity of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720.
sion-vulnerable personality structure (for reviews, see Akiskal,
Hirschfeld, & Yerevanian, 1983; Chodoff, 1972), these efforts
have provided limited insight into the diathesis underlying ado-
lescent depression if only because studies of the character struc-
ture associated with depression have typically not focused on
the adolescent period. Furthermore, even with respect to age
groups other than adolescence, controversy persists over the rel-
ative contributions of singular personality attributes such as ex-
cessive dependency needs (e.g., Arieti & Bemporad, 1980; Cho-
doff, 1972; Hirschfeld, Klerman, Chodoff, Korchin, & Barrett,
1976), dysfunctional belief systems (Abramson, Seligman, &
Teasdale, 1978; Beck, 1967), absence of competence (Cicchetti
& Schneider-Rosen, 1986), and introversion (Akiskal et al.,
1983). In addition, we do not yet have perspective on the rele-
vance of contemporaneous psychosocial factors in the genesis
of adolescent depression (Robbins & Kashani, 1986).
Various writers, in discussing the psychological dynamics of
depression, have conjectured that the basis for depression differs
for men and women (e.g., Kaplan, 1986; Nolen-Hoeksema,
1987; Radloff, 1980; Radloff & Rae, 1979; Weissman & Kler-
man, 1979). These views may be seen as following from more
general developmental considerations of the differential social-
ization of the sexes and from the different self and world views
that our culture creates in men and women (J. H. Block, 1976,
1979, 1983). Sroufe and Rutter (1984) have noted that depres-
sion in young boys often is embedded within the context of con-
duct disturbances—an externalizing pattern of symptom ex-
pression. In young girls, by contrast, depression is manifested
in passivity and a turning inward—an internalizing pattern of
symptom expression. In a similar vein, Ebata and Peterson

