Applicability of Highwall Miing

A
Seminar Report
on
“Improving the stability of the highwall in semi-surface
and semi-underground mining methods”
Submitted in the partial fulfillment of the requirement
for the VIII Semester Seminar-15MNS86 for the award of degree of
Bachelor of Engineering
in
Mining Engineering
Visvesvaraya Technological University Belgaum

by
Vetrivel V
1GV15MI061
Under the Guidance of

Mr. Vikram P
Assistant Prof., Dept. of Mining., Dr. T.T.I.T, K.G.F
2018 –2019
Dr. T. THIMMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY.
Department of Mining Engineering
Kolar Gold Field – 563 120.
Dr. T. THIMMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,
Kolar Gold Field - 563120
Department of Mining Engineering
CERTIFICATE
Certified that the seminar work entitled “IMPROVING THE STABILITY OF THE
HIGHWALL IN SEMI-SURFACE AND SEMI-UNDERGROUND MINING
METHODS” carried out by Vetrivel V (USN-1GV15MI061) bonafide student of Dr. T.
Thimmaiah Institute of Technology, in partial fulfilment for the award of Bachelor of
Engineering in Mining Engineering department of the Visvesvaraya Technological
University, Belgaum during the year 2018-2019. It is certified that all corrections/suggestions
indicated for Internal Assessment have been incorporated in the Report deposited in the
departmental library. The project report has been approved as it satisfies the academic
requirements in respect of seminar work prescribed for the said degree.
Signature of Guide Signature of HOD Signature of Principal
Mr. Vikram P Dr. Ramesh Dr. Syed Ariff

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my sincere gratitude to the following people and acknowledge them for having me
in completing the seminar successfully.
I would like to express my deep gratitude to Dr. T. Thimmaiah Institute of Technology for
providing me a great opportunity to pursue the degree course.
I am very much thankful to Dr. Syed Ariff, Principal and Dr. Ramesh, Head of the
Department, Department of Mining Engineering for providing support for all seminar
related activities.
I sincerely thank by heart and soul to my internal guide Mr. Vikram P, Assistant Professor,
Department of Mining Engineering whose timely support and suggestions went a long way
in the completion of seminar.
I thank the seminar coordinator, Mr. Vijayaragavan P, Associate Professor, Department

of Mining Engineering, for his useful guidance and valuable suggestions that helped me in
successful completion of this seminar.
Finally, I thank all the teaching and non-teaching staff of Dr. TTIT and the encouragement in
my endeavour and of course, nothing could have come true without the support and cheerful
encouragement of my parents and friends.
ABSTRACT
When the economic strip limits are reached or when the strip limits are reached by
surface conditions then it is very much harder to continue the mining operation by surface
mining methods. In this condition the mining operation can be done by semi-surface mining
and semi-underground mining methods which are like the transition from surface mining to
underground mining. These methods of mining can be used for thin seams that cannot be
mined by other surface mining methods and also for coal reserves that had been left due to
some other reasons. These methods include High wall method and Auger method. In these
methods the main safety problem is the instability of the highwall, the high may collapse and
severely affect both men and materials. This study is about the stability of the highwall,
monitoring methods for highwall movements and the preventive measures to be taken in
order to minimize the highwall failures.
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. HIGHWALL MINING METHOD 3
2.1 Auger Mining
2.2 Highwall Mining
3. HIGHWALL STABILITY AND PILLAR DESIGN 5
3.1 Factors influencing highwall stability
3.2 Pillar design for Highwall Mining
4. HIGHWALL MOVEMENT MONITORING 10
4.1 Monitoring Techniques
4.2 Threshold limits of strain for safe mining
4.3 Survey monitoring frequency
5. PREVENTIVE MEASURES 16
5.1 Catch Benches
5.2 Drainage of surface water
5.3 Backfilling
5.4 Geological structure
5.5 Blasting techniques
5.6 Operational care
6. CONCLUSION 18
REFERENCES 19
6
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1: Contour Mining 2
Fig. 2: Strip Mining 2
Fig. 3: Opencast Mining 2
Fig. 4: Auger Mining 2
Fig. 5: Auger Mining 3
Fig. 6: Highwall Mining 4
Fig. 7: Targets installed in the Highwall 11
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Equations used for designing web and barrier pillar 7

Table 2: Threshold strain levels for key stages of highwall stability 15
7
IMPROVING THE STABILITY OF THE HIGHWALL IN SEMI-
SURFACE AND SEMI-UNDERGROUND MINING METHODS 2018-2019
IMPROVING THE STABILITY OF THE HIGHWALL

