Child Labour in Tiruchirappalli's Unorganised Sector

A STUDY ON CHILD LABOUR IN THE UNORGANISED
SECTOR IN TIRUCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT,

TAMILNADU
THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE

BHARATHIDASAN UNIVERSITY, TIRUCHIRAPPALLI
FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN COMMERCE
By
MARY JOSEPHINE ISABELLA
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

Dr.(Mrs).S.M.PUSHPA RANI, M.Com., M.Phil., Ph.D.,
Associate Professor in Commerce
.
POST GRADUATE AND RESEARCH DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

HOLY CROSS COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS)
Nationally Reaccredited by NAAC with A+
College with Potential for Excellence
Tiruchirappalli 620 002.
Tamil Nadu, India.
JUNE 2013
Dr.(Mrs).S.M.PUSHPA RANI,
Associate Professor in Commerce,
P.G. and Research Department of Commerce,
Holy Cross College (Autonomous),
Tiruchirappalli – 620 002.
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the thesis “A STUDY ON CHILD LABOUR IN THE
UNORGANISED SECTOR IN TIRUCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT, TAMILNADU ”
submitted to Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli is a bonafide record of the research
work done by Mary Josephine Isabella during October 2008 to June 2013 under my
guidance. Further it is certified that this record has not previously formed the basis for the
award to the candidate of any degree, diploma, associateship, fellowship or any other similar
title and that the thesis is an independent work on the part of the candidate.
Station: Trichy
Date: (Dr.(Mrs).S.M.PUSHPA RANI

M.Com., M.Phil., Ph.D)
Research Adviser
MARY JOSEPHINE ISABELLA
Assistant Professor of Commerce
Parvathy‟s Arts and Science College
Dindigul
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that work embodied in this thesis has been originally
carried out by me under the guidance and supervision of
Dr.(Mrs).S.M.PUSHPA RANI, M.Com., M.Phil., Ph.D., Associate Professor in
Commerce, Holy Cross College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli. This work has
not been submitted either in whole or in a part for any other Degree or Diploma
at any other university.
Station: Tiruchirappalli
Date:
(MARY JOSEPHINE ISABELLA)
Research Scholar
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, I thank the Lord Almighty for His grace and Blessings that enabled
me to complete my research.
I record my deep sense of gratitude and profound thanks to
Dr.(Mrs).S.M.Pushpa Rani, M.Com., M.Phil., Ph.D., Associate Professor in
commerce , Holy cross College(Autonomous), Trichy, for her expert guidance and
invaluable help at every level of my research work. Mere words would not suffice to
thank her for the benign interest evinced by her in shaping this thesis meticulously.
I whole heartedly thank Dr. A.Venkatachalam, Associate Professor,
Department of Commerce, G.T.N Arts College, Dindigul for his sustained interest,
encouragement and excellent suggestions all through the work. This venture would
not have materialised but for his inspiring support.
I am very much grateful to the authorities of Bharathidasan University for
having approved my registration for Ph.D. Programme. My sincere thanks are due to
Dr.(Sr).Sagayam, Secretary, Dr.(Sr).Jesuin Francis, Principal and Sr.Christina
Bridget, Head of the Department of Commerce, Holy Cross College(Autonomous)
Trichy, for providing me an opportunity to carry out my research in this esteemed
institution.
I thank Dr. (Mrs).D.Christy Selvarani, Associate Professor in Commerce,
Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Trichy, for her inspiring advice and valuable
suggestions as a Doctoral Committee member.
I acknowledge my gratefulness to former principals Rev.Dr.(Sr.)Rosy,
Rev.Dr.(Sr.)Anne Xavier and Rev.Dr.(Sr.)Sarguna, Dr.(Mrs.) Valsamma Antony,
former Head of the Department of Commerce and Dean of Arts, Holy Cross College
(Autonomous), Trichy, for their blessings and constant support.

I thank Mr. K. Bhasker, for his significant help in the application of statistical
tools at various levels of this thesis. I also thank Dr.S.S.Srinivasan, Principal and the
Management of Parvathy‟s Arts and Science collge, Dindigul, Dr.R.Chakkaravarthy,
Associate Professor, Department of English ,G.T.N.Arts College,Dindigul for their
innovative suggestions.
My Profound thanks to Mrs.M.Suganthi, Assistant Professor, Department of
English, Holy Cross College (Autonomous), Trichy for her valuable suggestions and
timely help in framing and shaping the thesis in a concrete way.
No word would suffice to express my deep sense of gratitude to Dr.N. Shaik
Mohamed, Associate Professor, Department of Commerce, Jamal Mohamed College,
Trichy, for his timely help in the completion of this research.
I thank Mrs.A.Baby, project co-ordinator, Mr. M.Sivasubramanian, who
have helped me in collecting data and information at various levels.
I also thank the library authorities of Holy Cross College (Autonomous),
Trichy, St.Joseph‟s College (Autonomous), Trichy, Bharathidasan University,
Madurai Kamaraj University for proving the reference materials.
I convey my sincere thanks to Sree Vee Academy, Dindigul for the neat
execution and printing of the thesis.
On a personal note, I appreciate the help rendered by my Parents and my
family members especially my Husband, Mr.F.Linus Joseph , but for whose help I
would not have successfully collected the data and completed this work. With love I
thank my Son L.Allen Iverson and my daughter L.Bettina Gabriala for enduring
my absence during the period of research with understanding.

CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
TITLE
NO. NO.
List of Tables
List of Charts
I NATURE AND DESIGN OF THE STUDY 1
II REVIEW OF LITERATURE 25
III PROFILE OF TIRUCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT 64
IV CHILD LABOUR – A REVIEW 82
V SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OF THE 98
CHILD LABOUR
VI WORKING CONDITIONS OF CHILD 147
LABOURERS
VII DIMENSION OF CHILD LABOUR 220
VIII FINDINGS, SUGGESTIONS AND CONCLUSION 247
APPENDIX
a) Case Studies
b) Bibliography
c) Interview Schedule
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
TITLE
No. No.
1.1 SAMPLE FRAME – CHILD LABOURERS 17
3.1 CENSUS OF INDIA 2011 TAMIL NADU POPULATION DATA 66

SHEET
3.2 RELIGIONWISE CLASSIFICATION OF POPULATION IN 69

TIRUCHIRAPPALLI
3.3 LITERACY LEVEL IN TIRUCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT 72
3.4 OCCUPATIONAL PATTERN OF TIRUCHIRAPPALLI 73

DISTRICT
3.5 BANKS IN TIRUCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT 74
3.6 DETAILS OF SOURCES OF IRRIGATION IN 77

TIRUCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT
3.7 DETAILS OF REGISTERED INDUSTRIAL UNITS IN 79

4.1 PERCENTAGE OF CHILDREN IN TOTAL POPULATION (IN 83

MILLION)
4.2 CHILD POPULATION ACROSS THE STATES/UNION 84

TERRITORES IN INDIA IN 2011
4.3 STATE-WISE DISTRIBUTION OF WORKING CHILDREN IN 86

AGE GROUP OF 5-14 YEARS
4.4 SECTOR-WISE DISTRIBUTION OF CHILD LABOURERS IN 93

INDIA
5.1 AGEWISE DISTRIBUTION OF CHILD LABOURERS 99
5.2 AGEWISE DISTRIBUTION OF CHILD LABOURERS IN 101

VARIOUS UNITS
5.3 REVENUE DIVISION WISE DISTRIBUTION OF CHILD 103

LABOURERS
TABLE PAGE
TITLE
No. No.
5.4 GENDER WISE DISTRIBUTION OF CHILD LABOURERS 105
5.5 GENDERWISE DISTRIBUTION OF CHILD LABOURERS IN 107

VARIOUS UNITS

LABOURERS BY SEX
5.7 DISTRIBUTION OF CHILD LABOURERS BY RELIGION 111
5.8 SECTOR WISE DISTRIBUTION OF CHILD LABOURERS BY 113

RELIGION

LABOURERS BY RELIGION
5.10 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS BY CASTE 117
5.11 CASTE WISE DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS BY 118

SEX

CASTE

LABOURERS BY CASTE
5.14 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS BY NATIVE 124

RESIDENCE
5.15 REASONS FOR MIGRATION OF THE RESPONDENTS 126
5.16 SOURCE OF EMPLOYMENT WISE DISTRIBUTION OF THE 128

RESPONDENTS BY SEX
5.17 SEX WISE DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS BY 130

REASONS FOR EMPLOYMENT
5.18 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS BY EDUCATIONAL 132

STATUS AND SEX
TABLE PAGE
TITLE
No. No.
5.19 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS BY THE PRESENCE 133

OF PARENTS
5.20 SIZE OF FAMILY WISE DISTRIBUTION OF THE 134

RESPONDENTS BY SEX
5.21 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS BY EDUCATION 135

LEVEL OF PARENTS
5.22 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS BY OCCUPATIONS 137

OF PARENTS
5.23 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS BY OWNERSHIP OF 138

HOUSE
5.24 TYPE OF CIVIC AMENITIES IN CHILD LABOUR‟S HOUSE 139
5.25 FAMILY INCOME WISE DISTRIBUTION OF THE 141

RESPONDENTS BY SEX
5.26 CHILD LABOUR‟S CONTRIBUTION TO THE FAMILY 142

INCOME WISE DISTRIBUTION BY SEX
5.27 DEBTS OF THE HOUSEHOLDS WISE DISTRIBUTION BY SEX 143
5.28 SOURCES OF BORROWING WISE DISTRIBUTION BY SEX 144
5.29 PURPOSE OF LOAN WISE DISTRIBUTION BY SEX 145
6.1 DISTRIBUTION OF WORKING CHILDREN BY WORKING 149

HOURS
6.2 DISTRIBUTION OF WORKING CHILDREN BY NIGHT WORK 150
6.2(a) WORKING HOURS OF CHILDREN AT NIGHT 151
6.3 DISTRIBUTION OF CHILD LABOURERS BASED ON 152

REST INTERVAL DURING WORK
6.4 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS BY NUMBER OF 153

WORKING DAYS PER WEEK
TABLE PAGE
TITLE
No. No.
6.5 OBSERVANCE OF HOLIDAYS 154
6. 6 DISTRIBUTION OF CHILD LABOURERS BASED ON 155

AVAILABILITY OF LEAVE IN NEED
6. 7 OPINION ON THE INTENSITY OF THE WORK 156
6. 8 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS BY MONTHLY 157

INCOME
6. 9 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS BY MODE OF 158

PAYMENT OF WAGES
6. 10 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS BY MODE OF 159

RECEIVING WAGES
6. 11 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS BY FRINGE 160

BENEFITS
6. 12 DISTRIBUTION OF THE CHILD LABOURERS BY THE LEVEL 161

OF SATISFACTION WITH REGARD TO INCOME
6. 13 OPINION OF THE CHILD LABOURERS ABOUT THE WAGES 162
6.14 OPINION OF THE CHILD LABOURERS ABOUT THE 163

AMOUNT OF WORK AND THE WAGE THEY EXPECT
6. 15 PROBLEMS CONFRONTED BY WORKING CHILDREN 164
6. 16 PROBLEMS CONFRONTED BY WORKING CHILDREN AND 167

REVENUE DIVISIONS
6. 17 PROBLEMS CONFRONTED BY WORKING CHILDREN AND 169

THEIR EDUCTIONAL LEVEL
6.18 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS BY TYPE OF 170

HEALTH PROBLEMS EXPERIENCED WHILE WORKING
6. 19 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS BASED ON 174

EMPLOYER-EMPLOYEE RELATIONSHIP
TABLE PAGE
No. TITLE No.
6.20 THE APPROACH OF THE ADULT WORKERS TOWARDS 176

CHILD LABOURERS
6. 21 APPROACH OF THE EMPLOYERS WHEN THEY COMMIT 177

MISTAKES
6. 22 NATURE AND EXTENT OF PHYSICAL PUNISHMENT 179

EXPERIENCED BY CHILD WORKERS
6. 23 NATURE AND TYPE OF EMOTIONAL ABUSE FACED BY 181

THE CHILD LABOURERS
6. 24 ATTITUDE OF THE EMPLOYERS AS PERCEIVED BY CHILD 183

LABOUR
6. 25 EXPERIENCES OF THE CHILD LABOURERS FROM THE 185

CUSTOMERS
6.26 ATTITUDE OF THE CUSTOMERS AS PERCEIVED BY THE 186

CHILD WORKERS
6. 27 WILLINGNESS TO CONTINUE WORKING AS CHILD 187

LABOURERS
6. 28 REASONS FOR CONTINUING TO WORK AS CHILD 187

LABOURERS
6. 29 REASONS FOR NOT CONTINUING TO WORK AS CHILD 188

LABOURERS
6. 30 AWARENESS OF CHILD LABOUR ABOUT LEGAL 190

PROVISIONS FOR THEM
6.31 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS BY ALTERNATIVES 191

REQUIRED BY CHILD LABOURERS
6.32 OPINION OF CHILD LABOURERS ABOUT FORMING OF 192

UNION
6.33 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS BY UNDESIRABLE 193

HABITS
TABLE PAGE
TITLE
No. No.
6.34 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS ON THE BASIS OF 195

THEIR ERCEPTIONS ABOUT FUTURE
6.35 AMBITIONS OF CHILD LABOURERS 196
6.36 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR TAKING UP THE PRESENT 198

JOB BY CHILDREN
6.37 SOURCES OF GETTING JOB FOR THEIR CHILD 199
6.38 WILLINGNESS OF THE CHILDREN TO WORK AS 200

PERCEIVED BY THE PARENTS/ GUARDIANS
6.39 RESPONSES OF PARENTS/GUARDIANS INDICATING THEIR 201

VISIT TO THE CHILDREN‟S PLACE OF WORK
6.40 RESPONSES OF PARENTS/GUARDIANS REGARDING 202

INCREASE IN PHYSICAL ILLNESS SINCE THE CHILD
STARTED WORKING
6.41 RESPONSES OF PARENTS/GUARDIANS REGARDING 203

VARIOUS INJURIES / AILMENTS SUFFERED BY CHILD
DURING WORK
6.42 RESPONSES OF PARENTS/GUARDIANS INDICATING 204

RELIEF PROVIDED BY EMPLOYERS DURING INJURIES
6.43 PARENTS‟/GUARDIANS‟ OPINION INDICATING WHAT 205

CHANGES SHOULD BE MADE IN WORK ENVIRONMENT OF
CHILD FOR INCREASING MORE SATISFACTION FROM
WORK
6.44 PARENTS‟/GUARDIANS‟ RESPONSES INDICATING 206

WHETHER EDUCATION IS IMPORTANT FOR
DEVELOPMENT OF CHILD

WHETHER THEY CHOOSE EDUCATION OR WORK IN THE
INTEREST OF THE CHILD
TABLE PAGE
TITLE
No. No.

WHETHER THEY CHOOSE EDUCATION OR WORK IN THE
INTEREST OF THE FAMILY
6.47 PARENTS‟/GUARDIANS‟ OPINION REGARDING ABOLITION 209

OF CHILD LABOUR
6.48 PARENTS‟/GUARDIANS‟ REASONS FOR NOT ABOLISHING 210

THE CHILD ABOUR
6.49 REASONS FOR EMPLOYING CHILDREN 212
6.50 METHODS ADOPTED FOR RECRUITMENT OF CHILD 213

LABOURERS
6.51 SPECIAL QUALIFICATION FOR EMPLOYING CHILDREN 214
6.52 EMPLOYERS‟ OPINION ON TOTAL ABOLITION OF CHILD 216

LABOUR
6.53 EMPLOYERS‟ KNOWLEDGE ABOUT VARIOUS 217

LEGISLATIONS GOVERNING CHILD LABOUR
6.54 DIFFICULTIES IN THE PROPER IMPLEMENTATION OF 218

VARIOUS LABOUR LEGISLATIONS
7.1 AGE AND THE DIMENSION TO EARN MONEY AND STUDY 221
7.2 RELIGION AND THE DIMENSION TO EARN MONEY AND 222

STUDY
7.3 CASTE AND THE DIMENSION TO EARN MONEY AND 223

STUDY
7.4 NATIVE RESIDENCE AND THE DIMENSION TO EARN 224

MONEY AND STUDY
TABLE PAGE
TITLE
No. No.
7.5 SIZE OF FAMILY AND THE DIMENSION TO EARN MONEY 225

AND STUDY
7.6 FAMILY INCOME AND THE DIMENSION TO EARN MONEY 226

AND STUDY
7.7 AGE AND THE DIMENSION PROBLEMS WITH PRESENT 227

WORK
RELIGION AND THE DIMENSION PROBLEMS WITH 228

PRESENT WORK
7.8 CASTE AND THE DIMENSION PROBLEMS WITH PRESENT 229

WORK
7.9 NATIVE RESIDENCE AND THE DIMENSION PROBLEMS 230

WITH PRESENT WORK
7.10 SIZE OF FAMILY AND THE DIMENSION PROBLEMS WITH 231

PRESENT WORK
7.11 FAMILY INCOME AND THE DIMENSION PROBLEMS WITH 232

PRESENT WORK
7.12 AGE AND THE DIMENSION PHYSICAL TORTURE 233
7.13 RELIGION AND THE DIMENSION PHYSICAL TORTURE 234
7.14 CASTE AND THE DIMENSION PHYSICAL TORTURE 235
7.15 NATIVE RESIDENCE AND THE DIMENSION PHYSICAL 236

TORTURE
7.16 SIZE OF FAMILY AND THE DIMENSION PHYSICAL 237

TORTURE
7.17 FAMILY INCOME AND THE DIMENSION PHYSICAL 238

TORTURE
7.18 DISTRIBUTION OF „T‟ VALUE BETWEEN INCOME AND 241

DIMENSION WILLING TO COME OUT FROM WORK
TABLE PAGE
TITLE
No. No.

DIMENSION WILLING TO JOIN IN SCHOOL

DIMENSION WORK EXPERIENCE

DIMENSION REASONS TO FORCE CHILD LABOUR

DIMENSION PROBLEMS WITH PRESENT WORK

DIMENSION WILLING TO STUDY IN FREE SCHOOL
LIST OF CHARTS
CHARTS PAGE
TITLE
No. No.
5.1 DISTRIBUTION OF CHILD LABOURERS BY AGE 100

AGE

LABOURERS BY AGE
5.4 DISTRIBUTION OF CHILD LABOURERS BY SEX 106
5.5 GENDER WISE DISTRIBUTION OF CHILD LABOURERS IN 108

VARIOUS UNITS
5.6 GENDER WISE DISTRIBUTION OF CHILD LABOURERS IN 110

VARIOUS REVENUE DIVISIONS
5.7 DISTRIBUTION OF CHILD LABOURERS BY RELIGION 112

RELIGION

LABOURERS BY RELIGION
5.10 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS BY CASTE 118
5.11 CASTE WISE DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS BY 119

SEX

CASTE

LABOURERS BY CASTE
ABBREVIATIONS
BHEL - Bharath Heavy Electronics Limited
GDP - Gross Domestic Product
HAPP - Heavy Alloy Penetrator Project
ILO - International Labour Organisation
IPEC - International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour
NCPCR - National Commission for Protection of Child Rights
NGO - Non Governmental Organisation
SNA - System of National Accounts
NSSO - National Sample Survey Organisation
NSW - New South Wales
OCCG - Office of Children – Children‟s Guardian
OFT - Ordinance Factory, Tiruchirapalli
SSA - Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
UNCRC - United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
UNICEF - The United Nations Children's Fund
OECD - Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
CSO - Central Statistical Organization
UCW - Understanding Children‟s Work
LSMS - Living Standards Measurement Study
MICS - Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey
TIIC - Tamilnadu Industrial Investment Corporation Ltd.,
TNSC - Tamilnadu State Cooperative Bank Ltd.,
WTO - World Trade Organisation
CSEC - Commercial Sexual Exploitation Of Children
CUBAC - Children Used By Adults in the Commission of Crime
TFR - Total Fertility Rate

CHAPTER I
NATURE AND DESIGN OF THE STUDY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Children are considered to be the most precious legacy of a nation. They are
to be nurtured, loved and protected. As today's children are tomorrow's citizens' the firm
foundation for a prosperous tomorrow lies on the joyous, innocent and lively children.
And a child of today is an adult of tomorrow, he/she is expected to play an effective role in the
nation building activities, activities that will take the nation to prosperity and not to
destruction. The physical and mental health of a nation is determined largely by the
manner in which children are shaped in the early stages. Unless they are brought up,
educated and protected properly, the national and economic development will be
hampered to a great extent. Children are the blooming flowers in the garden of the society
and it is a duty of the citizens to protect these flowers from the damaging effects of
excessive exposure to heat, cold and rain. Hence, the nation must take efforts to
protect them against exploitation and against moral and material abandonment. As the
old proverb says, "When you are investing for a year, invest in a fruit tree; but when it is
for the future, invest in a child". They deserve care, understanding and above all the best that
man can offer. They have an inborn right to justice, freedom and opportunity for
development irrespective of their nationality, caste, creed and sex.
A child in the house is a fountain of pleasure, a messenger of peace and
love, a resting place for innocence on earth, a link between angels and men. But it is
painful to see an exceptionally large number of children who have had to give up their
innocence and education to be a part of the labour force. It is a common sight to see
tiny hands sweeping the school playground with so much of unquenchable desire in
2
their heart to study when their counterparts are playing. This example is only a drop in
the ocean of places where children, the pillars of future world are employed.
Child labour is a multi-faceted issue that has been addressed at both the
international and national levels. In recent years, forces such as international trade
have become instrumental in shaping discussion on this issue. Child labour today
occupies a central position in the social clause debate. Moreover, child labour itself is
playing an important role in shaping the course of multilateral trade discussions and
the future WTO agenda.
The high incidence of child labour is not only shocking from the moral point
of view but also represents a waste of vast human resources, which instead of being
improved upon through education and training ,are utilized in the most unproductive
manner.
1.2 INCEPTION
The term "child labour” was coined in Britain during the 19th century and it
implied that the children were not supposed to work at all. The Industrial Revolution
led to a population increase, but the chances of surviving childhood did not improve
throughout the Industrial Revolution. There was still limited opportunity for
education, and children were expected to work. Employers could pay a child less than
an adult even though their productivity was comparable; there was no need for
strength to operate an industrial machine, and since the industrial system was
completely new there were no experienced adult labourers. This made child labour the
labour of choice for manufacturing in the early phases of the Industrial Revolution
between the 18th and 19th centuries. In England and Scotland in 1788, two-thirds of
the workers in 143 water-powered cotton mills were described as children.

3
It cannot be said that Child labour did not exist before the Industrial
Revolution. It existed but with the increase in population and education during
Industrial Revolution it became more visible. Many children were forced to work in
relatively bad conditions for much lower pay than their elders, 10-20 per cent of an
adult male's wage. Children as young as four were employed. They endured great
sufferings like beatings and long hours of hard labour in their work places. Children
were made to work in coal mines, industries and at homes as chimney sweepers. They
had to face dangerous situations and accidents at their work places. Some children
died when they dozed off and fell into the path of the carts, while others died from gas
explosions. Many children developed lung cancer and other diseases and died before
the age of 25. Workhouses would sell orphans and abandoned children as "pauper
apprentices", working without wages for boarding and lodging. Those who ran away
would be whipped and returned to their masters, with some masters shackling them to
prevent escape. Children employed as mule scavenger by cotton mills would crawl
under machinery to pick up cotton, working 14 hours a day, and six days a week.
Some lost hands or limbs, others were crushed under the machines, and some were
decapitated. Young girls, who worked at match factories, were exposed to phosphorus
fumes which were hazardous to health caused burns, scar and wounds. Children
employed at glassworks were regularly burned and blinded, and those working at
potteries were vulnerable to poisonous clay dust. Reports were written detailing some
of the abuses, particularly in the coal mines and textile factories and these helped to
popularise the children's plight. The public outcry, especially among the upper and
middle classes, helped stir change in the young workers' welfare.
Church and labour groups, teachers, and many other people were outraged
by such cruelty. They began to insist on reforms. The English writer Charles Dickens
4
helped to publicize the evils of child labour with his novel Oliver Twist. Politicians
and the government tried to limit child labour by law, but factory owners resisted;
some felt that they were aiding the poor by giving their children money to buy food to
avoid starvation, and others simply preferred children to adults because children
provided cheap labour as they were submissive, uneducated, less problematic, cheaper
source of labour, and nimble.
Britain was the first to pass laws regulating child labour. In 1833 and 1844,
the first general laws against child labour, the Factory Acts, were passed in England.
Children under nine were not allowed to work, children were not permitted to work at
night, and the working hours of the youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve
hours. Factory inspectors supervised the execution of the law, however, their scarcity
made enforcement difficult. About ten years later, the employment of children and
women in mining was forbidden. In the mid-19th century, under the influence of the
growing working-class movement, Factory Acts were also adopted in other Western
European countries. For example, in 1841 a Ahild and Adolescent Labour Law was
passed in France, and in 1869 an industrial statute was adopted in Germany. Other
European countries adopted similar laws. These laws decreased the number of child
labourers; however, child labour remained in Europe.
Australia is a signatory on children's rights. The rights and protection of
children are governed by both Federal and State and Territory law. Persons below the
age of eighteen are considered children. The minimum age of employment and
regulation of children in employment varies across each state and territory. For
example New South Wales (NSW) has no minimum age of employment and
employment of children is regulated only in certain industries. Thus, in NSW,
employment of children under fifteen years of age in entertainment, exhibition, still

5
photography or door-to-door sales is regulated by the Office for Children-Children's
Guardian (OCCG). Employers in these industries must be authorized to employ
children and comply with the legislated Code of Practice.
Child Labour in Africa is the employment of children in a manner that
deprives them of their childhood, and is harmful to their physical and mental
development. Africa has the world's highest incidence rates of child labour. The
problem is severe in Sub-Saharan Africa where more than 40 percent of all children
aged 5-14 labour for survival or about 48 million children. Poverty is considered as
the primary cause of child labour in Africa.
International Labour Organization estimates that agriculture is the largest
employer of child labour in Africa. Majority are unpaid family workers. Most African
governments have formally adopted the International Labour Organization (ILO)
Conventions. In addition, many have signed a Memorandum of Understanding with
ILO to launch a programme under the International Programme on the Elimination of
Child Labour (IPEC).
ILO estimates that there are about 250 million economically active children
(individuals below 18 years old) worldwide. Sixty one percent or roughly 153 million
of these workers are in Asia. Around half of the economically active children are
working full time and 20-30 percent or about 30 to 46 million are in exploitative
conditions or worst forms of child labour.
In Asia, it is estimated by ILO that more than 50 percent are as young as
seven years old and are hidden child labourers. They work as household help, workers
in farming and fishing industries, providers of sex services, workers in quarries,
mines, brick kilns, construction sites, and increasingly in drug trade. A lot more in
many Asian societies live in full public view as scavengers, street beggars, vendors,
6
and workers in small scale or home-based industries. Since these types of work are
considered "informal," regulation of the industries does not exist and monitoring the
presence of children in the workplace is not commonly done.
Exploitation of children in commercial sex trade remains the worst form of
child labour in Asia. United Nations International Children‟s Emergency Fund
(UNICEF) estimates that about one million children are lured or forced into the sex
trade in Asia every year. More alarming is the fact that many of these children were
introduced into the work by people known to them.
In Southeast Asia, Thailand is believed to be the receiver of a large number
of children trafficked from Laos, Cambodia, Burma, and China, with the majority
coming from Burma. The children are made to work as prostitutes, household help,
workers in factories, farms, and fishing vessels, or couriers of drug traffickers. It is
estimated that the number of children working as prostitutes in Thailand is somewhere
between 27,400 and 44,900 including foreign and ethnic Thai children.
As a result of NGO and social welfare sector advocacy in Thailand, the
Government recognized its responsibility to provide protection not only for Thai
children but also for trafficked child labourers from other countries. A Memorandum
of Understanding among various government ministries requires coordination of their
actions. Thus, trafficked migrant children are no longer brought by the police to the
immigration detention centre. They are instead housed in a social welfare centre
where they learn various skills while the Thai government, their own government, and
international NGOs work on their return to their families.
Chinese and Vietnamese children are trafficked to Cambodia mostly for
prostitution. In the Philippines, there are reports of girls as young as 14 years old
encouraged by parents to go to Japan to work as entertainers. They are brought to

7
Japan with tampered passports, changing their date of birth to meet the age criterion.
There are reports of Indonesian children being brought to Singapore, Malaysia, and
Taiwan for domestic and farm work, or even for work in small factories. In-country
trafficking is rampant in Vietnam and the Philippines for domestic and factory work,
and again for prostitution.
In South Asia, Bangladeshi children are trafficked for prostitution, forced
and bonded labour, camel jockeying, marriage, and even sale of organs. Bangladeshi
children can be found in the main cities of India, Pakistan, Malaysia and Middle East
countries. Maiti Nepal, a Non Government Organisation (NGO) based in Kathmandu,
estimates that between 5,000 to 7,000 girls are trafficked to India annually for
prostitution. Boys are trafficked too, for work in the construction industry, brick kilns,
tea plantations, and manufacturing industry. Pakistan is seen as a receiving country
for Indian and Nepal children to work in farming, fishing, and sex industries.
Also referred to as child servitude and child debt bondage, bonded child
labour exists in Asia. It is closely linked to trafficking of children, and more
extensively rooted in socio-cultural and political structures in parts of South Asia. In
many cases, bonded children are delivered in repayment of a loan or other favours
given in advance, real or imaginary, usually to the parents or the guardians of the
child. Children work like slaves in the process, never knowing when their debt will
finally be considered paid. Where the caste system still prevails (India, Nepal, and
Pakistan), there are still families and children of the dalits, or kamaiyas, orpeshgis
from the lowest castes in debt bondage to landowners and upper class caste in spite of
existing laws that prohibit slavery. Bonded child labour in South Asia is found in
domestic work and in agricultural, brick making, glass, leather tanning, gem
polishing, and many other manufacturing and marketing industries.

8
Awareness of the child labour issue in the carpet and sports goods industries
generated largely by activists since late 1980s‟, helped for a tremendous decrease in
the incidence of child labour in these industries. But it is still probable that child
labour exists in new places where subcontractors have moved in.
Having a household help is a historically embedded practice of middle and
upper class families in almost all Asian countries. Many children from poor families
are engaged in this work, some as young as eight years old. While there are cases of
domestic child labourers who are actually poorer relatives of the employers and
provided opportunities to go to school while working, majority of them are in
exploited conditions. Many are victims of trafficking and are bonded by debt to their
employers. They have long working hours, with very little opportunity for rest. They
are exposed to hazards while doing heavy household work. And most of them are
victims of verbal, physical, and sexual abuse. Domestic child labourers are among the
most difficult to see and reach as they are of course hidden in the privacy of homes.
Children and their families work and even live in the dumpsites in many of Asian
countries like Philippines, Indonesia, Cambodia, Thailand, Nepal, India, and Vietnam.
There are some remarkable successes in certain countries in the region in creating
changes in policies and in influencing people's attitude towards child labourers in
general or towards groups of child labourers, such as domestic child labourers, in
particular.
Nearly all types of child labour happen in the U.S., whether it is agriculture,
factory work, or even sexual slavery. Debt bondage and garbage work are very rare
forms of child labour in the U.S. Most child labourers in the U.S. work on farms out
in the west. According to a Human Rights Watch report, over half of interviewed farm
workers worked in a recently sprayed field and a third had been sprayed themselves.
9
Also the workers are commonly beaten, whipped, and threatened for low quality
work.
Around 10,000 child sex slaves are smuggled into the U.S., in large cities
like Los Angeles and New York. If these slaves try to escape, they are beaten, raped,
or killed. These children are not paid like a prostitute but are actual slaves. The
children are sold for $10,000-$30,000. These girls and boys are smuggled from
Europe, Eastern Russia, and Mexico. The border guard is very weak, so these slaves
get into the U.S. with promises of a better life and are then forced into slavery. The
owners make up to $30,000 a week from each slave, so it is a very profitable business.
1.3 BACKDROP
The problem of child labour has been prevalent in India since long. Child
labour existed in ancient India in the form of child slaves. The employment of
children was mentioned in Kautilya‟s Arthashastra of 3rd Century B.C. It describes
the existence of domestic slavery of children below the age of 8 normally drawn from
the low castes.
The 2001 national Census of India estimated the total number of child labour,
aged 5-14, to be at 12.6 million. In 2001, out of a 12.6 million, about 12 million
children in India were in hazardous occupations. UNICEF estimates that India with its
larger population has the highest number of labourers in the world who are under 14
years of age, while Sub-Saharan African countries have the highest percentage of
children who are deployed as child labour. International Labour Organization (ILO)
estimates that agriculture at 60 per cent is the largest employer of child labour in
India, while United Nation's Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that 70 per
cent of child labour is deployed in agriculture and related activities. Outside of

10
agriculture, Child labour is observed in almost all informal sectors of the Indian
economy.
1.4 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Though child labour is a universal problem and exists all over the world, it is
found to be concentrated in the developing countries. UNICEF estimates that around
150 million children aged 5-14 in developing countries, about 16 per cent of all
children in this age group, are involved in child labour (UNICEF The State of the
World‟s Children 2011 Report). In India, a developing country, it is 12.62 millions
constituting 10.08 percent of the total workforce. (http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-
common/censusdataonline.html)The shocking news as per this data is that 10 percent
of India‟s workforce is child labour. That means one in every 10 workers in India is a
child. If we allocate a tenth of India‟s GDP to this share, we can see India‟s child
labour has a stake in India‟s GDP. Can a nation that has to spend on children for their
development who are the future of India live on the income generated by the
Children? This startling fact along with a common sight on roads and shops of small
children toiling in the hot sun and rain to make, assist and sell things made the
researcher to undertake a study on Child Labour.
In the globalised era, developing countries compete to get a higher share in the
world market for products which are in increasing demand by consumers in the
developed countries. The competition seems to be based rather on minimizing the cost
of labour than on maximizing the skill of labour. So their competitive edge is based
on the availability of a large, cheap, docile and flexible workforce: mainly children of
the poorest section of society who are employed in the informal sector where terms
and conditions of employment are poor. Employers of labour intensive industries in
developing countries, subcontract parts of the production to smaller units which often
11
are unregistered, and/or deliberately divide the industrial establishment into small
units to escape the laws which regulate labour conditions. Exploitation of the workers
is the consequence of this process; workers are often unregistered, temporary,
unorganised and are getting less than minimum wages for long hours of work without
the protection of social security. Also the web of divided subcontracted units makes it
more difficult for labour inspectors or controlling bodies to check on violations of the
existing (labour) laws and human rights.
Thus the process of international integration of economic activities through
liberalizing international trade has pushed more workers into the informal sector of
developing countries. In the developing countries, this has led to the economic
exploitation of children in the production of goods both for the export and the
domestic market. According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), more
children are possibly involved in the urban informal sector than in the agricultural
sector, because of fast growing migration into the cities and the decentralization of
production units.
In Tamil Nadu, the number of child labourers has declined when compared to
several other major States in India over the last four decades (Government of Tamil
Nadu, Child Labour Survey, Labour Department, 2003) Despite this, the problem of
child labour persists among various districts in Tamil Nadu.
Tiruchirappalli District is located centrally in Tamil Nadu. Major public sector
companies like BHEL, the 12th largest power equipment manufacturer in the world
that has a large network of subcontractors, HAPP, OFT and Railway workshop
function here. (www.msmedi-chennai.gov.in). As per the official records of the
District Industries Centre of Tiruchirappalli District, there are 12,322 registered
ancillary units that give employment to 1,14,064 employees as on 31.03.2012

12
( http://www.dictiruchi.in ). This is the official statistics of the registered units. As far
as the informal sector is concerned, there are no official data. But one can say that the
informal sector provides huge employment to workers as there are a large number of
unregistered units dealing with fabrication, gem cutting, readymade garments, food
processing etc.
In this context, it becomes imminent to find answers to the following
questions: what is the status of child labour in India? What is the socio-economic
profile of child labourers in the study area? Why do they take up the job at an early
stage instead of enjoying the early childhood days? What are the present working
conditions of child labourers? What are the problems faced by the child labourers?
Why do parents send their children to work instead of sending them to school? In
what way the rules and regulations are being followed by employers? Is there any
possibility to eradicate this social evil in the study area?
Hence an earnest attempt has been made in the present study, A study on
Child Labour in the Unorganised Sector in Tiruchirappalli District, Tamil Nadu, to
find out the answers for the above questions.
1.5 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:
The main objectives of the present study are:
 To study the magnitude of child labour in India.
 To understand the socio-economic background of the child labourers in the
Unorganised sector in Tiruchirappalli District.
 To examine the employment and working conditions of child labourers so as
to identify the areas of exploitation and
 To offer suggestions to mitigate the problems identified.