475
476 P. F. GJERDE, J. BLOCK, AND J. H. BLOCK.
(1988) reported that depression among early adolescents was
related in boys but not in girls to "externalized" behavior (e.g.,
getting into trouble at school) and to poor academic perfor-
mance.
This research was designed to examine (a) whether depressive
symptoms in late adolescence are embedded concurrently
within a distinct and identifiable constellation of personality at-
tributes, and (b) whether the personality context incorporating
depressive symptoms differs substantially for young men and
young women. We were particularly interested in gender differ-
ences in the "externalizing-internalizing" balance of depres-
sion-related personality attributes: the direction of action taken
by individuals (externally, via action modes, or internally, via
cognitive or psychosomatic channels of expression) in response
to salient psychological motivations (J. H. Block & J. Block,
1980).
Based upon recognitions concerning gender-differentiated so-
cialization emphases (J. H. Block, 1983), and guided by recent
studies of the relation between depressive feelings and adjust-
ment in nonclinical samples of adolescents (Ebata & Peterson,
1988), we anticipated that male subjects with depressive tend-
encies in late adolescence will manifest their internal unhappi-
ness via overt action, hostility, and aggression—an externalizing
pattern of symptom expression. Conversely, we expected female
subjects with depressive tendencies in late adolescence to be
characterized by an introspective concern with self and by inad-
equate self-esteem—an internalizing pattern of symptom ex-
pression. Given this gender difference in symptom expression,
we anticipated depressive symptoms in female adolescents to
have less simple, less visible, and less straightforward behavioral
consequences than depressive symptoms in male adolescents.
Whereas only modest gender differences in mean level of de-
pression were expected, with girls likely to score somewhat
higher than boys (Kandel & Davies, 1982), we expected many
and crucial gender differences in the correlates of depressive
symptoms.
In contrast to many other studies of depression, which have
used the extreme group comparison design (depressed individ-
uals contrasted with nondepressed individuals), we analyzed
depressive tendencies as a continuous variable. Our approach
has the advantage of allowing us to examine the shape of the
relation between depression and other, continuously measured
variables. If the underlying relation is nonlinear, the extreme
group method may be misleading and may attenuate or even
obfuscate important relations (e.g., McNemar, 1960).
Finally, the current study assesses depressive tendencies in a
nonclinical sample and therefore our "depressed" subjects may
be viewed as perhaps reflecting only a dysthymic disorder, a rel-
ative degree of disturbance, or extreme sadness, rather than the
major depressive disorder clinically recognizable as a distinct,
diagnostic syndrome. Depressive tendencies in children and ad-
olescents, even if they fall short of major clinical depression,
certainly warrant further study in their own right. It is also im-
portant to recognize that depressive tendencies appear to be
continuous with clinical depression (Blatt, D'Afflitti, & Quin-
lan, 1976; Hirschfeld & Cross, 1982). A considerable propor-
tion of individuals manifesting subclinical depression (dysthy-
mia) early in life appear to develop subsequent clinical depres-
sion (Kovacs, Feinberg, Crouse-Novak, Paulauskas, &
Finkelstein, 1984; Kovacs, Feinberg, Crouse-Novak, Pau-
lauskas, Pollack, & Finkelstein, 1984), and depressive moods
during adolescence have consequences for later psychological
adjustment and interpersonal functioning (Kandel & Davies,
1986). However, despite these several justifications, the inferen-
tial leap made by many investigators, and also by us, from self-
reported depressive manifestations in a nonclinical sample to
clinically observed depression, as an organized psychiatric syn-
drome, still remains uncertain and arguable. Therefore,
throughout this article, we use phrases such as depressive symp-
toms, depressive tendencies, or dysthymia to acknowledge that
our results, based on self-reported depression symptoms in a
nonclinical sample, may or may not generalize to clinical de-
pression as defined in psychiatry.
Method
Subjects
The subjects in this study participate in a longitudinal study of ego
and cognitive development, initiated in 1968 by Jack and Jeanne Block
at the University of California, Berkeley, and still ongoing (see J. H.
Block & J. Block, 1980, for a comprehensive description of this study).
The present sample consisted of the 106 adolescents (52 male, 54 fe-
male) who took part in the age 18 assessment. After excluding individu-
als who did not respond to the CES-D scale or who appeared to be
responding invalidly to the validity scales embedded in the question-
naire or for whom California Q-sort descriptions did not exist, a total
of 87 eighteen-year-olds remained (41 male, 46 female). Subjects live
primarily in urban settings, and are heterogeneous with respect to social
class and parents' educational levels. About two thirds of the 87 subjects
included in this study are White, one fourth are Black, and one twenti-
eth are Asian. Subjects were initially recruited into the study at age 3,
while attending either a university-run nursery school or a parent-run
cooperative nursery school.
Measuring Depressive Symptoms: The Center for
Epidemic/logical Studies—Depression Scale (CES-D)
During the age 18 assessment, the subjects responded to an extensive
pool of personality inventory items. The set of 678 items included many
scales measuring various aspects of personality and family relation-
ships. Among these scales was the Center for Epidemiological Studies-
Depression (CES-D) Scale (Radloff, 1977), a well-established self-report
questionnaire of depressive tendencies.
The CES-D scale has been widely used in assessing depressive symp-
toms in nonclinical samples of adolescents (Schoenbach, Kaplan,
Grimson, & Wagner, 1982; Schoenbach, Kaplan, Wagner, Grimson, &
Miller, 1983; Wells, Klerman, & Deykin, 1987). It has demonstrated
satisfactory reliability, can be completed by subjects of diverse back-
grounds, and discriminates well between clinical subgroups (Boyd,
Weissman, Thompson, & Myers, 1982; Craig & Van Natta, 1976; Lin,
Dean, & Ensel, 1986; Radloif, 1977; Radloff & Locke, 1985; Roberts,
1980; Roberts & Vernon, 1983; Weissman, Scholomskes, Pollenger, Pru-
soff,& Locke, 1977).
The CES-D scale consists of 20 items tapping four content subdo-
mains: depressed affect, positive affect, somatic vegetative signs, and in-
terpersonal distress. Subjects responded to each item on a 4-point scale
(0 — does not apply at all, 1 = does not apply particularly well, 2 =
applies somewhat, and 3 = applies quite well). Four of the 20 items
are worded in a positive direction, whereas the remaining 16 items are
 DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS AND PERSONALITY
worded in a negative direction. For each subject, the scores on the 4
positively worded items are reflected and the total score is created by
summing the values of the 20 responses. Possible scores range from 0 to
60, with higher scores indicating greater depressive mood. In the present
study, the internal consistency (alpha) reliability of the CES-D is .90.
In the present usage of the CES-D scale, to prevent the subjects from
quickly realizing the common intention lying behind the 20 CES-D
items, the 20 items were not presented consecutively, as is usually the
case. Rather, the CES-D items were interspersed among items belonging
to other personality scales. In a further change from the usual way the
CES-D scale is administered, subjects were asked how well each symp-
tom applied to them, with no time frame specified. Usually, the CES-D
asks how often each of the 20 symptoms included in the scale has oc-
curred during the last week. This change in item response format, a
consequence of our decision to intersperse the presentation of items
deriving from many scales, was deemed necessary to prevent too fre-
quent changes in the response format and because subject responses
were spread out over several weeks. Further, there is reason to believe
that subjects' responses to time-framed questions are not validly based
on the time period specified (Bradburn, Ripo, & Shevell, 1987). The
response format we used therefore deviates importantly from the con-
ventional CES-D format. We believe this change in the way the CES-D
items were presented to the subjects and perhaps also our item inter-
spersing increased the obtained depressive symptom scores, primarily
because subjects were not limited to considering their emotional states
during the last week only. Subjects participating in this study may also
have given more frank responses because of their long-term involve-
ment with this research. We note, however, that our subsequent analyses
are correlational, depending on the ranking or ordering of subjects and
not on the absolute level of the scores obtained. It seems reasonable to
presume that the correlation between scores on the CES-D scale as usu-
ally administered and scores on the CES-D scale in the form we admin-
istered would be very high.
In responding to the inventory items, the subject was seated in front
of a personal computer. The questions appeared, one by one, on the
display screen. The subject was required to provide his or her answer by
pressing the appropriate keyboard key. The age 18 assessment program
included 6 separate sessions, each of which lasted, on the average, 2.5-
3 hr. In most cases, a full week separated different sessions. Either prior
to, or following each main session, each subject completed part of the
computer-assisted inventory. During each session, each subject worked
on the inventory for approximately 20 min. Because the CES-D items
were never presented consecutively, most subjects used more than one
session to complete all 20 questions.
Observer-Based Personality Descriptions of the Subjects
During the age 18 assessment, four psychologists used the the Califor-
nia Adult Q-sort (CAQ) (J. Block, 1961/1978) to describe each subject.
The CAQ consists of 100 widely ranging statements about the personal-
ity, cognitive, and social characteristics of individuals, The assessors,
having observed each adolescent during different experimental sessions
eliciting a wide variety of behaviors, described the subject by arranging
the Q-sort items in a forced-choice, nine-step distribution according to
the evaluated salience of each item for that particular adolescent. The
psychologists worked independently of each other. The four indepen-
dently obtained Q-descriptions were then composited to form a pooled
judgment of each adolescent. On the basis of correlations among ob-
