1

Survey of Battery Energy Storage Systems and

Modeling Techniques
Adam R. Sparacino, Student Member IEEE, Gregory F. Reed, Member, IEEE, Robert J. Kerestes,
Student Member IEEE, Brandon M. Grainger, Student Member IEEE, and
Zachary T. Smith, Student Member, IEEE

Many energy storage technologies are in the developmental

Abstract—Grid level energy storage systems are a cornerstone
of future power networks and smart grid development. Better
energy storage systems are one of the last hurdles hindering the
integration of renewable generation. There are currently many
methods of implementing energy storage, ranging from pumped
hydro storage to sodium-sulfur battery storage. All energy
storage technologies share a common disadvantage which is high
initial installation costs. This survey was undertaken with the
intent of identifying the technological state of battery energy
storage for power systems, as well as providing a background on
the modeling and simulation of those battery technologies.
Index Terms—Battery, BESS, Energy Storage, DESS,
Transmission, Distribution, Smart Grid, Sodium Sulfur, Lead
Acid, Modeling
I. INTRODUCTION
stage, but few have received wide scale usage. These energy
storage technologies have not gained acceptance because they
have not been able to meet the fundamental requirements of
high capacity and long discharge times while remaining cost
effective or without special site criteria. To overcome the
challenges and fill the technological gaps for smart grids;
governments, utilities and developers need to work together to
develop an overall strategic plan.
This paper is organized in the following manner. Section II
presents a background and reason for research in this area.
Section III provides an overview of some of the more mature
energy storage technologies, discussing their benefits, current
implementations, and specific characteristic. Section IV
presents the techniques that are used for the battery modeling.
II. BACKGROUND

D ue to the rapidly aging electric transmission and

distribution infrastructure, the increased demand for
energy, and an increased awareness of climate change and
Electricity is stored on a large scale (greater than 1 kW) in
various ways including pumped hydro, various battery
technologies (Lead-Acid, Nickel-Cadmium, Sodium-Sulfur,
greenhouse gas pollution, there is a need to produce and
etc.), and compressed air energy storage (CAES), to a much
deliver energy more efficiently. Current industry and
lesser extent. The major problem with pumped hydro and
government solutions point to the development of a smart
below ground CAES storage is that there are few locations
grid. A smart grid includes a fully connected system that
which have the required geological layout that allows these
identifies all aspects of the power grid. The smart grid
methods to be used. Often times the locations where pumped
communicates its status and impact of its decisions to
hydro/CAES is achievable, is a great distance from where the
automated decision-making systems. One of the major pillars
electricity is needed. Battery energy storage systems (BESS),
of a smart grid solution is the development and deployment of
on the other hand, being modular and pad mounted in design,
large scale energy storage technologies.
can be put into any traditional electrical substation.
Battery energy storage systems (BESS) provide solutions to
Presently, pumped hydro and CAES are the two forms of
many of the goals of a smart grid. BESS can be used for:
energy storage most used worldwide, as shown in Fig. 1.
• Renewable integration However, due to the limited areas in which such systems can
• Stationary capital investment deferral at the be implemented and new advances in BESS technologies, the
generation, transmission and distribution level future of grid level energy storage is batteries.
• Transportable capital investment deferral
• Peak shaving and load leveling
• Load shifting
• Distributed energy storage system (DESS)
• Power quality management
• Spinning reserve and area regulation
• Emergency backup power [1]

This work was supported by funding from the PA DCED BFTDA. A.R.
Sparacino, G.F. Reed, R.J. Kerestes, B.M. Grainger, and Z.T. Smith are with
the Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering and the Power &
Energy Initiative, in the Swanson School of Engineering at the University of
Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15210 USA (e-mails: ars88@pitt.edu,
Fig. 1. Worldwide installed energy storage capacity [1]
reed5@pitt.edu, rjk39@pitt.edu, bmg10@pitt.edu, zts6@pitt.edu).