13
1.6 HYPOTHESES
To give a specific focus to the above objectives, the following hypotheses
have been drawn for testing, using appropriate statistical tools:
1. There is no significant difference in the dimension to earn money and study
among different groups of child labour based on socio-economic variables of
age, religion, caste, native residence, size of family and family income.
2. There is no significant difference in the dimension Problem with present
work among different groups of child labour based on socio-economic
variables of age, religion, caste, native residence, size of family and family
income.
3. There is no significant difference in the dimension Physical torture among
different groups of child labour based on socio-economic variables of age,
religion, caste, native residence, size of family and family income.
4. There is no significant impact of family income on the dimensions of child
labour.
5. The income of the child labour has impact on the family debts
6. There is no cordial relationship between the employer and child labour.
1.7 METHODOLOGY
In consonance with the objectives discussed, the methodology for the study
was finalised, regarding the selection of sample respondents, data collection,
specification of the empirical models and analysis.
Tiruchirappalli District in Tamil Nadu has been selected for the following two
reasons : First , large public sector companies like BHEL and private sector
companies have a large network of subcontractors which provides a haven for a large
number of employees in the unorganized sector. Second, the familiarity and

14
acquaintance of the researcher with the district economy has influenced the decision
of selecting Tiruchirappalli District.
1.8 SELECTION OF REVENUE DIVISIONS
The socio-economic background and working conditions of child labourers
vary widely among districts, taluks and villages. Taking into account of these factors
the study has used cluster sampling design to select the sample units. Tiruchirappalli
District is divided into three revenue divisions namely Tiruchirappalli, Lalgudi and
Musiri. Each division is considered a cluster.
List of Revenue Divisions of Tamil Nadu provides the Revenue divisions
and Taluks of Tamil Nadu. For revenue administration purposes, each district is
divided into divisions, which are further divided into Taluks. Each of these Taluks has
a list of revenue villages under them. Developmental administration, in contrast, is
carried out by Panchayat Unions (called blocks) in rural areas. These panchayat
unions have a set of panchayat villages under them. In urban areas, the governance is
done by municipal corporations which again is divided into wards, or town
panchayats based on the size of the town.
1.9 SELECTION OF TALUKS
Purposive sampling method has been adopted to select the taluks. The
headquarters of each Revenue Division has been selected. So Tiruchirappalli Taluk
from Tiruchirappalli Revenue Divison , Musiri Taluk from Musiri Revenue Division
and Lalgudi Taluk from Lalgudi Revenue Division have been selected for the study.
1.10 SELECTION OF VILLAGES
Systematic selection of villages is not possible as the units in the unorganised
sectors are not evenly spread out and they are scattered based on the availability of the
factors of production. Hence the researcher had discussion with the officials of the
15
Department of Labour and Department of Chief Inspector of Factories and Village
Administrative Officers to know the villages where the sample units in the
unorganized sectors are concentrated. As the preliminary enquiry with the officials
revealed that the sample fields of study (types of establishments) were found in the
urban areas of the selected Revenue Divisions, Wards also were considered while
selecting the samples. Thus, out of 60 wards in Tiruchirappalli Corporation, 20 Wards
were selected. Besides these selected Wards, 2 villages from Tiruchirappalli Revenue
Division, 18 villages from Musiri Revenue Division and 20 villages from Lalgudi
Revenue Division were selected for the study.
1.11SELECTION OF CHILD LABOURERS
Having selected the sample areas, the researcher then decided about the
number of the child labourers. As universe of the child labourers is not known, it was
decided to collect information from a minimum of 450 child labourers, 150 from each
Revenue Division. Snowball sampling method was used in locating the child
labourers.
1.12 SELECTION OF THE SAMPLE UNITS
As the list of trades in unorganized sector is unwieldy and infinite, the
researcher selected the sample units where the child labourers are employed with the
help of the official records maintained in the Department of Labour, Department of
Chief Inspector of Factories , Government of Tamil Nadu . Though this effort gave
information relating to the organized sector, it was presumed that parallel units in
unorganized sector also prevailed. From the list the first ten units based on the number
of persons employed were considered. Again alterations had to be made as some of
the proposed units were not found in the selected areas in the unorganized sector as
per the informal talks with the Government officials. Thus ten units were selected for
16
study which are: Gem cutting units, Manufacturing of slate pencil, Ready-made
garments, Metal industries, Food processing units, Printing units, Hotels and
Restaurants, Construction, Shops and Auto workshops. Proper attention was given to
include a minimum of one of each type of the sample unit in each Revenue Division.
1.13 SELECTION OF PARENTS/GUARDIANS
The researcher decided to collect information from the parents/guardians of
the child labourers and the employers to have a comprehensive view about the
problem. By using the purposive sampling method, 50 parents/ guardians and 50
employers were contacted and the information was collected from them. With the
help of the child labourers their parents/ guardians were contacted and the personal
visit during the pilot study helped the researcher to select the employers.
Besides information collected through structured interview schedule, ten
typical case studies one from each selected sample unit, have been done for in-depth
analysis. These cases are intended to provide qualitative data of the study and also try
to help in developing comprehensive picture of the exploited lot.
Thus the study is based on interview data of 450 child labourers, 50
parents/guardians and 50 employers. The sample frame is given in Table 1.1.

17
Table 1.1
Sample Frame – Child labourers
Sample Units Revenue Division Total
No. of
Tiruchirappalli Musiri Lalgudi
respondents
Gem cutting units 19 21 22 62
Manufacturing of slate pencil 18 19 20 57
Ready-made garments 18 17 17 52
Metal industries 11 11 11 33
Food processing units 18 20 21 59
Printing units 8 8 7 23
Hotels and Restaurants 9 10 9 28
Construction 20 19 19 58
Shops 6 6 6 18
Auto workshops 23 19 18 60
Total 150 150 150 450
1.14 COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
This study is based on both primary and secondary data. The primary data
were collected from the respondents; Child labourers, parents/ guardians and
employers, through personal interviews with the help of pre- tested interview
schedules, designed separately for each category of the respondents. Information
collected from the child labourers included the socio-economic profile of them and
their opinion on the working conditions. Opinion on the reasons for sending the
children for work such as the factors responsible for the child labourers to take up
work, source of getting the job, children‟s willingness for the job, were obtained from
the parents/ guardians. And information on the reasons for employing children,
desirability of child employment, role of Government, legislations and abolition of
child labour were gathered from the employers.

18
The secondary data on socio-economic profile and working conditions were
collected from journals, books and reports, published articles and also through the
data provided by the Department of Labour, Department of Chief Inspector of
Factories, Government of Tamil Nadu. The materials gathered from secondary
sources have provided a broad framework and perspective to the study.
The primary data collected from the respondents have been classified and
tabulated for the purpose of analysis and the data have been scrutinized by using
Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) with appropriate coding for the
drawing of inferences. Statistical tools like percentages, Chi-square test, „t‟ test,
Kruskal Wallis test are applied to analyse the data.
1.15 TOOLS FOR ANALYSIS
Chi-square test
Chi-square is a statistical test commonly used to compare observed data with
data which the research would expect to obtain according to a specific hypothesis.
‘t’ test
A „t‟-test is any statistical hypothesis test in which the test statistic follows
a Student's t distribution if the null hypothesis is supported. It can be used to
determine if two sets of data are significantly different from each other, and is most
commonly applied when the test statistic would follow a normal distribution if the
value of a scaling term in the test statistic were known. When the scaling term is
unknown and is replaced by an estimate based on the data, the test statistic (under
certain conditions) follows a Student's t distribution.
Kruskal Wallis Test
The Kruskal–Wallis one-way analysis of variance by ranks (named
after William Kruskal and W. Allen Wallis) is a non-parametric method for testing
19
whether samples originate from the same distribution. It is used for comparing more
than two samples that are independent, or not related. The parametric equivalent of
the Kruskal-Wallis test is the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). When the
Kruskal-Wallis test leads to significant results, then at least one of the samples is
different from the other samples. The test does not identify where the differences
occur or how many differences actually occur.
1.16 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The present study A Study On Child Labour in the Unorganised Sector
in Tiruchirappalli District, Tamilnadu, is restricted to Tiruchirappalli District of
Tamil Nadu. The study was conducted among 450 child labourers who did not attend
school and worked under employers for wages in ten units of the unorganised sectors
such as shops and establishments, gem cutting units, manufacturing of slate pencil,
ready-made garments, metal industries, food processing units, printing units, hotels
and restaurants, construction sites and auto workshops which are governed by Tamil
Nadu Shops and Establishments Act, 1947. Opinions of the parents/guardians and
employers were also collected to understand the problem of child labour in its right
perspective, and 50 respondents each were approached.
This study pertains to the data collected during the year 2011 to 2012.
1.17 OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS
Child
Child means a person who has not completed his fourteenth year of age.
Child labour
According to International Labor Organization, or the ILO, defines child labor
as “some types of work” done by children under the age of 18. The ILO also says that
child labor includes full-time work done by children under 15 years of age that
20
prevents them from going to school (getting an education), or that is dangerous to
their health. The term “child labour” is often defined as work that deprives children
of their childhood, their potential and their dignity, and that is harmful to physical and
mental development.
It refers to work that is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and
harmful to children; and interferes with their schooling by: depriving them of the
opportunity to attend school; obliging them to leave school prematurely; or requiring
them to attempt to combine school attendance with excessively long and heavy work.
Hazardous work
Any work which is likely to jeopardize children‟s physical, mental or moral
heath, safety or morals should not be done by anyone under the age of 18.
Basic Minimum Age
The minimum age for work should not be below the age for finishing
compulsory schooling, which is generally 15.
Light work
Children between the ages of 13 and 15 years old may do light work, as long
as it does not threaten their health and safety, or hinder their education or vocational
orientation and training.
Child Work
Child work” refers to a positive participation of children in an economic
activity, which is not detrimental to their health or mental and physical development;
on the contrary, it is a beneficial work, which strengthens or encourages the child
development. It allows a normal schooling and does not impede the child from doing
leisure activities or resting. Across the world, millions of young people legitimately
undertake work, paid or unpaid, that is appropriate for their age and level of
21
maturity.According to the Convention 138 Minimum Age Recommendation of the
ILO, this kind of light work is permitted from the age of twelve years.
Push Factors
Poverty, family disturbances, unemployment and non-availability of land were
the push factors for child labourers. .The adverse financial position of parents compels
them to borrow from the village moneylender, who charges exorbitant interest rates
on the loans advanced to them. Pressure from the side of the moneylenders to repay
the debts is likely to compel the parents to send their children to earn, since no work is
available in the village. Thus financial factors, in addition to large family size with
low family income, seem to be responsible for child migration. The push factor is the
economic compulsion of parents. responsible for child migration.
Pull factors
„Pull factors‟ refers to children being cheaper to employ and that they will
accept lower wages. Lack of interest of studies, non- availability of work in village
and liabilities are other factors Attraction of the city life and comparatively higher
income opportunities are among the pull factors responsible for migration.
Economically Active Children
Economically Active Children,” and “Child Labor.” Economically active
children are all children who are working, whether or not this work is deemed illegal
by ILO Conventions. Child labor is a sub-section of economically active children
referring to all children working illegally. Child labor is also sub-divided into “Non-
Hazardous” and “Hazardous” child labor, with the minimum age standard being age
18 for hazardous work.

22
Unorganised Sector
The Unorganised sector refers to those workers who are self employed, or who
work for those who are self employed. People who earn a living through self
employment in most cases are not on payrolls, and thus are not taxed. Many informal
workers do their businesses in unprotected and unsecured places.
1.18 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
Like any other study, this study also undergoes various limitations. The study
has of course, certain limitations, which are peculiar to a sample research belonging to
the household survey. The child workers were surveyed without adopting any
technical method of sampling. Since the fieldwork was conducted from July 2011 to
December 2011, the analysis is also subject to all limitations of time.
Another limitation is non co-operation and reluctance of the sample
respondents. The responses to the questions were vague and inadequate. Though
efforts were made to counter check these responses with those of others, there were
still possibility of variations in opinions and biases as reflected in the answers.
Apart from these limitations, the researcher encountered certain other
difficulties in collecting the data from the child labourers and employers. Sometimes
it was difficult to get adequate answer from the children since they were immature.
There were times where the children could not follow the questions. Moreover, fear
and anxiety compelled them to remain silent, which led to wrong answers in many
cases. Much information had to be elicited, therefore, through observation. Sometimes
help of the senior workers were also sought for some of the information. While asking
questions, the movement and total behaviour pattern of the child was observed.
23
Exact enumeration of children working in various business houses were not
available, therefore, a lot of difficulties were faced by the researcher in identifying
and making list of the child labourers for the purpose of the sampling.
During the first contact for getting information, the employers gave specific
number of child labour, but when contacted the second time, in order to canvas the
interview schedule, they reported that they were not employing any child labour. So,
lot of effort was made to convince them about the utility and purpose of the study,
which ultimately motivated them to furnish information.
Since the employers know that child labour is illegal, they were reluctant to
allow interview. The researcher had to convince them that the data collected would be
used exclusively for the purpose of the study and not for disclosure or publicity. The
children were either under observation of the employers or the adult workers even at
the time of' interview. So the children were not ready to speak frankly.
The children were doubtful about the purpose of the interview. Since there
was no time to establish proper rapport, some children were hesitant to speak out. At
times, the researcher was not allowed enough time to interview the children. Though
the interviews were not at the peak hours of the business, there were restrictions on
the time allowed by the employer.
Some of the unwilling employers misguided the child labourers. Some of the
employers tried to show them as their relatives and hid them. They resorted to
different methods of diverting them from giving information.
Despite these difficulties, the researcher tried her best to have a real picture of
the situation by conducting discussions outside the work place with adult workers.
24
1.19 CHAPTER SCHEME
The first chapter after giving a brief introduction to the subject deals with the
nature and design of the study.
The second chapter concerns with the review of previous studies.
The third chapter describes the profile of Tiruchirappalli District.
The fourth chapter provides the theoretical concept of child labour.
The fifth chapter focuses on the socio-economic background of the child
labour in the unorganized sector in Tiruchirappalli district.
The sixth chapter examines the working conditions of child labour in the
unorganized sector in Tiruchirappalli district as perceived by the child labourers,
parents/guardians and employers.
The seventh chapter is used to test the significant difference in the various
dimensions among different socio-economic conditions of child labour.
The eighth chapter contains findings, suggestions and conclusion arrived at by
the researcher in the course of this study.

25
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Studies on child labour cover reports of various types prepared by various
governmental, semi-governmental or voluntary agencies of national and international
statures. These reports are based on primary or secondary data and are about urban or
rural, industrial or agricultural areas. There are few nation-wide studies on child
labour, the earliest study being the one conducted by Labour Bureau, Ministry of
Labour (1954). The study was based on secondary information and a few on the spot
investigations in industries, e.g., mines, plantations, cottage industries like handloom,
weaving, leather making, carpet making, tailoring, potteries etc.
Pant, S.C. (1965) is of the view that the problem of child labour can be
attacked from two sides. On the one hand attempts must be directed towards raising
the income of the poorer sections of the community, on the other hand, together with
the prohibition of employment of children in any wage labour, necessary educational
and recreational facilities may be created.
Khandekar, Mandakini and Naik, R.D(1972) in their study stated that in India,
children have their restricted choice while getting a job in an organized sector because
of enforcement of legislative measures and children who could be employed in certain
areas in organized sector are regulated by law whereas the unorganized sector of
industry is outside the ambit of most of the labour laws concerning children.
In urban areas too, children work long hours sometimes longer than their
counterparts. A study conducted by George K.N. (1977) in the city of Madras reveals
that all working children in his sample worked eight to fifteen hours a day. Not only
do the children work in unhygienic conditions for longer hours, but they are also paid
poorly.
26
A study conducted by Musafir Singh et al. (1978) in the city of Bombay
reveals that on an average a working child earns Rs.86.40 per month.
Nirmal Sawhney(1979) in her study on the pattern of child occupations in
Uttar Pradesh concluded that of the children who were engaged in some paid jobs, a
majority were from joint families. Nearly 23 per cent of the working children were
married. It may be said that child marriage is one of the factors which has given rise
to child employment in this area. Most of the children are illiterates and reformatory
action has to be taken by the state as well as by society. Moreover, the father‟s
educational and economic status has played a significant role in determining the
occupational status of the child.
Chander(1979) in his study found that the overall educational status of child
labourers‟ families was very poor in Haryana and the parents doubted the utility of
school education for their children. In his study, it was found that 50 per cent
discontinued their studies. The evil of child labour can be attacked by educating the
parents through non-formal and adult education and the child labourers can be given
vocational training and education.
In 1979, being the International Year of Child, the Central Government
sponsored some studies on child labour and also undertook nation-wide rapid survey
on child labour. The study investigated the dimensions of the child labour and the
occupation in which children were employed, and the existing labour laws- their
adequacy and implementation of various pieces of labour legislation. Many disturbing
factors like long hours of work and low wages were also brought out. The study
recommended model legislation on child labour and also suggested the need to
involve social workers, voluntary organizations, trade unions and parents to assist in
the enforcement of legislative measures. Besides this, the subject has also been widely
27
discussed at a number of national and international seminars and conferences from
time to time.
Sharma (1979) reviewed the exent of employment of children, their nature of
work and various legislative measures concerning child labour in our country. The
author has made some suggestions for their welfare in industries. They are: (1)
minimum age fixation (2) medical examination, (3) factory inspector‟s
responsibilities, 94) launching of the organized sector programmes for the welfare of
the child, (5) trade unions and voluntary organizations responsibilities for their
welfare, (6) legislation control , and (7) emphasis on educational and vocational
guidance.
Verma (1979) in his paper on “Child Labour Need for social Awareness”
emphasizes for a plan of action in the field, removal of barriers of ignorance and
backwardness; and the need for a specific thrust on education. No dramatic result can
be expected and without people‟s participation and social awareness, the flow of child
labour cannot be diverted.
Gopujkar(1980) in his study found that the child labourers in Maharashtra are
from poor economic background and agriculture is the main occupation with small
land at hand by this tribal economy. These children participate in all activities and
their seasonality keeps them engaged throughout the year.
Banerjee, Sumanta(1980) observed that the children in brick kiln industry and
jari-embroidery in Delhi are exploited, their working conditions re poor, and they are
prone to various diseases. The authors suggested measures such as strict enforcement
of legislation, intervention by social and voluntary organizations in the unorganized
sector and vocationalisation of education.

28
Mohsin (1980), in his paper on “Poverty : Breeding ground for Child Labour”
has described the historical development of child labour and the legislative facilities
for child labour. He made a simple study of 43 children from different slum areas of
Patna. Their ages ranged between 4 to 14 years. Again, acute poverty was found to the
main reason forcing children to seek jobs. Obviously poverty is the breeding ground
for child labour. The author suggested adopting a two-sided approach to the problem.
One that eliminates household poverty, and the other, that makes education
compulsory for all children. The former would come through improved employment
and wages and better conditions fo work for the householders, and the latter through
incentives in the form of free books, food, clothes, medicines etc. to all school-going
children.
Pichholia (1980) conducted a study on the economic aspects of child labour. A
total of 63 children were interviewed, 37 from tea stalls, restaurants, eating houses
and bicycle repair shops located in the Ellisbridge area at Ahmadabad and 15 boys
and 11 girls from the area of servants employed at Navrangpura, who were from
different castes like Brahmin, Rajput, Kumbhar, Naik, Vankar, Rabari, Mena and
Muslims. Their educational level was up to the fifth standard. He analysed the type of
work they do, and poverty was found to be the major reason for their working. Their
monthly income ranged from Rs.30 to Rs.150.
Rao, (1980), has conducted a study in Andra Pradesh on agricultural labour
and particularly on the aspect of wages. Child labour‟s participation in various
agricultural operations like ploughing, transplanting, weeding, harvesting and sowing
was studied .His findings revealed Child labour is exploited by getting improper
wages.
29
Labour Bureau, the Ministry of Labour (1981) undertook a diagnostic study at
the macro-level on “Child labour in Indian industries” in both the organized and
unorganized sectors Extreme poverty, lack of opportunity for gainful employment and
irregular income, were the main reasons for the prevalence of child labour.
Jain Alka(1981) estimated that the important cause of child labour in India is
poverty, other causes are lack of knowledge regarding the role of education, and
inadequate family allowance. A survery conducted by Town and Country Planning
Organisation in Delhi found that the working children are drawn from the large
migrant community belong to mainly scheduled castes.
Mookerjee (1981) in his paper on child labour in India gives details of
adequate legislative provision for the protection of children and summarized his
recommendations for the committee on child labour set up by the Government of
India in 1979.
Babni, Arun K,(1982) stated that the number of working children in India in
1982 are 17 million and they are found in carpet industries, chemical facories,
handlomm industries, garages, restraurants and plantations. They are made to work
anywhere between 10 to 12 hours a day under most unhygienic and hazardous
conditions, worse still they are invariably underpaid.
Kothari (1983) has made an in-depth study of child labour in
Sivakasi. Most of the other studies on child labour have focused on the economic
factors leading to employment of children and their recommendations have stopped at
stressing the need for improvement of working conditions, payment of better wages,
provisions and facilities for schooling and enforcement of applicable law.
This study in Sivakasi, where 45,000 children work in the match and fireworks
industries seeks to go beyond the surface reality and investigate: (1) basic socio-
30
economic reasons for the perpetuation of government have been negligent and
apathetic to the plight of the working children, (3) how government policy affects the
Sivakasi metal industry; (4) the extent of violation of laws binding on employers of
children; and 5) laws relating to child labour in general. The other issues discussed in
the study are the working conditions of child labour, occupational hazards, the rights
that child labour have in a factory, employer-labour relationship and the compulsions
that formce parents to send their children to work.
Kumar (1983) has described the socio-economic situation of child labour. To
supplement family income they have been compelled to join the labour force. The
author while pointing out the nature of work , explains that the child labour does
work as helpers during sowing, weeding, harvesting and threshing operations. Out of
total child labour in India 93 per cent of the force is in rural areas, whereas only 7 per
cent of the total child force is in the urban areas. Employment of child labour and
wages of child agricultural workers are discussed. The author emphasises the need for
chalking out a programme to ensure that the country‟s children grow under conditions
as may provide opportunities for their physical, moral and mental development. It
might serve our goal of social justice and equality which is aimed at by the
Constitution.
Murthy and Rani (1983) attempted to examine the pattern of wages of child
labour in small restaurants in the context of the minimum wages prescribed by the
state government. It also probes into socio-economic variables that motivate the
employers to engage and the employees to get into service. Twenty small restaurants
out of 62 operating in Warangal City, Andhra Pradesh were taken as a sample for
study. Twenty employees were interviewed and 28 child workers were also
interviewed through a structured questionnaire. Child labour is characterized by low

31
wages, uncertainty of job employment, shifting employers and jobs and lack of trade
unionism . It is an example of an unorganised informal sector of the labour market.
The wages are fixed on the basis of work load, nature of work, capacity of the
employer to pay, strength of the bargaining power of the employee and the hours of
work. This apart, wages of child labour are influenced by heterogeneous factors, such
as traditions, ethical considerations, level of income, productivity, production and
government policy. The paper examines the importance of such factors on wage
determination.
Smolowe (1984) studied harmful conditions of child labour in various
countries in Asia and in the Pacific, such as, Bangkok, Mexico, South America,
Caribbean, Africa, Central America, Egypt, India and Pakistan. He has tried to
analyse the working conditions, legal aspects and socio-economic aspects related to
child labour in these countries. More innovative work programmes, such as, those
operated to Brazil are recommended by the author despite full awareness that such
programmes have limited resources.
Ali (1987) in his paper “Child labour in the Carpet industry in Kashmir”
reports that according to the census of 1981 there are about 28,500 children in the
handicraft sector. The cens4s estimates reveal 70 per cent working children are either
illiterate, or are educated below the primary level. However, the level of illiteracy is
much less in Jammu region as compared to the Kashmir valley. This may be
attributed to the lack of child labour in the handicraft sector while in the handloom
industry children are semi-literate. The working force of the child labour in handicraft
in the state was estimated at 28,348 out of which 35.61 percent belongs to the age
group of five to nine years and 64.39 per cent belongs to 10 to 14 years. The
32
incidence of female child labour is less as compared to the male child labour in both
the age groups.
Jose Jude Mathew(1987) stated that an immediate ban on child labour will
create an immediate vaccum in the labour market. Industries build on children will
have to search for alternative sources labour or will be faced with extinction. This
labour will replaced by already available mass adult unemployed, through in smaller
capacities and different ratios. With children out of labour scene, there will be
decrease in the adult unemployment.
Iyenger (1987) in his paper on “ Pyre of childhood: Child workers in the
Match Factories of Sivakashi,” reports that there are over 6000 match units in the
area. The degree of child exploitation varies from factory to factory and it was
discernible that the first generation entrepreneurs tended to exhort more tedious and
harmful work from children than those who had rationalized production and
consolidated capital over the years. The situation is indeed akin to the description of
the industrial revolution, when the child labour was ruthlessly exploited in order to
facilitate capital accumulation for mechanization children who work in match
factories come from families dependent to greater or lesser extent on agriculture. The
age of children working in match factories ranged between three and a half years and
15 years. They are undernourished and not adequately protected against diseases
through immunization. Working hours are as long as 12 a day, beginning as early as
three in the morning when they leave home in factory buses. Complaining of
insufficient sleep the children said their eyes burn, itch and water from the efforts of
keeping to long working hours.

33
Patel (1987) in his study conducted on child labourers engaged in diamond
cutting and polishing industry in Gujarat has reported that the incidence of child
labour in the industry is more than what has been covered so far in a number of
reports. The incidence varies as between. Surat city on the one hand, and a small town
like Navasari which, shows a low incidence of child labour in the industry of 6 per
cent or so similarly the observed variation in the incidence of child labour across
size/classes of diamond cutting establishments in Surat and Navsari are not systematic
but random and hence large units as well as small units are shown as similar insofar as
the incidence of child labour is concerned.
U.C.Sahoo(1990) in a survey made on child labour in Surat textile industry in
the industrial and non industrial sectors of urban sector stated that poverty leads
children to seek employment. The solution to this problem laying major women‟s
taken up the action groups are trade unions, united challenges from the working
people themselves, supported by other democratic and progressive forces.
Swapan Kumar Sinhar (1991) in his study stated that children in Calcutta are
mostly engaged in sweet shops, tea stalls, hotels and restaurants. Children are
employed through private sources and individual contacts and are appointed based on
their physique and to endure strain and work for long hours and with wages ranging
from Rs.5 to Rs.75 per month and the child workers are provided with food, snacks,
tea and light tiffin. Despite their low wages the working children have to do heavy
work in this crowded and unhealthy establishments and they work untiringly for 11 to
20 hours a day to serve the city dwellers. Since the sector is unorganized in nature the
government remains passive. Poverty forces the parents to send their children and
jobs children are unskilled and are of poor educational background.

34
Rita Panicker and Parveen Nangia (1992) in a study on working and street
children of Deli have found that the children of Delhi work as domestic servants,
vegetable sellers, milk careers, and pressers. These children worked under pressure
from parents and it is the economic necessity which pushes children into wage
labours. Child workers were punished, beaten and abused for small mistakes
especially by police and Municipal Corporation. They also reported that their fathers
were drunkards and drug addicts.
Viyasagar (1992) stated in his report that the areas of high concentration of
child workers in Tamilnadu are the beedi industry in North Arcot, Trichy and
Tirunelveli Districts. Handloom industry in many parts of Tamil Nadu, especially in
weaving in Chengalpet, North Arcot and Thanjavur Districts. The industries relating
to Gem cutting and Polishing in Trichy District, Tanneries in North Arcot, Dindigul
and Madras, Powerlooms in Periyar, Salem and Coimbatore District. Cotton rope
manufacturing in North Arcot and Madurai District. Match and Fireworks in
Kamarajar District employ children; Thousands of children are working in the service
sectors will hardly find any place in the official statistics.
Out of these studies reviewed above, only a few deals with child labour in
unorganized sector. No comprehensive empirical study on unorganized sector has
been conducted. Rajendran (1998) conducted a pilot study on the children working in
the hotels and restaurants of Dindigul district of Tamil Nadu and his study reveals the
nature of the work and the types of work they are doing. His study established the
relationship between the eradication of child labour and universalization of primary
education.
35
Ramesh Kanbargi (1991) in his book 'Child Labour in the Indian Sub-
Continent‟ analyses the demographic trend of child labour and its relation with
fertility, literacy and education.
Weiner (1991) presents an academic discussion on the various aspects of' child
labour and a critical perspective towards the educational policies of the Government
of India and that of the States. He argues that on educating its children India remains
way behind the rest of Asia that it will take a major infusion of resources and political
leadership to catch up. He stressed the need for putting compulsory education on the
political agenda. His works brings out the historical linkages of child labour with the
age-old value system based on caste system. Weiner holds the view that rather than
the low per capita income and the less developed nature of the economy, the belief'
system of the Indian society and the elite is largely responsible for the perpetuation of
child labour in the country. He also critically analyses the education policy perused by
the State and Central governments and points out its elitist character.
A study conducted among the child labourers of Mithila region (Manavi, an
NGO,1995) show that the lack of awareness in parents and the prevailing illiteracy
among the children are the most important factors that compel the poor families to
send their children to work.
Burra's 'Born to Work' (1995) is based on first hand field investigations carried
out in the brassware, gem polishing, pottery industry, lock making and glass factories.
Utilizing data collected under adverse and even hostile conditions, Burra describes the
working conditions of these children. It emerges that a large number of children as
young as five or six years work throughout the night under great health and safety
hazards. Burra contends that the State policies aimed at protecting children are poorly
36
conceived and badly enforced. This study provides hard evidence of wide spread
abuse and exploitation.
Christy Selvarani (1995) made a study on „Child labour in Match Industry in
Kamarajar District of Tamil Nadu‟ to investigate the basic socio-economic causes for
the existence of child labour in match industry in Kamarajar District; to investigate
the fact whether the regulations of child workers are followed in match industry of
Kamarajar District; to analyze the impact of child labour on the economic condition
on the household of working children and to study the effect of child labour on adult
workers. She found out that the employment of children in the match industry has
enhanced the economic conditions of the household of the working children. This
study also reveals that a significant per centage of income is contributed by the
working children of the match factories of Kamarajar District. The abolition of child
labour in such a socio-economic set up will aggravate the problem.
There are few studies on working children in urban areas which address the
working hours and Lack of educational facilities. Children are employed in a variety
of occupations. It was reported that, in some cases, when agencies send their children
for vocational training to outside agencies, the children have been exploited. A study
conducted in Mumbai (1995) reveals that self-employed child workers were working
for 10hours a day and earned around Rs. 80 per month on an average. The lack of
fixed place of shelter and harassment by officials were their main problems.
The findings of the study on child labour in Orissa (Tripati, 1997) reveal the
following: Child labourers are mainly from the drought prone poverty-stricken
scheduled caste and tribe families. The contribution of child labourers to the family
income is substantial as they contribute at par with adult members. Child labour
constitutes more than 38 per cent of the total labour force among the brick-kiln
37
labourers of Bolangir (Orissa). Work environment of the brick-kiln labourers is grim
and they are usually victimized by health hazards of tuberculosis, eye and hand
injuries. The child labourers in brick making industry toil hard and usually walk a
distance not less than 16 kms per day. Most of the child labourers of Bolangir are
illiterate, which constitute more than 83 per cent. Most of the child labourers of
Bolangir are indebted to the moneylenders locally known as 'go intia'. Landless
labourers and marginal farmers together constitute 85 per cent of the child labour
households. About 50 per cent of the child labour families are having a family size of
5 to 8 members. Eighty per cent of the child labours are in the age group of 11-14.
Textile and handloom sector is the main employer of child labour in Surat, which
constitutes about 80 per cent. Most of the child labourers have only primary level of
education and they are deprived of continuing their studies. The main occupation of
the parents of child labourers is agriculture. Poverty and indebtedness have been
manifested among the child labourers of Ganjam.
The study by Basu and Van (1998) shows that the phenomenon of child labor
is multi-dimensional and it occurs not only because of parental selfishness, but also
because of poverty and their low wages. Since it is insufficient for their survival,
parents would not send their children if their own wages are high or employment
perspectives are better.
The study is based on the experiment which shows that if all children are
pulled out of work, this would create a labor shortage which would have to be
compensated by adult laborers as they would be the best substitutes of child labors.
This sudden increase in their demand will help in increasing the adult wage rates
which would help in fulfilling the gap of poverty. Therefore banning child labor will
help in solving various problems at one time. Furthermore these parents would then in
38
turn send their children to school and help in improving the literacy rate of the
country. This has to be done in a planned manner, sector wise because if not properly
implemented, it might result in some adverse effect and may widen the poverty gap.
Proper planning and thoughtful implementation will be a key to the success of this
experiment.
Saksena (1999) analyses the factors responsible for the prevalence of child
labour and the consequences and repercussions of sending children to work. This
study also analyses the steps taken by the Government of India since independence,
and points out the loopholes of legislation, policies and programmes.
The study by Prasad (2000) shows that the problem of child labor are
multifaceted. The number of child labor in India has declined both in absolute and
relative terms between 1981 and 1991. This study shows that it is not significant as
the absolute number of child labourers is quite large. The author indicates that child
labor in India is largely engaged in subsistence activities in family based production
units, which are often linked to the market and exchange mechanisms.
Rao's edited work 'Exploited Children' (2000) analyses the dimensions of child
labour in India and the broad trends and multidimensional approaches to the problem
of child labour. The nature, magnitude, working conditions, causes and consequences
are discussed at length. It presents the position of child labour engaged in different
industries in different parts of the country. It also reveals and analyses the socio-
economic characteristics of child labour, their levels of earning, levels of living and
impact on household income. Further, various aspects of migrant child workers are
discussed and suggest strategies to eliminate the problem of child labour.

