CLUTCHES

Clutch is a mechanism which enables the rotary motion of one shaft to be transmitted,
when desired, to a second shaft the axis of which is coincident with that of the first.

REQUIREMENTS OF CLUTCH
Torque transmission: The clutch should be able to transmit the maximum torque of the
engine under all condition. It is usually designed to transmit 125 to 150 per cent of the maximum
engine torque. As the clutch slips during engagement, the clutch facing is heated. Clutch
temperature is the major factor limiting the clutch capacity. This requires that the clutch facing
must maintain a reasonable coefficient of friction with the mating surfaces under all working
conditions. Moreover the friction material should not crush at high temperatures and clamping
loads.
Gradual engagement: The clutch should positively take the drive gradually without the
occurrence of sudden jerks.
Heat dissipation: During clutch application, large amounts of heat are generated. The
rubbing surfaces should have sufficient area and mass to absorb the heat generated. The proper
design of the clutch should ensure proper ventilation or cooling for adequate dissipation of the
heat.
Dynamic balancing: This is necessary particularly in the high speed clutches.
Vibration damping : Suitable mechanism should be incorporated witfiinthe clutch, to
eliminate noise produced in the transmission.

Size: The size of the clutch must be smallest possible so that it should occupy minimum
amount of space.
Inertia : The clutch rotating parts should have minimum intertia. Otherwise, when the
clutch is released for gear changing, the clutch plate will keep on spinning, causing hard shifting
and gear clashing in spite of synchronizer.
Clutch free pedal play: To reduce effective damping load on the carbon thrust
bearing and wear thereof, sufficient clutch free pedal play must be provided in the
clutch.
 Ease of operation: For higher torque transmissions the operation of disengaging
the clutch must not be tiresome to the driver.
TYPES OF CLUTCHES
 
The following are the main types of clutches:
 
1. Friction clutches
 
2. Fluid flywheel
 
The friction clutches work on the fact that friction is caused when two rotatmg discs
come into contact with each other. On the other hand th fluid flywheel 'Works on the transfer of
energy from one rotor to the other by means of s~e fluid.)
Friction clutches may be dry or the wet type. In an overwhelming majority of vehicles,
the dry type of clutch is used because of mainly the lower coefficient of friction in the wet type.
However, the wet type of clutches have also some definite advantage over the dry type because
of which they are being again increasingly put to use in modem vehicles.
All these types will now be described in detail.
 
 
 
PRINCIPLE OF FRICTION CLUTCHES
 
The principle of a friction clutch may be explained by means of Fig. 3.1 Let shaft A and
disc C be revolving at some speed, say N r.p.m. Shaft Band the disc D keyed to it are stationary,
initially when the clutch is not engaged [Fig. 3.1(a»). Now apply some axial force W to the disc D
so that it comes in contact with disc C. As soon as the contact is made the force of friction
between C and D will come into play and consequently the disc D will also start revolving. The
speed of D depends upon friction force present, which in turn, is proportional to the force
Wapplied. If W is increased gradually, the speed of D will be increased correspondingly till the
stage comes when the speed of D becomes equal to the speed of C. Then the clutch is said to be
fully engaged [Fig. 3.1(b)].
Let W = axial load applied
 
µ = coefficient of friction
 
T = torque transmitted
 
R = effective mean radius of friction surface. The expressions for the same for different
types of clutches have been derived at appropriate places in this chapter.

 
 Then T= µ WR
 
 
 
Thus we see that the torque transmitted by a friction clutch depends upon three factors
i.e., µ, Wand R. This means that increasing any or all of the above factors would increase the
amount of torque which a clutch can transmit. However, there are upper limits in each of these
cases.
(a) Coefficient of friction, µ
 
This depends upon the materials compnsmg friction surfaces. The coefficient of friction
values for commonly used materials for friction clutch are given in Table 3.1.

TABLE 3.1. COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION FOR CLUTCH FACING

MATERIALS
 
 
 
S.No. Material Coefficient of friction
I. Leather 0.27
2. Cork 0.37
3. Cotton Fabric 0.4-0.5
4. Asbestos-base materials 0.35-0.4
 
 
 
Most of the clutch friction materials have different coefficients of friction under static and
dynamic conditions; the dynamic coefficient being slightly less than the static coefficient. The
friction coefficient for a given material also varies with operating conditions, such as
temperature, pressure and rubbing velocity. These variations are usually furnished by the
materi,al manufacturers and are helpful in designing a clutch to operate under specified
conditions. As such, the values of the friction coefficients given above are only representative
values.
(b) Axial Pressure, W
 
The maximUlp value of W is limited to that which a driver can exert without undue strain.
This is found to be about 100--120 N. The other limitation is the type of material for friction
surfaces, e.g. for leather clutches maximum allowable pressure is 50 \cPa and for Ferodo lined
clutches 130 to 200 kPa. Where good cooling of the plates is possible a pressure of 300 kPa

could also be attained in case of asbestos i.e., Ferodo clutches.

 

 
 (c) Effective Mean Radius of contact surfaces, R
 
 
 
The value of R cannot be increased beyond a certain maximum which depends npon the
space available in the particular type of vehicle.
 
 
Dry Friction clutches
 
 
 
The following types of dry friction clutches will be described here:
1.Cone clutch
2.Single plate clutch.
3.Multiplate clutch .
4.Semi-centrifugal clutch
5.Centrifugal clutch
 
 
Cone Clutch
 

 
 
 
Fig. 3.2 shows a simplified diagram of the cone clutch.
 