978-1-4673-2729-9/12/$31.00 ©2012 IEEE

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TABLE I
COMPARISON OF ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES [1-4]
Storage Power Capacity % Efficiency Total Cost Self- Response
Maturity
Technology (MW) (MWh) (total cycles) ($/kW) Discharge Time
Lead-Acid Commercial 50 300 85-90 (2200) 3100-3300 Low ms

NaS Commercial 1 7.2 75 (4500) 3200-4000 -- ms

70-76
Zn/Br Flow Demo 1 5 1670-2015 -- ms
(2000-3000)
87-92
Li-ion Demo 1-100 0.25-25 1085-1550 Med ms
(>100,000)
Vanadium 65-75
Demo 1 4 3000-3310 Low ms
Redox (>10,000)
Pumped 80-82
Mature 250-530 1680-5300 2500-4300 Negligible min
Hydro (>13,000)
CAES Commercial 135 1080 60-70 1000 -- sec
Many different technologies are available for the integration These technologies provide their own unique set of benefits
of a BESS. These technologies range from mature and including high energy density, low self-discharge rate, long
industry tested (Sodium-Sulfur) to those that are still in an calendar life, and lower cost. Summarized in Table 1 is a
experimental state (Zinc-Bromine Flow) [1]. Additionally, comparison of these characteristics for select battery energy
there are uses of energy storage; installations sizes range from storage technologies. This paper focuses on four of the more
kilowatts to gigawatts, and discharge times range from mature battery types including Lead-Acid, Sodium-Sulfur
seconds to hours. This trend is graphically represented in Fig. (NaS), Zinc/Bromine (Zn/Br), and Lithium ion (Li-ion).
2 below.
A. Lead-Acid / Advanced Lead-Acid
There are currently many different energy storage
technologies that are in various stages of development. The The use of lead-acid batteries dates back to the mid-1800s.
following is a list of more developed battery storage They are most commonly used in automobiles or as a form of
technologies with levels of maturity ranging from commercial backup power such as in an uninterruptible power supply [6].
to research and development. Those technologies include Lead-acid batteries have a non-linear power output, and their
lead-acid, zinc-bromine, zinc-chloride, zinc-air, iron-air, lifetime varies greatly based off of usage, discharge rate, and
lithium-ion, nickel-cadmium, sodium-sulfur, lithium-iron number of deep discharge cycles [1]. Their price is dependent
sulfide, nickel/metal hydride, and flow batteries. Each upon and highly influenced by the price of lead [1]. Lead-acid
technology provides unique benefits that make them more batteries have traditionally been used for backup power, and
practical than other technologies depending upon the situation power quality management for control systems and switching
[2, 5]. components [1].
During charging, lead sulfate is converted to spongy lead
via an electrochemical reaction, at the negative electrode
while lead dioxide is formed at the positive electrode due to
the flow current [6].
Newer lead-acid batteries use advanced materials and
technologies to improve life cycle and performance. Some of
these advanced lead-acid batteries are being developed
specifically to perform transmission and distribution grid level
support [1].
Lead-acid batteries are the most commercially mature utility
scale rechargeable battery technology, with over 20 years of
industry usage [1]. The main benefit of lead-acid batteries is
their low cost [6]. Examples of lead-acid batteries used for
utility level energy management includes the Chino battery
energy storage power plant, the Puerto Rico electric power
Fig. 2. Worldwide installed energy storage capacity [1] authority battery electric storage system, and the Metlakatla
Power and Light battery energy storage system [7, 8]
III. SURVEY OF BESS TECHNOLOGIES Due to the short operation life of lead-acid batteries, they
Presently, there is a wide variety of secondary battery are more often used for emergency power and power quality
technologies ranging in maturity from mature and management. During charging, hydrogen is produced at the
commercially proven to those that are still being tested in the negative electrode. This means that if the battery is
labs. overcharged and the battery will suffer water loss. This is
mitigated in utility scale installations through the use of

Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid (VRLA) batteries, which
automatically allows recombination of charge gas [2]. Lead-
acid batteries have a very low energy density when compared
to other battery technologies. Lead-acid batteries also suffer
from relatively short calendar/cycle lives of approximately 4-5
years/750 cycles, meaning that they are replaced frequently,
for heavy usage beyond back up power [9, 10].
B. Sodium-Sulfur
The Sodium sulfur battery was originally developed by the
Ford Motor Company in the 1960’s. It contains sulfur at the
positive electrode and sodium at the negative electrode. These
electrodes are separated by a solid beta alumina ceramic [11].
Through an electrochemical reaction, electrical energy is
stored and released on demand. This effect is shown below in
Fig. 3 [12]. NaS batteries have an operating temperature
between 300 and 360 °C [11]. The primary manufacturer of
NaS batteries, NGK Insulators, LTD, builds the batteries in 50
kW modules which are combined to make MW class battery
systems [13].
Fig. 3. NaS battery electrochemical reaction [12]
NaS batteries exhibit high power and high energy density,
high coulombic efficiency, good temperature stability, long
cycle life, and low material costs [14, 15]. Their energy
density is approximately three times that of traditional lead-
acid batteries [16]. They have a high DC conversion
efficiency of approximately 85% [15]. This high DC
conversion efficiency makes sodium sulfur batteries an ideal
candidate for implementation into future DC distribution
systems [17]. NaS batteries can be used for a wide variety of
applications including peak shaving, renewable integration,
power quality management, and emergency power. They have
the ability to discharge above their rated power, which makes
them ideal to operate in both a peak shaving and power
quality management environment [13]. NaS batteries are also
one of the more commercially mature battery technologies,
with use by AEP and TEPCO [12, 18, 19].
C. Zinc/Bromine
Zinc/Bromine (Zn/Br) batteries are a type of redox flow
battery. Zinc/bromine batteries operate by using a pump
system which circulates reactants through the battery. One
manufacturer, ZBB Energy, builds Zn/Br batteries in 50 kWh
modules made out of three parallel connected 60 cell battery
stacks [20]. The battery modules are rated to discharge at
3
150A at an average voltage of 96V for 4 hours [20]. The
battery stack design allows for individual stacks to be replaced
instead of the entire module [20]. Zinc-bromine battery life
time is rated at 2500 cycles [20]. The electrochemical reaction
used for charging and discharging energy is characterized as
reversible and non-destructive, meaning it is capable of 100%
depth of discharge. The zinc bromine battery uses less toxic
electrolytes when compared to traditional lead-acid batteries
making them a more environmentally friendly choice [9].
Zinc-bromine flow batteries lack technological maturity and
have few examples of real world installations.
D. Lithium Ion
Lithium-Ion batteries have traditionally been used to
power consumer electronic devices, and more recently for
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles [1]. The lithium-ion battery
operates by allowing the lithium ions to move between the
anode and cathode producing a flow of current. Lithium-ion
battery technology is one of the newer technologies examined
in this paper (first commercialized in 1991 by Sony Co.) [21].
There are many chemical configurations that are classified as
a lithium-ion battery. Each of these configurations has its own
power and energy characteristics [21].
Advantages of Lithium-ion batteries include high energy
density, no memory effect, long calendar life and a low self-
discharge. Having no memory effect means that li-ion
batteries do not require scheduled cycling [21, 22]. Due to the
scarcity of lithium, lithium-ion batteries are more expensive
than other battery technologies [2]. Current grid level Li-Ion
storage installations include smaller demonstration systems of
1MW or less [1]. According to the U.S. DOE, Li-Ion batteries
used for frequency regulation are one of the fastest growing
markets for energy storage. The DOE estimates that the
installed capacity of Lithium-Ion batteries in the U.S. for Grid
level storage is 54 MW [23].
IV. BATTERY MODELING
Mathematical battery models aim to predict the operation of
a battery given a specific set of parameters. There are
numerous factors that affect a battery’s operation including
discharge rate, charge rate, battery age, battery type, and
temperature. There are many methods of modeling battery
operation; each model has its own benefits and drawbacks.
Due to the highly non-linear operation of batteries, accurate
models tend to be overly complex mathematical models. For
grid level simulations, battery models expressed as equivalent
circuit models are necessary. These equivalent circuit models
need to be dynamic to accurately represent the operation of a
battery. There are two main methods of creating these
dynamic models. Using experimentally obtained data to create
lookup tables which are referenced by the simulation, or using
experimentally obtained data to create non-linear equations
which represent how the battery parameters change during
operation.
A. Electrochemical Models
Electrochemical models of batteries are designed to take
into account the chemical, thermodynamic, and physical
qualities of the batteries and are typically more precise and