IN SEMI-SURFACE AND SEMI-UNDERGROUND
MINING METHODS
1. INTRODUCTION:
The most economical method of coal extraction from coal seams depends on the
depth, quality of the seams, the geology and the environmental factors. Many coal deposits
are extracted from both surface and underground mines. Surface mining and deep
underground mining are the two basic methods adopted for mining coal. The choice of
mining method depends primarily on depth of burial, density of the overburden and thickness
of the coal seam. Seams relatively close to the surface, at depths less than approximately 180
ft. (50 m), are usually surface mined. Coal that occurs at depths of 50 to 100 m are usually
deep mined, but in some cases surface mining techniques can be used. Coals occurring below
100 m are usually deep mined.
Surface mining plays considerable roles in the world’s coal mining, which has many
advantages such as large output, low cost, simple mining technology, safe operation and so
on. So the surface mining method is adopted as the primary mining method in major coal
production countries of the world, such as Australia, US, India, Russia and South Africa.
When the coal seams occur near the surface, it may be economical to extract the coal using
open cut (also referred to as open cast, open pit, mountaintop removal or strip) mining
methods. Open cast coal mining recovers a greater proportion of the coal deposit than
underground methods. Large open cast mines can cover an area of many square kilometres
and use very large pieces of equipment.
Surface mining techniques can be broadly classified into the following types:
1) contour strip mining,
2) area strip mining,
3) open-pit mining, and
4) auger mining.
Dept. of Mining Engineering, Dr.TTIT, KGF 1

Fig.1: Contour Mining Fig.2: Strip Mining
Fig.3: Opencast Mining Fig.4: Auger Mining
The first three methods can be used as the methods to extract thick coal seam
occurring at shallow depth while the auger mining method can be used for extracting thin
coal seams and the coals left without extracting due to some reasons. The coal can be left
without extracting due to the following reasons:
1) Uneconomical stripping ratio

2) The pit reaches the ultimate depth

3) Mine reaches its life time
4) Seams with very less thickness
5) Less availability of land to extend the boundary of the mines
These coals can be mined by Auger method of mining. Auger mining is a relatively
low cost method of coal mining and is practical in areas where the overburden (material
covering the coal seam) is too thick to be removed economically or where the coal seam is
too thin for underground mining.
2. Highwall Mining Methods:

2.1. Auger mining:
Auger mining is a relatively low cost method of coal mining and is practical in areas
where the overburden (material covering the coal seam) is too thick to be removed
economically or where the coal seam is too thin for underground mining.
Auger mining is a surface mining technique used to recover additional coal from a seam
located behind a highwall produced either by stripping or open-pit mining.
Auger mining uses large-diameter drills mounted on mobile equipment to bore into a coal
seam. Holes are horizontally drilled at regular intervals to depths of as much as 1,000 feet. As
the cutting head of the auger bites into the coalface, the cut coal is carried out by the screw
portion of the bit. Once the hole is mined to its required depth, the auger machine is moved a
few feet and another hole is drilled.

Fig.5: Auger Mining
Auger mining can create pits up to 500 feet into the highwall depending on the conditions of
the site and the type of auger used. This mining method is generally inexpensive; however,
coal recovery rates are low. Auger mining is usually associated with contour strip mining.
Coal recovery rates approach 30-40 percent with this method. The cutting heads of
some augers are as high as 2.5 metres. As each stem works its way into the coal seam,
additional auger stems are added, so that hole depths of more than 60 to 100 metres are not
uncommon. Problems of subsidence, water pollution, and potential fires are associated with
augering.
2.2. Highwall Mining:
Highwall mining is an adaptation of auger mining. Instead of an auger hole, an entry

into the coal seam is made by a continuous miner, remotely operated from a cabin at the
surface. The cut coal is transported by conveyors behind the miner to the outside. Using a
television camera, the operator can see and control the miner’s progress. The entry can be
advanced 300 to 400 metres into the coal seam, after which the miner is retreated to the
surface and repositioned to drive an entry adjacent to the previous one. Advantages over
augering include rate of recovery (60-80%), higher productivity, greater safety, and lower
cost.