39
Becchetti and Trovato (2001) try to establish a relationship between a child
labor and GDP Per capita phenomenon .It has been assumed that GDP\PPP and child
labor have a negative relationship, which means any economy having a high GDP
tends to have a low incidence of child labor. The study shows that in China, Ethiopia
rise in GDP\PPP has had a negative impact on levels of child labor . For both the
countries the level of child labor came down from 40 per cent to 7 per cent and 43
per cent to 38 per cent respectively in the past 10 years.
In this study the author tries to study the other factors affecting both GDP and
Child labor such as quality of life and education. The results suggest that there is no
one way for reducing child labor because many economies have seen a positive
relationship between the same.
Raj and Chauhan (2001) opined that the phenomenon of child labor is multi
dimensional. Child labor harms not only the present generation but also the future
generations. If one conceives the idea of child labor, it brings before the eyes the
picture of little and tender children being exploited. In this study the researchers have
mentioned the reasons why child labor is supplied and demanded in the labor market.
From the supply side, they specifically focused on poverty and caste factors. Parents
view that more children mean more earnings, which induces child labor. Thus poverty
propels the parents to send their children to work so as to get more income and to
meet the basic needs of the family. Another reason for supply of child labor is the
caste factor.
Social, cultural, traditional factors are responsible for the plight of children in
India. Traditionally, children of upper caste families begin their lives in school,
according to their culture, whereas children of lower caste start their lives in work
according to their family culture. On the demand side, determinants of child labor are
40
source of cheap labor, children have less developed egos and there are no labor unions
for them. It is concluded that various circumstances like poverty, low family income,
illiteracy, caste, and tradition, lack of interest in studies or loss of parents lead to work
in early stage. Many laws have been passed in India keeping in view the constitutional
commitments relating to the welfare and protection of children. This study explains
that it is not enough to have a plethora of laws enacted to provide legal protection to
child workers, regulate their working conditions etc., but the most important factor is
to install effective administrative machinery to enforce the law.
Kannan (2001) in his edited work, 'The Economics of Child Labour‟ discusses
the determinants and correlates of child labour in the context of liberalisation and
globalisation.
The study by Edmonds, (2002) focuses on the effect of globalization on child
labor. It has taken the Vietnam‟s case study, where the child labor was primarily
employed on rice farms. As the Vietnam‟s economy opened up and the exports of rice
increased , it had a corresponding effect on the increase in the prices of rice which
eventually resulted in the increase of all labor wages, both adult and child labor. This
increase had an inverse effect on child labor. As compared to 1990s it had 45% sharp
decline. Interestingly what came out was that the parents wanted their children to
attend school rather than work, therefore increase in adult labor substituted the child
labor. Although such claims are not true for all economies , it is only possible, where
the factors of production are equally distributed, which is a rare phenomenon in the
modern world.
Child labor was one of the worst problems created by the industrial system. In
earlier 19th century England, children worked in the dark, dirty factories, sometimes
chained to their machines from sunrise to sunset. In the United States, children as
41
young as 8 years old worked in mills, canneries, even mines for 14 hours a day.
Through legislation, the employment of young children in factories has been almost
eliminated in the United States and other industrialized Western nations. While the
exploitation of child labourers has been greatly reduced, it has not been eliminated; it
is widespread in developing countries and even in some industrialized nations.
(American Federation of Labor, 2003)
The employment of children in United States industries increased along with
industrial expansion after 1870. In 1900, one in every 6 children between the ages of
10-15 was gainfully employed. Child labor law was passed by Congress in 1916 and
1919, where child labor was declared unconstitutional. A greatest reform came in
1938 with the passage of the fair labor standard act, which remains the basic
legislation on child labor. It sets 16years as the minimum age for employment in any
business or industry. The minimum age for employment in hazardous occupation is
18years. An amendment in 1949 allows children less than 16 years to work in offices
or stores out of school hours.
The study has tried to bring out the extent of informal economy which consists
of various supporting activities, such as all sort of domestic work, helping mothers in
their work, taking care of their siblings and aged people. The informal economy
constitutes 45 per cent to the GDP of India. There are many children associated to the
informal economy which remains unaccounted for. Children involved in informal
economy also constitutes child labor. The primary reason for hiring children is to
take advantage of their ignorance, innocence, lack of awareness of their rights. The
government policies and programs for this cause are grossly faulty, as the National
Child Labor Progaramme (NCLP) which enrolls children for education purpose are
actually exploited in the name of skill enhancement. The reality is children in special
42
schools are paid less than the average child laborer. Government is unable to take
action against various employers as there are many out of court settlement.
Some of the problems that surfaced in this research are: the teacher- student
ratio is highly erratic in some schools; the ratio is 1: 300 students. In addition the
overall distribution of teachers is highly uneven and moreover, there is a deficit of
73,000 teachers in these states. Due to poor co-ordination between the state level
government and district administration students are unable to avail benefits of books
and other materials. To overcome these problems it has been advised that teachers
should take initiative to narrow the gap. The members of committee should be chosen
from the teachers teaching at the grass root level because they carefully see various
problems and come up with ideal solutions to overcome these problems.
Grimsrud (2003) persists on the role of the UNICEF and other United Nations
agencies to come up with certain strategies for the up- -liftment of humanity as a
whole, with the emergence of Millennium Development Goals in 2000, which were
ratified by its 163 members. The goals were to ensure inclusive growth pattern,
focusing on the eradication of poverty, making education for all, gender equality,
women empowerment, reducing child mortality rate, combating HIV- AIDS and
ensuring environmental sustainability.
On the horizon these goals are interlinked with each other and tackling one
problem will create a trigging effect. There is a deep relationship between Millennium
Development Goals and child labor. As children are considered the future of nation ,
it is imperative that tackling the problem of child labor will help in achieving
Millennium Development Goals. According to him , the first challenge is how to
make legislation, interventions and education efforts to work together to mobilise
household resources and national resources. Many economists have tried to ascertain
43
the prime cause of child labor, which have been poverty, poor education facilities,
availability of cheap labor. It has been estimated that overall working children
between 5-15 years of age are close to 250 million throughout the world. The major
industries employing child labour are glass industry, carpet weaving industry, other
industrial units etc. These figures are incorrect because maximum working children
are present in agriculture and household sector which are very difficult to estimate.
The children working in the household sector contribute to the overall income of the
particular household as it gives the liberty for other family members to work outside
meanwhile.
The other indicator of child labor is poverty. Countries which have a GDP per
capita income of above $4000, their incidence of child labor is less than 5 per cent,
whereas the countries having the per capita GDP of less than $1000 face 30-60 per
cent of child labor, thus poverty and child labor are directly correlated. But this is also
not true as many children are supporting their parents in their work and the exact
estimates are not known. Remuneration estimation is also not a clear indicator
because of the above said problem as it creates an „additional labor effect‟
Education and child labor are inversely related. All the developed countries
made primary education compulsory up to the age of the 15 and hence they have very
low incidence of child labor. But on the other hand the developing and
underdeveloped nation do not have such stringent policies regarding primary
education, therefore they suffer a very high incidence of child labor.
The perception of various uneducated people is that investing money in
education incurs high expenditure and yields low returns, but the empirical evidence
suggests that making primary education compulsory is helpful in removing child
labor. The aim of United Nations is to achieve millennium development goals by

44
2015 and that can be achieved only if the problem of child labor is tackled by all
member states and other agencies.
Lieten (2003) tried to study the relationship between globalization and child
labor. Firstly there are two proponents of this approach. One thinks that globalization
has a positive impact on reducing child labor and other thinks vice- versa. The
empirical evidences suggest that child labor per centage throughout the world has
come down and it can be attributed to the rising trade between the countries.
According to this study, it is not right to have a general approach of the impact of
globalization on child labor, because it is country and economy specific. On one hand
we have the study of Vietnam, where rising price of rice exports had a positive impact
on declining child labor. This was because child labor was equitably distributed in
agricultural sector, but that can‟t be said for countries like Zambia, Bolivia and
Moldavia which have witnessed decline in schooling and rise in child labor.
In India child labor has decreased in the past two decades. The figures have
come down from 25 per cent to 8 per cent in the age group of 10-14 years. This
decline can‟t be attributed to globalization because child labor has played a
substitution effect within various industries. Earlier it was higher in carpet weaving
industries and glass industry and now it has been shifted to sari weaving and beedi
making industries. Even if export oriented industries observed a decline in child labor,
still it would have meager impact on the same because the maximum proportion of
child labor is in agricultural sector, so the decline in child labor for India can
primarily be due to strong government policies and its implementation but not due to
globalization.
45
More than globalization it is the mechanism of economy which determines the
impact of child labor. The MNC‟s are profit oriented and always look to exploit the
resources. Therefore the supply of child labor is equally responsible for high
incidence of child labor. In this light it is important to emphasize on Corporate Social
Responsibility (CSR) and force companies to take a strong action against child labor.
UNICEF and Child Labor (2003) - UNICEF has been working with ILO in
reducing child labor worldwide. As per the definition prescribed by the same „Any
person below the age of 16 involved in any work which disrupts their schooling
system is considered as a victim of child labor‟. Moreover UNICEF has given certain
conventions towards protecting the rights of children. The basic aim of these
conventions is to avoid any form of exploitation of a person below the age of 18
years. UNICEF has tried to identify the causes as to why parents send their children
to work? Broadly they have identified two factors i.e. supply and demand factor. For
the supply factor the basic reasons are poverty, since parents earn very little money
which is insufficient to support their family needs so they are compelled to send their
children at work, family breakdown, many families lose their working members due
to diseases, which force children to work, moreover in many countries the attitude
towards s bad, and many minority groups face high level of discrimination which
constitutes high supply of child labor.
The demand factors suggest that children are economical and obedient. They
have nimble fingers which suit certain job profiles. UNICEF has further identified
work done by these children. Most of these children are involved in informal
economy i.e. hawking, food drinks, whole range of other products, sold on street,
home delivery services etc. „ Invisible‟ child workers refers to children working in
homes which are unaccounted for, since they are invisible to the outside world.
46
In Sub - Saharan Africa, child soldiers who are boys between the age of 15 to
18 are given formal training to join army and they are brutally exploited. More than
1.8 million children are involved in commercial sexual exploitation in the form of
child pornography and such children are exposed to deadly diseases such as HIV/
AIDS. In child trafficking, many children are traded and used as commodities by
various employers. The UNICEF believes in an integrated approach towards
eradicating the problem of child labor. It believes that various government agencies
should come up in giving certain poverty grants to people living below the poverty
line. Moreover it stresses on bringing out educational programs for children as they
feel it will help in reducing this problem. Countries should also emphasis on informal
educational system to have a wider reach to all children. UNICEF has taken up a
stiff role in countries which uses children as soldiers. It has already charted out
programs which have resulted in reducing ten thousand child soldiers. It also works
internationally or nationally to combat the commercial sexual exploitation of children.
They have opened up several counseling centers for assisting these victims. Banning
child labor has to be undertaken in a phased manner to bring an effective impact in
reducing poverty and child labor.
Edmonds and Pavcnik (2004) study the effect of child labor with cross
countries trade. Before this study, there were many studies conducted on the effect of
globalization on the status of child labor. There were contrasting reviews as some
suggested that globalization had a positive effect on child labor and others were
opposite to this. But the earlier studies were inconclusive, because they didn‟t study
the effect of other factors such as status of the economy, GDP, Per capita income,
equitable distribution of wealth and openness of an economy, which in this study are
taken care off.

47
This study includes data collected from 113 countries divided in two groups
OECD and non OECD, and then further divided in developing and developed nations.
The methodology of the study was OLS, 2SLS and regression model. The results
suggest that child labor and openness to trade are negatively correlated with nations
having low PPP. < $3600 have a higher decline rate of child labor with respect to
openness to trade (-0.9) and nations which has a higher PPP „ between‟$3,600-$6000
have a lower decline rate of child rate with trade (-0.7). The results indicate that
nations which are less developed; over there the trade has positive effect on decline of
child labor, whereas the countries which are developed have a lesser or virtually no
impact of trade on child labor.
Allen et al. (2005) emphasizes on using technology for bridging educational
gaps in our society. The prime focus is to bring down the incidence of child labor in
the world. It has been assumed that parent send their children because they are poor
and they cannot afford formal education system. Most of these parents are unaware of
the hazards of the impact of child labor.
Some of the measures in combating child labor are educating parents and
communities about various ills and after effects of child labor. Moreover parents
should be given vocational training that will enable them for better employment
prospects and help them in improving their economic conditions. In addition, this
study suggests that education will help in reducing child labor. Since there is shortage
of formal education facilities and is expensive for average people , we should stress
on informal system. Some of the tools for this education system are satellite video,
satellite radio, broadcast T.V, satellite internet, broadcast radio, multimedia etc. The
rationale of such education system is based on providing good quality education at
nominal costs, making it available in under developed communities, where the

48
infrastructure is inadequate. The motive behind such programs is to make education
available for all in a hope that these children could join the formal education system
later on in their lives and it would keep them out of work which would help in
improving the economic conditions and reduce child labor.
Buch (2005) presents the findings of a field study across five States in India
(Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Orissa, Rajasthan) where the two child
norm had been implemented in the local bodies. In two child norms, a person who is
having more than two children after a specified date is not eligible for entering the
Panchayats. This policy has been an inspiration from China‟s „one child policy‟ and it
has achieved remarkable success in reducing its population growth rate. But even in
India (Kerala and TamilNadu) a faster decline than China has been observed. The
success of using such a norm in Panchayats through a law assumes that the law can
make people decide to have small families. The elected representatives tried to show a
reduced number of children in their families to claim that the norm had been followed
and such practices adopted are adverse to women.
Burra (2005) tried to redefine the concept of child „work‟ and „labor‟ and also
tried to differentiate between the two. According to her, any activity which disrupts
the growth of children is harmful and should be banned, irrespective of whether it is
child work or labor. The researcher has tried to unearth myth that girl children are
more exploited as compared to boys. According to her, in all SNA activities boys are
much more exploited in all areas. The author also points out that most research on
child labor has been focused on hazardous activities only, and there has been very less
focus on non hazardous work although both forms of work harm child development.
Yapi (2005) highlights the problem of child slavery and its impact on the
society in the world. This study questions on the extent of child slavery in Latin
49
America that has the maximum per centage of these slaves (60.6 per cent). A child is
considered a slave if he is under the age of 18, receives extremely little or no pay, is
controlled by violence or other threats, has no option to leave the situation, has no
access to education or health care. There are more than 9 million child slaves in the
world. The average price of a slave today is $80. One in every six children aged 5-
17years worldwide is exploited by child labor. This phenomenon is more than 400
hundred years old. There are 27 million adult and child slaves in the world today .
There are various types of child slavery such as forced labor, which means to
extract work or services from any person using the threat of penalty, other is debt
bondage which occurs when an individual is pledged into slavery as collateral on a
loan or to pay a debt. Chattel slavery is where children are viewed as personal
property, which can be sold and traded by their masters, religious slavery refers to
when children are sold or given to temple gods or priests and all these types of slavery
have effects on children‟s health.
Child slaves are vulnerable and their health is not taken care of, moreover they
denied access to education and they are not accepted by their families. The reasons for
child slavery are poverty, tradition, overpopulation and physical size. In order to
remove child slavery everyone has to take a stand towards it. This has to be taken at
an individual level. At most we must educate everyone and spread awareness
regarding this deadly disease to all and support in best possible way which we can.
Hussain and Sarwarch (2005) bring out, the various problems pertaining to
child labor in Azad Kashmir. Over here out of total population of 3.4 million 43.5 per
cent ( 1509840) are consisting of children below the age of 15. This study is based on
primary data collected from 7 major towns including the capital Muzaffarabad. Since
Azad Kashmir is a disputed land between India and Pakistan , it lacks various big
50
industries. The economy is based on tertiary and agriculture sector. Here gender
distribution between male and female is equal and majority of the people are living in
rural location. Around 2500 children are estimated working in this economy. The
causes of child labor are: poverty, population explosion, illiteracy, unemployment,
underemployment and poor governance and poverty which are the major causes of
child exploitation. Children usually earn 10 to 30 Rs per day to assist their parents.
Most of these children are forced into child labor and they have to do this because
there is no other earning member. They do these activities to take care of siblings and
fulfill addiction needs of their parents. The points sighted in order to get rid of this
problem are better governance and strong implementation policies regarding child
labor and education, introduction of poverty alleviation programs, a joint effort of
government and other institutions, implementation of combined labor schools with
residential facilities, introduction of CSO (Citizen Sector Organization) and
government joint strategy would be helpful in not only reducing child labor but also
eliminating poverty and other causes of child labor.
Das and Mukherjee (2006) use household level data from NSSO of India for
Urban male children, to show that there exists significant wage incentive for
schooling. In spite of this the school drop- out rate (3.02%) and child labor incidence
(2.04%) is not too small. The parent‟s level of education plays an important role in
reducing this tendency, thus establishing the linkage between social and human
capital outcomes in the family. Mother‟s education now appears as a more important
factor in curbing these incidences; supporting earlier findings that women
empowerment is indeed instrumental in increasing parental awareness.

51
ILO and Child Labor (2006) - The ILO was set up in the year 1919. The goal
of this organization was to take care of the interest of laborers and other workers
worldwide. The ILO in their charter was first organization to point out the problem of
child labor. According to them this problem is more than 150 years old. Since then
they have been trying to study the impact of child labor, country wise, economy wise,
culture wise and by religion. The estimates show that more than 350 million children
are economically active in 5-17 year age group ,out of which 246 million are
considered the victims of child labor, and 114 million children are considered the
victims of worst form of child labor. Earlier ILO concentrated only on the worst form
of child labor as it was considered hazardous to the growth and development of
children. But now they have widened their scope towards the problem of child labor.
ILO works together with the organizations such as Statistical Information and
Monitoring Programs on Child Labor, UNICEF towards bringing out the joint efforts
in attacking this problem. ILO had further introduced certain programs which have
helped in reducing the incidence of child labor in the world. The estimates suggest
that the overall decline in per centage of child labor at more than 25 per cent which is
a marked achievement. According to ILO, the definition of child labor is, any person
below the age of 17 years engaged in any economic work which hampers his or her
physical / cognitive development . The perception of child labor varies from country
to country; every State has its own definition and laws relating to child labor. ILO has
tried to blanket the world with certain central principles and conventions of child
labor, they introduced convention 138 (minimum age) and convention 182 (worst
form of child labor). Most of the countries have ratified convention 182 but they have
their doubts towards convention 138.

52
The study shows that Sub-Saharan Africa has the maximum incidence of child
labor which is more than 26 per cent. The maximum employment of child labor is in
the agricultural sector (69 per cent worldwide). The Sub-Saharan and Asia Pacific
region control 90 per cent of incidence of child labor in the world. The European and
American region has the minimum incidence of child labor.
The ILO has brought up other organization such as IPEC, UCW which work
together with other agencies such as LSMS, MIC etc. Their focus is to eradicate the
problem of child labor and they carry forward the principles set by various developed
countries where the child labor levels are low. They stress on making primary
education compulsory and come up with poverty alleviation programs, as poverty and
illiteracy is considered as the prime reasons for high child labor incidences. Countries
like Malaysia and Korea have been successful in reducing child labor through these
programs. Still much work is needed in regions such as Africa and South-East Asia
where child labor is still a big menace. The report taken after the ratification of the
two conventions (138 and 182) shows that the success rate was close to 51 per cent
and helped in reducing child labor in various categories such as, hazardous nature
(37.8 per cent) , trafficking (35.4 per cent), prostitution (29.3 per cent), pornography
(20.7 per cent) and others by 18 per cent. The ILO believes that problem of child
labor has to be tackled jointly by State government and other agencies which should
plan out strategies to improve economic and living conditions vis-a-vis reducing child
labor as it goes hand in hand with development of a state.
Majumdar (2006) focuses on the quality and quantity of primary education
structure in States of West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh. This study questions the
attitude of professional teachers, their responsibilities and their accountability for
educating first generations learners. Although Government has come up with various
53
programs like Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), Mid day meal etc , their implementation
and success at the grass root level are yet to be seen. In India there are two strata of
society - lower and upper. The upper strata prefers to go to elite high budget schools,
which leaves a massive gap between elite and mediocre schools.
Naidu and Ramaiah (2006) regard Child labor as a serious problem in India.
Any child who is outside schooling system is considered as child labor. As per
Factories Act of 1949 „A person below the age of 14 years is to be regarded as a
child‟. Therefore any physical labor undertaken by a child below 14 years, either by
compulsion or voluntarily in any form of organization ( organized or unorganized) is
classified as child labor. Poverty is argued as one of the serious problems contributing
to child labor. Parents send their children to work for meager amount in the form of
income. This is so because of their ignorance, illiteracy and lack of awareness about
the importance of education in today‟s world. Overall 7 per cent of the working force
is constituted by child labor.
Dabir and Nigudkar (2007) highlight the issue of rising child abuse and
neglect in India. Child abuse and neglect is an issue that demands an urgent response
from society and the State. According to WHO (1999) child abuse and maltreatment
is „all forms of physical or emotional ill treatment, sexual abuse, neglect or negligent
treatment or other exploitation, resulting in actual or potential harm to the child
health, survival, development or dignity in the context of a relationship of
responsibility , trust or power‟. Globally child abuse constitutes four types of
maltreatment, physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse and psychological abuse.
This study indicates a phenomenal per centage of abuse experienced by Indian
children.
54
Sinha (2007) focuses on the extent of child labor in the agricultural sector.
According to 2001 census two-third of all child labor force in India is in this sector.
Overall there are 5.6million children working in agriculture of which 2.75 million are
girls. Earlier when the concept of child labor was evolved it looked at the hazardous
working conditions only. The policy makers at that time focused on abolishing child
labor in only hazardous working conditions. Since agricultural work is treated as non-
hazardous, the extent of child labor was overlooked in this sector. Children working
on the farms, in the fields, herding sheep and cattle, sowing and harvesting, plucking
flowers, fruits, vegetables were looked as skill enhancement activities, good for their
development. But in reality these children do these activities at the expense of
education. This study reveals that only 3.15% of children working in agricultural
sector reap the benefits of schooling system. In addition most of these children are
exposed to physical torture as in the process, their skin gets fully peeled and their
body is full of deadly sores. Hence even agricultural work takes a serious toll on their
health and is hazardous in nature.
The World Day Against Child Labour on 12th June 2007 was primarily
focused on children working in agricultural sector and the focus was to bring out
strategies against abolishing child labor in this sector. The prime focus was to make
primary education compulsory for all, as this would compel children to opt out of
work for education. The study also suggested certain amendments in Child Labor Act
of 1986, which prohibits child labor in certain hazardous processes and occupations,
which exclude agricultural sector. It was further suggested that all government
agencies and firms should closely work together in abolishing child labor from
agricultural and other sectors.

55
Devika (2008) has taken the impact of demographic transition and child care
on Malayalee community. As it is clear, Kerala has the maximum literacy rate in
India but the cream is moving to the western country, moreover in spite of higher
literacy rate and good educational background the employment opportunities in
Kerala are very low. This has given rise to people moving out of their families for
work. In the past two decades there has been a shift from joint families to nuclear
families, which means added responsibilities on parents, added burden on mother. All
these have increased the value and cost of child rearing resulting in child labour.
The study by Devi and Roy (2008) is based on the working school children in
Pondicherry. It is estimated that 15 per cent of the total children are engaged in the
child labor. The study was conducted in Jawahar Institute Rural Health Centre and
where the sample size was 35 per cent equaling 750 children. The focus was on
school children from class 6th to 10th, where 414 urban and 306 rural workers were
contacted. The study revealed that 32.5 per cent of these children went to work, where
78.6 per cent visited a health facility in the past one year, 80.8 per cent in urban area
attributed to low income, 87.2 per cent were scolded by their employer for working
slowly and 62.8 per cent were beaten due to the same reason. The analysis of data
showed that the main reasona for high child labor were indebtedness, presence of a
handicapped member or an alcoholic in the family , over- crowded families and
uneducated mothers.
The research by Baizen and Salmon (2010) is based on the study of parental
health and its effect on child labor in Bangladesh. The survey was conducted on more
than 38,000 individuals in 7,440 households. The number of child workers in
Bangladesh is estimated at 7.9 million by the labor force survey. This includes 11.5
per cent of total children on Bangladesh both equally distributed in rural and urban
56
areas. Although the proportion of boys is more as compared to girl participation in
labor related activity.
The methodology of study included a Bivariate Probit model to study the
effect of father‟s illness on mothers‟ and children‟s labor market participation. It
further divides father‟s illness as temporary and chronic diseases. Moreover it divides
mother‟s participation, children‟s participation as son‟s and daughter‟s participation.
The results show that mother‟s participation is very low if father‟s illness is temporary
or short term in nature. Mother‟s participation only increases if father‟s illness is
chronic or irreversible, another factor in increasing mother‟s employability is her
education, and on the other hand for all cases son‟s participation supersedes
daughter‟s work participation. The onus is shifted on sons as the best replacement for
father‟s bad health. This phenomenon is higher in underdeveloped countries and
developing countries, because people are living edge to edge and face poverty
problem. In such cases children have to forgo education for supporting basic family
needs. The probable solution is to introduce insurance schemes and sickness benefit
programs in the payroll of all employees in Bangladesh and other areas.
Tendam (2011) focuses on child domestic labor in Ghana. According to ILO
there are 12.6 per cent of Ghana labor forces consisting of children. Around 61.9 per
cent of males and 69.8 per cent of females aged 5 years participated in household
chores for minimum of one hour/ day. This figures rise up to 86 per cent and 90.9 per
cent respectively for children aged 14 years. The author defines children as per the
convention stipulated by UN and Children Act of Ghana 98- which states that any
person below the age of 18 years should be considered as child. The problem of child
domestic labor is not a new phenomenon as many children are part of household
chores such as cooking, washing, cleaning, and child minding, petty trading. And also
57
these children are „sent away‟ to live with relatives in exchange for the possibility of
brighter future. This was considered as a „noble‟ act worthy of gratitude but in reality
it turned into a practice of unpaid child labor where the welfare of child took a back
seat, over families‟ need.
Some of the reasons associated with child labor were poverty, illiteracy,
gender discrimination and cultural roles. According to Child Act of 98 the minimum
age for employment was 15 years, although children aged 13 were allowed to work in
non hazardous working conditions and that of light nature. The Government of Ghana
is closely working with other organizations such as ILO, UNICEF for developing
strategies for preventing this problem.
From the above review of literature on child labour it is seen that much
concentration has been done on i) the socio economic conditions of the child
labourers in various parts of the world ii) the causes of child labour and its
effect on the household and the economy of the countries iii) the various measures
adopted by different countries to eradicate the child labour iv) incidence and
exploitation of child laboaur in various industries in the form of low wages, long
working hours and unhygienic working conditions; and v) health hazards due to
early employment.
Though there is an extensive study made on child labour in organized sector ,
very few studies have been made in different types of unorganized sector in isolation
due to lack of data on unorganized sector. Hence this study takes into account of 10
different types of employment in the unorganized sector and it has also considered the
real actors who play a vital role in the eradication of child labour programmes viz.
parents/ guardians and employers which no other study has considered. So the present
study has been undertaken by the researcher as an additional contribution to the

58
existing knowledge of research and to have an in depth study on child labour
particularly in unorganized sector.

59
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CHAPTER III
PROFILE OF TIRUCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Tiruchirappalli, situated on the banks of the river Cauvery is the fourth largest
city in Tamil Nadu. It was a citadel of the early Cholas which later fell to the Pallavas.
Trichy is a fine blend of tradition and modernity built around the Rock Fort. Apart
from the Fort, there are several Churches, Colleges and Missions dating back to the
1760s. The town and its fort, now in Trichy were built by the Nayaks of Madurai.
This city has given great Tamil scholars whose contributions to the Tamil literature
have been very significant.
The most famous land mark of this bustling town is the Rockfort Temple, a
spectacular monument perched on a massive rocky out crop which rises abruptly from
the plain to tower over the old city. It was one of the main centers around which the
wars of the Carnatic were fought in the 18th century during the British-French
struggle for supremacy in India. The city is a thriving commercial centre in Tamil
Nadu and is famous for artificial diamonds, cigars, handloom cloth, glass bangles and
wooden and clay toys.
Woraiyur, a part of present day Tiruchirappalli, was the capital city of Cholas
from 300 B.C. onwards. This is supported by archaeological evidences and ancient
literatures. There are also literary sources which tell that Woraiyur continued to be
under the control of Cholas even during the days of Kalabhra interregnum (A.D. 300 -
575).
Later, Woraiyur along with the present day Tiruchirappalli and its
neighbouring areas came under the control of Mahendra Varma Pallava I, who
ascended the throne in A.D. 590. Till A.D. 880, according to the inscriptions, this
65
region was under the hegemony of either the Pallvas or the Pandyas. It was in 880
AD, Aditya Chola brought a downfall to the Pallava dynasty. From that time onwards
Tiruchirappalli and its region became a part of Greater Cholas. In 1225 A.D the area
was occupied by the Hoysulas. Afterwards, it came under the rule of later Pandyas till
the advent of Mughal Rule.
Tiruchirappalli was for some time under the Mughal rule, which was put to an
end by the Vijayanagar rulers. The Nayaks, the Governors of Vijayanagar empire,
ruled this area till A.D. 1736. It was Viswanatha Nayaka who built the present day
Teppakulam and the Fort. The Nayak dynasty came to an end during the days of
Meenakshi.
The Muslims ruled this region again with the aid of either the French or the
English armies. For some years, Tiruchirappalli was under the rule of Chanda Sahib
and Mohamed Ali. Finally the English brought Tiruchirappalli and other areas under
their control. The district was then under the hegemony of British for about 150 years
till the independence of India.
Tiruchirappalli District is located centrally in Tamil Nadu. Major public sector
companies like BHEL, HAPP, OFT and Railway workshop function here. The district
is renowned for fabrication industry, Gem Cutting, Korai Mat Weaving and
Readymade Garments. The district in its present size was formed in September 1995
by trifurcating the composite Tiruchirappalli district into Tiruchirappalli, Karur and
Perambalur districts.
66
Location:
The district has an area of 4403.83 Sq. Kms. It is bound by Perambalur district
on the north, Thanjavur district on the east, Pudukkottai and Dindigul districts on the
south and Karur district on the west. Being a place located centrally in the State, it has
excellent transport link to all other districts in the State.
3.2 DEMOGRAPHIC FEATURES:
Table 3.1
CENSUS OF INDIA 2011 TAMIL NADU POPULATION DATA SHEET
India/ Population Percentage Density
State/ decadal
District 2001 2011 variation of 2001 2011 Change
population
Total Total Male Female 2001 2011
India 1028610328 1210193422 623724248 58469174 21.5 17.6 325 382 57
Tamil Nadu 62405679 72138958 36158871 35980087 11.7 15.6 480 555 75
Tiruchirappalli 2418366 2713858 1347863 1365995 10.1 12.2 536 602 66
Source: Director of Census Operations, Tamil Nadu 2011-2012
The population of Tiruchirappalli district which was 2418366 in
2001,increased to 2713858 persons in 2011. The decadal variation in the growth rate
of population was 12.22 per cent between 2001 and 2011.The census of India 2011,
Tamil Nadu provisional population data sheet shows Tamil Nadu‟s population is
72138958 persons. According to 2011 Census Tiruchirappalli district has a
population of 2713858 comprising 1347863 males and 1365995 females.