complex [24]. The Peukert relationship displayed by (1) is
used to determine the state of charge, SOC, of a battery with a
constant discharge rate.
I n * Ti = K
where I is the discharge current in amps, n is a battery
constant determined by the battery technology, Ti is the time
to discharge at constant current, and K is a fixed constant [25].
Using the Peukert relationship, the battery capacity in ampere-
hour at a given discharge rate Ii can be related to a known
discharge rate In, as shown by (2).
C i = C n ( I n / I i ) n −1
where Ci is the battery capacity in ampere-hour, Cn is a known
battery capacity. For a constant discharge rate, the SOC can be
calculated using (3). Note that CDi is the capacity in ampere-
hours at rate Ii and time t.
SOC = 1 − C Di / Ci
C Di = I i t
For a non-constant discharge rate, which is the case with a
real world battery energy storage system implementation, the
SOC equation will change so that the relation is evaluated in
small time intervals, as shown by (4). SOCK (5) is the net state
of charge at k-th time interval.
n −1
I Δt ⎛ Ii ⎞
ΔSOC K = − i ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
3600C n ⎝ In ⎠
SOCK = SOCK −1 + ΔSOCK
B. Equivalent Circuit Models
Equivalent circuit models are typically used for simulation
of battery energy storage systems in power system
applications. Equivalent circuit models are more easily
modeled and used in computer simulation software packages
such as PSCAD. There are two main types of battery models;
static and dynamic. In a static battery model, the battery
characteristics are predetermined and constant throughout
operation. In a dynamic model, the battery voltage, current,
charge and temperature all vary as a function of one another,
which dynamically affects the battery output.
1) Ideal Model
The most basic equivalent circuit model for batteries is the
ideal circuit model shown in Fig. 4. This model is
characterized by a voltage source only, and does not represent
internal battery characteristics [26].
4
(1)
Fig. 4. Ideal battery equivalent circuit model [26]
2) LinearModel
The linear model, Fig. 5, expands upon the ideal circuit
model by adding a resistor in series with the voltage source.
This resistor, R, represents the internal resistance of the
battery. The voltage source, E, is the no load voltage of the
battery. This model can be improved by making the values of
(2) R and E dependent upon the battery SOC instead of fixed
values [26].
(3) Fig. 5. Linear battery equivalent circuit model [26]
3) Thevenin Model
The Thevenin Model, Fig. 6, includes the ideal no load
voltage, E, the battery internal resistance, R2, as well as the
addition of capacitance, C, and an overvoltage resistance, R1.
Like the linear model, the Thevenin model’s accuracy can be
improved by making the latter parameters correspond with the
values of the battery internal resistance, R, and open circuit
voltage, E, variable and determined by the battery current
(4) SOC [27].
(5)
Fig. 6. Thevenin battery equivalent circuit model [26]
4) Lead-Acid Battery Models
Even though lead-acid batteries are the most mature form of
rechargeable battery energy storage, a perfect model is yet to
be created. No one model can accurately simulate the battery
operation for both long and short term discharges. A lead-
acid battery has three main areas of operation that include
charging, discharging and at rest [28]. An ideal battery model
would have to take into account all three of these states of
operation. Lead-acid battery parameter calculation is
explained within [29] and validated in [28].
The equivalent circuit model shown in Fig. 7 can be used
for the simulation of charging/discharging of a lead-acid
battery and is accurate for short discharges (less than five
hours). It is also highly dependent upon the batteries charging
and discharging current, which makes it unrealistic for use in
simulation of fast switches between charging and discharging.
 5