In this type the contact surfaces are in the form of cones as shown in the figure. In the engaged
position, the male cone is fully inside the female cone so that the friction surfaces are in
complete contact. This is done by means of springs which keep the male cone pressed all the
time.

When the clutch is engaged, the torque is transmitted from the engine via the fly wheel
and the male cone to the splined gear box shaft. For disengaging the clutch the male cone is
pulled out by means of the lever system operated through the clutch pedal thereby separating the
contact surfaces.
 
 Advantage
 
The only advantage of the cone clutch is that the normal force acting on the contact surfaces in
this case is larger than the axial force, as compared to the simple single plate clutch in which the
normal force acting on the contact surfaces is equal to the axial force.
Disadvantages
 
This type of clutch is practically obsolete because of certain inherent disadvantages:
 
If the angle of cone is made smaller than about 20° the male cone tends to bind or join in the
female cone and it becomes difficult to disengage the clutch.
A small amount of wear on the cone surface results.in a considerable amount of the axial
movement of the male cone for which it will be difficult to allow.
 
Design detials:
 

 
 
 
 
 
 

 
Single Plate Clutch
 
 
 
A simplified sketch of a single plate clutch is given in Fig. 3.Friction plate is held between
the flywheel and the pressure plate. There are springs (the number may vary. depending upon
design) arranged circumferentially. which provide axial force to keep the clutch in engaged
position The friction plate is mounted on a hub which is splined from inside and is us to slide
over the gear box shaft. Friction facing is
attached to the friction plate on both
 
sides to provide two annular friction
 
surfaces for the transmission of power :A
 
pedal is provided to pull the pressure
 
plate against the spring force
 
whenever it is required to be
disengaged. Ordinarily it
remains in engaged position as is shown
in Fig. 3.4.

 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 

 
 
 

 
 Multiplate Clutch
 
The multi plate clutch is an extension of single plate type where the number of frictional
and the metal plates is increased. The increase in the number of friction surfaces obviously
increases capacity of the clutch to transmit torque, the size remaining fixe. Alternatively, the
overall diameter of the clutch is reduced for the same torque transmission as a single plate clutch.
This type of clutch is, therefore, used in some heavy transport vehicles and ing cars where high
 
 
torque is to be transmitted. Besides, this finds application in case of scooters and motor cycles,
where space available is limited.

 
 
A simplified diagram of multi plate clutch is given below (Fig. 3.19). The construction is
similar to that of single plate type except that all the friction plates in this case are in two sets,
i.e., one set of plates slides in grooves on the flywheel and the other one slides on splines on the
pressure plate hub. Alternative plates belong to each set (Fig. 3.20).
 

 
 
Fig. 3.20. Friction plates of a multiplatc clutch. (a) Plates with outer tccth. (b) Plates with inner
tecth.
 
 
 
 

.
 
Semi-centrifugal Clutch
 
For small torque transmission the clutch springs may be designed so that they have sufficient
strength for applying the required amount of force and at the same time are not so stiff as to
cause any strain to the driver while disengaging. However. for high powered engines. the clutch
spring pressures required may be considerable and thus the action of disengaging the clutch
becomes fatiguing to the driver.

To obviate this trouble, the help is taken of the centrifugal force. The clutch springs are
 
 
 
designed to transmit the torque at normal speeds, while for higher speeds, centrifugal force
assists in torque transmission. Such type of clutches are called semicentrifugal clutches.

 
 
 
Fig. 3.21 shows a semicentrifugal clutch. Three hinged and weighted levers are arranged at
equal intervals. One of these is shown in Fig. 3.22 on enlarged scale. This lever is having
fulcrum at A and is hinged to pressure plate at B. The upper end of the lever is weighted at C. 0
is the adjusting screw, by means of which the maximum centrifugal force on the pressure plate
can be adjusted. To reduce friction, the levers are mounted on needle roller bearings on the
pressure plate. At moderate speeds the pressure of the springs is sufficient to transmit the
required torque. However at higher speeds, the weight C, due to the centrifugal force moves
about A as fulcrum thereby pressing the pressure plate. The centrifugal force is proportional to
the square of the speed so that adequate pressure level is attained. Fig. 3.23. shows the variation
of force on the pressure plate at various speeds.

Centrifugal Clutch
 
In the fully centrifugal type of clutches, the springs are eliminated altoget er and only the
centrifugal force is used to apply the required presure for keeping the clutch in engaged position.

The advantage of the centrifugal clutch is that no separate clutch pedal is r quire The clutch is
operated automatically de ending upon the engine sQ.~e(h Th' s means that car can be stopped in
gear without stalling the engine. Similarly while starting, the driver can first select the gear, put

 
 
 
fhe car into the gear and simply press the accelerator pedal. This makes the driving operation
very easy.

 
Fig. 3.24. Principle of Centrifugal Clutch
 
 
 
Fig. 3.24 shows a schematic diagram of a centrifugal clutch. As the speed incr'eases, the
weight A flies, thereby operating the bell crank lever B which presses the plate C. This force is
transmitted to the plate D by means of springs E. The plate D containing friction lining is thus
pressed against the flywheel F thereby engaging the clutch.

Spring G serves to keep the clutch disengaged at low speed say 500 rpm.
The stop H limits the amount of centrifugal force.

The operating characteristics of this type of clutch will be then as shown in Fig. 3.25.
 