servers, the mean internal consistency reliability of the Q-items was
found to be .59. This reliability information not only provides impor-
tant information about the relative quality of the personality data used,
but also places perspective on the possible magnitude of correlations
that can be expected when these measures are related to our criterion
variable, the CES-D scale (J. Block, 1963, 1964).
477
Self-Attributed Personality Descriptions of the Subjects
The Adjective Q-sort (AQ). During the age 18 assessment, each sub-
ject was asked to describe himself or herself by using a 43-item Adjective
Q-sort (AQ) and a 7-step continuum (J. H. Block & J. Block, 1980). The
adjectives were selected to permit comprehensive self-descriptions. In a
separate session, each subject also used this procedure to describe his
or her "ideal self." Conceptually, when a person's characterization of
self is relatively congruent with his or her characterization of a personal
ideal self, that person may be said to have high self-esteem. Operation-
ally, an estimate of the subject's self-esteem was thus obtainable by cor-
relating the two vectors of 43 adjective Q-sort descriptions: the one
reflecting the self-concept, the second reflecting the ideal self. To the
extent this correlation is high, the subject is said to possess high self-
esteem (J. Block & Thomas, 1955; Rogers & Dymond, 1954).
The Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ). The MPQ
(Tellegen, 1982, 1985) was included in the item pool at age 18. The
MPQ is a factor-analytically developed self-report instrument, measur-
ing 11 primary personality dimensions. The 11 scales are labeled as
follows (the internal consistency reliabilities obtained in this study are
provided in parentheses; the descriptions of the scales derive from Tel-
legen, 1982): (a) Well-Being (alpha = .89; high scorers have a happy
cheerful disposition, feel good about self), (b) Social Potency (alpha =
.88; high scorers are decisive, like to take charge and to influence others),
(c) Achievement (alpha = .85; high scorers work hard, value accom-
plishment, persistence, and perfection), (d) Social Closeness (alpha =
.83; high scorers are sociable, like people, and value interpersonal ties),
(e) Stress Reaction (alpha = .89; high scorers are vulnerable, easily up-
set, and prone to worry), (f) Alienation (alpha = .83; high scorers feel
mistreated and betrayed by others), (g) Aggression (alpha = .88; high
scorers are physically aggressive and vindictive), (h) Control (alpha »
.83; high scorers are reflective, cautious, and like to anticipate and plan),
(i) Harm Avoidance (alpha = .84; high scorers prefer to avoid adventure
and danger), (j) Traditionalism (alpha = .81; high scorers endorse au-
thority, support religious values, and value propriety), and (k) Absorp-
tion (alpha = .88; high scorers are responsive to engaging sights and
sounds, are readily captured by entrancing stimuli, and experience
states of expanded consciousness). In addition, the MPQ contains 6 va-
lidity scales.
Tellegen (1985) has, through factor analysis, created three higher or-
der scales: Positive Aflectivity (primarily associated with the Well-Be-
ing, Social Potency, and Achievement scales—high scores reflect a sense
of well-being and a positive evaluation of oneself as active and effectively
engaged with other persons), Negative Aflectivity (primarily associated
with the Stress Reaction, Alienation, and Aggression scales—high
scores reflect a tendency to worry, to be anxious, to be victimized, and
to experience life as stressful), and Constraint (Control, Harm Avoid-
ance, and Traditionalism scales—high scores reflect an appraisal of one-
self as cautious, restrained, and tendencies to accept conventional
norms and morality).
Results
Descriptive Statistics for the CES-D Scale
The mean CES-D scale score was 19.77 (SD = 10.75, N =
41) for male subjects and 22.50 (SD = 11.10, N = 46) for female
subjects. This gender difference of approximately 3 points, al-
though not significantly different, <(85) = 1.16, ns, is in accord
with the slight but consistent gender differences reported in ear-
lier studies (e.g., Kandel & Davies, 1982). Our CES-D means
are appreciably higher than CES-D means reported in previous
studies (e.g., the mean CES-D score of 13 for adolescents re-
478 P. F. GJERDE, J. BLOCK, AND J. H. BLOCK
ported by Wells et al., 1987). As already noted, we believe this
difference to be primarily due to the different way we adminis-
tered the CES-D in our study.
Sex X Depressive Symptoms (CES-D Scores) Analysis of
Variance of Observer-Based (CAQ) Personality
Descriptions
A first analysis involved a two-way Sex X Depressive Symp-
toms analysis of variance (ANOVA) in order to evaluate possible
interactions. Adolescents who had appreciably elevated scores
on the CES-D scale (i.e., those whose scores fell in the upper
30% of the CES-D distribution) were assigned to the depressive
symptoms group. Adolescents scoring in the lower 70% of the
CES-D distribution were considered to have few or no depres-
sive symptoms. The CES-D score separating the upper 30%
from the lower 70% of the CES-D score distribution was 24 for
male subjects and 26 for female subjects. We decided to use a
CES-D cutting score of 25 for both sexes. Use of different CES-
D cutting scores for the sexes would not appreciably alter the
results.
A two-way ANOVA was conducted separately for each CAQ
item. A statistically significant (p < .05) Sex X Depressive
Symptoms interaction effect was obtained for 39 of the 100
CAQ items. For 38 of these 39 CAQ interactions, the CAQ-item
means for the four groups fell into a consistent pattern discrimi-
nating young men with depressive tendencies from the remain-
ing three groups (i.e., young men with few or no depressive
symptoms, young women with depressive symptoms, and
young women with few or no depressive symptoms). Compared
with the other three groups, young male adolescents with de-
pressive symptoms tended to be described as more negativistic
(p < .001), more guileful (p < .001), more sensitive to demands
(p < .001), more rebellious (p < .01), more stretching of limits
(p < .01), more self-indulgent (p < .01), more self-
defeating (p < .01), more over-reactive to minor frustrations
(p < .01), more interpersonally hostile (p < .01), more power
oriented (p < .01), more critical (p < .05), more lacking of
meaning in life (p < .05), more extrapunitive (p < .05), more
projective (p < .05), more condescending in relations to others
(p < .05), more distrustful (p < .05), more exploitative of others
(p < .05), more concerned with self-adequacy (p < .05), more
likely to perceive contexts in sexual terms (p < .05), more di-
rectly hostile (p < .05), and more appeciative of their own inde-
pendence (p < .05).
Relative to nondysthymic adolescents of both sexes and
to dysthymic female adolescents, these dysmymic young male
adolescents also tended to be seen as less liked and accepted
(p < .001), less dependable (p < .01), less sympathetic (p < .01),
less warm (p < .01), less productive (p < .01), less likely to have
many interests (p < .05), less giving to others (p < .05), less
fastidious (p < .05), less arousing of nurturance in others (p <
.05), less likely to be turned to for advice (p < .05), less ready
to feel guilt (p < .05), less appreciative of intellectual matters
(p < .05), less self-insightful (p < .05), less ambitious (p < .05),
less straightforward (p < .05), less cheerful (p < .05), and less
charming (p < .05). Only for one CAQ item, high intellectual
capacity, did the mean group values deviate from this pattern
in that nondysthymic female subjects received somewhat lower
values than dysthymic male subjects.
For CAQ items not associated with an interaction effect, ad-
ditional main effects for sex and depressive symptoms were
noted. A significant main effect for depressive symptoms was
associated with 13 CAQ items, and a significant main effect for
gender was associated with 14 CAQ items. The relations be-
tween CES-D scale scores and CAQ items are reported later.
Gender differences in CAQ evaluations will be reported in a
separate article.
Observer (CAQ) Item Correlates of Depressive
Symptoms (CES-D Scores)
A polynomial hierarchical regression procedure (Cohen &
Cohen, 1983) for each of the male and female samples evaluated
the special stimulus value of individuals privately acknowledg-
ing depressive symptoms. The CES-D scale score and its sec-
ond-degree power polynomial (i.e., the quadratic component
term) were, for each CAQ item, entered sequentially as predic-
tors. This approach permits, beyond a first test for the existence
and strength of linear association, a following test of whether
quadratic nonlinear component adds significant or incremental
variance.
For the sample of adolescent boys, the statistically significant
linear and quadratic relations are presented in Table 1. Thirty-
nine significant linear relations and 17 nonlinear relations
(semipartials) were significant. When a semipartial coefficient
has a positive sign, the regression line moves toward concavity
(i.e., toward becoming U-shaped); when a semipartial coeffi-
cient has a negative sign, the regression line moves toward con-
vexity (i.e., toward becoming an inverted U). Note that a fully
concave (or convex) distribution is obtained only when the qua-
dratic component is not superimposed on an underlying linear
trend.
For the sample of adolescent girls, the statistically significant
linear and quadratic relations are presented in Table 2. Six sig-
nificant linear relations and 13 nonlinear (semipartials) corre-
lations CAQ items were significant. The difference between the
two sexes in the number of significant linear findings observed
is itself highly significant (p < .001).
The linear and quadratic CAQ item relations reported in Ta-
bles 1 and 2 may be directly evaluated and interpreted by the
reader. Their very number, however, makes them difficult to en-
compass conceptually. Therefore, to summarize these CAQ
item relations and to reflect their coherent psychological
themes, the 44 discriminating items for the male subjects and,
separately, the 18 discriminating items for the female subjects,
were submitted to principal-components analyses followed by
Varimax rotation. We restricted our data-reducing analyses to
include only the discriminating items because of the small sizes
of our samples. Four principal components accounted for 72%
of the total variance in the male sample; three principal compo-
nents explained 71% of the variance in the female sample. Fac-
tor loadings of the CAQ items on the four male and three female
factors are also included in Tables 1 and 2.
Using unit weighting, four summarizing component mea-
sures were generated for the male sample: Interpersonal Antag-
 DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS AND PERSONALITY 479