The parameters for the short term lead-acid model are during charging and discharging is presented. The curves
calculated in [30]. representing charging have the highest peaks at low depth of
discharge. The increase in resistance at high and low SOC, is
caused by polarization effects, and shows why such areas
should be avoided [27]. The battery nominal operating
temperature is between 300°C and 360°C. When discharging,
the battery temperature increases. During charging, the battery
temperature will decrease since the heat generated by the
resistance is less than that of entropic heat absorption [27].
During the final standby state, the battery temperature will
also decrease. Battery temperature is maintained at 300°C
through the use of heaters [27]. The battery internal resistance
rises over time with respect to the number of charge and
discharge cycles on the battery as, shown in Fig. 10.

Charging
Discharging

Fig. 7. Fourth order equivalent circuit model for short term lead-acid battery
[30]

For long discharge times, a lower order model such as the

one shown in Fig. 8 is more effective. This model was
originally created and validated using Simulink. References
[31] and [32] provide the details for calculating the circuit
parameters.

Fig. 9. Depth of charge versus internal resistance of NaS at various

temperatures [27]

Fig. 8. Second order equivalent circuit model for long discharge lead-acid
battery [28, 31]

Current lead-acid battery model research focuses on the

development of a general model. Most recent modeling and
validation of lead-acid batteries has been performed using Fig. 10. Internal resistance of NaS cell with respect to the charge/discharge
Simulink [28, 31, 32]. cycle [27]

5) Sodium-Sulfur (NaS) Battery Model

Sodium-Sulfur battery modules are primarily manufactured
by NGK Insulators, Ltd. One configuration for peak shaving
uses 50kW modules where each module contains 320
individual cells [13]. There are a few factors which control the
NaS battery discharging/charging patterns. The internal
resistance of the battery varies throughout charging and
discharging. This variation of internal resistance is determined
by the depth of discharge (battery current charge level), and
the temperature [27]. Fig. 9 shows how the resistance of a Fig. 11. Electromotive force of NaS cell with respect to current depth of
NaS battery cell varies with respect to temperature and depth discharge [27]
of discharge, during both charging and discharging. For each
temperature, a curve representing the internal cell resistance
 6

The cells electromotive force, EMF, is based off of the OCV − Vbattery
batteries current depth of discharge as is illustrated in Fig. 11. Rint = (6)
Installations limit the maximum discharge to 100%, and in I disch arg ing
typical usage the maximum discharge is limited to 90% [18].
Using the effect of temperature and state of discharge on
the NaS cells internal resistance and EMF, the equivalent
circuit model shown in Fig. 12 was developed. The values of
Rc and Rd represent the battery internal resistance and vary
with respect to temperature and depth of discharge. The
battery voltage source E is the battery EMF and varies with
respect to the depth of discharge. RLC represents the
deterioration caused by the number of cycles. These values
are determined using a lookup table based on measured values
obtained through experimentation [27]. These individual cells
can then be combined to create 50 kW modules which can be
combined to create full scale 1 MW peak shaving installations
[27].
Fig. 14. Internal resistance as a function of SOC for different discharge levels
[33]

Fig. 12. NaS cell equivalent circuit model [27]