Force P is proportional to the centrifugal force at a particular speed, while force Q exerted by
spring G is constant at all speeds. The firm line in the figure shows the net force on the plate D
for various engine spee~s. At the upper end the curve is made flat by means of stop H.
CLUTCH OPERATION:

Generally, the clutches are operated mechanically through

a linkage. However, other means of operation viz . electrical.
hydraulic or even vacuum, have also been used. An these will
be described in the following briefly.

 
 
 

Fig. 3.27. Clutch free pedal play.

 
Mechanical operation
 
The clutch linkage for this purpose iS,shown in Fig. 3.26. On pressing the clutch pedal, the
shaft A turns, which moves the fork lever and then through shaft B, actuates the release fork to
press the thrust bearing. This movement is further conveyed to clutch levers to disengage the
clutch. Generally, mechanical leverage from 10 : I to 12 : I is employed that would require a
pedal force of about 100-120 N when using travel of 75 mm.

When the clutch pedal is pressed, the thrust

 
bearing is not pressed immediately. Rather a part of
 
the pedal movement is purposely kept idle (Fig.
 
3.27).1bis is done to avoid a rapid wear of the thrust
 
bearing and the clutch plates and is called clutch
 
free pedal play. Usually this is kept about 25 mm at
the pedal.

 
 Electromagnetic operation
 
This type of clutch has been employed on some Renault cars. The construction and working
of this clutch may be understood by means of simplified Fig. 3.28. A is the engine flywheel
incorporating the winding B. Clutch plate C is lined with friction surfaces and is free to slide on
splines on the clutch shaft. D is the pressure plate. The winding B is supplied with current from
battery dynamo.

When the winding B is energized, it attracts the pressure plate D, thereby engaging the
clutch. When supply to winding B is cut off, the clutch is disengaged.

There is a clutch release switch in the gear lever. This switch is operated as soon as the driver
holds the gear lever to change the gear, cutting off current to the winding and thus causing clutch
disengagement.

Ordinarily the winding is connected to engine dynamo. At lower engine speeds, dynamo
output is also low which makes the force in winding very small. Three springs are also provided
in the clutch (not shown) to balance this reduced electromagnetic force at low speeds, thus
disengaging .the clutch.

During normal operation, the electromagnetic force of the winding is regulated by means of
an electrical resistance, which itself is controlled by means of accelerator pedal. As the
acceleration pedal is pressed the resistance is gradually cut, thus increasing the electromagnetic
force.

The electromagnetic type of clutch is best suited where remote operation is desired since no
linkages are required to control its engagement. A major limitation of tillS type is that of heat
capacirj since the clutch-operating temperature is limited by the temperature rating of the
insulation of the magnetic coil. Another disadvantage is its higher initial cost.
 
Hydraulic operation
 
In heavy-duty mechanically operated clutches with high clutch- spring pressure, the force
required by the driver to release the clutch becomes excessive This can be remedied by the use of
hydraulic operation. This type of operation is also suitable for vehicles in which the clutch pedal
and the clutch have to be located too far away from each other. Hydraulically operated clutch
may be either single plate type or the more modern multiplate type. Both are described

 
 below
 
 
 
Hydraulic single plate clutch
 
 
 
Fig. 3.29 shows a hydraulically operated clutch. When the clutch pedal is pressed the fluid
under pressure from the master cylinder reaches the slave cylinder which is mounted on the
clutch itself. The fluid under pressure actuates slave cylinder push rod which further operates the
clutch to relese fork to disengage the clutch. In India, this type of clutch is being used in

Standard 20, SwaraJ Mazda and Eicher Mitsubishi's 'Canter' vehicles.

 
The detailed construction of
clutch master cylinder has been
shown in Fig. 3.30. In engaged
condition when the clutch pedal
is in the. released position, the push
 
rod rests against its stop due to the
 
pedal return spring. Also the pressure of master cylinder spring keeps the plunger in its back

 
 position. The flange at the end of the valve shank contacts the spring retainer. As the plunger has
moved to its rear position, the valve shank has the valve seal lifted from its seal and seal spring
compressed. Hydraulic fluid can then flow past 1he three distance pieces and valve seal in either
direction. This means the pressure in the slave cylinder then is atmospheric and the clutch
remains in its engaged position.
However. when the clutch pedal is pressed to disengage the clutch , the initial movement of
the push rod and-plunger permit the real spring to press the valve shan; and seal against its seat.
his disconnects the cylinder from the reservoir. further movement of the plunger displaces fluid
through the pipelines to the slave cylinder and disengages the clutch. The construction of the
slave cylinder is made clear by-me ns 0 Ig. 3.31. The return spring in the slave cylinder
maintains some pressure on the release fork so that the thrust bearing is always in contact with
the release levers. Moreover, in case of wear of clutch facing, the return spring and the piston
move out automatically to take up the tilt of the release fork lever.

Unlike cables. hydraulic operation does not involve frictional wear, especially when
subjected to large forces. Due to this reason hydraulic operation is particularly suitable for heavy
 
 
duty application, i.e., on large
 
vehicles.
 
 
 
 
Hydraulic multiple disc
 
clutch

 
 
 
 
This is a modern clutch and it is
 
increasingly being used in
heavy duty applications. e.g .. trucks. It may be in the form of a single or double clutch package.
Fig. 3.32 shows a double hydraulic clutch
incorporating hydraulic balance, internal
oil transfer and internal pressure modulation.
 