67
Source: www.mapsofindia.com
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3.2 GEOGRAPHY AND METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION
The topology of Tiruchirappalli is flat. It lies at an altitude of 78 m above sea
level. The river Kaveri (also called Cauvery) and the river Coleroon (also called
Kollidam) flow here, the latter forms the northern boundary of the city. There are few
reserve forests along the river Cauvery, located at the west or the north-west of the
city. The southern and the south-western part of the district is dotted by several hills
which are thought to be an offset of the Western Ghat Mountain range - the soil here
is considered to be very fertile. As two rivers flow through the city, the northern part
of the city is greener than other areas of the city.
Temperature
The variation of temperature throughout the year exhibits hot and dry climate
with high temperature and low degree of humidity. Temperature is low during the
month of January with average mean daily temperature of 28°C. The maximum daily
temperature recorded during the hot season in the month of May was 42°C.
Rainfall
The district receives seasonal rainfall from September to December. The
average annual rainfall was 841.9 mm in the year 2011 of which major quantity of
rain was received during the North East Monsoon period i.e. from October to
December. South West monsoon generally sets in at the beginning of June and blows
with great force till the end of August. Generally, the region has a long spell of hot
climate with a short spell of rainy season and winter.
Grand Anicut at Kallanai is an ancient dam built (according to legends) by
Karikala Chola across the river Cauvery. It still is in use as part of the district's
irrigation system. Mukkombu or Upper Anicut is a wonderful picnic spot where the
river Kollidam or Coleroon branches off from the Cauvery.

69
Forest:
With an area of 36,246 hectares under forest cover the district accounts for
1.65 percentage of the total forest area of the State. Honey and Cashewnut are the
main forest produce besides fuel wood.
Religion and Culture
The religion-wise population of the district is given in Table 1.2.
Table 3.2
RELIGIONWISE CLASSIFICATION OF POPULATION IN
TIRUCHIRAPPALLI
Sl. No. Religion Population Percentage
1 Hindus 2290225 84.39
2 Christian 245061 9.03
3 Muslims 175315 6.46
4 Others 3257 0.12
Total 2713858 100.00
Source: Director of Census Operations, Tamil Nadu 2011-2012
It is observed from the table that Hindus formed the majority of the population
at 84.39 per cent of the population followed by Christians at 9.02 per cent, Muslims at
6.46 per cent, and others at 0.12 per cent, . The analysis reveals that the district is
dominated by Hindu religion.
The district has a multi-cultural society with a sizeable presence of Tamil,
English, Telugu, Hindi, and Malayalam-speaking population. Sikhs and Jains also are
present in smaller numbers. In addition to Pongal, the 'Thamizhar Thirunaal‟, Ugadi,
Holi and Onam are festivals celebrated by their respective communities retaining their
cultural roots.
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People living in Tiruchirapalli district have rich cultural heritage. The city
served as the centre of fine arts since sangam literature. Uraiyur, the old name of
Tiruchirapalli city, was the capital of early Cholas. Here lived a number of Tamil
Scholars and contributed to the Tamil literature.
Every year three important festivals namely Poochoriyal, Pancha Prakaram
and Brahmotsavam attract pilgrims to this temple. During Poochoriyal, flowers worth
Rs.60, 000 to 75,000 are showered on the deity for 24 hours. Thousands of people
from various castes and communities throng the temple, when Brahmotsavam is
performed in the month of April. Devotees from Malaysia, Singapore, Srilanka and
other far-off place visits Samayapuram to fulfill their vows for the many benefits they
received through her grace. Those who are unable to personally present their
offerings, send it by post. Several worship services are offered throughout the day
here. Offerings of salt, jaggery (brown sugar), lentils, jewelry are made by devotees.
Annual festivals are celebrated during Thai Poosam, and in the tamil months of
Pankuni and Chittirai. The last Sunday of Pankuni marks the commencement of the
festival, while the chariot festival is celebrated on the first Tuesday in the month of
Chittirai, and the float festival is celebrated a week later.
In Suriyur, Manama and a few villages around Tiruchy, during the Pongal
festival, Bull catching (Jallikattu) is taking place on mostly Kanum Pongal days.
Sillambatam in ancient days is being used for defense and for good physic. In this
district Chola vadiyar is familiar for this art. Almost every village is having training
centers for this martial art.
In Puratasi Ammavasai, the women of folk give the money and ask the potter
to make new cow and calf for the pooja and collect them next month(same new moon
day). Totally 9 days they will conduct pooja with chanting of religion songs for the
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cow and calf. 10th day they will have Kollatam dance and will have procession with
cow and calf at Allur on the banks of the river Cauvery submerging the same in the
river.
Tiruchirappalli is famous for the number of Christian churches it contains -- it
is said to have the greatest number of chapels in India. The most famous are Holy
Redeemer's Church (Sagayamatha Koil), St.Lourdes Church, and The Cathedral.
Tiruchirappalli also is famous for Arcot Nawab masjid (one of the oldest) with its
large water storage tank (Ahil).
Education/Science centre
Considered an educational district, Tiruchirapalli has schools and colleges that
are hundreds of years old. The Anna Science Centre-Planetarium is located 5 km from
Tiruchirappalli Central bus terminus on Pudukkottai road, close to Tiruchirappalli
Airport.
Bharathidasan University, named after the revolutionary Tamil Poet,
Bharathidasan, was established by the Government of Tamilnadu in 1982 through an
Act, Bharathidasan University Act 1981 and come into inception. The University is
one among those recognized by University Grants Commission for receiving grants as
per section 12B of UGC Act. It is a member of the Association of Indian Universities
and the Association of Commonwealth Universities.
The University carries out teaching, research and extension activities through
its Schools and Departments. The University has jurisdiction over eight districts
including Tiruchirappalli, Karur, Permbalur, Thanjavur, Nagapattinam, Tiruvarur,
Ariyalur and Pudukkottai. The colleges located in those districts are affiliated to this
University. There are 11 autonomous colleges and 13 approved institutions. The

72
Composition of the affiliated colleges is as follows: 74 Arts and Science Colleges, 18
Engineering Colleges, 1 Uni-Faculty Institution and 3 Colleges of Fine Arts.
3.3 LITERACY LEVEL
Literacy level in the district was 77.9 per cent as per 2011 census, which is
less than that of State literacy level.
Table 3.3
LITERACY LEVEL IN TIRUCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT
Sl. Literacy Male Female Total
No. Level Population % Population % Population %
1 Illiterate 134786 10.00 311372 22.76 446158 16.44
2 Literate 1213077 90.00 1054623 77.24 2267700 83.56
1347863 100.00 1365995 100.00 2713858 100
Source:www.census2011.co.in
From Table 3.3 it is seen that male literate constituted 90 per cent and female
literate constituted 77.24 per cent to the total population.
3.4 OCCUPATIONAL PATTERN
Tiruchirappalli district has a unique mixed economic scenario. Agriculture
continued to be the mainstay of the economy with a distinct urban bias. Out of the
total geographical area of 4.4 lakh ha, the net cropped area, net irrigated area and the
cropping intensity are 2.07 lakh ha, 0.849 lakh ha and 115% respectively. Paddy,
Sugarcane, Groundnut, Ragi, Pulses, Turmeric, Tapioca, Cotton are the principal field
crops in the district. Mango, orange, vegetables and coconut are the major plantation
and horticulture crops cultivated.

73
Table 3.4
OCCUPATIONAL PATTERN OF TIRUCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT
Sl. No. Basis No. of Workers Percentage
1 Gender Male 6,87,814 64.61
Female 3,76,707 35.39
2 Area Rural 6,71,320 63.06
Urban 3,93,201 36.94
3 Occupation Cultivators 2,03,874 19.15
Agricultural Labourers 2,45,875 23.09
Household Industry 36,676 3.44
Other Workers 4,41,363 41.47
Marginal Workers 1,36,733 12.85
Source :www.tiruchi.tn.nic.in
From the above table it is seen that the total workers in the district are 10.64
lakh which constitute 39.2 per cent of the population. Of the working population
63.06 per cent are rural workers while the remaining are urban based. About 19.15
per cent of the workers are cultivators and 23.09 per cent of the workers are
agriculture labourers. Commercialization of agriculture and horticulture are areas
promising scope for development. Dairy development, sheep rearing, poultry farming
are predominant allied agricultural activities which supplement the income of the
people. The educational institutions, particularly professional colleges offer ample
scope for direct / indirect employment to the people.

74
3.5 BANKS
The total number of banks in the district is 252 as on 31.03.2011 of which 167
are Public Sector bank branches. Indian Overseas Bank is the Lead Bank in
Tiruchirappalli District having 47 branches.
Table 3.5
BANKS IN TIRUCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT
No. of
No. of Semi No. of Rural
Sl. No. Banks Urban Total
Urban Branches Branches
Branches
1 Public Sector 83 25 60 168
2 Private Sector 25 4 13 42
3 District Central Cooperative

17 7 7 31
Bank
4 Tiruchirappalli City Cooperative

5 0 0 5
Bank
5 TNSC Agri. & RD Bank Ltd. 1 4 0 5
6 TIIC 1 0 0 1
Total 132 40 80 252
Source: Annual Credit Plan, Tiruchirappalli District , (2011 )
3.6 SOIL
In Tiruchirappalli district, majority of the area is under Red Sandy soil and this
soil type covers 18 per cent of the total area in the district. Black soil is distributed
along the rivers of Cauvery and Ayacuts near big tanks. This soil type covers 14 per
cent of the total area in the district. The other soil types like Clay, Red Ferruginous,
etc., are occupying the remaining extent of land.Out of the total area nearly 93678
hectare of lands are identified as soil problem area with Salinity and Alkalinity, which
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is 29 percent to total area of the district. Moreover, nearly 1,31,785 hectare of lands
are identified to be prone to soil erosion in the district. The district has been provided
with 463 percolation ponds in order to safeguard the agricultural practices in the
region. Soil conservation practices have been undertaken in about 13934 hectares as
on 31.03.2011
3.7 WATER RESOURCE
The Cauvery river is the most important river in the district and the tributaries
of Cauvery, i.e. Coleroon river, Koraiyar river, Ariyar, Malattar channel,
Uyyakondanchannel, and Pullambadi canal also drain in this district.
i) The Cauvery and Coleroon River
Cauvery is one of the major rivers in South India and Tamil Nadu, which
flows towards east. The Cauvery Basin extends over an area of 81155 Sq.km, which
spread across the States of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. In Tiruchirappalli
district, the river splits into two branches, the northern branch being called the
Coleroon (Kolidam) and the southern branch is called river Cauvery. The total length
of the river in this district is about 125 Kms, and the area of river basin extends about
17,200 hectares of land. Ponnaniar, Uppamodai and Siddhayalli reservoir are mainly
used for irrigation purpose.
ii) Koraiyar River
Koraiyar River rises from Karuppur Reddiyarpatti hill R.F at an elevation of
about 500m. The river carries water from catchment areas of Puttanattam, Viralimalai,
Malaikudippatti, Tennalur, Illupur, Kalluppatti, Arur, Kulakkattai gudi, Keeranur and
Thuvarankurichi. The catchment area of river is 632 sq.km and the length is 75 km.
The entire catchment of the river is covered by a large number of tanks.

76
iii) Ariyar River
Ariyar River rises in Manapparai area from Pallivelli Mukku at an elevation of
about 700m. The river carries water from Kadavur and Semmalai reserved forests,
Vairampattai, Kulattur and Manapparai areas. The catchment area of the river is
about832 Sq.km.
iv) Upper Anicut
A dam known as upper Anicut was constructed in 1836 at a place where the
Cauvery branches off into two at the west end of Srirangam, to regulate the flow of
water in the Cauvery and Coleroon rivers. In its original form, the upper Anicut 108
consisted of a simple masonary dam of 230 meters in length divided into three parts.
Below the Grand Anicut, the Cauvery further splits into two, one being called the
Cauvery and the other, the Vennar River. These channels are utilised as the main
canals for irrigation.
v) Grand Anicut
Karikala Cholan, an early Chola King, constructed the grand Anicut. It is
situated on the northern bank of Cauvery about 16 km east of Tiruchirappalli town
and mainly used for irrigation purpose. With regard to water spread area, 75 system
tanks and 99 seasonal / rainfed tanks were found to exist and then covered 5751.14
ha. and 9164.16 ha. respectively in the district.

77
Table 3.6
DETAILS OF SOURCES OF IRRIGATION IN TIRUCHIRAPPALLI
DISTRICT
No Details Length/ No Area Irrigated

(in hectares)
Net Gross
1 Major rivers-Canals (Delta) 44098 51012 60940
2 Small rivers -Canals 5437 3025 3883
3 Lakes & Tanks 1767 20422 21144
4 Open wells 63177 45013 51668
5 Tube-wells 2329 4294 4891
6 Bore-wells 45 102 117
7 Filter points 605 511 746
Subsidiary Irrigation Sources
1 Tube-wells 132 613 863
2 Filter points 1144 1362 1570
3 Open wells 5440 1886 3184
Source: Centre for Agriculture and Rural Development Studies, Tamilnadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore, 2011.
In Tiruchirappalli District 1,86,778 ha. (42.41 per cent to the total
geographical area) of land are under irrigated area. The major source of irrigation is
through wells and Canals.
3.8 ROADWAYS
Tiruchirappalli district is well connected to various parts of Tamil Nadu, by
private and public bus services. One can get buses from Tiruchirappalli to almost any
part of the state, due to its geographical location in the center of Tamil Nadu. On the
road infrastructure front, with the completion of highway projects in Tamil Nadu
State, Tiruchirappalli has four track highways branching to destination Chennai,
Madurai, Nagappattinam and Coimbatore.

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3.9 RAILWAYS
Tiruchirappalli is the hub of Southern Railway's operation to connect this
central part of Tamil Nadu to various parts of India, notably regions in Kerala, Andhra
Pradesh, Bengal, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Delhi, and Madhya Pradesh.
Tiruchirappalli Railway Junction has five branches leading to Madurai, Rameswaram,
Erode, Tanjore and Chennai.
3.10 AIRWAYS
Tiruchirappalli has an international airport about five kilometres from the city,
which operates flights to Indian cities, territories, and neighbouring countries
including Malaysia, Singapore, Sri Lanka and the Gulf by Air Asia, Indian Airlines,
Air India Express, Srilankan Airlines, Mihin Lanka, Kingfisher Airlines, Paramount
Airways. Tiruchirappalli airport is the second largest airport in Tamil Nadu next to
Chennai to get international connectivity to Colombo (Srilanka) in 1981. Nowadays,
flights are operated to Gulf countries such as the United Arab Emirates and Kuwait.
3.11 TOURISM
A number of temples of historic importance stands in Tiruchirappalli that
includes Sri Rangam, Rock Fort, Samayapuram, Thiruvanaikkaval, Vekkaliyamman,
Iyappan Temple, Vayalur Murugan Kovil, Somarasam Pettai Mariyamman Kovil,
Uyyakondan Thirumalai, Erumbeeshwar Temple, Rettai Malai Sami Kovil, etc.
3.12 INDUSTRIES AT A GLANCE
Tiruchirappalli is a major engineering hub and energy equipment and
fabrication center of India. A number of small scale industries have also sprung up in
Tiruchirappalli, mostly around Thuvakudi and Mathur. Leather tanneries are located
on the way to Pudukottai. Viralimalai, considered an industrial suburb on Madurai
road has the factories. Manachanallur that has numerous rice mills supplying polished
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rice all over Tamil Nadu and outside is located about 7 km from Main Guard gate.
The economy of the city is driven to a certain extent by IT/ITES companies
encouraged by the support from State government. A dedicated stretch of land has
been identified and developed to increase the State's share in national IT/ITES
exports. The important industries are BHEL, OFT, HAPP and Golden Rock Railway
Work Shop.
Table 3.7
DETAILS OF REGISTERED INDUSTRIAL UNITS IN
Sl. No. Head Unit Particulars
1 Registered Industrial Unit No 10817
2 Total Industrial Unit No 15143
3 Registered Medium and Large Unit No 92
4 Estimated Avg. No. of Daily workers employed No 105885
in Small Scale Industries
5 Employment in Large and Medium Industries No 42600
6 No. of Industrial Area No 9
7 Turnover of Small Scale Industries In Lacs 54085
8 Turnover of Medium and Large Scale Industries In Lacs 1840
Source: Brief Industrial Profile of Tiruchirappalli District, MSME, 2012-13.
From Table 3.7, it is seen that the total industrial units of Tiruchirappalli
District for 2011 were 15143 units of which the registered industrial units were
10817. The turnover of medium and large scale industrial units and also the
employment of workers in small scale units are relatively high to the extent of 105885
workers when compared to large and medium scale unit workers.

80
The 128 year - old Gandhi Market is situated in the heart of the city. Being
one of the biggest and oldest markets of Tamilnadu , it has a rich historic heritage. In
fact , being the nerve centre of Tiruchirappalli‟s trade, it attracts public from in and
around Tiruchirappalli district. It always pulsates with activity. Woraiyur is also
famous in handmade cigar and handloom saris. The handmade cigar of Woraiyur was
said to be famous in overseas, so much that even Winston Churchill is said to have
relished them though he remained loyal to Cuban cigars.

81
REFERENCES:
www.tn.gov.in
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiruchirappalli
www.newtrichy.in
www.trichy.com
www.madeintrichy.com
www.trichy-news.com
www.itparktrichy.com
www.trichycorporation.com
www.trichytimes.com
www.trichy.tn.nic.in
82
CHAPTER IV
CHILD LABOUR IN INDIA – AN OVERVIEW
Child Labour is recognized as a serious and enormously complex social
problem in India. The Census of India found an increase in the number of child
labourers from 11.28 million in 1991 to 12.66 million in 2001. In addition, nearly 85
percent of child labourers in India are hard-to-reach, invisible and excluded, as they
work largely in the unorganised sector, both rural and urban, within the family or in
household based units. The Child Labour (Prohibition & Regulation) Act 1986 aims
to prohibit the entry of children into hazardous occupations and to regulate the
services of children in non-hazardous occupations but still a significant portion of
children in the country are engaged in such activities.
4.1 Magnitude of child labour in India
The magnitude of child labour in India could be understood by the
composition of children in the total population in India.
4.2 Child Population in India
India, with 1.21 billion people is the second most populated country in the
world, while China is on the top with over 1.35 billion people. India represents almost
17.31 per cent of the world's population, which means one out of six people on this
planet live in India. Every year, an estimated 26 millions of children are born in India
which is nearly 4 million more than the population of Australia.

83
Table 4.1
Percentage of children in total population
Age group 1991 2001
0-4 12.0 10.7
5-9 13.2 12.5
10-14 11.9 12.1
5 to 14 25.1 24.6
0-14 37.2 35.3
Source: Population Census 1991 and 2001 and Population Projections, Based
on 2001Census of India (2006).
As per 2001 Population Census, children in the age group of 0-14 accounted
for 35.3 percent of total population. The proportion of children in the total population
has declined between 1991 and 2001. The reduction in the proportion of children is
attributed to drastic reduction in the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) in many of the major
States, especially in Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab,
West Bengal, Delhi, Karnataka and Maharashtra. Total Fertility Rate refers to the
average number of children expected to be born per woman during her entire span of
reproductive period and TFR is considered to be a useful indicator for analysing the
prospects for population stabilization. On the other hand TFR remains high in some of
the major States like Chattisgarh, Jharkand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan and
Madhya Pradesh. (http://www.jsk.gov.in/total_fertility_rate.asp). Number of
empirical studies on child labour has associated large family size with high incidence
of child labour (VVGNLI, 1999) which in turn is influenced by the TFR.

84
4.3 Child Population across the States / Union Territories in India in 2011.
Table 4.2
Child Population across the country in the Age Group (0-6)
State /UT India/State/Union Territory Child population

Code in the Age Group
(0-6)
- INDIA 158,789,287
01 Jammu & Kashmir 2,008,642
02 Himachal Pradesh 763,864
03 Punjab 2,941,570
04 Chandigarh 117,953
05 Uttarakhand 1,328,844
06 Haryana 3,297,724
07 NCT of Delhi # 1,970,510
08 Rajasthan 10,504,916
09 Uttar Pradesh 29,728,235
10 Bihar 18,582,229
11 Sikkim 61,077
12 Arunachal Pradesh 202,759
13 Nagaland 285,981
14 Manipur 353,237
15 Mizoram 165,536
16 Tripura 444,055
17 Meghalaya 555,822
18 Assam 4,511,307
19 West Bengal 10,112,599
20 Jharkhand 5,237,582
21 Orissa 5,035,650
22 Chhattisgarh 3,584,028
23 Madhya Pradesh 10,548,295
24 Gujarat 7,494,176
25 Daman & Diu # 25,880
26 Dadra & Nagar Haveli # 49,196
27 Maharashtra 12,848,375
28 Andhra Pradesh 8,642,686
29 Karnataka 6,855,801
30 Goa 139,495
31 Lakshadweep # 7,088
32 Kerala 3,322,247
33 Tamil Nadu 6,894,821
34 Puducherry # 127,610
35 Andaman & Nicobar Islands # 39,497
Source : http://censusindia.gov.in/2011
85
From Table 4.2 it is understood that the top five states with the highest figures
of child population are Uttar Pradesh (29,728,235), Bihar (18,582,229), Maharashtra
(12,848,375), Madhya Pradesh (10,548,295) and Rajasthan (10,504,916). The
following five states, Lakshadweep (7,088), Daman and Diu (25,880), Andaman &
Nicobar Islands (39,497) and Dadra & Nagar Haveli (49,196) and Sikkim (61077)
have less children.
4.4 Magnitude of child labour across major States in India
As per the census data, the trend on the magnitude of child labour is not
uniform across the country. The state wise number of child labour as per Census 2001
is given in the following Table 4.3

86
Table 4.3
State-wise Distribution of Working Children in the age group 5-14 years
Sl. No Name of the State/UT 2001
1. Andhra Pradesh 1363339

2. Assam 351416
3. Bihar 1117500
4. Gujarat 485530
5. Haryana 253491
6. Himachal Pradesh 107774
7. Jammu & Kashmir 175630
8. Karnataka 822615
9. Kerala 26156
10. Madhya Pradesh 1065259
11. Maharashtra 764075
12. Chhattisgarh 364572
13. Manipur 28836
14. Meghalaya 53940
15. Jharkhand 407200
16. Uttaranchal 70183
17. Nagaland 45874
18. Orissa 377594
19. Punjab 177268
20. Rajasthan 1262570
21. Sikkim 16457
22. Tamil Nadu 418801
23. Tripura 21756
24. Uttar Pradesh 1927997
25. West Bengal 857087
26. Andaman & Nicobar Island 1960
27. Arunachal Pradesh 18482
28. Chandigarh 3779
29. Dadra & Nagar Haveli 4274
30. Delhi 41899
31. Daman and Diu 729
32. Goa 4138
33. Lakshadweep 27
34. Mizoram 26265
35. Pondicherry 1904
Total 12666377
Source: Press Information Bureau, Government of India, Ministry of
Labour and Employment, 19th March 2008.
87
From Table 4.3, it is understood that Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh are the top five states which employ child
labourers and Lakshadweep (27), Daman & Diu (729), Pondicherry (1904), Andaman
& Nicobar Islands (1960) and Chandigarh (3779). Combined with Table 4.2, it can be
inferred that the child population and child labourers are related to each other. Hence
the best way to reduce the child labour is to reduce the child population (birth
control).
4.5 TYPES OF CHILD LABOUR
UNICEF has classified child labour into three categories:
Within the Family
Children are engaged without pay in domestic household tasks, agricultural/
pastoral work, handicraft/cottage industries etc. In agriculture, children do work as
helpers, rearing cattle and sheep, watering crops , scaring away beasts and birds from
the fields, helping at the time of sowing , weeding , harvesting and thrashing
operations etc. In their homes, they look after the younger siblings, collect firewood
and water and participate in other domestic and non-domestic work as in a cottage
industry.
Within the Family but outside the Home
Children do agricultural/pastoral work which consists of (seasonal/ full-time)
migrant labour, local agricultural work, domestic service, construction work and
informal occupation e.g. recycling of waste employed by others and self employed.
Outside the Family
Children are employed by others in bonded work, apprenticeship, skilled
trades (Carpet, embroidery, and brass/copper work), industrial unskilled

88
occupations/ mines, domestic work, commercial work in shops and restaurants,
begging, prostitution and pornography.
Migrant Child Labour
Children migrate from the rural area to the urban or from smaller to larger
towns/ cities either with their families or alone. They migrate either for better
employment opportunities or to escape from bondage.
4.6 BONDED CHILD LABOUR
Children are pledged by their parents / guardians to employers in lieu of debts
or payment. The rates of interest on loans are so high that the amount to be repaid
accumulates every year, making repayment almost impossible. The phenomenon
of urban child labour includes street children also. These children belong to three
broad categories:
Children on the Street
 Working children who have families but spend most of their time in streets
 They earn for themselves and may or may not contribute to the family
income.
Children off the Streets
 Working children who have left their families in villages or towns and have
migrated to the city.
 They do not have a place to live and hence spend their nights at the railway
platforms, bus stands etc.
 They live independently and usually spend all that they earn in the same day.
Abandoned/Orphaned Children
89
 Working children without families or whose families have abandoned them
 They spend their lives on the streets without any kind of support and they are
the most exploited and abused of the lot.
4.7 INVISIBLE CHILD LABOUR
 Children work in the unorganized or/and informal sector
 They do not come under the purview of law
 They constitute a substantial proportion of the child labour in the country
 Most of them do not go to school
Predefined Worst Forms of Child Labour
Convention 182 of the International Labour Organisation includes forms
of child labour, which are predefined worst forms of child labour. India has not
ratified ILO Convention No. 138, the Minimum Age Convention or Convention No.
182, the Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention. The law does not sufficiently
protect children from forms of labour that are illegal under those Conventions. The
laws are not enforced adequately and child labour, including its worst forms, is
prevalent.
The predefined worst forms of child labour are:
all forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, such as
 the sale of a child;
 trafficking of children, meaning the recruitment of children to do work
far away from home and from the care of their families, in
circumstances within which they are exploited;
 debt bondage or any other form of bonded labour;
 forced or compulsory labour, including forced or compulsory
recruitment of children for use in armed conflict;

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 Commercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC), including the use, procuring
or offering
 prostitution, or of a child for:
 the production of pornography or for pornographic performances;
 use, procuring or offering of a child by others for illegal activities, also known
as children used by adults in the commission of crime (CUBAC), including the
trafficking or production of drugs
 Work by its nature that is likely to harm the health, safety or morals of children.
4.8 Prevalence of Worst Forms of Child Labour in India
The Bureau of International Labour Affairs, commissioned by the Department
of Labour, United States of America, conducted a study on the prevalence of worst
forms of child labour in India in the year 2007 and found out that children in India are
engaged in the worst forms of child labour. http://www.refworld.org/country,,
USDOL,,IND,,48d7493a15,0.html . Most of the child labourers work in agriculture,
producing crops such as rice and hybrid seeds. Children who work in agriculture may
carry heavy loads and apply harmful pesticides. Children in India also work under
dangerous conditions manufacturing a variety of products, quarrying sandstone and
other materials, breaking stones and polishing gems.
Children in manufacturing industries maker matches, bricks, carpets, locks,
glass bangles, fireworks, cigarettes, incense sticks, footwear, garments, hand-loomed
silk, leather, brassware and other metal goods. Children spin thread/yarn, embroider,
sew beads to fabric and stitch soccer balls for the domestic market. Many children
manufacture goods in the informal economy, increasingly doing so in home-based
product production. In addition to working long hours in cramped spaces under poor
lighting and inadequate ventilation, children in manufacturing may be exposed to

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harmful chemicals and dangerous machinery and tools. The risks for these children
have caused joint pain, headaches, hearing loss, skin infections, respiratory problems
and deformities in limbs. Service industries that employ children include hotels, food
service and tourism where they are vulnerable to physical violence, mental trauma
and sexual abuse.
Children work on the street sell food and other goods, repair vehicles and tires.
They also work as scavengers and rag pickers. This may expose them to dangers
including severe weather, criminal elements and accidents. Children also work in
construction and domestic service. Many work for long hours and suffer physically
and psychologically.
Forced child labour occurs in India. Children perform forced or indentured
labour in domestic service, gemstone cutting and quarrying, as well as in brick kilns
and rice mills. Children also work under forced conditions producing hybrid seeds,
garments and embroidery textiles.
Cases of child sex tourism continue to be reported in cities and towns with
tourist attractions as well as locations known as religious pilgrim centres. India
remains a source, transit and destination country for minors‟ trafficked for commercial
sexual exploitation and forced labour in domestic service, agriculture and activities
such as begging and making bricks. The majority of these children are Indians
trafficked within the country.
There are reports that children have been recruited to serve as soldiers by
armed opposition groups in zones where armed conflicts occur, such as the Naxalites
in Chhattisgarh. Education is free and compulsory till the age 14, but barriers to
accessing the education system still exist. In remote areas, children have to travel long
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distances to reach school and transportation is limited. This, along with a lack of
proper sanitation facilities, sometimes deters girls from attending school.
Whatever be the occupation, the element of risk is always there as far as a
child is concerned. It has been estimated that 16 million children among child labour
force are exposed to health hazards in their working conditions.
4.9 Sector-wise Distribution of Child Labour in India
Whatever trend in the magnitude of child labour is shown in the official data,
it is a common sight in India to see children engaged in various forms of work,
whether paid or unpaid. Despite having legislation against child labour particularly in
hazardous industries, children are continued to be engaged in significant number in
hazardous and non-hazardous sectors.
Reflecting the overall trend in the workforce participation, most of the child
employment is concentrated in agriculture and allied activities in India. As revealed
by the NSSO data 2004-05, this sector alone accounts for over two thirds of the child
employment. This sector is followed by manufacturing sector which accounts for
16.55 per cent of child employment. Trade, hotels and restaurant account for a
significant share of child workers with 8.45 per cent of the total child labour force.
Most of these children are employed in the informal sectors of the economy on a
casual basis with low wages and long hours of work as revealed by many empirical
studies on child labour in India.

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Table 4.4
Sector–wise Distribution of Child labourers in India, 2004-05
State Agri. Mining Mfg Elec. Cons. Trade Trnsport Finance Com Total
& Water Hotel Soc
Quar
A.P 68.96 0.96 9.70 0.00 3.20 9.02 1.05 0.00 7.11 1000
Assam 69.26 1.78 8.42 0.00 1.78 7.76 0.05 0.00 10.96 100
Bihar 71.84 0.00 11.16 0.00 0.00 15.49 0.07 0.38 1.05 100
Chhattisgarh 87.90 0.00 2.37 0.00 0.86 7.17 0.00 0.00 1.70 100
Delhi 0.00 0.00 11.08 0.00 0.00 57.83 0.00 0.00 31.09 100
Goa 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.60 0.00 72.46 0.00 22.94 100
Gujrat 76.69 1.04 2.58 0.00 0.28 17.77 0.16 0.00 1.48 100
H.P 87.42 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.71 1.21 0.00 4.66 100
Haryana 65.57 0.00 3.81 0.00 7.03 8.08 0.00 0.00 15.51 100
Jharkhand 65.28 0.00 14.63 0.00 4.25 12.08 0.66 0.26 2.84 100
Karnataka 82.60 0.22 9.27 0.00 1.19 5.73 0.70 0.00 0.30 100
Kerala 19.22 0.00 32.78 0.00 0.00 31.95 0.00 0.00 16.05 100
M.P 82.89 0.00 9.93 0.00 1.50 4.33 0.00 0.00 1.34 100
Maharastra 82.62 0.00 5.34 0.00 1.92 5.75 0.13 0.14 4.09 100
Orissa 73.18 0.88 17.36 0.00 3.25 3.34 0.91 0.00 1.08 100
Punjab 67.18 0.00 12.71 0.00 1.16 7.21 2.59 0.00 8.43 100
Rajasthan 75.78 0.00 9.60 0.19 2.94 7.26 0.05 3.74 0.44 100
T.N 39.49 0.00 44.55 0.00 5.91 5.68 1.54 0.16 2.68 100
U.P 61.24 0.00 25.34 0.00 0.40 9.73 0.68 0.50 2.11 100
Uttaranchal 80.73 0.00 4.72 0.00 5.24 9.31 0.00 0.00 0.00 100
W.B 34.57 0.00 43.93 0.00 3.27 9.66 1.19 0.80 6.59 100
Total 68.14 0.25 16.55 0.02 1.95 8.45 066 0.57 3.41 100
From Table 4.4 it is understood that across the States, the general pattern of
sectoral distribution of workforce in the economy is observed in the case of child
labour also, except in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and West Bengal, Delhi and Goa where
agriculture and allied sectors account for less than 40 percent of the total child labour
force. Tamil Nadu is the highly urbanized State according to 2001 census data and
several non-farm occupations in the informal sector are developing and most of the
rural population has been involved in more than one activity. Thus, children are also
employed in different non-farm occupations in the State.