There is less research in NaS battery modeling compared to

other types such as lead-acid. The modeling technique
explored for the NaS battery provides an alternative to the one
explored for the lead acid battery. Instead of creating
equations to represent the internal characteristics of the
battery, the internal characteristics of the NaS battery were Fig. 15. Exponential equation for internal resistance as a function of SOC [33]
determined using look up charts and measured data.
Zinc-Bromine batteries suffer from a self-discharge which
6) Zinc-Bromine Battery Model can be calculated with (7).
Zinc-Bromine flow batteries, which consist of a flowing
electrolyte battery is used for large-scale power applications OCV ( SOC ) OCV ( SOC )
above 50 kWh [33]. The output of a zinc-bromine battery
R self − disch arg e = = (7)
I disch arg ing Δq lost / Δt
depends highly upon the current SOC.
The model shown in Fig. 13 uses the current SOC as the Note that the change in lost charge ∆qlost is the total amount of
main input for determining the instantaneous open circuit lost charge during discharging and ∆t is the time period where
voltage OCV, internal resistance Rinternal and the self-discharge discharging takes place [33]. For simplification, the self-
resistance Rself-discharge. The Internal resistance is calculated discharge resistance is estimated as a constant as shown in
with (6), [33]. Fig. 14 is the resulting values of Rint as a Fig. 16 and used to calculate Iself-discharge as a function of SOC.
function of SOC at different discharge rates obtained through
experimentation [33]. An equation representing Rinternal as a
function of SOC is obtained using the different internal
resistance curves, as shown in Fig. 15.

Fig. 16. Rself-discharge as a function of SOC and average Rself-discharge [33]

Fig. 13. Zinc-Bromine equivalent circuit model [33]
Regarding power system modeling concerns, the battery
model described above is efficient and adequate for

continuous charging and discharging. It should be noted that
the model was originally developed and intended for modeling
of an energy storage system employed in a hybrid-electric
vehicle.
7) Lithium-Ion Battery Model
Lithium-Ion battery output voltage and current are
determined primarily by the battery temperature, discharge
current and lifecycle. Fig. 17 shows an equivalent circuit
model that was developed for use in power system simulation.
This model consists of a voltage source E which varies as the
battery discharges, and an internal resistance made up of two
series resistors R1 and R2 [22]. This model is based off of the
model developed in [34]. The model shown in Fig. 17 was
used because it was originally validated for use in higher
power system applications. The values for the equivalent
circuit model are based off of a manufacturer’s data.
Fig. 17. Lithium-Ion battery equivalent circuit model [22]
The batteries voltage source is calculated with (8) where the
battery voltage source E varies with battery temperature and
available material left for reaction.
n 1
1
E[i (t ), T (t ), t , l ] = [∑ ck ( ∫ i (t ) dt ) k ] + ( R1 + R2 )ir (t )
k =0 Q0
The battery equilibrium voltage E is calculated using the
battery terminal voltage v. ck is the coefficient of kth-order
term in the polynomial which represents the reference profile.
Q is the battery capacity in reference to the cutoff voltage for
reference profile [22].
The battery internal resistance is represented by the sum of
R1 and R2. R1 is the internal resistance of the battery at 100%
charge and R2 will increase as the state of discharge increases.
R1 is determined using the discharge rate, temperature and life
cycle of the battery obtained with reference data and using (9),
[22]. R2 is calculated with (10), [22].
df df df
R1 = (i − i ref ) + (T − Tref ) + (l − l ref ) + R1 _ ref (9)
di dT dl
1
iR (T ) n 1
* ∑ rk ( ∫ i(t )dt ) k
R2 = 2
iR2 _ ref k =0 Q 0
The values of discharge rate, iref, temperature, Tref, and
lifecycle, lref, are determined using the reference data profile
discussed. Ri_ref is the internal resistance determined using the
7
reference profile at zero SOD. In (10), rk is the kth-order
polynomial representing R2_ref [22].
This lithium-ion battery model was designed for smaller
size batteries. The model does not operate properly at low
temperatures or high discharge rates. However, for a peak
shaving implementation it would useable.
V. CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents information on the operating
characteristics and modeling techniques of four of the more
commercially mature battery technologies (lead-acid, sodium-
sulfur, zinc-bromine, and lithium-ion). General information on
battery modeling was presented with the conclusion that for
power system simulation, accurate equivalent circuit battery
models are required. For accuracy, these models need to take
into account the electrochemical properties of the batteries.
VI. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The electric power and energy research group for grid
infrastructure (EPERGI) would like to extend a special thanks
to the Commonwealth of PA Ben Franklin Development
Authority (BFTDA) for their support of this work.
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 8