 
 
 
 
 
With the oil transfer system which enables oil to be transferred from one force chamber to
the other without passing through the hydraulic pump or external oil supply system, a much
 
 
smaller hydraulic pump is needed and the clutch engagement is also faster. Starting with both
clutches released the following sequence of operations takes place when one clutch is engaged:
 
 
 
(i) Oil under pressure enters the accelerator piston cavity A, which causes the corresponding
accelerator piston to move towards the separator plate. This further results in the sealing of the
disc valve assembly near cavity B against the separator and opening of the disc valve cavity C.
 
 
 
(ii) The main force piston, then, moves towards right, into the engaged position.
Simultaneously, oil is also being forced from chamber C through the pressure plate opening, into
chamber B by opening one-way valve adjacent to chamber B. The oil pressure in chamber C
being higher than that in chamber B, because of the movement of the force piston, causes the oil
transfer to take place.
 
 
 
(iii) With the force piston in the engaged position, the engagement is completed by
pressurising chamber B from chamber A at a controlled rate through an orifice in the accelerator
piston.
 
 
 
 
 The clutch engagement rate can be controlled by controlling the pressure build-up in the
force cavity of the clutch, which can be done either externally or internally. Internal pressure
modulation is found to be better than the external system because there the modulation is
controlled by metering a much smaller quantity of oil. The hydraulic clutch shown in Fig. 3.32
here

utiliLes internal pressure modulation. This is achieved with the use of an orifice between the
accelerator cavity and the force cavity passing through the accelerator piston. With the clutch in
the engaged position, the oil under pressure enters the accelerator position cavity closing the disc
valve and moving the piston into engaged position. Since the displacement of the accelerator
piston is small, the pressure drop in the accelerator cavity is only instantaneous, thereby
generating a portion of the clamping force in an extremely short time. The remaining clamping
force is then generated by a controlled pressure build-up in the major force cavity created by
metering the small amount of oil required through the orifice in the accelerator system.
 
Fig. 3.33 illustrates the effect of internai pressure modulation as compared to the
unmodulated clutch. It is seen that the 1Jlodulated clutch begins the engagement much quicker
than the unmodulated clutch. This is due to oil transfer system. The engagement increases
steadily and smoothly till the lock-up occurs. The pressure in the clutch then continues to rise till
maximum torque capacity of the clutch has been reached. On the other hand, in case of
unmodulated clutch, the time required to get the piston in the engaged position is considerably
longer. At the point of piston engagement the clutch torque rises suddenly from zero to
maximum, resulting in very harsh engagement and very high rate of heat generation.

Vacuum Operation
 
 
 
The partial vacuum existing in the engine manifold is put to use for operating the clutch (Fig.
3.34). A reservoir is connected to the engine manifold through a non-return valve. The reservoir
is further connected to a vacuum cylinder through a solenoid-operated valve. The solenoid itself
is operated from the battery and the circuit incorporates a switch which is placed in the gear lever
and is operated when the driver holds the lever to change gears. Vacuum cylinder contains a

 
 
 
piston wllicb is exposed to atmospheric pressure on one side. TIle piston is further connected
through linkage to the clutch. The movement of the piston thus operates the clutch.

In the part throttle position there is sufficient vacuum in the engine inlet manifold. When the
throttle is opened wide, the pressure in the manifold increases, hut due to this increase of
pressure the non-return valve closes, isolating the reservoir from the manifold. Thus a vacuum
exists in the reservoir all the time.
 
 
 
 

 
In the normal operation the switch in the gear lever remains open and the solenoid-operated
valve remains in its bottom position. In this position, the atmospheric pressure acts on both sides
of the piston in the vacuum cylinder. However, when the driver is to change gears, he holds the
gear lever. This action of the driver closes the switch, energizing the solenoid which pulls the
valve up, connecting the vacuum cylinder to the vacuum in the reservoir. Thus the piston is
subjected to useful pressures on two sides, which causes it to move. This movement is
transmitted by linkage to disengage the clutch. The clutch used in this case is an ordinary friction
clutch, which remains engaged due to the force of the springs provided in the clutch itself. The
gear lever switch is opened as soon as the driver releases the lever after changing the gear and
the clutch is again engaged.
 
Types of Friction Materials
 
 
 
1. Millboard type.
 
 
 
 2. Moulded type.
 
3. Woven type;
 
(a) Solid woven variety.
 
(b) Laminated variety
 
 
Millboard type - This is only asbestos sheet treated with certain impregnants.
From this sheet are then the facing discs cut according to different size
requirements. This is the cheapest available type but is quite satisfactory.
 
Moulded type - This is made by mixing asbestos fibres with a suitable binding material, heating
to a certain well defined temperature and then moulding in dies under pressure. Metallic wires
are also sometimes inserted to improve wearing qualities.
 
This type of facing is more dense and capable of taking heavier working loads. However
there is one disadvantage that each clutch facing has to be moulded separately.

Woven type - This type consists of a cloth impregnated with certain binders. The cloth may
either be woven like ordinary cloth with wrap and weft or by winding the fibres in
circumferential
 
direction only.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Fig. 3.44. Ferodo 2129F-moulded asbestos based clutch facing material suitaole for all types of
vehicles. (Courtesy-Ferodo Ud., England)
 
 
 
 
In the solid woven variety, the cloth is woven just to the required thickness. In the case
of laminated variety, the layers of cloth one upon the other are held together by a binder.

 
 
 
Stitches are provided in addition to the _binder.
Common Clutch Facing Materials
Organic friction materials are the most common types of clutch facing
materials. Examples are :
1. Leather: Dry leather on iron has coefficient in friction of 0.27.
 