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It is noted that during 2004-05, over 87 percent of child labourers are located
in farm activities in States like Himachal Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, while this
accounted for 82 percent in Madhya Pradesh and Maharastra.
4.10 Legal Provisions in India
India has passed a number of constitutional protections and laws on child
labour after its independence from colonial rule. The Constitution of India in the
Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles of State Policy prohibits child labour
below the age of 14 years in any factory or mine or castle or engaged in any other
hazardous employment (Article 24). The Constitution also envisioned that India shall,
by 1960, provide infrastructure and resources for free and compulsory education to all
children of the age six to 14 years. (Article 21-A and Article 45).Though many
committees have been formed for this and efforts have been taken for the
implementation of the schemes for this purpose; its effectiveness remains still a
distant dream.
India has a federal form of government, and child labour is a matter on which
both the central government and state governments can legislateand review the
actions . The major national legislative developments include the following:
The Factories Act of 1948: The Act prohibits the employment of children below the
age of 14 years in any factory. The law also placed rules on who, when and how long
can pre-adults aged 15–18 years be employed in any factory.
The Mines Act of 1952: The Act prohibits the employment of children below 18
years of age in a mine.

95
The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act of 1986: The Act prohibits the
employment of children below the age of 14 years in hazardous occupations identified
in a list by the law. The list was expanded in 2006, and again in 2008. At present 15
occupations and 65 processes are considered hazardous.
The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection) of Children Act of 2000: This law
made it a crime, punishable with a prison term, for anyone to procure or employ a
child in any hazardous employment or in bondage.
The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act of 2009: The law
mandates free and compulsory education to all children aged 6 to 14 years. This
legislation also mandated that 25 percent of seats in every private school must be
allocated for children from disadvantaged groups and physically challenged children.
India formulated a National Policy on Child Labour in 1987. This Policy seeks
to adopt a gradual and sequential approach with a focus on rehabilitation of children
working in hazardous occupations. It envisioned strict enforcement of Indian laws on
child labour combined with development programs to address the root causes of child
labour such as poverty. In 1988, this led to the National Child Labour Project (NCLP)
initiative. This legal and development initiative continues, with a current central
government funding of 602 crores, targeted solely to eliminate child labour in
India. Despite these efforts, child labour remains a major challenge for India.
4.11 Action against Child Labour in India
The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act of 1986 has provisions
which do not allow the children to be engaged in hazardous industries, which instead
of preventing child labourers permits children to be employed in non-hazardous
industries. Social activist Hemant Goswami had moved the courts against this
particular provision and for the failure of the Government to prevent violation of child
96
rights and widespread child labour. His efforts against exploitation of children have
forced the government to constitute Commission for Child Right in the State of
Haryana, Punjab and Chandigarh. On 9 April 2013, the Punjab and Haryana High
Court gave landmark order on the writ-petition (PIL CWP 2693 of 2010) moved by
Hemant Goswami. The court, accepted all the contentions and suggestions put
forward by Hemant Goswami (who argued the case in-person) and directed that;
 There shall be total ban on the employment of children up to the age of 14
years, be it hazardous or non-hazardous industries.
 There shall be no forced labour even for children between the ages of 14 years
to 18 years; and whenever a child above the age of 14 years is forced to work,
it has to be treated as an offence under Section 374 IPC and it is to be dealt
with sternly.
 When any matter is brought to the notice of the State Commission (or for that
matter suo motu cognizance taken by the State Commission) involving
violation of child rights even where a child above the age of 14 year is
employed, the State Commission under the CPCR Act will have the
jurisdiction to deal with the same and pass necessary directions.
 The violators have to be dealt with effectively and in a speedy manner.
Therefore, wherever violations are found, cases under the provisions of Part-
IV of the Child Labour Prohibition Act have to be registered without delay in
each and every case.
 Wherever the officers fail or neglect to take effective action immediately,
apart from taking necessary disciplinary action, action can also be taken, in
appropriate cases, under Section 166 IPC against such officers.

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 There is also a need for rehabilitation of such children in the society. (Schemes
suggested by Hemant Goswami were adopted by the Court (As Court's
directions), with the following main points; (a) Moving out the child from the
exploitative environment (b) Ensuring Education (c) Ensuring
Food/Meals/Clothes/ Necessities (d) Penalty/Compensation should be for the
benefit of the Child (e) Regular Monitoring)
 The Chairperson of State Commissions for Protection of Child Rights should
be a person who has been Judge of the High Court and the process of selection
of the other six members of the State Commissions for Protection of Child
Rights should entail issuance of public advertisement for inviting applications,
interviewing eligible candidates and recommending a penal of names of
suitable persons.
 States of Punjab and Haryana as well as U.T., Chandigarh shall also ensure
that the State Commissions become fully functional by appointing
Chairpersons and Members.
 Children‟s Courts with specialised infrastructure be created.
The above order by the High Court is considered a landmark in Child Right
Protection in India, as the court declared many existing provisions of the 1986 Indian
Child Labour legislation as illegal and against the Constitution of India.

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CHAPTER V
SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OF THE CHILD LABOUR
5.1 Introduction
The section deals with the descriptive analysis of the primary data collected
from the child labourers who are the respondents. The analysis of the primary data
collected through structured interview schedule, has been shown in this chapter with
the help of tables and appropriate statistical tools. It throws light on aspects like age,
gender, religion and caste, place of residence, size of family, educational level of the
family members of the respondents, basic facilities in their home, family income and
indebtedness.
5.2 Socio-economic Background of the Respondents
The socio-economic background of the people determines their place in the
society and also indicates the social standing of a person or a group in the social
hierarchy, which generally is expressed in terms of social status. Social background
includes factors like age, gender, religion and caste, place of residence. Educational
background is taken into consideration to study the general educational level of the
child labourers and their family members. The economic background includes the
monthly income of the family members of the child labourers. Status of the
respondents‟ family depends upon the ownership of the house, type of materials used
for the wall, sources of drinking water, electricity facility, sanitation and standard of
living condition of the respondents.

99
5.2.1 Age
Biological is an important demographic variable that determines the social
status in the society which in turn is a factor worth investigating. Children below the
age of 15 are legally not allowed to work in any economic activity. Hence, the age of
the children who are employed in the unorganized sectors is crucial to any analysis.
The data regarding the age of the respondents is given in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1
Age wise Distribution of Child Labourers
Sl. No. Age No. of Respondents Percentage
1 Below 9 Years NIL NIL
2 9-12 Years 117 26
3 13 – 15 Years 333 74
Total 450 100
Source: Primary data
It is observed from Table 5.1 that majority of the respondents, viz., 74 per cent
are in the age group of 13-15 years and the rest i.e., 26 per cent are in the age group of
9-12. No child labourer below the age of 9 has been found in the sample. The
information regarding the age of respondents is graphically plotted and shown in
Figure 5.1.
100
Figure 5.1
Distribution of Child Labourers by Age
5.2.2 Age wise Distribution of Child Labourers in Various Units
An attempt has been made to analyse the age wise distribution of child
labourers in various units. The data regarding the age and sector of the respondents
are given in Table 5.2.

101
Table 5.2
Age wise Distribution of Child Labourers in Various Units
No. of Respondents Percentage
Category of Work 9-12 yrs 13-15 yrs 9-12 yrs 13-15 yrs
Gem Cutting Units 18 44 15.38 13.21
Manufacturing of Slate Pencils 11 46 9.40 13.81
Ready-made garments 16 36 13.68 10.81
Metal industries 14 19 11.97 5.71
Food processing units 6 53 5.13 15.92
Printing units 15 8 12.82 2.40
Hotels and Restaurants 9 19 7.69 5.71
Construction 12 46 10.26 13.81
Shops 4 14 3.42 4.20
Auto workshops 12 48 10.26 14.41
Total 117 333 100.00 100.00
From Table 5.2, it is seen that the gem cutting industry has the highest
percentage (15.38 per cent) of child labourers employed between 9-12 years of age.
3.42 per cent of the child labourers are seen to be employed in shops. The reason for
the employment of child labourers at such a low level in shops may be attributed to
102
the reluctance on the part of the employers to employ child labourers as they are seen
visible in the public. In the 13-15 years category, it is seen that food processing units
have attracted more number of child labourers (15.92 per cent). As compared to other
categories of work auto workshops require skill and physical strength of the child
labourers. This is the reason for the highest percentage of child labourers (14.41 per
cent) are seen in auto workshops. The lowest(4.20 per cent) is seen in shops for the
same reason of visibility in the public. The information regarding the unit wise
distribution of child labourers and their age is graphically plotted and shown in Figure
5.2.
Figure 5.2
Sector wise Distribution of Child Labourers by Age

103
5.2.3 Revenue Division wise Distribution of Child Labourers
An attempt has been made to analyse the revenue division wise distribution of
child labourers with their age as consideration. The data regarding the age and
revenue division of the respondents are given in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3
Revenue Division wise Distribution of Child Labourers
Revenue Division No. of Respondents Percentage
9-12 yrs 13-15 yrs 9-12 yrs 13-15 yrs
Tiruchirappalli 32 118 27.35 35.44
Musiri 36 114 30.77 34.23
Lalgudi 49 101 41.88 30.33
Total 117 333 100.00 100.00
From Table 5.3, it can be observed that Lalgudi Revenue Division has the
highest number of child labourers( 41.88 per cent) between the age group of 9-12
years. Tiruchirappalli Revenue Division has the lowest number of child labourers
(27.35 per cent). With regards to the 13-15 years of age , Tiruchirappalli Revenue
Divison seems to have the highest number of child labourers 35.44 per cent . Lalgudi
Revenue Division has the lowest number of (30.33 percent) child labourers. The
information regarding the sector wise distribution of child labourers by age is
graphically plotted in a graph and shown in Figure 5.3.

104
Figure 5.3
Revenue Division wise Distribution of Child Labourers by Age
5.2.4 Gender
The gender perspective is a key issue in understanding the convolution of
child labour. The different experiences of girls and boys make it important to integrate
gender concerns into child labour research, advocacy programmes and policies.
Research that reflects gender disparities will provide a more solid basis for actions
aimed at reducing child labour. Gender-sensitive programmes and policies that
combat and prevent child labour are essential to fulfil the rights of boys and girls,
including the right to education, a healthy childhood, protection from violence, abuse ,
exploitation , rest and recreation. The data regarding the gender of the respondents is
given in Table 5.4.

105
Table 5.4
Gender wise Distribution of Child Labourers
S. No. Gender No. of Respondents Percentage
1 Boys 268 59.56
2 Girls 182 40.44
Total 450 100.00
From Table 5.4 it is observed that 59.56 per cent of the child labourers are
boys when compared to girls in the unorganised sector. About 40.44 per cent of the
child labourers are girls. Thus it is noted that boys outnumber girls in employment as
girls are generally considered to be unfit for industrial work and are considered to be
fit for doing domestic work which is not considered in this study. The information
regarding the gender of the respondents is graphically plotted in a graph and shown in
Figure 5.4.
106
Figure 5.4
Distribution of Child Labourers by Sex
5.2.5 Gender wise Distribution of Child Labourers in various units
An attempt has been made to analyse the gender wise distribution of child
labourers in various units. The data regarding the gender and sector of the respondents
are given in Table 5.5.

107
Table 5.5
Gender wise Distribution of Child Labourers in various Units
Category of Work No. of Respondents Percentage
Boys Girls Boys Girls
Shops 10 8 3.73 4.40
Total 268 182 100.00 100.00

108
From Table 5.5 it is seen that girls outnumber boys in gem cutting units and
food processing units (19.78 per cent). Boys seem to be employed more in auto
workshops (22.39 per cent). Not a single girl child is employed in auto workshop due
to the nature of job that demands physical strength. The information regarding the
gender of the respondents is graphically plotted and shown in Figure 5.5.
Figure 5.5
Gender wise Distribution of Child Labourers in Various units
5.2.6 Gender wise Distribution of Child Labourers in various Revenue Divisions
An attempt has been made to analyse gender wise distribution of child
labourers in various revenue divisions. The data regarding the gender wise
distribution of child labourers in various Revenue Divisions of the respondents are
given in Table 5.6.

109
Table 5.6
Gender wise Distribution of Child Labourers in various Revenue Divisions
Musiri 85 65 31.72 35.71
Lalgudi 79 71 29.48 39.01
Total 268 182 100.00 100.00
As shown in Table 5.6, Tiruchirappalli has the highest number of boys (38.81
per cent) and Lalgudi has the lowest number of boys (29.48per cent). With regard to
girls, Lalgudi has the highest (39.01 per cent) of girl child labourers and
Tiruchirappalli has the lowest of (25.27 per cent) girl child labourers. The information
regarding gender wise distribution of child labourers in various Revenue Divisions is
graphically plotted in a graph and shown in Figure 5.6.

110
Figure 5.6
Gender wise distribution of child labourers in various Revenue Divisions
5.2.7 Religion
Religion has great influence on the attitude and mode of life of the people. It is
found to have influence on the type of job people accept. India, the land of spirituality
and philosophy considers religion as an integral part of tradition. The diversity in
religious worship plays a significant role in all aspects of human life. This analysis
helps to analyze whether there is any relationship between religion and the tendency
of children to take up the assignment in unorganised sector. The data regarding the
religion of the respondents is given in Table 5.7.

111
Table 5.7
Religion wise Distribution of Child Labourers
Sl. No. Religion No. of Respondents Percentage
1 Hindu 426 94.70
2 Muslim 24 5.30
3 Christian NIL NIL
Total 450 100
As seen in the above table, as Hindu religion which is the major religion in the
district,majority of the child labourers working in the unorganized sector are Hindus
(94.7 %) and the remaining (5.3 per cent) are Muslims. Child labourers belonging to
Christianity are not found working in the unorganized sector in Tiruchirappalli
District. The information regarding the religion of the respondents is graphically
plotted and shown in Figure 5.7.

112
Figure 5.7
Distribution of Child labourers by Religion
5.2.8 Religion wise Distribution of Child labourers in various Units
An attempt has been made to analyse religion wise distribution of child
labourers in various Units .The data regarding the religion wise distribution of child
labourers in various units are given in Table 5.8.

113
Table 5.8
Religion wise Distribution of Child Labourers in various units
Hindu Muslim Hindu Muslim
Shops 16 2 3.76 8.33
Total 426 24 100.00 100.00

114
From the above table, it is seen that child labourers are found more in gem
cutting units(13.85 per cent) and construction(13.62 per cent) respectively, as there as
majority of Hindus in the district. The lowest number of child labourers are(3.76 per
cent) found in shops. Regarding child labourers from Muslims, auto workshops have
employed more child labourers (25 per cent) whereas no child labourers from Muslim
minority are found in construction work and Hotels and Resturants. The information
regarding religion wise distribution of child labourers in various units is graphically
plotted and shown in Figure 5.8.
Figure 5.8
Sector wise Distribution of Child Labours by Religion
5.2.9 Religion wise Distribution of Child labourers in various Revenue Divisions
An attempt has been made to analyse the religion wise distribution of child
labourers in various revenue divisions. The data regarding the religion wise
distribution of child labourers in various revenue divisions are given in Table 5.9.
115
Table 5.9
Religion wise Distribution of Child labourers in various Revenue Divisions
Hindu Muslim Hindu Muslim
Musiri 144 6 33.80 25.00
Lalgudi 146 4 34.27 16.67
Total 426 24 100.00 100.00
It is observed from the table 5.9 that majority in Hindu religion, (34.27 per
cent) of the child labourers are found in Lalgudi revenue division and (33.80 per cent)
of the child labourers are found in Musiri revenue division respectively. With regard
to Muslims, the highest number (58.33per cent) is seen in Tiruchirappalli revenue
division and the lowest (16.67 per cent) is seen in Lalgudi revenue division. The
information regarding religion wise distribution of child labourers in various revenue
divisions is graphically plotted and shown in Figure 5.9.

116
Figure 5.9
Revenue Divisions wise Distribution of Child labourers by Religion
5.2.10 Caste
Caste is another variable analyzed to understand the socio-economic
background of the respondents. Caste is a significant issue in India that a meaningful
social study is not possible without taking it into account.
The child labourers who were considered for study belong to 15 different
castes. The official recognition of castes is grouped into three caste groups, namely
scheduled caste, other backward caste and forward caste based on social status of
various castes. In classifying the various castes for the present study, the official
approach is taken into account. The caste wise distribution of sample respondents is
shown in table 5.10.

117
Table 5.10
Caste wise Distribution of child labourers
Sl. Caste No.of Percentage
No. Respondents
1 Forward Caste 36 8.00
2 Backward Caste 198 44.00
3 Scheduled Caste /Tribe 216 48.00
Total 450 100.00
Table 5.10 reveals the caste dimension of the child labourers. Scheduled
castes and tribes constitute the single largest category (48 percent). About 44 percent
of the respondents belong to the backward community and 8 percent belong to the
forward caste. It may be inferred that 92 percent of the child labourers belong to
socially backward section of the society. The information regarding the caste of child
labourers is graphically plotted and shown in Figure 5.10.

118
Figure 5.10
Distribution of the Respondents by Sex
5.2.11 caste wise distribution of child labourers according to gender
An attempt has been made to analyse the caste wise distribution of child
labourers according to gender. The data regarding the caste and gender of child
labourers are given in Table 5.11.
Table 5.11
caste wise distribution of child labourers according to gender
Caste No. of Respondents Percentage
Forward Caste 26 10 9.70 5.49
Backward Caste 118 80 44.03 43.96
Scheduled Caste / Tribe 124 92 46.27 50.55
Total 268 182 100 100

119
From the above table, it is inferred that the highest per cent of male and female
child labourers are found in Scheduled Caste / Tribe which is 46.27 per cent and
50.55 per cent respectively. The information regarding the caste wise distribution of
child labourers according to gender is graphically plotted and shown in Figure 5.11.
Figure 5.11
Caste wise distribution of the Respondents by
Sex
5.2.12 Caste wise Distribution of Child Labourers in various Units
An attempt has been made to analyse the caste wise distribution of child
labourers in various units. The data regarding the caste wise distribution of child
labourers in various units are given in Table 5.12.

120
Table 5.12
Caste wise Distribution of Child Labourers in various Units
FC BC SC/ST FC BC SC/ST
Gem Cutting Units 2 28 32 5.56 14.14 14.81
Slate Pencils 3 26 28 8.33 13.13 12.96
Ready-made garments 7 11 34 19.44 5.56 15.74
Metal industries 0 21 12 0.00 10.61 5.56
Food processing units 6 28 25 16.67 14.14 11.57
Printing units 2 4 17 5.56 2.02 7.87
Hotels and Restaurants 2 0 26 5.56 0.00 12.04
Construction 10 40 8 27.78 20.20 3.70
Shops 4 14 0 11.11 7.07 0.00
Auto workshops 0 26 34 0.00 13.13 15.74
Total 36 198 216 100.00 100.00 100.00
It is inferred from Table 5.12 that ( 27.78 per cent) of the child labourers
belonging to Forward Caste(FC) and the highest(20.20 percent) of child labourers
belong to Backward Caste ( BC) work in construction . About (15.74 percent) of
child labourers belonging to Schedule Caste/Tribe (SC/ST) work in autowork shops

121
and in ready-made garment units respectively. The information regarding caste wise
distribution of child labourers in various units the respondents is graphically plotted
and shown in Figure 5.12.
Figure 5.12
Sector wise Distribution of Child Labourersby Caste
5.2.13 Caste wise Distribution of Child Labourers in Various Revenue Divisions
An attempt has been made to analyse the Caste wise distribution of child
labourers in various Revenue Divisions. The data regarding the caste wise distribution
of child labourers in various Revenue Divisions are given in Table 5.13.

122
Table 5.13
Caste wise Distribution of Child Labourers in various Revenue Divisions
FC BC SC/ST FC BC SC/ST
Tiruchirappalli 16 73 61 44.44 36.87 28.24
Musiri 11 60 79 30.56 30.30 36.57
Lalgudi 9 65 76 25.00 32.83 35.19
Total 36 198 216 100 100 100
It is inferred from the above table 5.13 that highest ( 44.44 percent) of the
child labourers in Tiruchirappalli Revenue Division and the lowest number
(25percent) in Lalgudi Revenue Division belong to Forward Caste. The highest
(36.87 per cent) of child labourers are found in Tiruchirappalli Revenue Division and
the lowest number (32.83 percent) of child labourers are found in Musiri Revenue
Division belonging to Backward community. The highest (36.57 per cent) of child
labourers are found in Musiri Revenue Division and the lowest number (28.24 per
cent) of the them are found in Tiruchirappalli Revenue Division belonging to
Scheduled Caste/Tribes. The information regarding caste wise distribution of child
labourers in various Revenue Divisions is graphically plotted and shown in Figure
5.13.
123
Figure 5.13
Revenue Divisions wise Distribution of Child Labourers by Caste
5.14 Native Residence
Tiruchirappalli District is situated at the centre of Tamil Nadu, child labourers
are seen to be the residents of the district and immigrants from other districts who
have migrated in search of livelihood. Hence an attempt has been made to identify
their native residence. The data regarding the native residence of the respondents are
given in Table 5.14.

124
Table 5.14
Distribution of the Respondents based on their Native Residence
Sl. No. Native Residence No. of Percentage
Respondents
1 Tiruchirappalli District 280 62.22
2 Other Districts in Tamil Nadu 104 23.11
3 Other States 66 14.67
Total 450 100.00
It is inferred from the above table that the highest number (62.22 %) of child
labourers are the residents of Tiruchirappalli District. A close scrutiny of the
residential characteristic has revealed that 23.11 per cent of the child labourers are
from other districts in Tamil Nadu and 14.67 per cent of them have migrated from
other neighbouring States viz. Kerala and Andhra Pradesh and also from Northern
states viz. Bihar and Assam. The information regarding the native residence of the
respondents is graphically plotted and shown in Figure 5.14.

125
Distribution of the Respondents by Native Residence
From Table 5.14, it is seen that 37.78 per cent of the child labourers emigrated
from their native place to Tiruchirappalli District in search of jobs.
5.2.15 Reasons for Migration
Hence the researcher was interested in knowing the reasons for their
migration. The study reveals that there are many push and pull factors that are
responsible for migration of children. Job availability and the city life attract
immigrants to the urban area. The push factor is the economic compulsion of parents.
The adverse financial positions of parents compel them to borrow money from the
village moneylenders, who charge exorbitant interest rates on the loans advanced to
them. Pressure from the side of the moneylenders to repay the debts is likely to
compel the parents to send their children to earn, since no work is available in the
village. Thus financial factors, in addition to large family size with low family
income, seem to be responsible for child migration. Lack of interest in studies, non-
availability of work in village and attraction towards city life are other factors
responsible for the migration of children. Information in this regard is shown in Table
5.15.
126
Table5. 15
Reasons for Migration of the respondents
Reasons for Migration No. of Respondents Percentage
I. Economic factors – Push factors

1 Debts and financial liabilities of parents 28 16.47
2. Economic compulsion of families 54 31.76

3. To earn money for themselves 04 2.35
Total 86 5 0.58
II Employment Factors – pull factors
1. Better earning 13 7.65
2. To get better jobs 9 5.29
3. To learn skills 6 3.53
Total 28 16.47
III Sociological factors – push factors

1. Social stigmatism and unacceptability 17 10.00
2. To follow family 20 11.76
3. Absence of Social security system 4 2.35
Total 41 24.11
IV Personal factors - interactive factors
1. Discouraging behaviour of parents 6 3.53
2. Disinterest in studies 8 4.71
3. Run away to be independent 1 0.59
Total 15 8.83
Grand Total 170 100

127
From table 5.15 it is seen that economic factors are the dominant factors that
push the child labourers into the labour force. About 50.58 of the child labourers have
taken up the employment due to economic factors. Among the economic factors,
economic compulsion of the families is at the top.(31.76 %) followed by debts and
financial liabilities of the parents with 16.47 per cent . Because of the large family
and low income, parents are not able to meet the needs of their children. So the
children themselves find jobs to take care of themselves. About 2.35 per cent of the
child labourers stated that they were pushed into the labour force in order to look after
their financial needs.
About 16.47 per cent of the child labourers stated that they were pushed into
the labour force because of better employment opportunities. Of them 7.65 stated that
they migrated to get more income. About 5.29 per cent of the child labourers said that
they wanted better jobs . Hence they moved out of their place. About 3.53 per cent of
the child labourers opined that they wanted to learn job skills which are available in
the places of migration.
About 24.11 of the child labourers stated that they moved out of their place
due to social stigmatism and unacceptability (10 %) and shifting their family
members to the place of migration (11.76%), About 2.35 per cent of the child
labourers said that absence of social security system made them to migrate. Because
of divorce or separation or death or polygamy of their parents the children become
destitute. In the absence of a social security system, the children of such families have
no choice but to seek for jobs in the place of migration.

128
About 8.83 per cent of the child labourers said that they migrated due to
personal reasons like abuse and harassment of their parents (3.53 %) and lack of
interest in studies (4.71 %). One of the child labourers stated that he ran away from
the house to be independent.
5.2.16 Source of Employment
The specific source of information of children had a bearing on their work and
the labour market. A good number of children are recruited through intermediary. In
certain cases, children are bought on a fixed salary for which the negotiation would be
made with their partners directly. Information in this regard is shown in Table 5.16.
Table 5.16
Distribution of Respondents Based on The Source of Employment
Sl.No. Source of No. of Respondents Percentage
Employment
1 Through middlemen 128 88 47.76 48.35
2 Through friends 79 56 29.48 30.77
3 Along with parents 29 25 10.82 13.74
4 Others 32 13 11.94 7.14
Total 268 182 100 100

129
Table 5.16 shows the distribution of child labourers by source of employment.
It shows that majority (48.35 %) of the child labourers are employed following an
agreement between the parents and the middle men. Such children constitute 48.35
per cent of the sample. Following this, 30 per cent of child labourers are employed
with the help of friends who are working already in the field. Another 12 per cent of
child labourers are employed due to their parents working already in the field. The
remaining 10 per cent of them are employed through other means.
5.2.17 Reasons for Employment
The study reveals that the various factors which force the child labourers to
push them in the labour market are the situational and psychological factors which are
depicted through Table 5.17 which shows the gender wise distribution of the
respondents.
130
Table 5.17
Distribution of the Respondents based on the Reasons for their Employment
Sl. Reasons No. of Respondents Percentage
No.
1 Poverty 212 144 24.82 23.04
2 Forced by Parents 140 96 16.39 15.36
3 Death of Father 49 36 5.74 5.76
4 Death of Mother 35 26 4.10 4.22
5 Large family 29 24 3.40 3.84
6 Ill-treated by parents 81 58 9.48 9.22
7 Family conflicts 114 84 13.35 13.44
8 Lack of facility for
studying 124 98 14.52 15.74
9 To earn money and study 43 35 5.04 5.57
10 Others 27 24 3.16 3.84
Total 854 625 100 100
Note: Multiple answers considered

131
It is noted from the above table that 24. 82 per cent of boys and 23.04 per cent
of girls stated that poverty is the main reason for taking up jobs. About 16.39 per cent
of boys and 15.36 per cent of girls stated that they were forced by their parents to take
up employment. About 14.52 per cent of boys and 15.74 per cent of the girls stated
that they were forced to take up jobs as they did not have enough facilities for further
education. Family conflicts such as divorce, separation of parents etc forced 13.35
per cent of boys and 13.44 per cent of girls to become child labourers. About 5.04of
the boys and 5.57 of the girls stated that they had to work so as to earn money to
study. Hence , it is inferred from the above table that not only poverty but also other
factors like force of the parents, death of father or mother, large family, ill treatment ,
family conflicts, lack of facility to study, desire to earn money to study etc., become
the factors of child labour.
5.2.18 Educational Background of Child Labourers
Despite the efforts made at various levels, many children either do not go to
school or leave school soon after admission. The situation with regard to drop outs is
alarming. It can be stated that education brings down rate of exploitation and child
labour. Education of a person will determine his aspiration and future. A highly
educated person will have high aspiration and will have greater opportunities to
secure a good job. There is enough evidence both from empirical and secondary
sources to establish that eradication of child labour and universalization of primary
education are interlinked. As seen in Table 5.10 a majority of the child labourers
come from the socially disadvantaged and under privileged sections whose
opportunity cost of schooling is high and perhaps for the same reason they show the
least inclination for education. Hence the researcher was interested in knowing the
132
educational level of the child labourers. Table 5.18 shows the level of education of
working children.
Table 5.18
Distribution of the Respondents based on their Education
Sl. Level of No. of Percentage Total No. of Percentage
No. Education Respondents Respondents
1 Illiterate 22 32 8.21 17.58 54 12
2 Primary 63 45 23.51 24.73 108 24
3 Middle 102 78 38.06 42.86 180 40
4 Secondary 81 27 30.22 14.84 108 24
Total 268 182 100 100 450 100
It is observed from Table 5.18 that 12 per cent of the child labourers are
illiterates. Of them 17.58 per cent are girls and 8.21 per cent are boys. Girls
outnumber boys as the parents of the girls feel that there is no use of educating their
girl children and they were sent for jobs. About 40 per cent of the child labourers have
studied up to middle level of which 38.06 per cent are boys and 42.86 per cent are
girls. About 24 per cent of the child labourers have studied up to primary classes of
which 23.51 are boys and 24.73 are girls. Children drop out from schools after
primary classes because they are unable to cope with their studies. Their parents are
133
unable to help them in their studies as most of them are illiterates (as per Table 5.21) .
About 24 per cent of the child labourers have studied upto secondary level of which
30.22 per cent are boys and 14.84 per cent are girls.
5.2.19 Presence of Parents of Child Labourers
One of the important reasons for child labour is depleted family particularly
loss of adult male earning member, that is the head of the family or his disability to be
gainfully employed. Table 5.19 shows the status of parents of the sample children.
Table 5.19
Distribution of the Respondents by the Presence of Parents
Sl. Status No. of Percentage
No. Respondents
1 Only father alive 36 8.00
2 Only mother alive 60 13.33
3 Both alive 324 72.00
4 Both dead 30 6.67
Total 450 100.00
It is noted from Table 5.19 that 72 per cent of the child labourers have both
parents living , 6.67 per cent of the respondents have lost both parents. For 13.33 per
cent of the child labourers only mother is alive, whereas for 8 percent only father is
alive. Most of the child labourers work in spite of the fact that both their parents are
134
alive. The analysis reveals that it is not the lack of parental support which is the
causative factor for child labour but the general economic distress among the working
class.
5.2.20 Size of Family
The large family with comparatively less income can push families to abject
poverty. If the family is well planned, it is presumed that there will be no question of
sending children into the labour market. Therefore, size of the family also influences
the socio-economic condition of the child labour. The data regarding the size of
family and gender of the respondents are given in Table 5.20.
Table 5.20
Family Size wise distribution of the Respondents
Sl. No. Size of Family Total Percentage
no. of
respondents
1 Below 4 42 9.33
2 4 to 6 108 24
3 7 to 9 270 60
4 Above 9 30 6.67
Total 450 100

135
From the above table it is understood that for 60 per cent of the child labourers
have 7 to 9 family members i.e., large family. About 24 per cent of the child labourers
have family members ranging from 4 to 6. About 9.33 per cent of them have less than
4 members. About 6.67 per cent of the child labourers have family with more than 9
members i.e very large family.
5.2.21 Level of Education of the Family Members
Level of education of family members determines the social status of the
family and it does influence the social aspiration of the family members. So the
educational background of the family members has to be looked into. The data
regarding the level of education of the family members are given in Table 5.21.
Table 5.21
Distribution of the Respondents based on the Education Level of Parents
Sl. No. Educational Level Father Percentage Mother Percentage
1 Illiterate 144 32.00 161 35.78
2 Primary 186 41.33 177 39.33
3 Middle 66 14.67 72 16.00
4 Secondary 54 12.00 40 8.89
Total Total 450 100.00 450 100.00

136
It is inferred from the above table that 32 per cent of child labourers have
illiterate fathers and 35.78 per cent of the child labourers have illiterate mothers.
About 41.33 per cent of the child labourers‟ fathers and 39.33 percent of the child
labourers‟ mothers have studied upto primary classes. Another 14.67 child labourers‟
fathers and 16 child labourers‟ mothers have studied upto middle school. Only 12 per
cent of the child labourers‟ fathers and 8.89 per cent of child labourers‟ mothers have
studied upto secondary level. It is understood from the above table that the
educational level of the family members of the child labour is very low.
5.2.22 Parental Occupation
Parental occupation is a major variable which determines child labour.
Majority of the parents of the child labourers are either unemployed or have no
permanent occupation. The study reveals that majority of child labourers belong to
families which survive on daily wages. Seasonal unemployment among the parents of
the working children made it difficult to classify their occupation clearly. Table 5.22
shows the distribution of the respondents based on occupation of parents.