of wind energy," in Electricity Market, 2008. EEM 2008. 5th engineering. He received his B.S. in electrical engineering from the University
International Conference on European, 2008, pp. 1-6. of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh PA. From May 2009 through December 2010, Adam
[15] W. Zhaoyin, "Study on Energy Storage Technology of Sodium Sulfur performed three work rotations at the Beaver Valley Power Station,
Battery and it's Application in Power System," in Power System Shippingport, PA. Adam’s research interests include energy storage,
Technology, 2006. PowerCon 2006. International Conference on, 2006, renewable integration, power electronics and control technologies.
pp. 1-4.
[16] B. Tamyurek, D. K. Nichols, and O. Demirci, "The NAS battery: a Gregory F. Reed (M’1985) is the director of the power and energy initiative
multifunction energy storage system," in Power Engineering Society in the Swanson School of Engineering and associate professor in the Electrical
General Meeting, 2003, IEEE, 2003, p. 1996 Vol. 4. and Computer Engineering Department at the University of Pittsburgh. He
[17] G. F. Reed, P. A. Philip, A. Barchowsky, C. J. Lippert, and A. R. also has served as the IEEE PES Vice President of Membership & Image. He
Sparacino, "Sample survey of smart grid approaches and technology gap has 25 years of electric power industry experience includes utility,
analysis," in Innovative Smart Grid Technologies Conference Europe manufacturing, and consulting at Consolidated Edison Co. of NY, Mitsubishi
(ISGT Europe), 2010 IEEE PES, 2010, pp. 1-10. Electric, and KEMA Inc. He received his B.S. in Electrical Engineering from
[18] A. Nourai, "Installation of the First Distributed Energy Storage System Gannon University, Erie PA; his M. Eng in Electric Power Engineering from
(DESS) at American Electric Power (AEP)," S. N. Laboratories, Ed., ed, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Troy NY; and his Ph.D. in Electrical
2007. Engineering from the University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh PA.
[19] A. Bito, "Overview of the sodium-sulfur battery for the IEEE Stationary
Battery Committee," in Power Engineering Society General Meeting,
Robert Kerestes (M’2011) was born in Pittsburgh Pennsylvania. He served
2005. IEEE, 2005, pp. 1232-1235 Vol. 2.
in the United States Navy from 1998 to 2002 as an interior communication
[20] P. Lex and B. Jonshagen, "The zinc/bromine battery system for utility
electrician on board the U.S.S. Constellation. From 2002 to 2006 Robert
and remote area applications," Power Engineering Journal, vol. 13, pp.
served in the United States Naval reserves as an electrician in the construction
142-148, 1999.
battalion. He went on to attend the Community College of Allegheny County
[21] M. B. Yoshio, R.J.; and A. Kozawa, Lithium-Ion Batteries: Science and
from 2005 to 2007 where he later transferred to the University of Pittsburgh.
Technologies: Springer, 2009.
In 2010 Robert graduated Magna Cum Laude from the University of
[22] S. X. Chen, K. J. Tseng, and S. S. Choi, "Modeling of Lithium-Ion
Pittsburgh with a bachelor’s degree in electrical engineering and with a
Battery for Energy Storage System Simulation," in Power and Energy
concentration in electrical power systems. Robert will graduate with a
Engineering Conference, 2009. APPEEC 2009. Asia-Pacific, 2009, pp.
master’s degree in electrical engineering in the fall of 2011 with a
1-4.
concentration in electrical power systems and intentions of pursuing a Ph.D. in