2. Cork: Cork on dry steel or iron has coefficient of friction of 0.32.
 
3.Fabric: Good quality fabric materials have coefficient of friction of about 0.4. But they
cannot be used at high temperatures.
4. Asbestos : Asbestos facing have coefficient of friction of about 0.2.
However it has got anti-heat characteristics.

5.Reybestos and Ferodo. These have a coefficient of friction of about 0.35 and are most
suitable as friction facings. They are almost universally used for clutch facings.
 
 
For more severe applications sintered metal friction material is sometimes used because it can
withstand higher temperatures. However, its disadvantage:' is that it tends to weld itself to the
mating pressure plate and flywheel surfaces at high temperatures. For very heavy vehicles
operating under extreme conditions, combined metal-ceramic friction material can be used.
However these materials are satisfactory only when operating under very high temperatures
rather than under light duty and low temperature when they tend to have an abrasive action on
the mating plate surfaces.
OTHER CLUTH COMPONENTS
 
11.1. Pressure Plate
 
High tensile grey iron is the most commonly used material for pressure plate, which must
be sufficiently rigid so as not to distort under the pressure of the clutch springs. Adequate
rigidity is also needed to provide uniform pressure to clutch plate. The pressure plate should
also have sufficient mass and thermal conductivity to absorb and conduct away the heat
generated during engagement.

On the back of the pressure plate are cast a number of lugs to locate and support the release
lever and strut assemblies (Fig. 3.7).

 
 
 
Release levers
 
The pressure plate in case of coil spring type clutch has a number of release levers, usually
three or four (Fig. 3.8). especially spaced around the pressure plate.
Cover
 
This is a steel pressing bolted onto the flywheel and houses the pressure plate assembly
(Fig. 3.7). It provides pivot for the release levers and takes the reaction of the springs, due to
which reason it must be sufficiently rigid. It should also have holes for the dissipation of heat.
Straps
 

A number of steel straps, usually four (Fig. 3.45) are arranged around the pressure plate.
These straps hold together the cover and the pressure plate THease straps hold together the cover
and the pressure plate while the other end is connected to the cover. When the engine is running
and the clutch is engaged, these straps deflect without affecting adversely the concentricity of
the cover and the pressure plate and thereby transmit the drive from the cover to the pressure
plate without any friction between them.
 

Springs:
 
Normal duty clutch springs are made from oil tempered spring steel wire However, for
severe conditions they arc .nade from silica-chrome steel t< prevent heat set. Insulating washers
are also sometimes used under extreml conditions to reduce heat conduction from the pressure
plate to the springs.
The stiffness of the clutch springs should be the maximum possible SI that sufficient spring
force is left after their extension due to wear of the c1utcl facings. If the spring stiffness is
excessively high, either excessive rdeas pressure will be required when the clutch plate is new
or else insufficien spring pressure will be available when the clutch facing has worn CUI
Usually, a 10-15% pressure variation is acceptable between the new and worn positions of the
clutch facings.
Throwout Bearing:
 
It is used to transfer force at the pedal from the stationery linkage to the rotating.
c1utch. This is either a thrust ball bearing which is packed with grease for lubrication, or else a
graphite impregnated one fitted in a steel carrier. TI later type, obviously, does not require any

 
 
 
lubrication.
 
PRELIMINARY INSPECTION OF CLUTCH
 
I. Start the engine and with the clutch released try to shift various gear If the shifting is
smooth, the adjustment is correct. However, if the gear shifting is not smooth, it indicates the
need for readjustment.
 
2. Check the free pedal play. The exact amount of the permissible pI: may b~ ~oun.d out
from the manual, but in general a minimum of 12 mm pI:
IS specifIed m majority of vehicles.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Fig. 3.46. Adjustment of clutch free pedal play. I. Lock nut, 2. Split pin, 3. Push rod (Courtesy-
Tata Engineering & Locomotive Co., India)
 
 
 
 
 
 
The only adjustment required in a clutch is of
the free pedal play, which is necessitated on account of
wear of the friction lining due to continuous use, or with
the wear of the throwout bearing carbon ring due to
 
the habit of the driver to rest his foot always on the clutch
pedal. The: wear of the friction lining decreases the free pedal play, whereas the wear of the
carbon ring causes the same to increase. If the free pedal play is less, the clutch cannot engage
fully, whereas excessive free pedal play restricts the complete disengagement of the clutch.

 
 
 
The procedure of adjustment and the amount of free pedal play varies, depending upon the make
for which the concerned manual can be referred. For example, in case of Hindustan Ambassador
car, an adjusting nut is provided at the lower end of the clutch lever. You have to slacken the
lock nut first, make the desired adjustment with the adjusting nut and retighten the lock nut. The
free pedal play in this position should be 31 mm. Fig. 3.46 shows the method of freeplay
adjustment in a Tata 1210E vehicle. This is done by changing the length of linkage between the
clutch pedal and the clutch release fork. Lock nut is loosened, the split pin is removed and the
yoke is disconnected. Then it is rotated as much as is necessary so that the desired free play is
obtained, after which the lock nut is tightened and the split pin is reset. In Tata vehicles, the free
play is between 30 and 35 mm.
 
CLUTCH OVERHAUL
 
 
A general procedure for clutch overhaul has been explained in the following paragraphs. The
main steps for this are:
 
1. Removing the clutch. 2. Disassembling.
 
 
3. Inspection and service. 4. Assembly.
 
 
5. Refitting the clutch.
 
 
These have been discussed further in detail.