137
Table 5.22
Distribution of the Respondents based on the Occupations of their Parents
Father Mother
Sl.
Occupation No. of No. of
No. Percentage Percentage
Respondents Respondents
1 Agricultural 85 18.89 78 17.33

worker
2 Factory worker 52 11.56 38 8.44
3 Coolie 108 24.00 64 14.22
4 Construction 81 105
Worker 18.00 23.33
5 Household - 45
labour - 10.00
6 Service and 42 9.33 36 8.00

commercial
establishment
7 Self employed 24 5.33 18 4.00
8 Unemployed 58 12.89 66 14.67
Total 450 100.00 450 100.00
From the above table it is seen that 24 per cent of the fathers of the child
labourers are coolies and only 11.56 percent of fathers and 8.44 per cent of mothers of
the child labourers have permanent occupation in factories. About 12.89 per cent of
138
the fathers and 14.67 per cent of the mothers are unemployed. About 18 per cent of
the fathers and 23.33 per cent of mothers of the child labourers work in the
construction unit. Only 18.89 per cent of fathers and 17.33 percent of mothers are
engaged in agriculture and allied work because of seasonal unemployment and
unattractive wages.
5.2.23 Types of Houses , House Ownership and Civic Amenities
The nature of ownership, type of house and the access to other facilities like
electricity, sanitation, drinking water, recreational facilities etc. throw light on the
socio-economic condition of the child labour. Table 5.23 shows the distribution of the
respondents based on ownership of house.
Table 5.23
Distribution of the Respondents based on Ownership of House
Ownership/Type Concrete Tiled Thatched Total
No. Per No. Per No. Per No. Per
cent cent cent cent
Own house 42 15.73 72 26.97 153 57.30 267 59.33
Rented house - - 114 81.43 26 18.57 140 31.11
Puramboke - - 36 83.72 7 16.28 43 9.56
Total 450 100.00
Source:Primary data
139
As shown in the above table 59.33 per cent of child labour families own a
house of which 15.73 per cent have concrete houses and a majority i.e. 57.30 per cent
own only a thatched houses. About 31.11 per cent of the child labourers live in rented
houses of which 81.43 per cent are tiled houses and 18.57 are thatched houses. About
9.56 per cent of the children's families are living in Puramboke land which have only
tiled and thatched houses. Thus it is clear that the child labourers belong to the lower
social strata of society.
Table 5.24
Type of Civic Amenities in Child Labour’s House
Available Not Available Total
Sl. No. Type of Amenities Per Per Per

No. No. No.
cent cent cent
1 Water 324 72.00 126 28.00 450 100
2 Gas 354 78.67 96 21.33 450 100
3 Electricity 426 94.67 24 5.33 450 100
4 Latrine 308 68.44 142 31.56 450 100
5 Electrical Fittings 363 80.67 87 19.33 450 100

140
It is inferred from the above table that water facilities both from public and
private sources are available to 72 per cent of the respondents' families. However, 28
per cent of them depend on others for their drinking water. As shown in the table,
94.67 per cent live in houses having electricity and only 5.33 per cent lack this
facility. About two third of the child labour family has latrine facility. Out of this
nearly 20 per cent use public latrine. The study shows that 31.56 per cent of them are
still using open places and common lands for latrine purpose. Out of the sampled
respondents, about 78.67 percent of the child labourer‟s families have a gas
connection at home and 19.33 per cent of the child labourers do not possess any
electrical fittings in their homes.
5.2.24 Economic Status of the Households
Income level of the households is one of the key determinants of the child
labour. The lower the income of the households, the greater is the necessity of sending
the child to work. The income level of the household is taken here to mean the total
monthly income of all the members of the family including the earning of the child
labourers. Since the children are considered not very competent to give the exact
income of their household, the information regarding household income, their
contribution to the total family income, borrowings of the family, has been collected
from parents and / or other elder / head of the family e.g. mother, elder brother, elder
sister, grandparents etc.

141
Table 5.25
Family Income of the child labourers
Monthly Family No. of Respondents Percentage
Income Boys Girls Boys Girls
Up to Rs. 3,000 18 18 6.72 9.89
Rs.3001 to Rs.6000 83 52 30.97 28.57
Rs.6001 to Rs.9000 126 87 47.01 47.80
Rs.9001 to Rs.12000 36 21 13.43 11.54
Above Rs. 12000 5 4 1.87 2.20
Total 268 182 100 100
It is inferred from the above table that majority i.e. 48 per cent of the
households earn income between Rs.6001- Rs.9000 per month. At the same time, 8
per cent of the households have monthly family income of less than Rs. 4000. About
30 per cent of the households earn between Rs.4001- Rs.6000 and about 12.67 percent
of the households earn income between Rs.9001- Rs.12000 per month. The remaining
2 per cent earn income above Rs.12000 per month.
5.2.25 Percentage Contribution of Child labourers’ Income to the Family
The income contribution of child work is undoubtedly a key factor influencing
child labour. Hence the data regarding the income of child labours as a proportion of
the total family income have been examined in table 5.26.

142
Table 5.26
Child Labour’s Contribution to the Family Income
Contribution Total Percentage
No. of respondents
Up to 25 per cent 57 12.67
25 -50 per cent 126 28.00
50-75 per cent 228 50.67
75-100 per cent 39 8.66
Total 450 100.00
Table 5.26 reveals that in majority (50.67 %) of the households , 50 to 75
per cent of the total family income is contributed by the children. In 12.67 per cent of
households, the contribution of the children towards the total family income is upto 25
per cent. About 28 per cent of the household get 25 to 50 percent of their total income
from their children. For only 8.66 per cent of the households, the contribution of the
children towards to the total family income is between 75 to 100 percent. The data
brings out the economic compulsion for child labour in marginalized families .
143
5.2.26 Indebtedness, Sources of Borrowing and Saving
Though the children supplement family income, during the time of exigencies
the families have to borrow from different sources like banks, co-operative
institutions, moneylenders, etc. Table 5.27 shows the distribution of debts of the
households.
Table 5.27
Debts of the Households
Amount of Debts Total no. of Percentage

respondents
No debt 144 32.00
Up to Rs.20000 75 16.67
Rs.20001 - Rs.40000 69 15.33
Rs.40001 - Rs.60000 60 13.33
Rs.60001 and above 102 22.67
Total 450 100.00
It is inferred from the above table that 22.67 per cent of the families of the
child labourers have debt of above Rs. 60000/- and 16.67 per cent of the families have
borrowed upto Rs. 20000. About 13.33 per cent have borrowed loans between
Rs.40000 and Rs.60000.

144
5.2.27 Sources of Borrowing of the Households of Child labourers
In order to meet their economic needs the parents of the child labourers
borrow from many sources. Information gathered regarding the sources of loan is
presented in table 5.28.
Table 5.28
Sources of Borrowing
Sources Total No. of Percentage
respondents
Banks and Co-operatives 54 12
Employers 81 18
Money lenders 126 28
Friends and Relatives 45 10
No borrowing 144 32
Total 450 100
From the above table, it is seen that 28 per cent of the families of the child
labourers have borrowed from money lenders who charge exorbitant interest rates.
About 18 per cent have borrowed money from the employers of their children. The
informal talks with the parents reveal that the employers were also interested in giving
advance to the parents of child labours because they will be able to employ the
145
children for a longer period. Till the repayments of such advances, they use the
children as a kind of bonded labour. About 12 percent have borrowed from the banks
and cooperatives and a 10 per cent have borrowed from their friends and close
relatives.
5.2.28 Purpose of loan taken
The purpose of loan is an important determinant of the socio-economic
condition of the child labour. Hence information regarding the purpose for which loan
was taken is presented in table 5.29.
Table 5.29
Purpose of Loan
Purpose No. of
Percentage
Respondents
House construction 24 7.84
Agriculture 105 34.31
Marriage 12 3.92
Family expenses 60 19.61
Medical treatment 36 11.76
Education 45 14.71
Festival 18 5.88
Others 6 1.96
Total 306 100.00

146
Table 5.29 shows the reason for taking loans. The main reasons for borrowing
money are for agriculture, to meet family expenses, house construction, medical
treatment, education etc. Out of the total respondents, 34.31 per cent took loans for
agricultural operations. Another 19.61 per cent had taken loan for day-to-day family
expenses. About 11.76 per cent had taken for medical treatment of the family
members. About 14.71 per cent had taken for educational expenses. About 7.84
percent of the respondents family had taken loan for house construction, 3.92 per cent
had borrowed for the purpose of marriage and about 5.88 percent for celebrating
festivals.
147
CHAPTER VI
Working Conditions of Child Labourers
Introduction
Children begin to work in family from an early age imitating their parents or
relatives and sometimes with master artisan as a part of socialization process. They
learn the skill by observing and participating in such activities. It was only after the
Industrial Revolution in the early 19th century that children started being employed
both on farms and on factories as wage labourers because they provided a cheap and
uncomplaining labour force as against adults who could be more demanding and
hence difficult to handle.
Most of the work, the children do is monotonous, repetitive and dull and is
often not suited to their physical and mental capabilities. The children continue to
work in appalling conditions and are more exploited in a number of ways. Some
children are ill-treated, humiliated and even beaten, while others are looked after with
parental care, which acts as incentive and motivate these children to undertake
arduous and hard work beyond their capacity for a long duration. This may adversely
affect their health and well being. It is against this background that various aspects of
working conditions and its impact are being discussed.
This Chapter is divided into 3 parts and discusses the important aspects of
working conditions of the child labourers. The first part deals with the perception of
the child labourers relating to the working conditions of their employment. The
second part deals with the perception of the parents/ guardians relating to the working
148
conditions to look at the problem in its right perspective. And the third part deals with
employers‟ views with regard to child labour.
6.1 Working Conditions as perceived by the Child Labourers
Discussion in this part covers general features concerning employment and
wage pattern, working hours, night work, leisure, holidays, opinion of
parents,relationship ofchild labourerswith employers,working conditions ,unattractive
wages, work hazards and the desire for more freedom and the nature of friendship
with other workers etc.,
6.1.1 Working Hours
With regard to working hours of child labourers, the situation is inhuman.
Generally, children have to work from the opening to closing of the establishments. In
the unorganised sector, the hours of work and time schedule of work vary
considerably depending on the nature of establishment or activity. It is observed that
there are no fixed hours of work in spite of the provision of the Shops and
Commercial Establishment Act regarding regulation of hours of work. Working hours
of children range from 10 to 18 hours per day, which no legal provision permits.
Working hours is a major factor of working conditions. Hence to analyse the
working conditions of children, the length working hours should be explored. Table
6.1 shows the distribution of the respondents by their daily working hours in the
establishments.
149
Table 6.1
Distribution of child Labourers based on their working Hours
Sl. No. Working Hours No. of Respondents Percentage
per day
1 Below 8 hours Nil Nil
2 8 to 10 hours 120 26.67
3 10 to 12 hours 150 33.33
4 12 to 14 hours 180 40.00
5 Above 14 hours Nil Nil
Total 450 100.00
From the above table it is understood that the working hours of children are
very long. Forty percent of the child labourers work for a period of 12 -14 hours in a
day. About 33.33 percent of the child labourers work for a period 10- 12 hours in a
day. About 26.67 percent of the child labourers work for a period of 8-10 hours a day.
Long hours of work may result in excessive fatigue, which stunts their growth,
leading not only to malnutrition, anaemia and associated disease patterns but also may
cause undesirable changes in nervous system.

150
6.1.2 Night Work
Occurrence of night work has been measured to analyse the working
conditions of children. During the interview of child workers a majority of them
expressed that they had to work at night. Long hours of work also show occurrences
of night work. The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, prohibits
night work for children in the organized sector (Part III , Schedule 3(7). But the
unorganized sector that escapes the legal eyes of the Act continues to employ child
labourers at night. They are not provided any extra wages for the work in the night.
This shows the extent of exploitation of the child workers. Table 6.2 shows the
distribution of child labourers working at night.
Table 6.2
Distribution of Respondents based on their working hours
Sl. No. Work at Night after No. of Respondents Percentage

7 p.m
1 Yes 272 60.44
2 No 178 39.56
Total 450 100.00
Source : Primary data
Table 6.2 reveals that 60.44 percent of the child labourers work after 7p.m.
The interview with them reveals that they were forced to work without the overtime
wages. And 39.56 per cent of the child labourers are not forced to work at night.
The child labourers who worked at nights (272) were asked to describe their
working hours and the details are presented in the table 6.2 (a)
151
Table 6.2(a)
Working Hours of Children at Night
Sl. No. Working Hours No. of Percentage
Respondents
1 Less than 2 hours 36 13.24
2 2 to 4 hours 96 35.29
3 4 to 6 hours 80 29.41
4 Above 6 hours 60 22.06
Total 272 100.00
Table 6.2(a) shows that 35.29 per cent of the 272 child labourers were
working for 2 to 4 hours at night in addition to their day work. And it is seen that
29.41 per cent work for 4 to 6 hours at night. This is followed by 22.06 per cent of the
child labourers who worked for more than 6 hours at night. It is seen that 13.24
percent of the child labourers worked for less than 2 hours at night. The sleepless
nights and the fatigue after a strenuous work during the day time and at night are
detrimental to the development of the brain at the young age.
6.1.3 Availability of Resting Hours
In the work situation it becomes necessary to make provision for intervals so
that harmful effects of long working hours may be avoided and workers‟ efficiency
may be restored and maintained. Long hours of work without any rest affect health
152
and cause diseases. The information regarding rest intervals during work is shown in
Table 6.3.
Table 6.3
Distribution of Child Labourers Based on Rest Interval during Work
Sl. No. Resting hours per day No. of Respondents Percentage
1 No rest interval 69 15.33
2 No fixed intervals 60 13.33
3 Half an hour only 156 34.67
4 One hour only 129 28.67
5 Two hours and more 36 8.00
Total 450 100.00
Table 6.3 indicates the rest period enjoyed by the child labourers. Out of the
surveyed respondents, only 28.67 per cent of child labourers get recess for an hour.
About 34.67 percent of the child labourers get only half an hour rest interval. Only 8
percent of them get 2 hours rest. At the same time 15.33 per cent works continuously
without any rest. Another 13. 33 per cent of them reported that there are no fixed rules
with regard to rest intervals.
The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986 states that for every
three hours of work the child shall be given at least one-hour rest. Including the
resting hours, the working hours shall not exceed 6 hours. But in the unorganized
sector, the child labourers reported that they were not allowed to go out of the work
place as they had to report at the call of their employer.

153
6.1.4 Number of Working Days per Week
On enquiry from child labourers and their employers, it was found that there
was no provision for weekly paid holidays and leave of any kind. It was based on the
principle that the wages would be paid according to the number of days they had
really worked. If they were absent, their wages were deducted accordingly. They
could avail of leave for any number of days without pay if they inform their
employers sufficiently early. Leave without pay was refused to them if there was good
business. Table 6.4 shows the number of working days per week of the child labourers
in the unorganized sector.
Table 6.4
Distribution of the Respondents based on the Number of Working Days per

Week
Sl. No. Number of Working No. of Respondents Percentage
Days
1 7 days 324 72.00
2 6 days 126 28.00
3 Others Nil Nil
Total 450 100.00

154
Table 6.4 reveals that out of the sampled respondents 72 per cent of the child
labourers had to work all days in a week. Only 28 per cent of them had to work for 6
days in a week. According to the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act,
1986 the children should be given a holiday once in a week with wages. But as seen in
the above table, most of them are not getting holidays. They work for all the days in a
week. The interview with the child labourers revealed that the children who were
getting holiday did not get any wages for that day. This fact shows that though there
are laws related to child work regulation, denial of it does take place.
6.1.5 Observance of Holidays
Regarding observance of any other holiday except weekly holiday, the data
indicate that the observance of the holidays is rarely seen in the unorganized sector.
Table 6.5
Observance of Holidays
S.No Holidays No.of Percentage

Respondents
1 Festivals 141 31.33
2 National and Religious 198 44.0

Holidays
3 Others 111 24.67
Total 450 100.0

155
Table 6.5 reveals that 44 percent of the child labourers are given holidays
during National and Religious holidays. About 31.33 percent of the child labourers
stated that they were given holidays during the festivals and 24.67 percent of the child
labourers stated that they did not get any holidays except the scheduled holidays like
Sundays.
6.1.6 Availability of Leave
Casual leave is the right and privilege of every employee. But in the
unorganised sector, there is no provision of casual leave or medical or sick leave for
the child labourers. Provision of such leave depends entirely on the discretion of the
employer. For the children working on fixed monthly wages and allowances, the
actual practice with regard to leave varies from one establishment to another. Child
labourers were interviewed to know whether they could avail leave or not as and
when they needed it. The details are shown in the following Table 6.6.
Table 6.6
Distribution of Child Labourers based on Availability of Leave
Sl. No. Response No. of Respondents Percentage
1 Often 144 32.00
2 Sometimes 210 46.67
3 Rarely 96 21.33
Total 450 100.00

156
Table 6.6 reveals that 32 per cent of the working children often got leave
whenever they required. About 46.67 per cent of them got leave sometimes. The
remaining 21.33 percent of them got leave rarely. Thus, it is seen that the children do
not have the freedom to take leave when required. Further, the interview with the
child labourers reveal that they do not usually demand leave as they have a fear that
they may lose their job.
6.1.7 Child Labourers’ Opinion about their Work
In order to analyse the working conditions of the respondents it is necessary to
understand the child labourers‟ opinion about their work and working conditions.
Table 6.7 shows the opinion of the child labourers regarding the intensity of the work.
Table 6.7
Opinion on the Intensity of the Work
Sl. No. Intensity of work No. of Respondents Percentage
1 Very hard 360 80.00
2 Not very hard 90 20.00
Total 450 100.00
Table 6.7 shows that 80 percent of the child labourers felt that the work was
very hard for them. And 20 percent of them felt that it was not very hard.
157
6.1.8 Wage Structure
Wage is an important variable determining the working conditions. Child
workers work for long hours with low wages. Therefore, an attempt is made to
examine the monthly income of the working children.
Table 6.8
Distribution of the respondents based on their Monthly Income
Sl. No. Earnings per month No. of Respondents Percentage
1 Up to Rs.1000 54 12
2 Rs.1000-Rs.1500 117 26
3 Rs.1500-Rs.2000 198 44
4 Rs.2000-Rs.2500 63 14
5 Above Rs.2500 18 4
Total 450 100.00
Table 6.8 reveals that 44 percent of the child labourers were getting wages
between Rs.1500 to Rs.2000. About 26 percent of the Child labourers were getting
wages between Rs.1000 – Rs.1500 and 14 percent of them were getting between
Rs.2000 – Rs. 2500. About 12 percent were getting wages upto Rs. 1000 and 4
percent were getting above Rs.2500.

158
6.1.9 Mode of Payment
There is no uniformity with regard to the mode of payment of wages. It varies
according to the nature and type of organization. Table 6.9 shows the mode of
payment of wages. Mode of payment also determines the quality of working
conditions.
Table 6.9
Distribution of the Respondents based on the Mode of Payment of Wages
Sl. No. Mode of Payment No. of Percentage
Respondents
1 Daily 24 5.34
2 Weekly 60 13.33
3 Monthly 276 61.33
4 Yearly 6 1.33
5 Employer‟s conveniences 84 18.67
Total 450 100.00
Table 6.9 reveals that 61.33 percent of the child labourers were getting
monthly wages. About 18.67 percent of the child labourers were getting as per the
conveniences of the employers. About 13.33 percent of them were getting on weekly
basis and 5.34 percent of them were getting daily wages. Only a meager 1.33 percent
of the child labourers were getting annual wages.

159
6.1.10 Who Receives the Wages(benefactor/recipients of the wages)
Since child workers in general are employed due to economic compulsion of
their families, the question arises as to who receives the wages earned by them. Table
6.10 indicates the recipients of wages of child workers.
Table 6.10
Distribution of the Respondents based on the recipients of the wages
Sl. No. Recipients of wages No. of Respondents Percentage
1 Fully received by the worker 108 24.00
2 Fully received by parents 144 32.00
3 Partly handed over to parents 96 21.33
4 Parents get in advance 102 22.67
Total 450 100.00
Table 6.10 reveals that around one fourth (24 per cent) of the child labourers
receive their earnings. At the same time, 32 per cent of the workers' wages are fully
received by their parents, while 21.33 percent reported that they received part of their
wages and a part was handed over to their parents . The wages of 22.67 per cent of the
child labourers are partly handed over to the parents in advance. The interaction with
the respondents revealed that those child workers who received the wages fully
handed over their earnings to their families as they felt that it was their responsibility
to give it to their parents.

160
6.1.11 Fringe Benefits
Besides wages, some establishments also provide some benefits as incentives
to their workers. The nature of benefits includes bonus in cash, free clothes and gifts
etc. Generally, workers in establishments in Tiruchirappalli District in Tamil Nadu get
bonus for Deepavali and Pongal. In the same manner , the child labourers also
receive bonus and other fringe benefits during these festivals.
Table 6.11
Distribution of the Respondents by Fringe Benefits
Sl. No. Benefits No. of Respondents Percentage
1 Beneficiaries 84 18.67
2 Non beneficiaries 366 81.33
Total 450 100.00
Table 6.11 reveals that 81.33 percent of the child labourers do not obtain any
fringe benefits or allowances from their employers. About 18.67 percent of the child
labourers are getting fringe benefits from their employers.
6.1.12 Opinion of the Child Workers about their Wages
The child labourers were asked to give their opinion on the fairness of the
wages they were getting particularly in comparison with the adult workers with whom
they were working in the same enterprise. Table 6.12 shows the level of satisfaction
of the child labourers with regard to their income.

161
Table 6.12
Distribution of the Child labourers based on their job satisfaction
Sl. No. Opinion No. of Respondents Percentage
1 Dissatisfied 294 65.33
2 Satisfied 90 20.00
3 Very much satisfied 66 14.67
Total 450 100.00
Table 6.12 reveals that 65.33 per cent are dissatisfied with the wages they
receive. Twenty percent of them say that they are satisfied with the wages they
receive and 14.67 per cent of the child labourers are very much satisfied with their
wages.
6.1.13 Opinion of the child labourers about their wages
Table 6.13 shows child workers' opinion about their wages and work in
comparison to that of their adult counterparts. There are significant differences
between the wage of the child workers and adult workers.

162
Table 6.13
Opinion of the child labourers on their wages
Sl. No. Opinion Percentage
1 Low wage for less work NIL NIL
2 Fair wage for normal 60 13.33
work
3 Low wage for more work 390 86.67
Total 450 100.00
Table 6.13 reveals that only 13.33 percent of the child labourers are satisfied
with their work and wages. They believed that they are given fair wages for the work
they do. But majority of them (86.67 per cent) complained that they were given more
work and were paid low wages in comparison to adult workers. The interaction with
the child labourers revealed that at times they had to do the work of the adult workers.
Thus the double exploitation by both the employer and the co- adult workers is being
borne by the child labourers who have very poor collective bargaining power.
163
6.1.14 Child Labourers’ Opinion about Work load and Wages
Table 6.14 shows the opinion of the child workers about the amount of work
and wages.
Table 6.14
Opinion of the child labourers about the amount of work and the wages they
expect
Sl. Opinion No. of Respondents Percentage
No.
1 Less work and low wages NIL NIL
2 Less work for the present wages 162 36.00
3 Same work and more wages 288 64.00
Total 450 100.00
Table 6.14 reveals that 36 percent of the child labourers feel that the work
given to them should be reduced for the wages they get. Sixty-four percent of them
opine that wages should be given more for doing the present work.
6.1.15 Problems of Working Children
The risk of occupational accidents or diseases is present in the unorganized
sectors. The risk of child workers in occupational accidents or diseases is more
because their physic are not strong as those of adult workers and therefore, depending
164
on the job that a child is doing, he experiences fatigue, develops aches and pain in the
body as well as infection due to work in dirty environment.
Table 6.15
Problems Confronted by child labourers
S. Problems Strongly Agree No Disagree Strongly Total Rank

No.
Agree Opinion Disagree Scores
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. Strenuous 214 192 74 56 58 2230 1

work
2. Heavy lifting 155 115 140 127 57 1966 6

of' loads
3. Over work to 176 120 108 130 60 2004 5

the extent of
14hours a day
4. Irregular hours 190 105 95 160 44 2019 3

of food
5. Inadequate 142 122 128 119 83 1903 7

sleep
6. Low wages 202 140 102 55 95 2081 2
7. Ill treatment 198 122 80 98 96 2010 4
8. Lack of safety 168 95 122 98 111 1893 10

measures
9. Lack of toilet 182 99 70 140 103 1899 8

facilities
10. Cramped 160 115 110 95 114 1894 9

sleeping space

165
Table 6.15 shows the various problems encountered by the child labourers
while performing their work in the study area. It is seen that 214 respondents strongly
agreed with the point that there is a problem of strenuous work where as 58 say that
they strongly disagree with the view. It is revealed that the work is strenuous for
them. Similarly, for low wages, 202 have expressed that they strongly agree that their
wage rate is very low whereas 95 respondents strongly disagree with the view.
Another notable problem facing children is irregular hours of food.
The working environment is not congenial to them because they are designed
for the adult workers. The other reported problems confronted by the respondents are
ill-treatment by the adult workers and employers. This shows that their employers and
co-workers abuse child workers physically and psychologically. There are no safety
measures for the health and hygiene of the child labourers. Some children reported
that inadequate sleep is their major problem. The long hours of work and unhealthy
wet, dusty and dirty environment is unfavourable for their sleep.
So, it could be inferred that the problems such as doing the work
disproportionate to age, low wages, ill treatment, lack of' safety measures for
maintaining health and hygiene, food at odd times, over work, inadequate sleep, etc.,
were reported by majority of the respondents.

166
KRUSKAL WALLIS TEST
Calculation of H in the Kruskal Wallis test
Tg = The sum of ranks in a given sample
Ng = The size of a given sample
N = Number in all samples
p = calculated Value
H = Statistical Inference
Level of significance is 0.05
Kruskal Wallis Test – (i) Problems Confronted by Working Children and the Revenue
Divisions
Null Hypothesis Ho : There is no significant difference, among the respondents
of the three divisions, in the existence of various problems like strenuous work,
Heavy lifting of' loads, over work to the extent of 14 hours a day, irregular hours of
food, inadequate sleep, low wages, ill treatment, lack of safety measures, lack of toilet
facilities and cramped sleeping space
Alternative hypothesis H1 : There is a significant difference, among the
respondents of the three divisions, in the existence of various problems – Strenuous
work, Heavy lifting of' loads, Over work to the extent of 14hours a day, Irregular
167
hours of food, Inadequate sleep, Low wages, Ill treatment, Lack of safety measures,
Lack of toilet facilities and Cramped sleeping space.
Level of Significane (α) = 0.05
The following table provides the statistical inference aspect of the above
mentioned problems of child labours.
Table 6.16
Problems confronted by child labourers and the Revenue Divisions
S. No. Problems Calculated Inference Result

Value
1. Strenuous work P=0.001 Significant H0 rejected

H1 accepted
2. Heavy lifting of' loads P=0.001 Significant H0 rejected
H1 accepted
3. Over work to the extent of P=0.001 Significant H0 rejected
14hours a day H1 accepted
4. Irregular hours of food P=0.001 Significant H0 rejected
H1 accepted
5. Inadequate sleep P=0.001 Significant H0 rejected
H1 accepted
6. Low wages P=0.001 Significant H0 rejected
H1 accepted
7. Ill treatment P=0.001 Significant H0 rejected
H1 accepted
8. Lack of safety measures P=0.001 Significant H0 rejected
H1 accepted
9. Lack of toilet facilities P=0.001 Significant H0 rejected
H1 accepted
10. Cramped sleeping space P=0.001 Significant H0 rejected
H1 accepted
Based on the statistical inference from the table, it may be concluded that there
is a significant difference in the existence of all the problems, among the respondents
of the three divisions.

168
Kruskal Wallis Test – (ii) Problems confronted by child labourers and the educational
levels of the respondents
Null Hypothesis Ho : There is no significant relationship between the
educational levels of child labourers and the existence of various problems –
Strenuous work, Heavy lifting of' loads, Over work to the extent of 14hours a day,
Irregular hours of food, Inadequate sleep, Low wages, Ill treatment, Lack of safety
measures, Lack of toilet facilities and Cramped sleeping space.
Alternative hypothesis H1 : There is a significant relationship between the
educational levels of the respondents and the existence of various problems –
Strenuous work, Heavy lifting of' loads, Over work to the extent of 14hours a day,
Irregular hours of food, Inadequate sleep, Low wages, Ill treatment, Lack of safety
measures, Lack of toilet facilities and Cramped sleeping space.
Level of Significane (α) = 0.05
The following table provides the statistical inference of the above mentioned
problems of child labours.

169
Table 6.17
Problems confronted with child labourers and their Educational Levels
S. No. Problems Calculated Inference Result

Value
1. Strenuous work P=0.001 Significant H0 rejected
H1 accepted
2. Heavy lifting of' loads P=0.001 Significant H0 rejected
H1 accepted
3. Over work to the extent of P=0.006 Significant H0 rejected
14hours a day H1 accepted
4. Irregular hours of food P=0.001 Significant H0 rejected
H1 accepted
5. Inadequate sleep P=0.007 Significant H0 rejected
H1 accepted
6. Low wages P=0.001 Significant H0 rejected
H1 accepted
7. Ill treatment P=0.688 Not Significant H0 accepted
H1 rejected
8. Lack of safety measures P=0.001 Significant H0 rejected
H1 accepted
9. Lack of toilet facilities P=0.671 Not Significant H0 accepted
H1 rejected
10. Cramped sleeping space P=0.001 Significant H0 rejected
H1 accepted
Based on the statistical inference from the table, it may be concluded that there
is a significant difference in the existence of all the problems except ill treatment and
lack of toilet facilities, among the respondents of the three divisions.

170
6.1.18 Health Hazards
Children are more vulnerable than adults to health and environmental hazards.
Working children are more likely to be exposed and suffer damage from occupational
hazards because of their immaturity, lack of neurological and physiological skills and
less strength as well as biological differences with adults and lack of social power.
Child labourers also face hazards due to ignorance, exposure , unfitting personal
protective equipments like gas masks, earplugs, gloves and goggles designed for
adults .
Table 6.18
Distribution of the Respondents and their health problems
Sl. No. Category No. of Percentage

Respondents
1 Body pain 216 48.00
2 Skin diseases 174 39.60
3 Asthma 75 16.60
4 Allergy 84 18.60
5 Heart ailment 57 12.60
6 Burns 81 18.00
7 Permanent rashes and itches 105 25.30
8 Stress 255 56.60
9 Boils and eruption 36 8.00
10 Gastro enteritis 135 30.00
Multiple answers considered

171
Table 6.18 shows the health problems experienced by the child labourers. Pain
in the neck, knee, wrists , hands, and upper back was reported by more than 48
percent of the child labourers. About 16.60 percent of the child labourers opined that
they had asthma, a disease characterized by recurrent attacks of breathlessness and
wheezing that leads to bronchitis and tuberculosis. This is possibly because of the
increased time spent indoors. Exposure to indoor allergens, tobacco smoke of the
adult colleagues, chemical irritants, air pollutants, and cold weather may also be the
reasons for the disease.
Around 39.6 per cent of the child labourers were suffering from skin diseases.
It is pathetic to observe that many child labourers do not even know that they were
suffering from skin diseases. The researcher had to explain the symptoms of skin
diseases. Dangerous animals and insects, poisonous or sharp plants and exposure to
bacteria, virus, parasites, dangerous gases, liquids, dust, agrochemicals, solvents,
explosives and flammable or corrosive materials are said to be the causes for the skin
diseases.
About 18 percent of the child labourers reported that they had burns on their
body. The researcher could see the bruises and burns which were caused by different
forms of physical abuse like punching, beating, hitting, shaking etc.
About 56.60 percent of the child labourers undergo a lot of stress. Stress
according to them is mainly due to the emotional abuse, a behaviour that impairs a
child‟s emotional development or sense of self-esteem. The interview with them
reveals that threats, constant criticism, neglect as well as withholding love, support, or
guidance make them undergo a stressful situation quite often.

172
Though the child labourers were not able to say clearly that they had heart
problem, the researcher could infer from the symptoms they stated that they had heart
ailment. Symptoms such as discomfort, heaviness, pressure, aching, burning, fullness,
squeezing, or painful feeling in the chest, breathlessness, palpitation, weakness,
dizziness ,nausea and sweating were reported by 12.60 percent of the child labourers.
Gastro enteritis, an infection of the bowel, is found in 30 percent of the
child labourers. This is usually the result of a virus, which are easily contracted from
other people, even if they are immune to the virus. Because of the unhygienic
surroundings and untimely meals the child labourers tend to have gastro enteritis
problem. One of the major problems with respect to health aspect was that the
respondents were not aware of the sickness. Only perceptible forms of skin ailments
were considered as skin diseases and they do not consider skin irritations and
fussiness as skin diseases.
More than 55 per cent of the children working in these establishments were
subjected to severe health hazards and they were suffering from various types of
occupational diseases. But the amount of health cover provided to the workers by
their employers was not encouraging. Only in the case of 5 per cent sample workers,
their employers were meeting their medical expenses. One fifth of the child workers
were suffering from one or other form of ailment. Despite these situations majority of
the child workers were continuing in the same job. Lack of awareness on health
issues, poverty and other social factors had made them to continue in the job.
173
When society is expected to provide security to the structurally disadvantaged
sections of society, the employers who use the services of these child workers are
naturally expected to provide relief to their workers, if not for all contingencies, at
least for the occupational health hazards they sustain.
Because of the anatomical difference between children and adults, child
workers are considerably more vulnerable to workplace health hazards. Age seems to
be an important factor and children exposed to them easily tend to become ill or
disturbed much more quickly than do adults with similar exposure. Furthermore
children who work are more likely to suffer occupational injuries than adults to
inattention, fatigue, poor judgement and insufficient knowledge of work processes
and the fact is that the equipment machinery and tools used are designed only for
adults.
6.1.19 Employer- Employee Relations
The employer - employee relationship is also analysed to understand the
working conditions of the children. Table 6.19 shows the employer employee
relations in the unorganised sector.