Fig.6: Highwall Mining
2.2.1 Applicability of highwall mining:
The narrow bench needed to operate the highwall miming system is not only
economically attractive, but also offers minimal disturbance to the surrounding land, making
mining possible on relatively small properties. The highwall mining system is extremely
mobile. Worker productivity is one of the biggest advantages of highwall mining over
underground mining. The seams as thin as 1 meter can be highwall mined depending on the
choice of system. The Addcar system provides a cost-effective and safe means of extracting
coal and is ideally suited to applications that have 500 m or more of exposed highwall. The
system can handle seams ranging from as low as 0.97 m to as high as 5.2 m in thickness.
American Highwall Systems can mine from 0.66 to 3.6 m in thickness and depth up to 365 m.
Superior Highwall Miners can handle seam thicknesses of 0.71 to 4.5 m thick and up to a
depth of 304 m. Highwall mining in Australia has been carried out on seam dips ranging from
2-15°. Penetrations of up to 486 m have been consistently achieved with highwall mining
systems.
2.2.2 Operation of Highwall miner:
From the bridge of the highwall miner, an operator advances a cutter head into an
exposed coal seam. The machine rests on a crawler tracks on the bench below the highwall.
Coal is extracted in parallel rectangular (the width of the cutter head) entries spaced at

various intervals. The cutter is pushed into the seam by a string of push beams that use a set
of twin screw conveyors to clear the coal from the cutter module and transport it to the rear of
the machine. A slewing conveyor stockpiles coal in the bench and a front-end loader places
the coal in dump trucks.
3. Highwall Stability and Pillar design:
3.1 Factors influencing highwall stability:
Geography, regulations and geological conditions are external factors that determine
where and how highwall miner can be used to extract coal. Roof conditions have had a great
influence on machine performance in certain seams. Mine water is another big problem. Any
small amount of water tends to collect at the face in inclined seam excavations, interfering
with excavation work and decreasing the stability of the excavation. The structural aspects of
overburden and floor material play a significant role in the predictive behaviour of rock
masses in response to the mining operations, especially of highwall stability and the
formation of spoil dumps. The geological parameters that are most relevant to rock slope
stability are the persistence, attitude, and nature of discontinuities within the rock mass; shear
strength characteristics both within the rock mass and along discontinuities; rock density and
potential for build-up of water pressure in the rock mass and in tension cracks in rock slopes.
Bedding planes are the most common through-going discontinuities, followed by joints, in
coal measure sequences. Trans current (strike-dip) faults, unless major, do not lead to slope
instability.
3.2 Pillar design for highwall mining:
Highwall stability through proper ground control engineering is of paramount

importance to safe highwall mining operations. Unstable slopes are hazardous for miners who
work on or beneath them, and large-scale failures have the potential to cause catastrophic loss
of life, demolition of equipment, and the loss of property. Open pit highwalls may undergo
different forms of instability, depending on subject to the nature and orientation of rock mass
pointing and the presence of any discrete large-scale structural geologic features. The
commonly recognized forms of highwall instability include Planar (P), Wedge (W), Step-path

(S), Toppling (T), Rotational/Rock Mass (R), and Complex (C) or some combination of the
above.
Geologic structures and stability of web and barrier pillars affect highwall stability.
Proper ground control engineering is required for sizing the web and barrier pillars for
stability. Adequate stability of the web and barrier pillars, especially at shallow depth near the
surface, is essential for highwall stability. Web pillar failure and the subsequent subsidence of
the overlying rock can destabilize the highwall face.
Highwall mining encounters some of the same horizontal and vertical stresses as those
found in room and pillar mining. The height of overburden determines the width of the
barriers, or fenders, between each of the entries. As the height of the overburden increases, so
does the amount of coal left in place to ensure ground control stability. The highwall miner’s
depth of advance into the coal seam is also determined by how much force has to be applied
to the string of push beams. This force must overcome changes in elevation due to
undulations and rolls as well as any roof material that may fall on top of the push beams. The
highwall miner operator uses a programmable logic controller (PLC) to set the mining
parameters that keep the cutter module within the coal seam.

Table 1: Equations used for designing web and barrier pillars.

Eq. Number Equation
1 S I [0.64+0.54 W ℘ / H ]
SF ℘=
[S V (W ℘+ W E )/ W EP ]
2 OB Design =0.75∗OB MAX +0.25∗OB MIN
3 W PN =N ( W ℘ +W E ) +W E
4 0.54 W BP
S I [0.64 + ]
H
SF BP =
SV (W PN +W BP )/W BP
5 1.04 H (w+ B)(l+ B)
SP=
w∗l
[( )]
6 0.18W 2
S P =S C 0.64+ 0.54 ( W
h
− )) (
hl
7
[ (
S P =S C 0.64+ 0.54
W
h )]
8 SV ( W +W E )
LP =
W
9 S V ( W ℘ +W E )
S ℘= ,
W℘
10 SV ( W PN +W BP )
S BP =
W BP
SI = In-situ coal strength (lb/in2) LP = Average vertical load on the pillar