Removing the Clutch

The exact procedure to be followed for removing the clutch depends upon the particular
make of the car and the instruction manual for the same must be consulted. However the general
procedure may be outlined as follows:
1. Remove the transmission (gear box) from the chassis including various clutch and
transmission linkages
2. Loosen the bolts securing clutch to the flywheel. This must be done diagonal wise and
loosening gradually till the entire spring pressure is completely removed.
3. Remove the securing bolts. Now the cover assembly and the clutch friction plate may be
 
lifted separately.
 
 
 
 
 
Disassembling:
 
 
l. Before starting dismantling the clutch cover assembly, it is very important to mark the
relative positions of various components so that they can be reassembled easily. Mark the
pressure plate, the cover and the release levers. Remove the release levers alongwith the plate.

2. Place the cover assembly under a press, with wooden block suitably placed above and
below it (Fig. 3.47).

3. Apply the pressure on the cover assembly and in this position loosen the adjusting units.
Remove the pressure gradually till the clutch springs are completely free.
4. Lift off the cover to inspect various parts inside.
 
5.If it is required to remove the other components, mark their positions first and remove
them according to the procedure given in the manual.
 

 
Fig. 3.47. Clutch placed in the press for disassembling
 
 
Inspection and Service:

 
 
 
After disassembling the clutch, various components are inspected and serviced according
to requirements.
 
1. Clutch facing. Inspect the clutch facing for wear. In case it is worn out upto the rivet heads
(of course, with a service limit), the same has to be replaced. In Suzuki (Maruti) 800 car, for
example, facing has to be replaced when the same has worn to 0.5 mm above the rivet heads.
The facing may even be loose, in which case again a new facing will have to be fitted. The
procedure for refitting of facings has been explained in Art. 15.
 
There may be grease or oil on the facings. This may have come from excess grease in the
throwout bearing. Even too high a level of oil in the transmission may force the oil into the
clutch facings through the input sh~ft.
 
With use, the clutch facings acquire a shining surface, which is not bad. This shining polish on
the surface is transparent through which grains of the material are visible. But in case oil in small
quantities has reached the clutch facing, it will bum there and darken the facing colour. Yet the
performance of clutch is not affected. However, in case large quantity of oil reaches the facings
and bums there, the colour of the facings gets almost black. This causes clutch slip or judder and
the facings have to be replaced. Apart from replacement, it is very necessary that source of this
leakage should also be rectified.
 
2. Clutch plate springs. Inspect the cushioning and the torsional springs on the clutch plate. In
case they are found to be cracked or weak, complete plate has to be replaced.
 
3. Pressure springs. Check the pressure springs for stiffness. If variation in case of a particular
spring from the original value is more than the allowable, the same should be replaced.
 
4. Throwout bearing. Clean and grease the throwout bearing. Now hold the inner race and try to
rotate the outer race keeping it under pressure. If the rotation is not uniform, the bearing needs
replacement.
 
5. Pressure Plate. It should have a smooth plane surface. In case it is distorted by more than 0.3
mm, or is badly scored, replace it.
 

 
Assembly :

Grease various clutch components requiring lubrication before reassembling. Place the
pressure plate on the blocks placed over the press bed and place pressure springs on it at suitable
places. Fit also the release levers and place the cover over the assembled parts, ensuring that all
the parts which were marked before disassembling are placed in their correct positions. Apply
pressure gradually taking care that the bolts are guided properly through the holes in the cover.
Tighten the nuts in proper order and with the correct maximum torque. Remove the pressure by
releasing the press.

Refitting the clutch:

Attach the clutch cover assembly to the flywheel by means of bolts, placing the clutch plate in
between the flywheel and the 'cover assembly. Make sure that the clutch plate is centralized. This
may be done by using a clutch alignment bar.

Place the throwout bearing on the release levers and refit the gear box at the proper place on the
vehicle chassis.

Refit the clutch operating linkages and check for the pedal movement. In case of any excess or
lesser pedal play, readjust the same as already explained.

CLUTCH REFACING:

Refacing of clutch plates demands caution. The facing of suitable material only should be
used and the rivets for facing must be the tubular ones.

Use suitable drill to remove the rivets from the worn out facing. Do not punch the rivets
out. This may damage the friction plate. First attach on one side using a blunt centre punch.
Similarly attach the facing on the other hand.

It is very important that the plate after refacing must be perfectly flat. The tolerance for.
the run-out should generally be less than about 0.5 mm. This can be checked by mounting the
plate on a mandrel between centres and using a dial indicator as much near the edges as possible.
In case the run-out is more than the prescribed limit, dress it up after locating the high spots.
CLUTCH TROUBLE SHOOTING:

It is not within the scope of this book to deal with very exhaustively the trouble shooting
of the automobile clutch. However, common troubles experienced alongwith their causes, are
explained below briefly. The remedies have also been suggested.

1. Clutch Slip

It is sometimes experienced that the clutch slips while in engagement. In this condition it
fails to transmit completely the engine torque. Moreover, because of slipping, a large amount of
heat is generated due to which clutch facings wear out rapidly and even burn out. The flywheel
face also wears out, there is rapid wear of pressure plate and the stiffness of the springs is also
decreased: This may be caused by any or more of the following reasons :

(a) Incorrect linkage adjustment which causes insufficient 'free pedal play' . Adjustment of the
linkage will remedy this defect.

(b) Oil or grease on friction facings due to leakage from the engine crankcase or the gear box or
to excessive lubrication of the slutcn shaft and its support bearing. This causes glazing of the
friction surfaces leading to slipping. The remedy in this case is simply to clean the components
and replace the clutch facing.