174
Table 6.19
Distribution of the Respondents based on Employer-Employee Relationship
Respondents
1 Very cordial 18 4.00
2 Cordial 126 28.00
3 Strict 203 45.11
4 Very strict 76 16.89
5 Very harsh 27 6.00
Total 450 100.00
Table 6.19 shows that 28 percent of the child labourers had cordial
relationship with their employers. At the same time 45.11 per cent of the respondents
reported that their employers are strict towards them at the time of work. More than
16.89 per cent of them reported that their employers are very strict towards them. As a
result they have developed fear which is a destructive force in their growth. Very
harsh treatment towards children was also found. Six per cent of the respondents
reported that their employers were very harsh with them. Only 4 per cent of the
working children had very cordial relationship with their employers.

175
The interaction with the child labourers revealed that if they observe the terms
and conditions of the job and put up with the behaviour of the employers, chances of
their continuing for a longer period with better wages are bright. Hence innocent
children have to bear with any type of behaviour of their employers in the hope of
continuing in employment. Added to this, the parents of the child workers often take
the sides of the employers and rebuke their own children just to appease the
employers.
It has been observed during the course of field work that quite a few children
narrated with tears rolling down their cheeks how their parents also sometimes took
them to task when the employers send them to their homes saying that their services
are not required.
The good relationship of child labourers with their colleagues affect their job
satisfaction. This also affords protection to child labourers against exploitation, torture
or whimsical discharge by the employers.This gives them unity and strength to fight
for a common cause and ensures job security. The child labourers are sometimes
abused by employers as well as by the senior workers for no apparent cause or fault.
The relationship of co-workers with child labourers is shown in Table 6.20.

176
Table 6.20
Approach of the adult workers towards child labourers
Respondents
1 Very cordial 132 29.33
2 Cordial 228 50.67
3 Indifferent 61 13.56
4 Harsh 29 6.44
Total 450 100.00
Table 6.20 shows the relationship of the child labourers with the adult co-
workers. About 50.66 per cent of the child labourers expressed that the adult co-
workers have cordial relations with them. They were co-operative and sympathetic
towards them.
About 29.33percent of the child labourers expressed that the adult co-workers
were very cordial towards them and taught them the skill of their job. They also
corrected the mistakes and helped them in finish the task within the stipulated time.
About 13.56 percent of the child labourers reported that the adult co-workers were
indifferent and they considered them as insignificant which made them neglected and
frustrated. About 6.44 per cent of child labourers reported that the adult co-workers
177
were harsh towards them. They also reported that at times the adult co-workers tried
to harass and abuse them physically, psychologically and sometimes sexually.
6.21 Approach of the Employers towards Child Labour when they Commit
Mistakes
Children are bearers of human rights from the moment of their birth, and they
are entitled to physical integrity and human dignity in the same way as adults.
Children are human beings that are simply smaller and more fragile than adults.
Hence it is natural that they commit mistakes while performing their work. How this
situation is being handled by their employer is being shown in Table 6.21
Table 6.21
Approach of the Employers when the child labourers Commit Mistakes
Sl. No. Approach of Employees No. of Percentage
Respondents
1 Give advice 36 8.00
2 Punish 316 70.22
3 Scold 98 21.78
Total 450 100.00
Table 6.21 shows that only 8 per cent of the employers advice the children
when they commit mistake. About 70.22 percent of the child labourers reported that
they were punished for committing mistakes. About 21.78 percent of the child
178
labourers reported that they were scolded by their employers when they committed
mistakes. Degrading and demeaning words hurt the feelings of the children which
affect them psychologically and also emotionally.
6.1.22 Incidence of Child Abuse
The problem of child abuse and neglect of children by employer is not a new
problem. Child abusing practices have been intrinsic to the fabric of human society
since time immemorial. In recent times the awareness of child abuse has made the
public and the professionals to show concern towards the abused child. Child abuse
and neglect is the intentional non-accidental injury, maltreatment of children by
parents, caretakers, employers or others including those individuals representing
governmental or non-governmental bodies. It may lead to temporary or permanent
impairment of their physical, mental and psycho-social development, disability or
death.
Children can suffer different forms of abusements. An attempt is made to
analyse the nature and forms of abuse and neglect that the migrant children
experience within the working place.
The type of abuse and maltreatment found during the study can be categorized
into physical abuse, sexual abuse and emotional maltreatment and or neglect. A
particular type of child abuse or neglect can be identified by recognizing physical and
behavioural indicators in the child, and clues in the attitudes and behaviour of adult
workers. Interview with the child workers revealed the fact that they are abused both
physically and sometimes sexually by the employers and co-workers.

179
6.1.23 Physical Abuse
Physical indicators of child abuse are usually observable. They may be mild or
severe, but involve the child's physical appearance. Frequently, they include skin or
bone injuries or lack of care manifested in such conditions as malnutrition. The child's
behaviour can also sometimes be a clue to the presence of child abuse. Behavioural
indicators may exist alone or in combination with physical indicators. Physical abuse
of a child includes any non-accidental physical attack or physical injury, inflicted
upon the child by child's caretakers. The physical injury may include burning, beating,
punching and so on.
Table 6.22 shows the nature and extent of physical abuse faced by the working
children in unorganised sector. Out of the 450 samples, almost all the respondents
reported that they have experienced some kind of physical punishment. Among the
punishments they are experiencing from the employer and co-workers, only the severe
kind are taken for analysis.
Table 6.22
Nature and extent of physical punishment experienced by child workers
Sl. No. Type of Punishment No. of Percentage

Respondents
1 Beating 193 61.08
2 Burning 22 6.96
3 Others 101 31.96
Total 316 100.00

180
Table 6.22 shows the nature and physical punishment experienced by the child
labourers when they committed mistakes. About 61.08 percent of the child labourers
were subjected to physical punishment in different forms such as hitting with hand or
with an object such as a cane, belt, whip, shoe, etc.; kicking, slapping, shaking, or
throwing ; pinching or pulling their hair. About 6.96 percent of the child labourers
stated that they were burnt with cigars and hot iron rods when they committed a
mistake or failed to complete their work in time. About 31.96 percent of the child
labourers stated that they would be asked to stay in an uncomfortable or undignified
position, or to take excessive physical exercise.
6.1.24 Sexual Abuse
Child sexual abuse has been defined as the involvement of dependent,
immature children in sexual activities which they do not fully comprehend. Sexual
abuse includes any contacts or interactions between a child (under the age of 18 in the
case of girls and 21 for boys) and an adult (who is in a position of power or control
over the child, or may even be an acquaintance or an unknown person) in which the
child is used for the sexual stimulation of the perpetrator or another person. The
activities involved in child sexual abuse include besides actual sex action,
inappropriate touching, exposures to indecency, and forcing to participate in sexually
stimulating acts.
Out of the 450 sample respondents, 10.66 per cent of them reported that their
co-workers abused them sexually. Observation and discussion with the child workers
show that sexual abuse is rampant in this sector and many of the children are hesitant
to report because of fear.

181
In addition to physical and sexual abuse, emotional abuse a psychological
maltreatment that seriously interferes with a child‟s cognitive, emotional,
psychological or social development is also rampant in the unorganised sector. The
employers abused child workers emotionally when they commit mistakes or they
work slowly. Table 6.23 shows the type of emotional abuse, which the child workers
are facing.
Table 6.23
Nature and type of emotional abuse faced by the child labourers
No. of
Sl. No. Type of emotional abuse Percentage
Respondents
1 Scolding 360 80.00
2 Terrorizing 42 9.33
3 Others 48 10.67
Total 450 100.00
Table 6.23 shows that majority of the child labourers are abused emotionally
by their employers with belittling, ridiculing words in an abusive language. They are
scolded for not doing the work in time or doing it with mistakes. About 9.33 per cent
of the respondents reported that they were terrorized by their employers by placing
rigid or unrealistic expectations on the child labourers with threats of harm if they are
not met. Also threats regarding their wage or service benefits, their parent would be
informed, and they would be sent home etc used to be made on them. Another 10.67
per cent reported that they underwent other forms of emotional abuse such as ignoring
physically or psychologically by not calling them by name , rejecting and isolating

182
them. There were also child labourers who reported that they were asked to be
engaged in illegal activities which put them under great emotional stress.
In addition to these emotional abuse, the approach of the employers and
customers towards children, and their awareness regarding child labour, education and
occupation are also identified and analysed.
The child labourers keep changing their employer. They do not stick to a
single enterprise. The main reason for this is the ill treatment they have faced in their
work places. Most of the children reported that they have bitter experiences from their
former employers. Thus it is clear that majority of them are not satisfied with their
employers approach. They told that their employer usually abuses them by using rude
language. The children want to be corrected with love. But what they experience is
inappropriate scolding and beating. This will surely distort their personality. They will
develop an indifferent attitude towards society. These child workers usually develop
a negative attitude towards authority and the whole society.
6.1.25 Child labourers’ Perception about the Attitude of the Employer
Children's perception about the amount of work given by the employer also
shows the extent of' physical abuse. About 72 per cent of the child labourers are of the
opinion that the employer gives them more work than adult workers since they are
children. The employer always tries to engage the children with some work. If the
child labourer is seen to be taking rest, the employer will assign him some work,
which is not supposed to be done by him. Table 6.24 shows the attitude of the
employers as perceived by the child labourers.

183
Table 6.24
Attitude of the employers as perceived by child labourers
Sl. No. Attitude of the employer No. of Percentage
Attitu Respondents
1 Favourable 114 25.33
3 Unfavourable 108 24.00
Total 450 100.00
The data shows that only 25.33 per cent of the child labourers have favourable
attitude about their employers. The remaining 74.67 per cent of them are experiencing
unfavourable and indifferent attitude.
The child labourers see the employer as a source of authority and as a
representative of the society. The children need appreciation and acknowledgement
from them. But the real nature and behaviour of these employers do not satisfy the
child labourers‟ psychological needs. So the children become indifferent to the whole
society. Due to the unfavourable and indifferent attitude of the employer, the child
workers consider the whole society as unfavourable towards them. They get no
recognition. The employers always keep the children away from the public.
Therefore, these children develop anti-social behaviour.

184
6.25 Approach of the Customers
Child labourers have only limited chances for social interaction. Apart from
the employer and co-workers, the only group with whom the child labourers have
daily contact is the customers. Therefore, the limited interaction with the customers
will surely influence the socialization of the children. The children who have
restricted social interaction, long hours of work extending to 12-14 hours a day
without any holidays, suffer the inevitable crippling effect on their emotional
development. Hence, the behaviour of the customers had a strong impact on the
personality development of the child labourers. Approach of the customers towards
child labour is a determinant of child labourers‟ outlook towards the entire society.
Therefore, the study of child labourers perception of the customers is of great
importance. Hence the researcher tried to explore this by analysing the experiences of
the child labourers from the customers and also by analysing the opinion of child
labours about the approach of the customers. Table 6.25 shows the nature and
approach of the customers towards the children.

185
Table 6.25
Experiences of the child labourers with the customers
Sl. No. Experience of the customers No. of Percentage
Respondents
1 Good 54 12.00
2 Bad 135 30.00
3 No specific experience 261 58 .00
Total 450 100.00
Only 12 percent of the child labourers report that they have good experience
with the customers. Another 30 per cent of them reported that they have some bitter
experience from the customers. At the same time, majority (58 per cent) report that
they have no specific experience from the customers.
Most of the customers show no favour towards the child labourers. However,
some of them unnecessarily scold or tease the children. The children who recall good
behaviour from the customers are those working in the wayside tea stalls. Such
children have more opportunity to interact with the public. The children who have
harsh experience perceive the entire society as against them. Because of the harsh
experiences, a child fails to show love and affection to others. Their emotional
development becomes retarded and this adversely affects the entire personality
development.
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6.26 Child Labourers Perception about the Customers
Table 6.26 shows the opinion of the child workers about the attitude of the
customers.
Table 6.26
Attitude of the customers as perceived by the child workers
Sl. No. Attitude No. of Percentage
Respondents
1 Favourable 60 13.33
2 Unfavourable 81 18.00
Total 450 100.00
Most of the customers are engaged with their own affairs. They forget to
interact with the child labourers who came in contact with them. Therefore, majority
of the child labourers perceive the attitude of the customers as indifferent.
6.23 Child labourers’ willingness to continue working as Child labourers
Inspite of the fact that some of the child labourers admit that working has
affected or likely to affect their health, an effort has been made to know their opinion
regarding their desire to continue work as child labourers as shown in Table 6.27
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Table 6.27
Willingness to continue as child labourers

Respondents
1 Like to continue 320 71.11
2 Don‟t like to continue 130 28.89
Total 450 100.00
Table 6.27 shows the child labourers opinion indicating their desire to continue
working as child labourers. Nearly three fourth (71.11 Percent) expressed their desire
to continue as child labourers and 28.89 percent of the child labourers stated that they
were not willing to continue.
Table 6.28
Reasons for continuing to work as Child labourers
Sl. No. Reasons No. of Percentage

Respondents
1 Help himself and family 226 70.63

economically
2 Gain experience 52 16.25
3. To keep away from bad company 20 6.25
4 Lack of interest to go to school 22 6.88
Total 320 100.00

188
Table 6.28 shows the reasons for having a desire to continue working as child
labourers. About 70.63 percent of the child labourers opined that they wanted to
continue their job as they were not only a great source of economic help to their
family but they could fulfil their own monetary needs. About 16.25 percent of the
child labourers stated that they need experience to start a business in future for which
they need the present job. Hence they wanted to continue. About 6.25 percent of the
child labourers opined that they wanted to continue as their work saves them from bad
company and delinquent behaviour. About 6.88 percent of the child labourers stated
that they had to continue the job otherwise they would be sent to school. These child
labourers had a poor self image and lack of self confidence and have a feeling that
they would not be able to shine better in school.
Table 6.29
Reasons for not continuing to work as Child labourers
Respondents
1 Health affected 45 34.62
2 Bad behavior of the employer 25 19.23
3. Like to go to school 40 30.77
4 No future prospects 20 15.38
Total 130 100.00

189
Table 6.29 shows the reasons for not willing to continue with their present job.
About 34.62 percent of the child labourers stated that they did not like to continue due
to health reasons. The hard work beyond their capacity at the young age made them
become very tired. Hence they did not like to continue. About 19.23 percent of the
child labourers stated that they did not like to continue because of the behaviour of
their employers. The physical, sexual and emotional abuse they underwent made them
to quit the job. About 30.77 percent of the child labourers wanted to quit because of
their desire to go to school. The researcher could see the desire in their eyes when
they expressed their desire to go to school. About 15.38 percent of the child labourers
opined that they could not see better prospects in continuing the job in future. Hence
they wanted to quit the job. 6.24 Child labourers‟ Knowledge on Legal Provision
The Government of India has passed a number of laws related to child labour.
Hence the researcher wanted to study the awareness among child labourers. This
analysis is very important as one has to know his/ her legal right so as to make use of
it.
There are legal provisions for resting hours, leave, holidays with wages,
facilities for treatment and education. Over work and night work are prohibited for
children. The minimum age at which a person can start work for monetary gain also
has been specified by laws related to children.
The researcher tried to analyse the awareness of the child labourers about the
legal provisions for them. Many schemes have been adopted to eradicate child labour.
The researcher has asked the suggestions of child labour to abolish it.
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Table 6.30
Awareness of child labour about legal provisions for them
Sl. No. Legal Awareness No. of Percentage
Respondents
1 Regarding Minimum Age 48 10.67
2 Regarding Working hours 36 8.00
3 No awareness 366 81.33
Total 450 100.00
Table 6.30 shows the awareness of the legal provisions with respect to child
labour. A majority (81.33 percent) of the child labourers are not aware of their rights.
About 10.67 percent of the child labourers are aware of the minimum age for
working. And also 8 percent of the child labourers are aware of the working hours.
6.25 Alternatives Required by Child Labourers
The opinion of children is also collected with regard to the alternatives they
needed if child labour will be abolished through legislation and the strict enforcement
of the laws. Table 6.31 shows the alternatives children want for the abolition of child
labour. The opinion given includes categories like financial help, rehabilitation and
educational facilities.
191
Table 6.31
Distribution of Respondents by Alternatives required by Child Labourers
Sl. No. Opinion No. of Percentage
Respondents
1 Financial help 258 57.33
2 Rehabilitation 162 36.00
3 Educational facilities 30 6.67
Total 450 100.00
Table 6.31 shows the alternatives for child labour as suggested by children.
Out of the sample, about sixty per cent of them demanded that financial help is
necessary if child labour is to be abolished. This shows that poverty, the financial
difficulties at home, and the economic compulsion of the parents are the main factors
responsible for the employment of these children. Another 36 per cent demanded
rehabilitation and vocational training. It is ironical that only 10 per cent of the
respondents are interested in getting educational facilities.
6.26 Opinion about Forming Unions
Each group of workers has a union. A union makes them more confident to
demand their rights and more benefits. The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation)
Act 1986 confers the right to form union for working children. Hence the researcher
solicited the opinion of child labourers about forming a Union for them.
192
Table 6.32
Opinion of Child labourers about forming of Union
Respondents
1 Necessary 234 52.00
2 Not necessary 102 22.67
3 No response 114 25.33
Total 450 100.00
Table 6.32 shows the opinion of the child labourers with regard to forming
Union to protect their rights. Children‟s opinion regarding union is not uniform. More
than half of the respondents argued that union is necessary for the protection of their
rights and to limit the exploitation of their employers. Another 22.67 per cent of them
argued that union is not necessary for children. Another 25.33 per cent have no idea
about union.
6.27 Habits of Child Labourers
A child labourer starts earning at a tender age. Because of his immaturity he
may develop a feeling that he is not dependent on his parents for his food and with the
result that many a time starts disobeying them. This leads to disorganization of family
life. Sometimes instead of helping them financially, he/she indulges into undesirable
habits and company which may ruin their personality. Sometimes their indulgence
193
may turn them into criminals or anti social elements. Hence the researcher wanted to
get information on the habits of the child labourers.
Questions were asked to identify the hobbies of child labour. Out of the
sample, one third of the respondents have the habit of watching cinema. It is the main
source of amusement. Some children see film regularly. Only 12 per cent of the
respondents have reading habit. Most of the respondents (92 per cent) are interested in
music.
It is evident from the study that the working children are getting habituated to
bad habits mostly because of friends, adult co-workers and sometimes even
customers. Table 6.33 shows the undesirable habits of the working children.
Table 6.33
Distribution of the respondents by undesirable habits
Sl. No. Habits No. of Percentage

Respondents
1 Chewing of tobacco 204 45.33
2 Smoking 71 15.78
3 Alcohol 22 4.89
4 No undesirable habit 153 34.00
Total 450 100.00
Table 6.33 shows the undesirable habits found among the child labourers. It is
seen that about two third of the respondents have undesirable habits such as chewing
194
tobacco or smoking and occasional drinking. About 45.33 percent of the child
labourers have the habit of chewing tobacco. Chewing tobacco has been known to
cause cancer , particularly in the mouth and throat. About 15.78 percent of the child
labourers are found to be smoking cigarettes that is a leading cause for many diseases
such as lung cancer, heart attacks, erectile dysfunction and can also lead to birth
defects . About 4.89 percent of the child labourers are found to drink alcohol which is
associated with health problems such as heart damage, high blood pressure, liver
disease , cancer of the digestive system , sexual impotence , brain damage etc. In
addition to health problems alcohol also impacts on relationships, finances, work and
may result in legal problems. About 34 percent of the child labourers stated that they
did not have any undesirable habits. The interaction with the child labourers revealed
that they are acquainted with these habits mainly to forget the hazardous work.
6.32 Future Plan of Child Labourers
Questions were asked to identify the feeling of destiny and future of plan of
the children. Table 6.34 shows the feeling of destiny and plan of the respondents.
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Table 6.34
Distribution of the respondents on the basis of their opinion about their future
Respondents
1 Think often 18 4.00
2 Think occasionally 99 22.00
3 Not thought at all 333 74.00
Total 450 100.00
It is observed from the table that 74 per cent of them responded that they have
no feeling at all about their destiny and majority of them have no plan as the future
appears bleak to them. Only 4 per cent of them have savings for their future.
However, 74 per cent of them are not interested in continuing education. At the same
time 22 per cent are ready to continue education if they get an opportunity to study.
6.28 Ambitions of Child Labourers
It is quite saddening to look at the child labourers who should be playing,
studying and enjoying their childhood. One could see behind the twinkling eyes lots
of untold dreams and desires not shared with anyone. Hence the researcher made an
attempt to know their ambitions. During the interaction, the researcher could elicit
responses like „I am poor and poor people don‟t have desires‟. „ Poor have no choice
but to work and spend life in poverty‟ „ I swear that my dreams will never come true‟
196
etc. Through repeated coaxing and convincing, the researcher was able to get their
opinion which is presented in Table 6.35
Table 6.35
Ambitions of Child labourers
Sl. No. Ambition No. of Percentage
Respondents
1 To start a business 182 40.44
2 To earn more money 161 35.78
3 To be educated well 50 11.11
4 To have a comfortable living 28 6.23
5 To let fortune decide 29 6.44
Total 450 100.00
From Table 6.35 it is understood that the child labourers have varied
ambitions of which starting a business on their own in future is dominant. For 35.78
percent of the child labourers, the ambition is to earn money so as to support himself
and his family economically. Thus it is clearly seen that finance (76.22 percent) is
considered to be the major driving force for building ambitions. This goes well with
Freud‟s Ambition Theory that states that people are driven by the life drive such as
survival, propagation, hunger and thirst. About 11.11 percent of the child labourers
stated that they wanted to be educated well so as to command respect and have raised
197
social status. About 6.27 percent of the child labourers said that they like to have a
comfortable living having possessions like a house of their own, vehicles etc. About
6.44 percent of the child labourers opined in frustration that they could not have any
ambition as they had to be led by their fate.
6.2 Parents’/Guardians’ Perception about Working Conditions
Apart from what the child labourers have said about their employment
conditions it is equally important and interesting to ascertain the opinion of their
parents‟/ guardians‟ on this point in order to understand the problem in its right
perspective. Hence information was collected from 50 parents / guardians.
For the purpose of convenience, only information pertaining to the working
conditions which have direct impact on the study have been collected such as factors
responsible for child labourers to take up the work, source of getting employment,
medical certificate of fitness,willingness of child labourers to work,work
environment,parents opinion about injuries suffered by child labourers,changes in the
working environment and opinion on the abolition of child labourer,
6.2.1 Factors responsible for taking up the present job by children
Parents/ guardians gave numerous reasons which compelled their children to
enter the work life. For the purpose of analysis, these reasons have been grouped in
five major categories e.g. Personal and natural reasons, Economic hardship, Social
and customary reasons, Educational backwardness and Career advancement.

198
Table 6.36
Factors responsible for taking up the present job by children
Sl. No. Factors No. of Percentage

Respondents
1 Personal and natural reasons 4 8
2 Economic hardship 32 64
3 Social and customary reasons 5 10
4 Educational backwardness 6 12
5 Career advancement 3 6
Total 50 100.00
From Table 6.36 it is evident that more than half (64 percent) of the
parents/guardians mentioned that economic hardship on the part of the family was the
most important factor compelling the child to join work force. Economic hardship
includes poverty, failure of agriculture/business, large family, rising prices , no
resources to meet educational expenditure etc.
Some (12 percent) parent/guardian said that their child was scared of the
problem he or she had to face like homework and punishment the teachers. About 10
percent of the parents/guardians sent the child to work due to social and customary
reasons like learning some trade for secured future, occupying the children etc. About
8 percent of the parents/guardians sent their children for personal and natural reasons
like death/ illness of the bread winner of the family, fear of the child getting into bad
199
company, irresponsible behaviour of the head of the family etc. Only 6 percent of the
parents/guardians said that they sent their children to make them skilled workers so as
to establish their own business in future.
6.2.2.Sources of getting present job
The nature of occupation of the children has quite a lot of sociological
significance and importance. Hence the sources of getting a job need investigation.
Table 6.37
Sources of getting job
Sl. No. Sources No. of Percentage

Respondents
1 Middlemen 29 58
2 Relatives/Acquaintances/ Friends 10 20
3 Employers‟ invitation 5 10
4 Children‟s own initiative 6 12
Total 50 100.00
Table 6.37 indicates that 58 percent of the of the parents/guardians got job
through middlemen who were the agents for the employers. About 20 percent of the
parents/guardians got the job through their relatives/acquaintances/ friends. Only 5
percent of the parents/guardians said that they sent their child on the invitation of the
employers and the remaining 5 percent stated that their children got the job on their
own.
200
6.2.3 Medical Certificate of Fitness
There are provisions in the Factory Act , 1948 regarding submission of
medical certificate of fitness to the employer on or before getting a job.
The interaction with the parents/ guardians has revealed that no parents/
guardians have given any medical certificate of fitness to the employer before getting
their child into the job. Nor did the employers asked them to present certificate of
medical fitness for their child after the child got employment.
6.2.4 Children’s willingness for the job
Children‟s willingness to do the job throws light on the forces leading to the
child labour. Hence an analysis was made to look into the willingness of the child
labourers as perceived by the parents/guardians.
Table 6.38
Willingness of the children to work as perceived by the Parents/ Guardians
Sl. No. Responses No. of Percentage
Respondents
1 Child likes to help the family 32 64
2 Child likes to become a skilled 9 18
worker
3 Child does not like the job 9 18
Total 50 100.00

201
Table 6.38 shows the opinion of the parents/ guardians with regard to their
child‟s wiliness to do the work. About 64 percent of the parents/ guardians stated that
their child was willing to go for the job with an intention of helping the family
financially. About 18 percent of the child labourers opted to work so as to become
skilled workers. And 18 percent of the child labourers did not like to work due to
reasons like going to school, be at home etc.
6.2.5.Parents’/ Guardians’ visit to the place of work or their children
Generally parents/ guardians are supposed to visit the work place of their
children. By such visits, they come to know about the progress of their children.
Moreover, they can have a feel of the environment of the work place which may
directly/ indirectly help or hinder children in their work. Responses of the parents/
guardians regarding visiting the place of their children are shown in Table 6.39
Table 6.39
Responses of Parents/Guardians Indicating their Visit to the children’s Place of
Work

Respondents
1 Not visited 12 24
2 Working with the Parents /Sibling 19 38
3 Visiting regularly on a fixed day 2 4
4 Visiting only on Wage day 10 20
5 Visiting Irregularly 7 14
Total 50 100.00

202
As shown in Table 6.39 , about 24 percent of the parents/ guardians have not
visited the work place of their child . About 38 percent of the parents/ guardians do
not find it necessary to visit the work place because they either work along with them
or with other siblings and they get all the necessary information through them.
Parents/ Guardians who visit the work place on a fixed day and visit on the wage day
constitute 4 and 20 percent respectively. Remaining parents do visit the work place of
the child but could not specify the frequency of their visit.
6.2.6 Work environment
Work is a potent instrument of socialization. It brings about significant
changes in the behaaviour and personality of the workers. It has a powerful impact on
the physical and psychological well-being of the person. Keeping these facts in view
parents/ guardians were asked certain questions relating to the impact of work on their
children, which are shown in Table 6.40.
Table 6.40
Responses of Parents/Guardians Regarding Increase in Physical Illness since the
child started working

Respondents
1 No change 35 70
2 Physical Weakness 8 16
3 Various other health problems 7 14
Total 50 100.00

203
Table 6.40 indicates the adverse and ill-effects of the burden of work and
related responsibilities on the child labourers. It shows that as many as 70 percent of
the parents/guardians said that they observe no change in the physical health of the
children . About 16 percent observed increase in physical weakness of their children
and the remaining 14 percent stated that their children frequently suffer from various
physical ailments like fever, cough, cold, boils on hands , sore throat, eye trouble,
knee pain , back pain etc.
6.2.7 Injuries during the work
The parents/ guardians were asked whether their children suffered any injury
during the work. Their responses are indicated in Table 6.41
Table 6.41
Responses of Parents/Guardians Regarding various Injuries / Ailments Suffered
by Child during Work

Respondents
1 No Injury Reported 30 60
2 Injured foot, hand, finger 8 16
3 Burns and boils 2 4
4 Back pain, knee pain, eye burns 9 18
5 Chest pain 1 2
Total 50 100.00

204
Table 6.41 indicates that 60 percent of the parents/guardians stated that their children
have not suffered any injury since they started work. About 18 percent of the
parents/guardians mentioned that their children complained of back pain, knee pain
and eye burns. About 16 percent of the parents/guardians stated that their children
have injuries on their feet and fingers and 4 percent of them stated that their children
have developed skin ailments and only one reported that his child had chest pain.
Further the parents/guardians were asked whether the employers provide any
relief, if the children get injured at the place of work.
Table 6.42
Responses of Parents/Guardians Indicating Relief provided by Employers during
Injuries
Respondents
1 No such experience 40 80
2 Partial medical help 8 16
3 Leave with pay/medical relief 2 4
Total 50 100.00
Table 6.42 shows that 80 percent of the parents/guardians said that they have
no such experience. About 16 percent stated that at the time of injury at the work
place, the initial expenditure of medical treatment is generally borne by the employer.
Only 4 percent of the parents/ guardians said that their children got full medical
205
treatment and leave with pay for the period of absence from work upto 15 days from
the employers.
6.2.7 Desired change in Work Environment and Satisfaction
In order to get more satisfaction from work, the parents/ guardians were asked
whether they would like to suggest any change in the work environment of the
children. The suggestions of the parents/guardians are shown in Table 6.43
Table 6.43
Parents’/Guardians’ Opinion regarding Changes in Work Environment
Respondents
1 Improvement in Wages 30 60.00
2 Better Employer / Colleague 4 8.00
Behaviour
3 Improvement in Physical Facilities 6 12.00
4 NA/DK 10 20.00
Total 50 100.00
Table 6.43 reveals that 20 percent of the parents/guardians did not make any
suggestions. More than half of the parents/guardians (60 percent) suggested
improvement in wages. About 12 percent suggested improvement in physical

206
facilities at work like proper shelter, lighting, protection against work hazards,
protection against sun and rains, availability of safe drinking water , toilet facilities
along with provision of first aid facilities at the work premises. Only 8 percent of the
parents/guardians suggested improvement in the behaviour of the employers and
colleagues.
6.2.8 Perception of Child Labour
Education becomes a way of investing in human capital and hence individuals
have to be equipped with capabilities necessary for modern society. Besides other
factors, the progress of education of children also depends upon the attitude of the
parents towards education of their children. Many children who are in schools are
suddenly deprived of formal education when they are asked by their parents to go for
wage labour or earn independently. Hence the opinion of parents/guardians on
education of their children is important.
Table 6.44
Parents’/Guardians’ responses regarding Education
Respondents
1 Important 45 90.00
2 Not so Important 5 10.00
Total 50 100.00

207
Table 6.44 shows that an overwhelming majority of parents/guardians considered
education, necessary for positive growth of the child. Only 10 percent of the
parents/guardians stated that it is not very important.
6.2.8 Preference to work and /or Education
Having obtained the opinion of the parents/guardians on the importance of
education of their children, the researcher wanted to know their preference to work
and education of their children. Hence questions were asked whether they considered
children‟s education more important than work. Their responses are given in Table
6.45.
Table 6.45
Parents’/Guardians’ Responses Indicating Whether They Choose Education or
Work
Respondents
1 Education 31 62.00
2 Work 14 28.00
3 NA/DK 5 10.00
Total 50 100.00
Table 6.45 reveals that (62 Percent) of the parents/guardians opined that
education is more important than work and only (28 percent) of the parents/guardians
208
stated that work is more important than education . About 10 percent of the
parents/guardians did not give any opinion.
When the same question was asked but in the context of family interest the
nature of responses was different which is shown in the following table.
Table 6.46
Parents’/Guardians’ Responses Indicating Whether They Choose Education or
Work in the Interest of the Family
Respondents
1 Education 20 40.00
2 Work 25 50.00
3 NA/DK 5 10.00
Total 50 100.00
Table 6.46 reveals that 50 percent of the parents/guardians favoured work
which is contrary to the figure shown in the previous table. About 40 percent of the
parents/guardians gave importance to education. About 10 percent of the
parents/guardians did not give any opinion. These facts indicate that parents/guardians
by and large consider education more important than work both for the future of the
child as well as in the interest of the family. However, parents/ guardians assigning
209
more importance to work were significantly higher in the context of the family well
being than the child‟s interest.
6.2.9 Abolition of Child labour
Child labour is a shameful scar on the nation that deprives the children of their
childhood care, comforts, play, training and education. But child labour is found to be
inevitable in the poverty stricken families which. Hence parents/ guardians were
asked to furnish their opinion on the abolition of child labour.
Table 6.47
Parents’/Guardians’ Opinion regarding Abolition of Child Labour
Respondents
1 Yes 8 16.00
2 No 42 84.00
Total 50 100.00
Table 6.47 reveals that majority(84 Percent) of the parents/guardians were not in
favour of the abolition of child labour. And only 16 percent of the parents/guardians
stated that the child labour should be abolished.