SV = In-situ vertical stress W = Pillar width
WWP = Web pillar width SFWP = Stability factor of web pillar
WE=Highwall miner cut width or entry SFBP = Stability factor of barrier pillar
width OBMAX = Maximum overburden depth
SP = Pillar stress (lb/in2) or pillar strength OBMIN = Minimum overburden depth
H = Overburden depth or mining height (ft.) WPN = Panel width
W = Pillar width (ft.) WBP = Barrier pillar width
B = Entry or crosscut width (ft.) h = Pillar height
L = Pillar length (ft.) SC = In-situ coal strength

Another issue with regard to web and barrier pillar design is the potential for
Cascading Pillar Failure (CPF). CPFs can occur when failure in one pillar results in stress
transfer to adjacent pillars, which, in turn, fail. In their mildest form (slow pillar squeezes),
this failure may take weeks to progress. In their most severe form, failures can occur almost
instantaneously, resulting in severe air blasts, damage to equipment, and loss of life.
Equations used for safe design of web and barrier pillars are given in Table 1.
Equation 1 is sensitive to in-situ coal strength. Overburden depth may be taken as the
maximum overburden depth on a highwall mining web pillar, which is very conservative, or
alternatively as a high average value computed as given in equation 2. For design purposes,
the stability factor for web pillars typically ranges from 1.30 to 2.00 dependent upon the
subsidence constraints imposed by current and future surface usage. If the number of web
pillars in a panel is selected as “N”, then the panel width is given by equation no. 3. A barrier
pillar is commonly used to separate adjacent panels and prevent ground control problems
from cascading along the entire length of highwall. Neglecting the stress carried by the web
pillars, the stability factor for a barrier pillar is determined by equation 4. Web pillar stress is
calculated using the tributary area approach (equation 5). One of the reasons for the wide
acceptance of formula 6 is that in addition to pillar width and height, the effect of pillar
length is accounted for. In case of highwall mining where the pillar length (miner penetration)
is much greater than either the pillar height or width the formula can be expressed as given in
equation 7. Once pillar strength is determined, an estimate of pillar loading is required to
calculate a safety factor. Pillar loading was estimated using tributary area load theory as given
in equation 8. The stability factor is calculated as
SF = SP/LP
The stability factor for barrier pillars can be as low as 1.00. Tributary area method is
useful to estimate vertical stress on web and barrier pillars. Average vertical stress on a web
pillar is given in equation 9. The highwall mining equipment dictates the hole width which
varies from 2.7 to 3.6 m. In-situ vertical stress depends on the overlying rock density and
overburden depth. Vertical stress gradient is typically 0.025 MPa/m. If the number of web
pillars in a panel is selected as “N”, then the panel width is given in equation 10.

3.2.1 Numerical Modelling Analysis:
The empirical method used for the web and barrier pillar design has been confirmed
by mining experience in a wide variety of mining types and geological conditions. However,
it does not account for properties of the rock mass, multiple-seam interaction, or roof/floor
stability. The modelling approaches used were LAMODEL, a non-linear boundary-element
method for examining in-seam pillar behaviour, and Universal Distinct Element Code
(UDEC), a distinct- element code for examining the interaction and stability of the floor,
seam, and roof in two dimensions.
3.2.2 Stability Factor Analysis:
Two design approaches may be used for design of highwall mining layouts,
(1) use of narrow panels protected by the pressure arch separated by relatively wide
barrier pillars and
(2) use of wide panels (exceeding pressure arch) and very stable web pillars.
Both design approaches could ensure overburden stability during the service life of
the panel depending on safety factor levels used for the web pillars and the barrier pillars. The
primary recommendation from the stability factor analysis is to continue designing web
pillars with a minimum stability factor of 1.3. More important for stability is the width to
height (W/H) ratio of web pillars. In general, keeping the web pillar W/H ratio above 1 is
desirable to maintain better web pillar integrity. The minimum web width ranges from 3 to 7
feet. Most barriers appear to range in width from 10 to 25 feet. The estimates use tributary
area method to calculate pillar stress and the Mark-Bieniawski formula to calculate strength
of a strip pillar assuming coal strength of 900 psi. For stability reasons, a barrier pillar with a
W/H ratio above 3 has sound geo-mechanics based advantages. A minimum Factor of Safety
(FoS) of 1.6 is recommended for new highwall/auger operations and/or where no guidance
system is employed on the miner or auger. For sound geotechnical reasons barriers must have
a minimum width/height ratio (w/h) of 4. The load transfer distance (LTD) is an important
consideration for selection of panel widths and barrier pillar designs. It is the maximum
distance over which the overburden can transfer loads. By limiting panel width below a
distance equal to twice the LTD, the operator would prevent full tributary loading of pillars.