Table 1 Table 2
California Adult Q-Sort (CAQ) Correlates of Depressive California Adult Q-Sort (CAQ) Correlates of Depressive
Symptoms (Centerfor Epidemiological Studies- Symptoms (Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression
Depression Scores) at Age IS: Male Subjects (N - 41) Scores) at Age 18: Female Subjects (N = 46)

Factor Factor
CAQ item r sr" loading CAQ item r sr* loading

Factor 1 : Ego-Brittleness
Factor 1 : Interpersonal Antagonism
Is self-defeating .30* .75
Creates, exploits dependency in people 50*** .80 Has brittle ego-defense system 43*. .74
Guileful, deceitful, manipulative .51*** 52*** .73 Lack of personal meaning in life .38** .65
Subtly negativistic .45** 39* .71 Feels cheated, victimized by life .31* .61
Hostility toward others .39* 34* .67 Has personal fantasy, daydreams .36* .54
Tries to stretch limits .40** .65 Is verbally fluent -.41** -.78
Distrustful of people .39* .64 Is turned to for advice -.41** -.76
Is assertive .35* .62 Has high aspiration for self -.29* -.75
Extrapunitive, transfers blame .35* .32* .62 Has high degree of intellectual capacity .35* -.71
Perceives contexts in sexual terms .37* .49 Is cheerful -.32* -.46
Expresses hostility directly .37* .46
Capacity for close relationships —.36* —.33* -.83 Factor 2: Unconventionality
Has giving way with others -.43** -.81
Arouses nurturant feelings in others —.34* -.81 Rebellious, non-conforming .33* .86
Sympathetic, considerate -.40** -.41* -.80 Unconventional thought processes .43** .33* .84
Tendency to feel guilty -. 32* -.71 Favors conservative values —.36* -.93
Liked, accepted by people -.43** -. 32* -.66 Judges self, others in conventional terms — . 59*** -.87
Submissive, accepts domination -. 32* -.66
Straightforward, candid -.41** -.62 Factor 3: Rumination
Behaves in ethically consistent manner -.41** -.59
Tends to ruminate .29* .82
Anxiety outlet in body symptoms .44** .72
Factor 2: Unrestraint Vulnerable to threat .30* .67
Regards self as physically attractive —.30* -.78
Unable to delay gratification .38* .82
Unpredictable in behavior, attitudes .31* .65 * The semipartial correlation represents the contribution of the qua-
Self-indulgent .51*** .62 dratic component after the linear component has been semipartialed.
Withdraws in face of adversity .34* .62 "p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
Projects feelings onto others .35* .50
Productive, gets things done -.45** -.30* -.85
Values intellectual matters -.41** -.82
Prides self on being objective -.32* -.78
Dependable, responsible -.44** - .31* -.72 onism (illustrative items are "Is guileful, deceitful, and manipu-
Has high aspiration for self -.34* -.62 lative," "Has hostility towards others," and "Is subtly negativis-
Is fastidious -.36* -.52 tic"), Unrestraint (illustrative items are "Is self-indulgent,"
Clear-cut, consistent personality -.3 1 * -.48
"Unable to delay gratification," and "Is unpredictable in behav-
ior and attitudes"), Discontentment With Self (illustrative items
Factor 3: Discontentment With Self are "Feels cheated, victimized by life," "Feels a lack of personal
Lack of personal meaning in life .36* .79 meaning in life," and "Concerned with own adequacy"), and
Feels cheated, victimized by life .40** .78 Unconventionality (illustrative items are "Tends to be rebel-
Concerned with own adequacy as .36* .75 lious, non-conforming," "Favors conservative values" [re-
person flected], and "Judges self, others in conventional terms" [re-
Self-defeating .35* .68
flected]).
Tends to be sen-defensive .41** .64
Overreacts to minor frustrations .31* .32* .59 For the female sample, three summarizing measures were de-
Sensitive to demands .35* .47* .56 veloped: Ego-Brittleness (illustrative items are "Has a brittle
Is personally charming -.41** -.85 ego-defense system," "Is self-defeating," and "Is verbally fluent"
Is cheerful -.39* -.79
[reflected]), Unconventionality (illustrative items are "Tends to
Rapid personal tempo -.3 1 * -.55
be rebellious, non-conforming," "Favors conservative values"
[reflected], and "Judges self, others in conventional terms" [re-
Factor 4: Unconventionality
flected]), and Rumination (illustrative items are "Is rumina-
Rebellious, nonconforming .41** .65 tive," "Anxiety finds outlet in bodily symptoms," and "Vulner-
Favors conservative values -.41** -.82 able to threat"). These summarizing, observer-based measures,
Judges self/others in conventional terms -.31* - .30* -.74
each based on an aggregation of individual CAQ items, can be
' The semipartial correlation represents the contribution of the qua- expected to be more dependable than the individual CAQ items
dratic component, after the linear component has been semipartialed. on which they are based and yet to represent their core mean-
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001. ings in a conceptually reasonably sufficient way. Using these im-
480 P. F. GJERDE, J. BLOCK, AND J. H. BLOCK