(c) Weak or broken clutch springs. The springs may be overheated, which will be revealed by
their blue colour. Overheating reduces the spring stiffness and makes them weak. In this case the
only alternative is to replace the springs.

(d) Worn out facings, which should be replaced.

Clutch drag or spin :

Sometimes when the clutch is to be disengaged, it is not disengaged completely and it

causes difficulty in changing the gears. This defect is called clutch drag. Reasons for the
presence of this defect may be :

(a) Excessive "free pedal play." This may have been caused by the driver 'riding' the clutch
pedal. i.e., when he is in the habit of keeping his foot on the clutch pedal while driving. When the
clutch drags, the first thing to be done is to check the 'free pedal play' . If found incorrect, it
 
 
should be adjusted. If this play is already correct, then the trouble may be due to other reasons
and to locate them the clutch has to be opened.
 
(b) Oil or grease on friction facings. The remedy is to clean the facings or if excessively
damaged, to replace them
 
(c) Pressure plate warped or damaged is needs replacement.
 
 
(d) Clutch plate cracked or buckled. The only alternative to remedy this is the replacement of the
complete plate.
 
(e) Clutch plate may be seized on clutch shaft splines. This may be remedied by cleaning up the
splines on the shaft and lubricating them.
 
Clutch Judder :
 
 
Sometimes as the clutch is engaged, a vibration or judder is produced instead of smooth
gradual engagement and the vehicle suddenly jumps forward. The possible causes are :
 
(a) Loose or worn out clutch facings, which must be replaced. (b) Loose rivets. The whole facing
should be replaced.
 
(c) Distorted clutch plate may also be one of the reasons to cause clutch judder. The same has to
be replaced.
 
(d) Misalignment of the pressure plate with the flywheel. This has to be corrected. This requires,
however, special equipment.
 
(e) Flywheel may be loose on the crankshaft flange, which may be tightened to remove the
defect.
 
(j) Bent splined clutch shaft. If the defect is not much, it may be possible to straighten the shaft,
otherwise this has to be replaced.
 
(g) Oil, grease or dirt on the friction surfaces causing uneven engagement. The friction surfaces
on the flywheel and the pressure plate should be cleaned and the clutch facing replaced.

 
Clutch Rattle :

Apart from the defects explained earlier in the engagement of clutches, some peculiar
noises may be noticeable when the engine is idling. Clutch rattle is the prominent noise
observed.

To locate the cause, press the clutch pedal to take up only the free movement. If the rattle
disappears, it may be due to worn out or loose throwout bearing or it may be that pedal return
spring is disconnected and is loose. In the former case, the bearing has to be replaced, while in
the latter case, the spring is simply to be replaced.

If, however, the rattle continues, it may be due to damaged clutch plate ir. which case it
has to be replaced. The bent splined shaft may also be a source of rattle.

Knock :

This is observed clearly when the engine is idling and the clutch is engaged. This may be due to
worn out splines of the clutch plate hub or the clutch shaft. Such a situation would require
replacement of the defective part i.e. either the clutch plate or the clutch shaft or both. The
wearing out of the spigot bearing in the flywheel may also be a cause of knock in the clutch. The
bearing will have to be replaced in this case.

Pulsation of the clutch pedal :

This may be caused by the misalignment of the engine and the transmission. Due to
misalignment, the clutch disc moves to and fro on the clutch shaft in each revolution and this
movement is transmitted back to the pedal. This results in rapid wear of all clutch parts. To
remedy this, the proper realignment has to be done. The pedal pulsations may also be caused by
a wobbling flywheel, mostly due to its improper mounting on 'the engine crank shaft, which may
be redone properly. If the flywheel is otherwise unbalanced, the same may be either balanced or
replaced.
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
Fluid  coupling 
 
 
FLUID Flywheel:
 
 
Construction
 
 
The fluid flywheel or the hydraulic coupling as it
is frequently called has been used in cars employing
automatic transmissions.
 
 
It consists of two members, the diving and the driven
as shown in Fig. 3.48. The driving member is attached
to the engine flywheel and the driven member, to the
transmission
shaft. The two members do not have any direct contact with each other. The driven
member is free to slide on splines on the transmission shaft. The two rotors are always
filled with fluid of suitable viscosity. These are provided with radial ribs to form a number
of passages, which avoid formation of eddies and also guide the fluid to flow in the desired
direction.
Principle of Fluid Flywheel.
 
Torque Transmission
A simplified diagram representing the fluid flywheel (Fig. 3.50) makes it easier to
understand the process of transmission of torque. At the start, tube, X is rotating, say, at N1 rpm
and tube Y is stationary. With the movement of fluid in X and Y, Y also starts rotating though at
lower speed. This speed goes on increasing till it becomes equal to the speed of X. Then the
coupling IS fully engaged.
To understand how all this happens, consider a particle A, which after small intervals of
time takes successively the positions B, C and D. If m is the mass of the particle. The kinetic
energy values at A, B, C and D respectively will be (m/2)*(2¶RN1)^2, (m/2)*(2¶RN1)^2),
(m/2)*(2¶RN2)^2), (m/2)*(2¶RN2)^2). Thus we see that particle A gains K.E. as it moves from A
to B in tube X; and then when it passes to tube Y, it gives the same to it, thereby increasing its
speed.