To avoid any load transfer toward the next panel, the barrier pillar should be wider than the
LTD.
4. Highwall Movement Monitoring:

The purpose of a monitoring plan is to maintain safe operational practices for the
protection of personnel, equipment, and facilities; provide warning of instability so action can
be taken to minimize the impact of slope displacement; provide crucial geotechnical
information to analyse the slope failure mechanism and design the appropriate corrective
measures. Sufficient suitable monitoring must be provided to detect instability at an early,
non-critical stage to allow for the initiation of safety measures.
4.1 Monitoring Techniques:
Conventional modern monitoring methods normally depend on visual inspections and

regular benchmark surveys using reflecting prisms at specific locations. These monitoring
tools are difficult to implement where steep highwalls and lack of benches limit access to
areas above the working floor. Point by point monitoring of every potential failure block on a
mine slope is not practical, but a new generation of scanning laser range finders has partially
addressed this under-sampling problem in detecting movement over large areas.
Displacements can be detected by comparing successive scans. In addition, the range and
accuracy of these systems can be impaired by differences in the reflectivity of the rock, the
angle of the rock face, weather, and other factors. Automated equipment is generally more
accurate than manual equipment since some “human” error is removed but more expensive
New technologies are being tested to monitor the entire slope for rock mass displacement and
rock mass. These technologies include imaging spectroscopy, interferometric synthetic
aperture radar, and digital image change detection. High technology tools such as Slope
Stability Radar may also prove useful in early detection of movement and potential instability
in coal mine highwalls. Development of a monitoring system, adopting acceptable slope
deformation criteria coupled with warning systems and design of stabilisation or risk
reduction measures if appropriate has become a standard method of dealing with slope
instability. Seismic monitoring method has proved useful for raising the level of awareness of
seismic hazard.

4.1.1 Survey Network:
The use of EDM (electronic distance measurement) equipment is a very common and
effective method for monitoring slopes. The survey network consists of target prisms placed
on and around areas of anticipated instability and one or more non-moving control points for
survey stations. The angles and distances from the survey station to the prisms are measured
on a regular basis to establish a history of movement. The surveys can be done manually by a
survey crew or can be automated. Targets are placed along the peripherals of the pit and along
the ramps (Fig. 7). Installation and maintenance of targets in the highwall become a problem
when access routes to the benches are mined out, resulting in targets potentially lost to long
term monitoring.
Fig.7: Targets installed in the highwall
4.1.2 Time Domain Reflectometry:
Time Domain Reflectometry is a technique in which electronic pulses are sent down a
length of a coaxial cable which has been grouted in a drill hole. When deformation or a break
in the cable is encountered, a signal is reflected giving information on the subsurface rock
mass deformation. While inclinometers are more common for monitoring subsurface
displacements, TDR cables are gaining popularity and have several advantages over

traditional inclinometers like lower cost of installation, deeper hole depths possible, rapid and
remote monitoring possible, immediate deformation determinations. Recent advances have
also been made in the use of TDR for monitoring ground water levels and piezo-metric
pressures.
4.1.3 Borehole Extensometers:
A tensioned rod extensometer is used to detect and monitor changes in distance

between one or more anchors in a borehole and the borehole collar. Changes in the distance
between the anchor and the rod head provide the displacement information for the rock mass.
4.1.4 Wireline Extensometers:
It is comprised of a wire anchored in the unstable portion of the ground, with the
monitor and pulley station located on a stable portion of the ground behind the last tension
crack. The wire runs over the top of a pulley and is tensioned by a weight suspended from the
other end. As the unstable portion of the ground moves away from the pulley stand, the
weight will move and the displacements can be recorded either electronically or manually.
The length of the extensometer wire should be limited to approximately 60 m (197 ft.) to
keep the errors due to line sag at a minimum. Some extensometers are sensitive to
movements of 1 mm so simultaneous temperature readings should be taken to adjust for
thermal expansion of the wire.
4.1.5 Inclinometer:
An inclinometer consists of a casing that is placed in the ground through the area of
expected movements. The end of the casing is assumed to be fixed so that the lateral profile
of displacement can be calculated. The casing has grooves cut on the sides that serve as tracks
for the sensing unit. The deflection of the casing, and hence the surrounding rock mass, are
measured by determining the inclination of the sensing unit at various points along the length
of the installations. Information collected from inclinometers can be used to locate shear
zones, determine whether shearing is planar or rotational and determine whether movement
along a shear zone is constant, accelerating, or decelerating.