TableS
Polynomial Hierarchical Regression Analyses of California Adult Q-Sort (CAQ) Components: Male Subjects

Increment in %
% of variance of variance
CAQ components and model R explained (R2) F df explained F" sr»

Interpersonal Antagonism
CES-D linear component .46 .21 10.44" 1,39
Quadratic component .62 .39 12.05**' 2,38 .18 10.98** .42
Unrestraint
CES-D linear component .48 .23 11.90** 1,39
Quadratic component .54 .30 8.02** 2,38 .07 3.40* .25
Discontentment With Self
CES-D linear component .47 .22 11.23** 1,39
Quadratic component .51 .26 6.73** 2,38 .04 1.94 .19
Unconventionality
CES-D linear component .42 .17 8.26** 1,39
Quadratic component .46 .21 5.14** 2,38 .04 1.85 .20

Note. CES-D = Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression.

" F value associated with increment in R2. k The semipartial correlation represents the contribution of the quadratic component after the linear
component has been semipartialled.
V < .10. **p < .01. ***p< .001.

proved, data-reducing measures, we again related the CES-D
scale score to CAQ evaluations.
Multiple polynomial regression analyses: Male subjects. For
each component measure, the CES-D scale score and then the
second-degree power polynomial (i.e., the quadratic component
term) were entered sequentially as predictors. As noted earlier,
this approach permits a test for the existence and strength of
linear association, followed by a test of whether the quadratic
nonlinear component adds significant incremental variance.
Tests for nonlinearity were included for observer CAQ evalua-
tions to examine the shape of the relation between privately ex-
perienced dysthymia and social stimulus value. Table 3 summa-
rizes the results surrounding the composite measures for the
male sample.
CES-D scores were linearly associated in adolescent boys
with observer evaluations of Interpersonal Antagonism (r = .46,
p < .01), Unrestraint (r = .48, p < .01), Discontentment With
Self (r = .47, p < .01), and Unconventionality (r = .42, p < .01).
However, the linear model is not sufficiently descriptive of the
underlying relation. The quadratic aspect of the regression
function significantly increased the variance explained for In-
terpersonal Antagonism, F(l, 38) = 10.98, p < .01, and, mar-
ginally, for Unrestraint, F(l, 38) = 3.40,p < .07.
Inspection of the scatter plots revealed that when CES-D
scale scores are comparatively high, there is a relative intensifi-
cation of the behavioral mode of Interpersonal Antagonism as
a function of the cumulative effect of the linear and curvilinear
component: adolescent males scoring very high on the CES-D
scale tend to display even more Interpersonal Antagonism than
is predicted by the underlying positive linear relation of the
CES-D scale with Interpersonal Antagonism. Similar, but not
so striking, is the curvilinear relation of the CES-D scale with
Unrestraint. This finding is reminiscent of the agitation some-
times observed in clinical depression.
When CES-D scale scores are relatively low, there is again
more Interpersonal Antagonism and Unrestraint than would be
predicted as a function only of the underlying linear relation, as
if the absence of even slight depressive tendencies frees these
young men to be more aggressive, assertive, and self-indulgent.
However, because the quadratic component is superimposed on
an underlying linear trend, male adolescents receiving low CES-
D scores are not seen, in an absolute sense, to be more antago-
nistic or more unrestrained than male adolescents scoring in
the middle range on the CES-D scale.
Multiple polynomial regression analyses: Female subjects. In
an equivalent analysis for the female sample, CES-D scores were
linearly unrelated to Ego-Brittleness (r = .08, ns) but were lin-
early related to Unconventionality (r = .42, p < .01) and to
Rumination (r = .32, p < .05). The addition of the quadratic
nonlinear component significantly increased the amount
of variance accounted for with respect to Ego-Brittleness, F(l,
43) = 8.30, p < .01, Unconventionality, F(l, 43) = 7.82, p <
.01, and Rumination, P(l, 43) = 8.94, p < .01. The results of
these analyses are reported in Table 4.
Relative to female adolescents scoring in the middle range on
the CES-D scale, relatively low and relatively high scorers were
seen as more ego-brittle. The scatterplot of the relation between
CES-D scale scores and Ego-Brittleness revealed a nonlinear
heteroscedastic score configuration, a pattern also known as
"the twisted pear." This configuration, characterized by a qua-
dratic (in this case, concave) regression component in conjunc-
tion with greater variability of Ego-Brittleness scores at one (in
this case, the lower) end than at the other end of the CES-D
variable, suggests that behaviors are differentially predictable
in different segments of the predictor-criterion relation (Fisher,
1959). This differential variability suggests that young women
scoring low on the CES-D are a more heterogeneous group than
young women receiving high CES-D scores.
For Unconventionality and Rumination, a quadratic (con-
cave) relation was superimposed on the underlying linear trend.
Relatively high scorers on the CES-D scale were judged to be
more unconventional and more ruminative than would be ex-
 DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS AND PERSONALITY 481