[23] Electricity Advisory Committee, "Energy Storage Activities in hte
the same field. Robert was awarded the first ever Siemens T&D Service
United States Electricity Grid," United States Department of
Solutions Graduate Power and Energy Scholarship in September of 2011.
Energy2011.
[24] D. Cadar, D. Petreus, I. Ciocan, and P. Dobra, "An improvement on
Brandon M. Grainger (M’2006) was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
empirical modelling of the batteries," in Electronics Technology, 2009.
Currently, he is pursuing his Ph.D. concentrating in power electronics, motor
ISSE 2009. 32nd International Spring Seminar on, 2009, pp. 1-6.
drives, and medium voltage DC networks at the University of Pittsburgh. Mr.
[25] J. R. Bumby, P. H. Clarke, and I. Forster, "Computer modelling of the
Grainger has a master’s degree in electrical engineering from the University of
automotive energy requirements for internal combustion engine and
Pittsburgh with a concentration in electric power engineering and in 2007
battery electric-powered vehicles," Physical Science, Measurement and
graduated Magna Cum Laude with a bachelor’s degree in mechanical
Instrumentation, Management and Education - Reviews, IEE
engineering from Pitt. Brandon’s research interests are in power electronic
Proceedings A, vol. 132, pp. 265-279, 1985.
technologies and electric machines, specifically, power electronic converter
[26] K. Yoon-Ho and H. Hoi-Doo, "Design of interface circuits with
design, motor drives, power electronic applications suitable for renewable
electrical battery models," Industrial Electronics, IEEE Transactions on,
integration, and FACTS devices.
vol. 44, pp. 81-86, 1997.
[27] Z. F. Hussien and L. W. M. Cheung, M. F.
Ismail, A. B., "Modeling of Sodium Sulfur Battery for Power System Zachary Smith (M’2011) is currently a sophomore in the electrical
Applications," 2007. engineering program at the University of Pittsburgh concentrating in electric
[28] J. F. A. Leao, L. V. Hartmann, M. B. R. Correa, and A. M. N. Lima, power engineering. Zachary is a recent recipient of the IEEE Power and
"Lead-acid battery modeling and state of charge monitoring," in Applied Energy Society's Scholarship Plus Award.
Power Electronics Conference and Exposition (APEC), 2010 Twenty-
Fifth Annual IEEE, 2010, pp. 239-243.
[29] M. Ceraolo, "New dynamical models of lead-acid batteries," Power
Systems, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 15, pp. 1184-1190, 2000.
[30] S. Mischie and D. Stoiciu, "A New and Improved Model of a Lead Acid
Battery," 2007.
[31] R. Jackey, "A Simple, Effective Lead-Acid Battery Modeling Process
for Electrical System Component Selection," The MathWorks, Inc.2007.
[32] S. Barsali and M. Ceraolo, "Dynamical models of lead-acid batteries:
implementation issues," Energy Conversion, IEEE Transactions on, vol.
17, pp. 16-23, 2002.
[33] E. Manla, A. Nasiri, C. H. Rentel, and M. Hughes, "Modeling of Zinc
Bromide Energy Storage for Vehicular Applications," Industrial
Electronics, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 57, pp. 624-632, 2010.
[34] G. Lijun, L. Shengyi, and R. A. Dougal, "Dynamic lithium-ion battery
model for system simulation," Components and Packaging
Technologies, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 25, pp. 495-505, 2002.

VIII. BIOGRAPHIES

Adam R. Sparacino (M’2009) was born in New Castle, Pennsylvania.

Currently, he is finishing his Master’s degree in electrical engineering from
the University of Pittsburgh with a concentration in electric power