4.1.6 Piezometers:
Piezometers are used to measure pore pressures. Excessive pore pressures, especially
water infiltration at geologic boundaries, are responsible for many slope failures. Data on
water pressure is essential for maintaining safe slopes since water behind a rock slope will
decrease the resisting forces and will increase the driving forces on potentially unstable rock
masses. Highwalls should be visually examined for new seeps or changes in flow rates as
these are sometimes precursors to highwall failure.
4.1.7 Radar:
Radar has some advantages over other methods in its ability to cover large surface
areas for true two-dimensional monitoring day and night in almost any weather condition;
atmospheric dust or haze have little effect. Radar’s active transmit/receive mode of operation
provides an advantage over passive optical methods that depend on solar or other
illumination. The resolution of a raw radar measurement is insufﬁcient to obtain millimetre
precision, but super-resolution signal processing techniques have been developed to improve
this resolution. One of these established techniques, interferometry, which makes use of the
phase information carried by the radar return, has been extensively applied to airborne and
satellite radar applications.
4.1.8 Ground-Based Differential Radar:
Ground-based interferometric radar has the potential of measuring displacements over

large areas of mine highwalls at unprecedented resolution. The system uses microwave
signals that are back-scattered from the illuminated surface over a few seconds and processed
to generate a wide-band spectral analysis. Sequential pairs of observations are analysed for
inter-correlation from which is extracted the relative radial displacement of the surface over
the time interval, as well as a coefficient of similarity for the two scenes. Differential
measurement at the range of 1500 m has an accuracy of 0.1 mm.
4.1.9 Synthetic Aperture Radar:
SAR can be used to generate high quality digital elevation maps (DEM’s) and to
detect disturbances of the earth’s surface. A variation of SAR – Interferometric Synthetic

Aperture Radar (IFSAR) – uses differences in time-lapsed SAR images to generate maps of
displacements. IFSAR can be used to monitor displacement of unstable slopes or landslides.
4.1.10 Slope Stability Radar:
A scanning radar system was designed for monitoring mine slopes using differential
interferometry. The system, known as the Slope Stability Radar (SSR), uses real aperture 2°
beam width radar to scan a slope in both vertical (height) and horizontal (azimuth) directions.
Scanning at a rate of 10°/second over a range of ±60° vertically and 340° horizontally, the
system continuously monitors the slope face for deformations. The return signal phase is
recorded for each pixel in the resulting image and phase unwrapping is used to remove the 2π
ambiguity. Typical scan repeat time is 15 minutes. The system can operate at a range to 450
m from the target slope. Line of sight displacement can be measured to ±0.2 mm without the
use of reflectors. In operation, the system produces an image showing spatial deformation
relative to a reference image for the entire slope scanned. The displacement history of each
point in the image can be plotted.
4.1.11 Imaging Spectroscopy:
A contributing factor in many highwall failures is the presence of mechanically

incompetent, argillically-altered rock. In order to help identify weak rock structures and
remove ambiguity from geologic mapping, NIOSH researchers are testing applications of
imaging spectrometers. An imaging spectrometer is a device that can determine the
composition of minerals from a distance by analysing the diagnostic spectral absorption
signatures (unique reflectance patterns of light that uniquely define each mineral). Like
IFSAR, imaging spectrometers have been used from satellites and aircraft for geologic
mapping for quite some time, but recent advances in technology have led to the development
of smaller, portable, units that can also work from ground level.
4.1.12 Hyperspectral Imagery:
Hyperspectral imagery helps in recognizing weakened altered rocks, which is a

contributing factor in highwall failures. Most alteration minerals have diagnostic spectral
absorption features in the short wave and mid-infrared that allow their identification by

analysis of the light they reflect. It also assists in compiling objective geologic maps of mine
highwalls and other hazardous slopes from a safe position.
4.1.13 Spectro-Polarimetric Imager:
The Spectro-Polarimetric Imager (SPI) consists of three parts: the camera enclosure,
the control electronics, and the host computer. During operation, the host computer sends
commands to the controller to select the desired spectral and polarization parameters. The
controller interprets the commands, generates the required analogue signals, and passes them
to the camera enclosure. Finally, the incoming image is optically filtered and sampled by the
camera, and the resulting video signal feeds back to the host computer where it is digitized by
a frame grabber. The resulting data cube can then be further processed by standard
multispectral and hyperspectral techniques. It offers the unprecedented advantage of sub-
millimetre precision.
4.1.14 Photogrammetry:
A number of digital photographs are taken of a scene and the information is combined
to form a three dimensional model. Two three dimensional models could be compared in
order to detect any deformation of the surface. However, for the millimetre precision required
the photographs would have to be taken at close range. Therefore, photogrammetry is useful
for generating a once-off three dimensional model, as in or for continuous monitoring of
deformation from close range such as tensile strain of a knee tendon but is not a practical
solution for slope stability monitoring.
4.2 Threshold Limits of Strain for Safe Mining:

A strain criteria approach is a mean to assess the stability performance of open pit
highwalls. The strain criteria approach is based on the correlation of actual strain values from
prism monitoring data to observed highwall stability performance. Using this approach,
highwall strain (ε), presented as a percent value, is defined as follows:
Δx
ε≈
H
Where,
Δx = maximum deformation of the highwall
H = total height of the highwall

The highwalls may be subjected to a maximum strain of 0.6% to 1% before moving

from a regressive mode to a progressive mode of instability and those strains over 1% may
lead to abrupt highwall instability and failure.
These threshold strain levels are also presented in Table 2 for identified key stages of
highwall stability.
Table 2: Threshold strain levels for key stages of highwall stability

Highwall stability stages Threshold strain level(%)
Tension cracks ~0.1
Progressive movement ~0.6
Potential onset of failure >2.0
4.3 Survey Monitoring Frequency:
It is essential, to be able to use rates of ground movement as a tool for the prediction
of imminent wall failure, that the frequency and accuracy of monitoring is appropriately
matched to the local ground conditions. Monitoring process is dynamic and mine specific.
The process starts with visual inspections done once per week. Additional inspections may be
required following heavy rains and blasting close to the highwall. The prism density could be
less than 5m for critical areas e.g. ramps but is generally based on a 30 m to 50 m grid. The
rate of ground movement governs the monitoring frequency, as stated below:
• Points undergoing movement of 0mm to 2mm per day are monitored once per month;
• Points undergoing movements of 2mm to 5mm per day are monitored once per week;
• Points undergoing movements of 5mm to 10mm per day are monitored once every 2 days;
• Points undergoing movements of 10mm to 50mm per day are monitored once per day; and
• Points undergoing movements of greater than 50mm per day require continuous observation
5. PREVENTIVE MEASURES:
5.1 Catch benches:
A common and very effective safety precaution employed to minimise the impact of
rock falls from a highwall face is to create “catch” benches along the face, above the

operation. Installation of “catch” benches is recommended for all new highwall/auger

operations where the highwall face exceeds 25 m in height.
5.2 Drainage of surface water:
Surface water is a possible cause of slope deterioration and ultimate failure. Drainage
should be directed away from the highwall face unless the geotechnical and erosion stability
of the drainage path is assured. This will generally require the construction of interceptor
channel drains around the perimeter of the highwall to redirect surface runoff water, and
spoon drains on the upslope side of all benches.
5.3 Backfilling:
Backfilling has been reported in a highwall mining system to stabilize the openings. It
also contributes to the protection of the environment around the mines.
5.4 Geological structure:
Open-pit designs should attempt to avoid the presence of adversely oriented

structurally controlled discontinuities in the highwall.
5.5 Blasting techniques:
The amount of movement within each highwall can be significantly influenced by the
blasting practices at the open pit mine. Controlled blasting methods are commonly used in
Australian mines to maintain pit wall stability. The softwall method consists of a highwall
slope design where the rock mass is blasted beyond the pit limit to disrupt rock defects. The
softwall design was successfully adopted as the preferred geotechnical slope design to
manage potential highwall instability in the final mining strip for the pit. The effect of the
buffer blasting reduces the possibility of crest area highwall subsidence. In order to prevent
far field subsidence damage, it is necessary to compile subsidence plans which denote areas
where the safety factors of underground workings are below acceptable norms.
5.6 Operational care:

The following recommendations were offered to reduce the likelihood of web pillar
failures:
• Leave sufficient “head” coal from the main bench to provide support for the overlying inter-
burden
• Not placing spoil or unconsolidated material on the highwall above areas where mine
personnel work or travel
• Avoid mining in areas of low overburden (<60 ft) thickness
• Orienting the highwall miner cuts to start from highest overburden and mine to the lowest
overburden
6. Conclusion:
Highwall mining systems can serve as a means of transition, with low capital cost,
from surface mining to underground mining. The stability of the highwall can be achieved by
obtaining comprehensive geological information, proper web and barrier pillar design. Factor
of safety should be adequate to ensure long-term stability. Regular highwall monitoring
should be conducted during mining operation to assess its stability and surface subsidence.
There are many techniques of highwall movement monitoring. The rate of monitoring relies
on rate of ground movement. Proper catch bench design, blasting patterns and dewatering of
potentially unstable zone are important to minimize highwall failures hazards. Even with
diligent geologic mapping, careful geotechnical designs, and adequate monitoring programs,
the chances for instability still exist.