Table 4
Polynomial Hierarchical Regression Analyses of California Adult Q-Sort (CAQ) Components: Female Subjects

Increment in %
% of variance of variance
CAQ components and model R explained 0«2) F df explained (R2) F" sr"

Ego-Brittleness
CES-D linear component .08 .00 .26 1,44
Quadratic component .41 .16 4.30* 2,43 .16 8.30** .40
Unconventionality
CES-D linear component .42 .18 9.4 !•* 1,44
Quadratic component .52 .27 5.30* 2,43 .09 7.82** .30
Rumination
CES-D linear component 32 .10 5.07* 1,44
Quadratic component .51 .26 7.42** 2,43 .16 8.94** .39

Note. CES-D = Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression.

" F value associated with increment in RJ.b The semipartial correlation represents the contribution of the quadratic component after the linear
component has been semipartialled.
*p<.05.**p<.0l.

pected on the basis of the underlying linear relation, reflecting
an apparent exacerbation or potentiation of these tendencies.
Relatively low scorers on the CES-D scale also were evaluated as
more unconventional and ruminative than would be expected
simply on the basis of the linear relations observed. Also in re-
gard to these two latter personality characteristics, greater vari-
ability characterized the subgroup of young women receiving
low CES-D scores compared with the subgroup scoring in the
upper range.
p< .01), more easily upset (r= .38, p< .01), more shy (r= .29,
p < .05), and as relatively less energetic (r = -.39, p < .01), less
orderly (r = -.39, p < .01), and less trusting (r = -.35, p < .05).
These are all qualities, self-recognized and self-influencing, but
simultaneously unapparent (withheld?) to the observers of these
female adolescents in interaction.
MPQ Scales Related to Depressive Symptoms (CES-D
Scores)