Characteristics:

Fig 3.51 shows the variation of percentage slip with speed. The percentage slip is defined as
((N1-N2)/N1) where N1 and N2 are the speed of driving and driven members respectively. It is
seen that for engine speeds below about 500 r.p.m (fixed by the designer), percentage slip is 100
which means clutch is fully disengaged. As the engine speed increases further to about 1000
r.p.m., the percentage slip falls rapidly to about 10, beyond which the slip decreases gradually to
a small value of about 2 per cent at about 3000 r.p.m. As percentage slip represents definite loss
of energy and consequently increased fuel consumption, the engine should not be allowed to run
at a speed between approximately 500 and 1000 r.p.m. This condition is similar to a slipping
clutch in case of ordinary friction clutches.
Advantages
1. No wear on moving parts.
2. No adjustment to be made.
3. No maintenance necessary except oil level.
4. Simple design.

5.No jerk on transmission when the gear engages. It damps all shocks and strains incident
with connecting a revolving engine to transmission.
6. No skill required for operating it.

7.Car can stop in gear and move off also by pressing accelerator pedal only.
Disadvantages

The only disadvantage of the fluid flywheel is that there is a drag on the gear box-shaft even
when the percentage slip is 100. This makes the gear changing difficult with the ordinary
crash type gear box. Hence the fluid flywheel is generally used with epicyclic gear box
which avoids this difficulty.
FLUID FLYWHEEL TROUBLE SHOOTING

The faults experienced in the case of fluid flywheel are not many. In the absence of many
mechanical components, the maintenance job for fluid flywheel is much easier as compared with
ordinary friction clutches. The major faults that occur in flywheel are:
1. Large Slip

As is clear from the characteristics of a fluid flywheel, some slip always exists. But
sometimes it may become excessive due to either the shortage of fluid or the fluid in the
flywheel not being of proper viscosity.
2. Drag

If appreciable drag is experienced in the flywheel when the engine is idling it may be only
due to wrong grade of fluid.
3. Vibration

The vibration in the fluid flywheel may be caused due to upsetting of the balance of the
rotors. The unbalance may be due to reasons such as nut being changed on the bolts, oil filler
plug being changed over, etc.
 A fluid coupling is a hydrodynamic device used to transmit rotating mechanical power. It has
been used in automobile transmissions as an alternative to a mechanical clutch. It also has
widespread application in marine and industrial machine drives, where variable speed operation
and/or controlled start-up without shock loading of the power transmission system is essential.
 
A fluid coupling consists of three components, plus the hydraulic fluid:
 
 The housing, also known as the shell (which must have an oil tight seal around the drive
shafts), contains the fluid and turbines.
 Two turbines (fan like components):
o One connected to the input shaft; known as the pump or impellor, primary wheel
input turbine
o The other connected to the output shaft, known as the turbine, output turbine,
secondary wheel or runner
 
The driving turbine, known as the 'pump', (or driving torus)is rotated by the prime mover, which
is typically an internal combustion engine or electric motor. The impellor's motion imparts both
outwards linear and rotational motion to the fluid.
 
The hydraulic fluid is directed by the 'pump' whose shape forces the flow in the direction of the
'output turbine' (or driven torus). Here, any difference in the angular velocities of ‘input stage’
and ‘output stage’ results in a net force on the 'output turbine' causing a torque; thus causing it to
rotate in the same direction as the pump.
 
The motion of the fluid is effectively toroidal - travelling in one direction on paths that can be
visualized as being on the surface of a torus:
 
 If there is a difference between input and output angular velocities the motion has a
component which is circular (i.e. round the rings formed by sections of the torus)
 If the input and output stages have identical angular velocities there is no net centripetal
force - and the motion of the fluid is circular and co-axial with the axis of rotation (i.e.
round the edges of a torus), there is no flow of fluid from one turbine to the other.
 
Stall speed
 
An important characteristic of a fluid coupling is its stall speed. The stall speed is defined as the
highest speed at which the pump can turn when the output turbine is locked and maximum input
power is applied. Under stall conditions all of the engine's power would be dissipated in the fluid
coupling as heat, possibly leading to damage.
Slip
 
A fluid coupling cannot develop output torque when the input and output angular velocities are
identical. Hence a fluid coupling cannot achieve 100 percent power transmission efficiency. Due
to slippage that will occur in any fluid coupling under load, some power will always be lost in
fluid friction and turbulence, and dissipated as heat.
 
The very best efficiency a fluid coupling can achieve is 94%, that is for every 100 revolutions
 
input, there will be 94 revolutions output. Like other fluid dynamical devices, its efficiency tends
to increase gradually with increasing scale, as measured by the Reynolds number.

Hydraulic fluid

As a fluid coupling operates kinetically, low viscosity fluids are preferred Generally speaking,
multi-grade motor oils or automatic transmission fluids are used. Increasing density of the fluid
increases the amount of torque that can be transmitted at a given input speed.

One-Way Clutch
A one-way clutch (also known as a "sprag" clutch) is a device that will allow a component such
as ring gear to turn freely in one direction but not in the other. This effect is just like that of a
bicycle, where the pedals will turn the wheel when pedaling forward, but will spin free when
pedaling backward.

A common place where a one-way clutch is used is in first gear when the shifter is in the drive
position. When you begin to accelerate from a stop, the transmission starts out in first gear. But
have you ever noticed what happens if you release the gas while it is still in first gear? The
vehicle continues to coast as if you were in neutral. Now, shift into Low gear instead of Drive.

When you let go of the gas in this case, you will feel the engine slow you down just like a
standard shift car. The reason for this is that in Drive, a one-way clutch is used whereas in Low,
a clutch pack or a band is used.