REFERENCES:
1) Zipf, R.K.: Catastrophic collapse of highwall web pillars and preventative design
measures. 18th International Conference on Ground Control in Mining, West Virginia
University, Aug. 3-5, 1999, pp. 18-28.
2) Butcher, R.J.: A geotechnical rationale for the design of South African open cast coal
mine highwalls, The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
November/December, 2001, pp 393-399.
3) Butcher, R.J. et al., Methodology for the safe cleaning and making safe of various
heights (10–35 m) highwalls, SIMRAC Final Draft Project Report, Johannesburg,
2001.
4) Zavodni, A.M.: Time-dependent movements of open pit slope, slope stability
in surface mining, SME Proceedings, Denver, Colorado, 2001, pp 81-87.
5) Shen, B. and Duncan F. M.: Geomechanics and highwall mining, World Coal, Vol. 10,
no. 2, Feb. 2001, pp. 35-38.
6) Zipf, R.K.: Ground Control Design for Highwall Mining. SME Annual Meeting,
preprint number 05-82, 2005, 9 p.
7) Thiess I.K.: Technical Services-Presentation on Highwall Slope Stabilisation by the
Softwall Method. Engineering House 447 Upper Edward St, Spring Hill, Brisbane,
QLD, 15th September, 2011.
8) Hikaru Shimada et al., Application of Highwall Mining System to Recover Residual
Coal in End-walls, International Symposium on Earth Science and Technology,
CINEST, 2012.
9) Amar Prakash et al., Highwall Mining: A critical appraisal, ResearchGate, Sep 2015.
10) A Balasubramanian, Coal Mining Methods, ResearchGate, Feb 2016.

Applicability of Highwall Miing

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A

Visvesvaraya Technological University Belgaum

Under the Guidance of

Department of Mining Engineering

Signature of Guide Signature of HOD Signature of Principal

Mr. Vikram P Dr. Ramesh Dr. Syed Ariff

I thank the seminar coordinator, Mr. Vijayaragavan P, Associate Professor, Department

Fig. 1: Contour Mining 2

Fig. 2: Strip Mining 2

Fig. 3: Opencast Mining 2

Fig. 4: Auger Mining 2

Fig. 5: Auger Mining 3

Fig. 6: Highwall Mining 4

Fig. 7: Targets installed in the Highwall 11

Table 1: Equations used for designing web and barrier pillar 7

IMPROVING THE STABILITY OF THE HIGHWALL

Dept. of Mining Engineering, Dr.TTIT, KGF 1

Fig.1: Contour Mining Fig.2: Strip Mining

Fig.3: Opencast Mining Fig.4: Auger Mining

Dept. of Mining Engineering, Dr.TTIT, KGF 2

2) The pit reaches the ultimate depth

2. Highwall Mining Methods:

Dept. of Mining Engineering, Dr.TTIT, KGF 3

Fig.5: Auger Mining

2.2. Highwall Mining:

Highwall mining is an adaptation of auger mining. Instead of an auger hole, an entry

Dept. of Mining Engineering, Dr.TTIT, KGF 4

Fig.6: Highwall Mining

2.2.1 Applicability of highwall mining:

2.2.2 Operation of Highwall miner:

Dept. of Mining Engineering, Dr.TTIT, KGF 5

3. Highwall Stability and Pillar design:

3.1 Factors influencing highwall stability:

3.2 Pillar design for highwall mining:

Highwall stability through proper ground control engineering is of paramount

Dept. of Mining Engineering, Dr.TTIT, KGF 6

Dept. of Mining Engineering, Dr.TTIT, KGF 7

Table 1: Equations used for designing web and barrier pillars.

SI = In-situ coal strength (lb/in2) LP = Average vertical load on the pillar

Dept. of Mining Engineering, Dr.TTIT, KGF 8

Dept. of Mining Engineering, Dr.TTIT, KGF 9

3.2.1 Numerical Modelling Analysis:

3.2.2 Stability Factor Analysis:

Dept. of Mining Engineering, Dr.TTIT, KGF 10

4. Highwall Movement Monitoring:

4.1 Monitoring Techniques:

Conventional modern monitoring methods normally depend on visual inspections and

Dept. of Mining Engineering, Dr.TTIT, KGF 11

4.1.1 Survey Network:

Fig.7: Targets installed in the highwall

4.1.2 Time Domain Reflectometry:

Dept. of Mining Engineering, Dr.TTIT, KGF 12

4.1.3 Borehole Extensometers:

A tensioned rod extensometer is used to detect and monitor changes in distance

4.1.4 Wireline Extensometers:

Dept. of Mining Engineering, Dr.TTIT, KGF 13

4.1.8 Ground-Based Differential Radar:

Ground-based interferometric radar has the potential of measuring displacements over

4.1.9 Synthetic Aperture Radar:

Dept. of Mining Engineering, Dr.TTIT, KGF 14

4.1.10 Slope Stability Radar:

4.1.11 Imaging Spectroscopy:

A contributing factor in many highwall failures is the presence of mechanically