Adjective Self-Descriptions Related to Depressive Table 5 presents the correlations between the CES-D scores
Symptoms (CES-D Scores) and MPQ self-evaluations. Among young men, relatively high
CES-D scores were associated with relatively high scores on
To evaluate the self-concept of dysthymic young men and
women, CES-D scale scores were related to self-attributed ad-
jective descriptions obtained at age 18. In a first analysis, a two-
way Sex X Depressive Symptoms ANOVA was conducted, sepa- Table 5
rately for each AQ item, to identify possible interactions. In Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ)
contrast to results for observer-based CAQ items, Sex X Depres- Correlates of Depressive Symptoms (Centerfor
sive Symptoms interactions were not observed for self-attrib- Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scores) at Age 18
uted AQ characteristics.
Female subjects Male subjects
In a correlational analysis, CES-D scores were related, sepa-
MPQ scales (AT =46) (JV=41)
rately for each sex, to AQ self-descriptions. In 18-year-olds of
both sexes, depressive symptoms were associated with negative Primary MPQ scales
self-descriptions. Relative to nondepressed young men, young Stress Reaction .52**** .58****
Aggression .37** .42***
men with depressive tendencies described themselves as rela-
Alienation .34** .51****
tively more rebellious (r = .40, p < .01), more shy (r = .32, p < Absorption .32** .18
.05), more masculine (r = .31, p < .05), and also as relatively Well-Being -.58**** -.46***
less helpful (r = -.42, p < .01), less considerate (r = -.41, p < Traditionalism -.42*** -.11
.01), less cheerful (r = -.40, p < .01), less playful (r = -.32, Control -.41*** .03
Social Closeness -.25* 17*
p < .05), and less energetic (r = -.31, p < .05). These self-
Achievement -.23 .00
recognized personality qualities were, in their essence, recog- Social Potency -.22 .00
nized by the Q-sort observers from their interaction with Harmavoidance -.09 .02
these young men. Higher order MPQ factors
Negative Aflectivity .47**** .67****
Relative to nondepressed young women, young women with
Positive ArFectivity -.40*** -.18
depressive tendencies described themselves as relatively more Constraint _41«*« .06
restless(r= .55,p<.001),mor y edistractible(r= .53,p<.001),
more self-centered (r = .44, p < .01), more rebellious (r = .38, *p <. 10. **p < .05. ***p < .01. ****p < .001.
482 P. F. GJERDE, J. BLOCK, AND J. H. BLOCK
MPQ Stress Reaction, MPQ Aggression, MPQ Alienation, and
MPQ Negative Affectivity scales. They were also inversely asso-
ciated with scores on the MPQ Well-Being scale.
Among young women, relatively high CES-D scores were as-
sociated with relatively high scores on MPQ Stress Reaction,
MPQ Aggression, MPQ Alienation, MPQ Absorption, and
MPQ Negative Affectivity scales. They were also inversely asso-
ciated with MPQ Well-Being, MPQ Traditionalism, MPQ Con-
trol, MPQ Constraint, and MPQ Positive Affectivity scales.
None of the MPQ correlations are significantly different for the
sexes when examined via McNemar's (1969) formula for com-
paring independent correlations.
Self-Esteem Related to Depressive Symptoms (CES-D
Scores)
In the male sample, depressive symptoms were unrelated to
self-esteem (r = —.06, ns). However, in the female sample, de-
pressive symptoms were strongly associated with low scores on
the self-esteem index (r = -.48, p < .001). The difference be-
tween these two correlations is significant at the .05 level.
Discussion
Before proceeding to a discussion of our findings, we ac-
knowledge possible concerns regarding the large number of sig-
nificant tests calculated during the course of our analyses. With
so many tests, are we reporting primarily relations based on
Type I errors? We think not.
There is much misunderstanding in psychology regarding
how to interpret multiple significance tests. In practice, chance
expectations generally are not what they are commonly as-
sumed to be (J. Block, 1960; Pollard & Richardson, 1987).
Moreover, in reflexively protecting against Type I errors, psy-
chologists are often without protection against Type II errors
that it may be more crucial to avoid (J. Block, 1960; Rosnow &
Rosenthal, 1988). Beyond these recognitions, we suggest that
the present set of relations, deriving from several data sources,
by their convergence provide support for their believability.
Replication is of course in order, but given current knowledge,
the present findings warrant interest and interpretation.
Returning now to the implications of our findings, male ado-
lescents with depressive tendencies in late adolescence were, as
anticipated, characterized by independent observers as mani-
festing an externalizing pattern of characteristics: they were rel-
atively antagonistic, unrestrained, manifestly discontented with
self, and unconventional in thought and behavior. Consistent
with these personality evaluations by observers, these dysthy-
mic young men in their self-perceptions also described them-
selves as being relatively aggressive and alienated from their
social surround. However, beyond these similarities between
manifest behavioral characteristics and self-reported char-
acteristics, there are some notable discrepancies. Although not
recognized by observers, these young men viewed themselves
on MPQ self-report scales as prone to worry, vulnerable, and
without a sense of psychological well-being. Why did the ob-
servers not perceive these self-recognitions? Perhaps the nature
of the assessment situation limited the perceptivity of the ob-
servers or, alternatively, they may have been relatively insensi-
tive to the intrapersonal anguish experienced by these dysthy-
mic male adolescents because of their interpersonal unpleasant-
ness.
Female 18-year-olds with depressive tendencies were not ob-
served by Q-sorters to be aggressive or to have poor interper-
sonal relations; however, in their self-perceptions, dysthymic
young women pictured themselves as being relatively aggres-
sive, unrestrained, and alienated from others. These discrepan-
cies between what was observed by the judges and what was
privately expressed by the female adolescents suggest a ten-
dency in the young women to withhold or internalize depres-
sion-related feelings that are aversive to others. Whereupon,
because of these gender differences in the expression of depres-
sive affect, dysthymic young men and women may evoke differ-
ent reactions from others (see also Hammen & Peters, 1978).
Gender Differences in Adolescents' Depressive
Manifestations
Our results suggest that young men and young women differ
in their manifestations of depressive affect. Male adolescents
with depressive tendencies appear more likely to act on their
world with aggressive, externalized behaviors. Depressive tend-
encies in female adolescents, by contrast, are more likely to be
associated with introspection and a concern with the adequacy
of self, perhaps even self-dislike. It will be remembered that
among the female 18-year-olds, depressive tendencies went
along with low self-esteem. Not so for male 18-year-olds. (In
evaluating these results, the reader may also consult two related,
prospective studies of the childhood and preadolescent person-
ality antecedents of adolescent dysthymia: J. Block & Gjerde,
in press; Gjerde & J. Block, 1988.)
These several findings may be seen as following from long rec-
ognized gender differences in socialization emphases and from
the different self and world views that our culture fosters in men
and women. Boys more than girls are socialized to develop a
sense of instrumental competence and mastery. Girls, on the
other hand, are less likely to develop a sense of efficacy upon
which later instrumental competence depends (J. H. Block,
1983). Boys are therefore encouraged to rely upon assertive,
even aggressive behaviors to obtain important life objectives
(e.g., Eron, 1980); girls are taught to be diffident, self-evaluat-
ing, even self-effacing. Thus, because relative to boys, girls are
less likely to be socialized toward an active and mastery-ori-
ented relation to the environment, dysthymic young women
may therefore be more likely to turn inward—to become self-
focused, passive, and introspectively concerned with self. The
absence of overt expressions of aggression in dysthymic young
women may also be seen as devolving from the early social sanc-
tions imposed on girls who are overt in their expression of ag-
gressive affect. Our gender-differentiated results are also com-
patible with the recent view that men tend to respond to depres-
sion by engaging in action whereas depressed women tend to
resort to rumination, analysis, and contemplative self-concern
(Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987), and with the finding that depressed
women are more likely than depressed men to be characterized
by self-dislike (Hammen & Padesky, 1977).
 DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS AND PERSONALITY
An alternative way of construing these findings is in terms
of gender differences in the tendency to perceive the world as
noncontingent, that is, a sense of helplessness in controlling the
environment. It has been suggested that women experience
higher levels of helplessness than men do (Nolen-Hoeksema,
1987; Radloff, 1980). McCranie (1971) has proposed that if
feelings of hopelessness become a prominent component of the
depressive experience, there is a greater tendency to submit to
depression without overt expressions of anger and hostility, pri-
marily because the actively defensive functions of anger and
hostility are perceived as unlikely to succeed. Feelings of help-
lessness should have similar consequences, because prolonged
helplessness may lead to a sense of hopelessness. Owing to their
greater likelihood of experiencing a sense of helplessness, young
women with depressive tendencies may therefore be less likely
to externalize hostile and aggressive affects than are young men
with depressive tendencies. Finally, it follows that depressed in-
dividuals who believe that their helplessness is personally based
rather than externally based can be expected to have lower self-
esteem (Abramson et al., 1978). If women are more likely to
experience helplessness than are men, then it follows that an
inverse association between self-esteem and depressive tenden-
cies is more likely to obtain in the female sample than in the
male sample—the result found in this study.
We note that for both young women and young men, depres-
sive symptoms were related to Negative Affectivity as measured
via the MPQ. For young women only, depressive symptoms cor-
related negatively with MPQ-measured Positive Affectivity. De-
pressive states are thought to be characterized by a distinctly
low positive-affect component and so female adolescents seem
to respond to the CES-D Scale as a true measure of depression.
Male adolescents, by contrast, may be said to respond to this
scale as if it were a measure of aversive affects other than dysthy-
mia, such as generalized distress or anger. It may well be that
emotional crises among female adolescents are centered around
issues of communion versus isolation, with depression occur-
ring when communion is not attainable. For male adolescents
with depressive symptoms, on the other hand, the theme of frus-
trated agency is more likely to dominate, resulting in high nega-
tive affect (A. Tellegen, personal communication, May, 1988).
The lowered positive affectivity seen among young women is
also consistent with views of depression emphasizing inability
to affectively respond to pleasure (Klein, 1974) and blockage
of reward-seeking behavior and loss of reinforcer effectiveness
(Eastman, 1976).
The Role of Hostility and Aggression in Depression
The role of hostility in the psychodynamics of depression re-
mains problematic. Although classical psychoanalytic theory
held that hostility (or aggression) was suppressed, or directed
inwards in depression (Abraham, 1927; Freud, 1968), more re-
cent evidence has cast doubt on this proposition (e.g., Fried-
man, 1970; Gershon, Cromer, & Klerman, 1968; Gottschalk,
Glesser, & Springer, 1963; Kahn, Coyne, & Margolin, 1985;
Schless, Mendels, Kipperman, & Cochrane, 1974; Weissman,
Klerman, & Paykel, 1971; Wessman, Ricks, & Tyl, 1960). Our
results suggest that although both male and female 18-year-olds
483
with depressive tendencies see themselves as aggressive, the
open expression of aggression is strongly moderated by gender.
Among dysthymic male adolescents, hostility and aggression
are externalized—an extrapunitive behavior pattern seemingly
inconsistent with the classical psychoanalytic position. Also, as
male dysthymic adolescents develop more manifest depressive
tendencies, there is further potentiation of their antagonistic
tendencies.
Among dysthymic female adolescents, behavioral manifesta-
tions of aggression were not discernible, but aggressive affects
were nonetheless consciously accessible to these young
women—a pattern also seemingly incompatible with the psy-
choanalytic position that has emphasized in depressives the re-
pressed or unconscious quality of hostility or aggression (e.g.,
Abraham, 1927).
Because our findings are correlational, they do not permit
claims about causality. The following conjectures are therefore
presented as suggestions only. First, hostile and aggressive
affects may be secondary to depression—they may either be re-
actions to or (albeit only partially successful) attempts to cope
with depressive experiences (or both). This position is similar
to that adopted by Fenichel (1945), who viewed antisocial tend-
encies and undercontrolled behaviors as serving to ward off de-
pression, because these behaviors satisfy narcissistic needs (see
also Balint, 1952; McCranie, 1971; Schless et al., 1974). Alter-
natively, we cannot exclude the possibility that hostile and ag-
gressive affects precede, in some form, depressive tendencies.
Because aggressive behaviors are aversive to others, they may
elicit negative reactions. Hence, supportive feedback may be
less likely to be forthcoming, resulting in the possible loss of
social reinforcers (Ferster, 1973). The ensuing social isolation
may give rise to depressive tendencies. Or it may be that the
negative irrational thinking style that appears to accompany de-
pression leads to increased aggression and hostility because it
creates unrealistic and oversensitive interpretations of other
people's behavior.
The "acting out" and delinquent behaviors of depressed ado-
lescents have been said to mask depressive experiences (Toolan,
1962, 1974; see also Chwast, 1961; Glaser, 1967; Lesse, 1974;
Weiner, 1975). The concept of "masked depression" generally
implies, however, that the depressive experience is hidden from
both the individual's self-recognitions and from others (Blatt
& Shichman, 1981). Because the externalization of dysthymic
affect seen among the young men in this study takes place in the
context of subjectively recognized depressive experiences, our
results do not appear to support the notion of "masked" de-
pression as usually defined.
A final observation regarding gender differences is the degree
to which depressive symptoms are coordinated with overt hos-
tility and aggression. It is possible that the discrepancies be-
tween self-report and observable behavior characterizing dys-
thymic young women in regard to these negative affects are lim-
ited to specific interpersonal relationships. For example,
Weissman et al. (1971) reported that depressed women, al-
though not hostile during an initial interview, expressed consid-
erable hostility in close family relationships. This kind of situa-
tion-dependent hostility and aggression may also characterize
our female subjects in that their privately experienced aggres-
484 P. F. GJERDE, J. BLOCK, AND J. H. BLOCK
sion, although inaccessible to observers in this study, may none-
theless be more overtly manifested in intimate relationships.
Methodological and Substantive Implications of
Curvilinearity in Relations Between Depression and
Personality
The concave relations observed between CES-D scale scores
and independent personality evaluations are particularly inter-
esting. Male 18-year-olds scoring either very low or very high on
the CES-D scale were described as relatively more interperson-
ally antagonistic than would be expected on the basis of linear
relations alone. Compared with female adolescents earning
CES-D scores in the middle range, female adolescents scoring
high or low were also seen as relatively more ego-brittle, more
unconventional, and more ruminative than linear relations
alone would predict. These results suggest that some adoles-
cents with low CES-D scale scores, perhaps young women in
particular, are so committed to maintaining a certain self-un-
derstanding or public image (or both) that they fail to acknowl-
edge depressive tendencies (to themselves or to others). Ragrant
absence of normally expectable dysthymic symptoms thus may
be an important sign that further inquiry is warranted. It should
be possible and theoretically important to distinguish (a) truly
nondepressed individuals from (b) those who deliberately re-
port an absence of depressed moods for reasons of public im-
pression management, and (c) those who without deliberation
or self-awareness incorrectly deny in themselves the presence of
dysthymic affects. This last group of deniers seems particularly
important to study (Boyd et al., 1982; Radloff & Locke, 1985),
to delineate the strategies used to avoid disturbing self-cogni-
tions, and to study the developmental pathways leading to de-
nial of depression as compared to frankly acknowledged de-
pression.
Investigators of depression should seek closer understanding
of the psychological processes underlying scores on the depres-
sion inventories that are generally used. In particular, they
should be alert to the possibility that seemingly similar response
patterns—among low scorers in particular—may have impor-
tantly different psychological implications. Finally, when low
and high scoring individuals are to be compared with respect
to other relevant psychological dimensions or measures of inter-
est, it behooves the researcher to examine empirically and to
consider conceptually the shape of the relation between the
variables being related. If this relation is found to be or is ex-
pected to be curvilinear, analyses other than simple extreme
group comparisons will be required.
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Received December 21, 1987
Revision received June 10, 1988
Accepted June 13, 1988