210
Those parents/guardians who said that the child labour should not be abolished
were asked to give the reasons. The responses they gave were categorized and
presented in Table 6.48
Table 6.48
Parents’/Guardians’ reasons for not abolishing the Child Labour
Respondents
1 Pick up Bad habits 6 14.29
2 Loss of child‟s earning will lead to 28 66.67
financial crisis in the family
3 Child will become a financial 6 14.29
burden
4 NA/DK 2 4.75
Total 42 100.00
Table 6.48 reveals the reasons attributed by the parents/guardians for not
abolishing the child labour. It is clearly evident that poverty is the main reason for the
child labour as the parents stated that abolition of the child labour would deprive the
family of the earning brought by the child labourers which would lead the family to
financial crisis. About 14.29 percent of the parents/guardians said that the children
would become vagabond, delinquent and pick up bad habits and might be compelled
211
to leave their family which would be a social problem. About 14.29 percent of the
parents/guardians sated that the personal needs of the child would not be fulfilled and
the child would be a burden on the family finance. About 4.75 percent of the parents/
guardians were not able to give any opinion.
6.3 Employers’ opinion regarding the child labour
Child labour has remained both an economic and social problem in our
country. Legislative measures taken by the Government have proved to be ineffective
in grappling with the problem of child labour. In this regard it should be recognized
that employer‟s role is very crucial because they are the real actors. Hence an attempt
has been made in this part to examine the attitudes and views of employers towards
child labour. Interestingly enough the employers had divergent views over the
important issues like motivation for employing children, desirability of child
employment, role of government , legislation, abolition of child labour. The
information collected from 50 employers are tabulated and analysed in the following
section.
6.3.1 Motivation for employing children
The reasons for employing children can be manifold. The reasons given by
employers for employing children are given in Table6.49

212
Table 6.49
Reasons for Employing children

Respondents
1 Helping poverty stricken families 19 38.00
2 Children have special qualities 22 44.00
3 Religious and sentimental 4 8.00

consideration
4 Caste and Community 5 10.00

consideration
Total 50 100.00
Table 6.49 reveals the reasons attributed by the employers for employing children.
About 44 percent of the employers stated that they have employed children in their
establishments because the children have special qualities viz., they are amenable to
discipline and are easy to handle. Moreover children are more productive and quite
innocent. They usually do the work sincerely, cannot organise themselves in Union
and are more suited for certain jobs due to their physical structure , willingness to do
some menial jobs which are generally termed as dirty jobs. The major special quality
of the children is that they do not demand higher wage which means cheap labour.
About 38 percent of the employers stated that they have obliged the poor families by
giving some work and money to the children for fulfilling their personal needs. About
10 percent of the employers opined that they employed children due to caste and
213
community considerations and the remaining religious and sentimental
considerations.
Thus the amenability of the child labourers to discipline , their cheap and
efficient labour , honesty and sincerity due to age and the altruistic motivations on the
part of the employers are the major reasons advanced by their employers for
employing child labourers in their establishments.
6.3.2 Recruitment
The system of recruitment of children is completely different from that in the
organized sector. Children are not recruited through employment exchanges or any
other labour supply agencies but only through private sources and individual
contracts. No educational qualification is needed in such jobs except physical ability
to endure the strains and work for longer hours. Generally the employers are not
interested in recruiting stray children as they do not have a security.
Table 6.50
Methods Adopted for Recruitment of child labourers

Respondents
1 Request of the child labourer 10 20.00
2 Middlemen 28 56.00
3 Parents/ Friends/ relatives 9 18.00
4 No specific method 3 6.00
Total 50 100.00
214
From Table 6.50 , it is seen that more than half (56 percent ) of the employers stated
that they gave job to the children through middlemen known as contractors/ sub-
contractors. About (18 percent) parents/ relatives or friends approached the employers
for the job for their children. About (20 percent) employers say that the child
labourers met employers directly and requested for the job. The remaining(6 percent)
employers did not respond specifically. But they seem to have brought children from
their native places to be trained as skilled workers or have observed the child working
elsewhere and having got impressed by his sincerity and honesty offered him job.
Sometimes an influential person of the locality introduces such a child and he has to
be given a job to oblige them.
6.3.4 Special qualification for recruitment
The employers were asked to indicate as to what qualifications they consider
necessary for recruiting children. The responses given by the employers are given in
Table 6.51
Table 6.51
Special Qualification for Employing Children
Sl. No. Special Qualification No. of Percentage

Respondents
1 Job and Skill Aptitude 10 20.00
2 Personal Qualities 32 64.00
3 No Special Qualification 8 16.00
Total 50 100.00

215
From Table 6.51 it is seen that 64 percent of the employers gave top priority to the
personal qualities of the child labourers such as honesty, regularity, punctuality,
sincerity, discipline, obedience etc., About 20 percent of the employers stated that
they gave preference to the aptitude of the child to learn skills. About 8 percent of the
employers stated that they have not given any special preference to any special
qualification for the recruitment of the child.
6.3.5 Certificate of Medical Fitness.
Not a single employer has got the child labourers medically examined in order
to ensure their fitness for the job or expected parents/ guardians of the child labourers
to produce certificate of medical fitness prior to recruitment in the establishment as
required by law. No one has asked the child labourers to produce such certificates
during the initial stages of employment also.
6.3.6. Employers’ Opinion on Abolition of Child Labour
Children provide cheap and convenient labour. They are non-complaining
labour force who can be made to do any work at any time with low wage. Their
requirements are few and they learn the job. Hence it is in the interest of the
employers to employ children in various vocations. The researcher wanted to know
their opinion on the abolition of child labour which may be detrimental to their
business. Their responses are provide in Table 6.52

216
Table 6.52
Employers’ Opinion on Total Abolition of Child Labour
Respondents
1 Yes 11 22.00
2 No 39 78.00
Total 50 100.00
Table 6.52 reveals that an overwhelming majority (78 Percent) of the employers were
not in favour of the abolition of child labour. They are of the view that child labour
should not be abolished as children are very important source of supplementary
income to their poor families and the informal talk with them says that many poverty
stricken families will fail to provide minimum living social requirements, if the child
labour is abolished. They advocated that child employment should be abolished from
hazardous areas and unhygienic environment, but if at all they are to be employed;
their conditions of work should be improved. Unhygienic and insanitary conditions,
long hours of work, lack of or inadequate rest intervals, inadequate shelter, hazardous
work et., should be altered. Thus employers want to continue child labour in non-
hazardous occupations with improved working conditions. And only 22 percent of
the employers stated that the child labour should be abolished.

217
6.3.7 Employers and Legislations concerning Child Labour
Unless the employers are well-informed about the provisions of various
legislations which prohibit and regulate the conditions of employment of working
children, their successful implementation will not be possible. It was with a view to
find out the level of awareness that some pertinent questions were addressed to the
employers. The employers of the establishments are expected to possess some
working knowledge about the operative part the Act that is applicable to their
business. Their responses for the level of awareness on the legislation pertaining to
child labour are presented in Table 6.53.
Table 6.53
Employers’ Knowledge About Various Legislations Governing Child Labour
Respondents
1 Aware 10 20.00
2 Not aware 40 80.00
Total 50 100.00
From Table 6.53, it is understood that 80 percent of the employers in the
unorganized sector have no awareness concerning legislation about working children.
Though 20 percent of the employers stated that they are aware of the legal provisions,
the informal talks with them show that it is only a partial awareness.
218
6.3.8 Difficulties experienced in the implementation of legislation
Employers when they are greedy , will not care about the existing legislations.
There are also possibilities that they may intensify the problem of child labour asthey
are not whole-heartedly interested in implemtning the spirit behind the legislative
measure. They may also try to take advantage of the loopholes in the legislations.
Hence employers‟ opinion on difficulties faced in implementing various s legislations
are shown in Table 6.54
Table 6.54
Difficulties in the Proper Implementation of Various Labour Legislations
Sl. No. Difficulties No. of Percentage
Respondents
1 Labour in disguised form 16 32
2 Shift from Regular wage work to 8 16
piece rate wage
3 Making them work in the unit in 5 10
residential area
4 Unethical activities 6 12
No difficulty 15 30
Total 50 100
As shown in Table 6.3.7, thirty percent of the employers stated that they did
not face any difficulty in the implementation of the child labour.
About 32 percent of the employers stated that poverty stricken parents would
send their children not as workers but as under the guise of apprentice, relatives or as
a person who has come to meet or hand over the tiffin to his/her parent or siblings
219
working there. And also the employers would hide or ask children to run away when
the factory inspector visits their establishments. Thus the employers hardly provide an
opportunity to the inspecting officer to identify the child for verification of age and
other working conditions.
About 16 percent of the employers expressed that they would convert regular
workers as workers employed through an agency of another person as contract labour
or either will start giving work to the children in their private dwellings to work as
piece rate wage earners. As per provisions of various legislations the employers are
supposed to keep regular register for maintaining attendance of the workers in regular
working units but in piece rate system no such system of keeping regular attendance is
required.
About 10 percent of the employers expressed that the child labourers would
be sent to work in their units situated in residential area as the person responsible for
enforcing such legislation seldom reach the residential areas. This is how the
implementation of the provision of legislation is floundered. About 12 percent of the
employers stated that they would resort to unethical practices like giving bribes when
they face any difficulty in implementing the legislation relating to child labour.
220
CHAPTER VII
DIMENSION OF CHILD LABOUR
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The future of working children is ruined as they will not be able to attend
schools and get educated for a better future. But when one considers the economic
compulsions of the families which force the children to work, one will be compelled
to admit that elimination of child labour will be a distant dream as long as the socio-
economic status of these families is not improved. The prevalence of child labour
reflects very badly on society that is not able to stop this evil. They earn little and
struggle to make enough to feed themselves and their families. This forces the
researcher to test the significant difference in the various dimensions among different
socio-economic conditions of child labor.
This chapter deals with the analysis of field data collected from 450 child
labours who are working in the unorganized sector. All the child labours are
approached in person with the help of the interview schedule for the purpose of
collection of primary data. A pre structured interview schedule has been used with the
main objective of understanding the socio-economic conditions of child labour in
Trichirappalli district. The data collected for the study has been analysed with the
help of chi square test and „t‟ test. The second section is devoted for analyzing ten
individual cases to explore causation in order to find underlying principles.
7.2 AGE AND DIMENSION TO EARN MONEY AND STUDY
The null hypothesis formulated is there is no significant relationship between
age of the respondents and the dimension to earn money and study. To test whether
there is any relationship between the age of the respondents and the dimension to earn
221
money and study, Chi-square test is applied. Table 6.31 reveals the working result of
the test.
Table 7.1
AGE AND THE DIMENSION TO EARN MONEY AND STUDY
Chi-square
Sl. No. Group Yes No Total
value
1 Below 9 - - - 0.14
2 9-12 24 93 117
3 13-15 63 270 333
Total 87 363 450
The calculated value of chi-square (0.14) is found to be less than the table value
(5.99) at 5% significant level. It implies that the null hypothesis is accepted. This
confirms that there is no significant relationship between age of the respondents and
the dimension to earn money and study.
7.3 RELIGION AND THE DIMENSION TO EARN MONEY AND STUDY
The null hypothesis formulated is „there is no significant relationship between
religion of the respondents and the dimension to earn money and study . To test
whether there is any relationship between the religion of the respondents and the
dimension to earn money and study, Chi-square test is applied. Table 7.2 reveals the
working result of the test.

222
Table 7.2
RELIGION AND THE DIMENSION TO EARN MONEY AND STUDY
Chi-square
value
1 Hindu 83 346 426 0.11
2 Muslim 4 20 24
3 Christian - - -
Total 87 363 450
confirms that there is no significant relationship between religion of the respondents
and the dimension to earn money and study.
7.4 CASTE AND THE DIMENSION TO EARN MONEY AND STUDY
caste of the respondents and the dimension to earn money and study. To test whether
there is any relationship between the caste of the respondents and the dimension to
earn money and study, Chi-square test is applied. Table 7.3 reveals the working result
of the test.
223
Table 7.3
CASTE AND THE DIMENSION TO EARN MONEY AND STUDY
Chi-
Sl. No. Group Yes No Total square
value
1 Forward Caste 14 22 36 17.22
2 Backward Caste 46 152 198
3 Scheduled Caste 27 189 216
Total 87 363 450
The calculated value of chi-square (17.22) is found to be more than the table
value (5.99) at 5% significant level. It implies that the null hypothesis is rejected.
This confirms that there is a significant relationship between caste of the respondents
and the dimension to earn money and study.
7.5 NATIVE RESIDENCE AND THE DIMENSION TO EARN MONEY AND
STUDY
native residence of the respondents and the dimension to earn money and study. To
test whether there is any relationship between the native residence of the respondents
and the dimension to earn money and study, Chi-square test is applied. Table 7.4
reveals the working result of the test.

224
Table 7.4
NATIVE RESIDENCE AND THE DIMENSION TO EARN MONEY AND
STUDY
Chi-square
value
1 Tiruchirappalli 22 258 280 62.60
District
2 Other Districts in 40 64 104
Tamilnadu
3 Other States 25 41 66
Total 87 363 450
This confirms that there is a significant relationship between native residence of the
respondents and the dimension to earn money and study.
7.6 SIZE OF FAMILY AND THE DIMENSION TO EARN MONEY AND
STUDY
size of family of the respondents and the dimension to earn money and study. To test
whether there is any relationship between the size of family of the respondents and the
dimension to earn money and study, Chi-square test is applied. Table 7.5 reveals the

225
Table 7.5
SIZE OF FAMILY AND THE DIMENSION TO EARN MONEY AND STUDY
Sl. Group Yes No Total Chi-square
No. value
1 Below 4 8 34 42 39.40
2 4-6 43 65 108
3 Above 6 36 264 300
Total 87 363 450
This confirms that there is a significant relationship between size of family of the
respondents and the dimension To earn money and study .
7.7 FAMILY INCOME AND THE DIMENSION TO EARN MONEY AND
STUDY
family income of the respondents and the dimension to earn money and study. To test
whether there is any relationship between family income of the respondents and the
dimension to earn money and study ,Chi-square test is applied. Table 7.6 reveals the

226
Table 7.6
FAMILY INCOME AND THE DIMENSION TO EARN MONEY AND STUDY
Sl. No. Group Yes No Total Chi-square
value
1 Below 6000 46 125 171 10.13
2 Above 6000 41 238 279
Total 87 363 450
This confirms that there is a significant relationship between family income of the
respondents and the dimension to earn money and study.
The analysis reveals that there is no significant difference in the dimension to
earn money and study in respect of different socio-economic variables via, Age and
Religion. However there is a significant difference with the same dimension in respect
of Caste (4.07*), Native Residence (62.60), Size of family (39.40) and Family income
(10.13). It can be inferred that there is a significant difference in the dimension To
earn money and study among majority of socio-economic factors of child labor.
Hence, the null hypothesis „there is no significant difference in the dimension to earn
money and study in respect of different socio-economic variables‟ is rejected.

227
7.8 AGE AND THE DIMENSION PROBLEMS WITH PRESENT WORK
age of the respondents and the dimension Problems with present work . To test
whether there is any relationship between the age of the respondents and the
dimension problems with present work, Chi-square test is applied. Table 7.7 reveals
the working result of the test.
Table 7.7
AGE AND THE DIMENSION PROBLEMS WITH PRESENT WORK
Chi-square
value
1 Below 9 - - - 15.75
2 9-12 48 69 117
3 13-15 207 126 333
Total 255 195 450
This confirms that there is a significant relationship between age of the respondents
and the dimension Problems with present work .
7.9 RELIGION AND THE DIMENSION PROBLEMS WITH PRESENT
WORK
religion of the respondents and the dimension Problems with present work. To test
whether there is any relationship between the religion of the respondents and the
228
dimension problems with present work, Chi-square test is applied. Table 7.8 reveals
Table 7.8
RELIGION AND THE DIMENSION PROBLEMS WITH PRESENT WORK
Chi-square
value
1 Hindu 245 181 426 2.32
2 Muslim 10 14 24
3 Christian - - -
Total 255 195 450
7.10 CASTE AND THE DIMENSION PROBLEMS WITH PRESENT WORK
caste of the respondents and the dimension Problems with present work . To test
whether there is any relationship between the caste of the respondents and the
dimension Problems with present work , Chi-square test is applied. Table 7.9 reveals

229
Table 7.9
CASTE AND THE DIMENSION PROBLEMS WITH PRESENT WORK
Chi-
Sl. No. Group Yes No Total square
value
Total 255 195 450
7.11 NATIVE RESIDENCE AND THE DIMENSION PROBLEMS WITH
PRESENT WORK
native residence of the respondents and the dimension problems with present work.
To test whether there is any relationship between the native residence of the
respondents and the dimension Problems with present work , Chi-square test is
applied. Table 7.10 reveals the working result of the test.

230
Table 7.10
NATIVE RESIDENCE AND THE DIMENSION PROBLEMS WITH
PRESENT WORK
Chi-square
value
1 Rural 182 98 280 27.98
2 Semi-urban 53 51 104
3 Urban 20 46 66
Total 255 195 450
respondents and the dimension Problems with present work .
7.12 SIZE OF FAMILY AND THE DIMENSION PROBLEMS WITH
PRESENT WORK
size of family of the respondents and the dimension Problems with present work . To
test whether there is any relationship between the size of family of the respondents
and the dimension Problems with present work , Chi-square test is applied. Table
7.11 reveals the working result of the test.

231
Table 7.11
SIZE OF FAMILY AND THE DIMENSION PROBLEMS WITH PRESENT
WORK
Chi-square
value
1 Below 4 18 24 42 3.98
2 4-6 60 48 108
3 Above 6 177 123 300
Total 255 195 450
confirms that there is no significant relationship between size of family of the
7.13 FAMILY INCOME AND THE DIMENSION PROBLEMS WITH
PRESENT WORK
family income of the respondents and the dimension Problems with present work .
To test whether there is any relationship between family income of the respondents
and the dimension Problems with present work , Chi-square test is applied. Table
7.12 reveals the working result of the test.

232
Table 7.12
FAMILY INCOME AND THE DIMENSION PROBLEMS WITH PRESENT
WORK
Chi-square
value
1 Below 6000 85 86 171 5.44
2 Above 6000 170 109 279
Total 255 195 450
This confirms that there is a significant relationship between family income of the
The analysis reveals that there is no significant difference in the dimension
Problems with present work in respect of different socio-economic variables via,
Religion and Size of family. However there is a significant difference with the same
dimension in respect of Age (15.75), Caste (40.15), Native Residence (27.98)) and
Family income (5.44). It can be inferred that there is a significant difference in the
dimension Problems with present work among majority of socio-economic factors of
child labor. Hence, the null hypothesis „there is no significant difference in the
dimension Problems with present work in respect of different socio-economic
variables‟ is rejected.
233
7.14 AGE AND THE DIMENSION PHYSICAL TORTURE
age of the respondents and the dimension Physical torture To test whether there is
any relationship between the age of the respondents and the dimension Physical
torture , Chi-square test is applied. Table 6.43 reveals the working result of the test.
Table 7.13
AGE AND THE DIMENSION PHYSICAL TORTURE
Chi-square
value
1 Below 9 - - - 2.76
2 9-12 27 90 117
3 13-15 54 279 333
Total 81 369 450
confirms that there is no significant relationship between age of the respondents and
the dimension Physical torture .
7.15 RELIGION AND THE DIMENSION PHYSICAL TORTURE
religion of the respondents and the dimension Physical torture . To test whether there
is any relationship between the religion of the respondents and the dimension
Physical torture , Chi-square test is applied. Table 7.14 reveals the working result of
the test.
234
Table 7.14
RELIGION AND THE DIMENSION PHYSICAL TORTURE
Chi-square
value
1 Hindu 75 351 426 0.84
2 Muslim 6 18 24
3 Christian - - -
Total 81 369 450
and the dimension Physical torture .
7.16 CASTE AND THE DIMENSION PHYSICAL TORTURE
caste of the respondents and the dimension Physical torture . To test whether there is
any relationship between the caste of the respondents and the dimension Physical
torture , Chi-square test is applied. Table 7.15 reveals the working result of the test.
235
Table 7.15
CASTE AND THE DIMENSION PHYSICAL TORTURE
Chi-square
value
Total 81 369 450
and the dimension Physical torture .
7.17 NATIVE RESIDENCE AND THE DIMENSION PHYSICAL TORTURE
native residence of the respondents and the dimension Physical torture . To test
whether there is any relationship between the native residence of the respondents and
the dimension Physical torture , Chi-square test is applied. Table 7.16 reveals the

236
Table 7.16
NATIVE RESIDENCE AND THE DIMENSION PHYSICAL TORTURE
Chi-square
value
1 Rural 59 221 280 6.84
2 Semi-urban 17 87 104
3 Urban 5 61 66
Total 81 369 450
respondents and the dimension Physical torture .
7.18 SIZE OF FAMILY AND THE DIMENSION PHYSICAL TORTURE
size of family of the respondents and the dimension Physical torture . To test
whether there is any relationship between the size of family of the respondents and the
dimension Physical torture, Chi-square test is applied. Table 7.17 reveals the

237
Table 7.17
SIZE OF FAMILY AND THE DIMENSION PHYSICAL TORTURE
Chi-square
value
1 Below 4 8 34 42 0.50
2 4-6 17 91 108
3 Above 6 56 244 300
Total 81 369 450
confirms that there is no significant relationship between size of family of the
7.19 FAMILY INCOME AND THE DIMENSION PHYSICAL TORTURE
family income of the respondents and the dimension Physical torture . To test
whether there is any relationship between family income of the respondents and the
dimension Physical torture , Chi-square test is applied. Table 7.18 reveals the

238
Table 7.18
FAMILY INCOME AND THE DIMENSION PHYSICAL TORTURE
Sl. Chi-square
Group Yes No Total
No. value
1 Below 6000 35 136 171 1.14
2 Above 6000 46 233 279
Total 81 369 450
confirms that there is no significant relationship between family income of the
The analysis reveals that there is no significant difference in the dimension
Physical torture in respect of different socio-economic variables via, Age, Religion
Size of family and Family income. However there is a significant difference with the
same dimension in respect of Caste (8.15) and Native Residence (6.84). It can be
inferred that there is no significant difference in the dimension Physical torture
among majority of socio-economic factors of child labor. Hence, the null hypothesis
„there is no significant difference in the dimension Physical torture in respect of
different socio-economic variables‟ is accepted.

239
7.20 IMPACT OF FAMILY INCOME ON THE DIMENSIONS
OF CHILD LABOUR
This part enables the researcher to analyse the collected data by using relevant
statistical methods. The first step in the analysis is the classification which means
arranging the data in different classes are groups according to their similarities or
dissimilarities. It is the easiest and simplest method of discovering order out of the
confused mass of data. The researcher used the following statistical devices to
interpret the collected data such as Mean, Standard Deviation and 't' test.
The ‘t’ TEST
The ‟t‟ value or critical ratio is a ratio of the difference between the two
sample means and the standard error of the mean difference.
M1 – M 2
't' = _______ ________________
√ S 12
____ +
S 12
____
N1 N2
In which M1, S1, N1 are the Mean, Standard Deviation and size of the first
group respectively. M2, S2, N2 are the Mean, Standard Deviation and size of the
second group respectively. The rejection or acceptance of null hypothesis is based on
some level of significance as criteria. In social, psychological and educational circles,
the five percent (0.05) level of significance is often accepted as a standard for
rejection.
240
The formulation of the hypothesis in advance of the data-gathering process is
necessary for an unbiased investigation. At the end it comes to prominence on the
formulation to be accepted or rejected in the light of the findings. Here to find out the
relationship between the different dimensions and family income, the following null
hypothesis is formulated and tested in this section.
1. There is no significant impact of family income of the respondents on the
dimension willing to come out from work.
dimension willing to join in school.
dimension work experience.
dimension reasons to force child labour.
dimension problems with present work.
dimension willing to study in free school.
The data were collected from 450 respondents of Child labour in unorganized
sector. The mean, SD and t values are found out.

241
7.21 Hypothesis: 1
H o : There is no significant impact of family income of the respondents on the
dimension „willing to come out from work‟.
To find out the significant impact of family income of the respondents on the
dimension „willing to come out from work‟, „t‟ test is used. The results are
presented in the table 7.19
TABLE 7.19
DISTRIBUTION OF ‘t’ VALUE BETWEEN INCOME AND DIMENSION
WILLING TO COME OUT FROM WORK
Income N M SD ‘t’ Value Level of
Significance
Below 6000 171 1.82 0.369

-1.68 P > 0.05
Above 6000 279 1.88 0.364
The obtained„t‟ value -1.68 is statistically not significant since it is less than
the critical value 1.96 for 448 at 0.05 level of significance. Hence the null hypothesis
is accepted and the alternative hypothesis is rejected.
It is therefore concluded that there is no significant impact of family income
of the respondents on the dimension „willing to come out from work‟.

242
7.22 Hypothesis: 2
H o : There is no significant impact of family income of the respondents on
the dimension „willing to join in school‟.
dimension „willing to join in school‟, „t‟ test is used. The results are presented in the
table 7.20.
TABLE 7.20
WILLING TO JOIN IN SCHOOL
Significance
Below 6000 171 1.93 0.290

-0.35 P > 0.05
Above 6000 279 1.94 0.296
The obtained „t‟ value -0.35 is statistically not significant since it is less than
It is therefore concluded that there is no significant impact of family income of
the respondents on the dimension „willing to join in school‟.

243
7.23 Hypothesis: 3
dimension „‟Work experience‟.
dimension Work experience, „t‟ test is used. The results are presented in the table
7.21.
TABLE 7.21
DISTRIBUTION OF ‘t’ VALUE BETWEEN INCOME AND DIMENSION WORK
EXPERIENCE
Significance
Below 6000 171 1.86 1.530

0.14 P > 0.05
Above 6000 279 1.84 1.467
The obtained„t‟ value 0.14 is statistically not significant since it is less than the
critical value 1.96 for 448 at 0.05 level of significance. Hence the null hypothesis is
accepted and the alternative hypothesis is rejected.
It is therefore concluded that there is a significant impact of family income of
the respondents on the dimension ‟Work experience‟.

244
7.24 Hypothesis: 4
dimension „reasons to force child labour‟.
dimension „reasons to force child labour‟, „t‟ test is used. The results are presented
in the table 7.22
TABLE 7.22
REASONS TO FORCE CHILD LABOUR
Significance
Below 6000 171 1.90 0.290

-2.61 P > 0.05
Above 6000 279 1.96 0.101
The obtained „t‟ value -2.61 is statistically significant since it is more than the
rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted.
the respondents on the dimension „reasons to force child labour‟.

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7.25 Hypothesis: 5
dimension „problems with present work‟.
dimension problems with present work, „t‟ test is used. The results are presented in
the table 7.23.
TABLE 7.23
PROBLEMS WITH PRESENT WORK
Significance
Below 6000 171 1.95 0.150

7.12 P > 0.05
Above 6000 279 1.86 0.089
The obtained „t‟ value 7.12 is statistically significant since it is more than the
rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted.
the respondents on the dimension „problems with present work‟.

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7.26 Hypothesis: 6
dimension „willing to study in free school‟.
dimension willing to study in free school, „t‟ test is used. The results are presented
in the table 7.24.
TABLE 7.24
DISTRIBUTION OF ‘t’ VALUE BETWEEN INCOME AND DIMENSION WILLING
TO STUDY IN FREE SCHOOL
Income N M SD ‘t’ Value Level of significance
Below 6000 171 1.88 0.368

1.13 P > 0.05
Above 6000 279 1.84 0.362
The obtained „t‟ value 1.13 is statistically not significant since it is less than
It is therefore concluded that there is no significant impact of family income of
the respondents on the dimension „willing to study in free school‟.
The generated t-values between different dimensions and Family Income of
child labor are -1.68 (willing to come out from work), -0.35 (willing to join in
school), 0.14 (Work experience) and willing to study in free school) which are not
significant and infer that there is no significant impact of income on the above
dimensions and exceptionally the t-values of Income and the dimensions like reasons
forcing child labor and problems with present work. This infers that there is
significant impact of income on the above dimensions.

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CHAPTER VIII
FINDINGS, SUGGESTION AND CONCLUSION
8.1 Findings
This chapter brings into light the findings on about the socio-economic and
working conditions of child labourers in the unorganized sector in Tiruchirapalli
District and offers a few suggestions for future guidance.
Socio-Economic Back ground of Child Labourers
 The present study shows that highest percentage of Child Labourers is
74 per cent who belong to the age group of 13 to 15 years which
signifies that they join the labour force by the time they attain the age
of 15.
 A large probation of Child Labourers ie 15.38 percent are employed in
gem cutting units of the age group 9-12 and 15.92 per cent are
employed in food processing units out of the units categorized as
unorganized sector.
 It is significant to note that 94.78 per cent of Child Labourers belong to
Hindu religion which constitutes majority in our country.
 Nearly 48 per cent of Child Labourers belong to scheduled caste/
Tribes and 44 per cent of Child Labourers belong to backward classes.
Thus a majority of Child Labourers come from vulnerable deprived
section of society, particularly scheduled castes/ Tribes and backward
class communities.
 When comparing the native residents it is found that majority 62.22 per
cent of Child Labourers belong to Tiruchirappalli district. They speak
tamil which is their mother tongue. Nearly 14.67 per cent of Child
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Labourers have come from other neighbouring states like Kerala and
Andra Pradesh and also from Northern states like Behar and Assam.
 The economic factor of migration like the debts and financial liabilities
of parents, economic compulsion of families due to abject poverty and
failure of Agriculture in their native places constitute for 50.8 percent
of Child Labourers.
 Nearly 47.76 per cent of middleman are engaged in bringing Child
Labourers to the market. The middle men negotiate with the parents
and fix the wages. This points out that children are not seen by society
as being independent entities deserving the rights instead perceived as
being „family assets‟ and this has a strong impact on public policy.
 Majority 80.32 percent of Child Labourers discontinued their high
school education there is no gender discrepancy in discontinuing their
studies. Poverty and educational backwardness of the society are the
two important causes for discontinuing their school education
 Large families contribute 15 male child labour population. 62.69 per
cent of boys constitute higher percentage in employment when
compound 15 girls constituting 56.04 per cent in employment.
 The educational qualification of the parents are comparatively low.
The study shows that 80.66 per cent of child labour have attended only
primary school hence majority of the parents are employed in menial
jobs as coolies & workers. The occupational level is very low and this
shows that poor families often look for a bright and secure future of
their children and try to help them with such jobs in a selection where
the children are forced to seek employment basically for their survival.
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 Nearly 59.33 per cent of child labour live with their families in their
own thatched house.
 Majority of 94.81 per cent child labour earn and contribute to family
an income of Rs.6001/- to Rs.9000/- which is a significant proportion
of [ 50-75 per cent]
 Poverty and economic hard ship of the child labourers family increases
the debt and borrowing from friends, relatives, money lender etc.
 It is clear that child labours of 67.91 per cent of boys and 68.13 per
cent of girls have debt between Rs.20000/- to Rs.60000/- and above.
 It is obvious that 56.54 per cent which is more than ½ of majority of
child labourers family borrow from money lenders who charge
exorbitant rate of interest .
Working conditions of child labour:
 A large majority of child labourers 73.33 per cent work from 10 to 14
hours a day. This means that majority of children work for more that
stipulated hours which is against labour and industrial legislations.
According 15 child labour prohibition and regulation act of 1986 no
child should work for mac than 3 hours per cent. But 52.93 per cent of
child labours work for 4.15 6 hours a day after 7 P.M. the research
shows that how the Child Labourers are compelled to work in
unorganized sectors.
 A little more than ¼ th 28.67 percent of Child Labourers get rest
interval only for an hour. About 34.67 percent of Child Labourers gets
only half an hour of rest which is an detrimental to their physical and
mental growth.
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 It was found that 72 percent of Child Labourers work for all the days in
a week. They get leave only for national and religion holidays.
68percent of Child Labourers feel that they may lose their job if they
take leave.
 76 per cent of the wages of the Child Labourers is utilized by their
parents their parents. They collect the wages either fully, partly or in
advance from the employers.
 Majority of 81.33 percent of child labourers to not get any fringe
benefits from their employers except loans and advance.
 65.33 per cent of child labourers revealed that they are dissatisfied with
their wages.
 Majority 86.67 per cent of child laboureres complained about the
mismatch in the job with adult workers.
 It was found that 56.60 per cent majority of child labourers have
health hazards due to the occupation. They suffer due to stress, 48
percent due to body pain because of strenuous work 39.60 per cent
due to skin disease, 30 percent due to gastroenteritis.
 Majority 92 per cent of the employers harass and abuse child labourers.
They punish and scold them when these tiny hands commit mistakes.
The physical punishment given to child labourers is so rampant that
61.08 per cent are punished by beating and hitting with hands or by
object and 31.96 per cent are made to stay in undignified position.
They are isolated and asked to be engaged in illegal activities which
puts them to great emotional stress.

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 The customers do not find time to interact with the child labourers and
the customers are perceived by the child labourers in an indifferent
way. Nearly 68.67 per cent has revealed it.
 Majority 71.11 per cent child labourers are willing to continue their
jobs as they want to support their families economically.
 Due to health hazards 39.41 per cent about one-third of the child
labourers do not feel to continue their jobs.
 Majority of child labourers 81.33 per cent were not aware of any legal
provisions for protecting their rights. 53 per cent of child labourers feel
that they need to for child labourers union to protect their rights from
the exploitation of the employers.
 About 45.33 per cent of child labourers are prone to undesirable habits
like chewing tobacco, 15.78 per cent to smoking, 4.89 per cent to
alchocholic consumption. This retards the physical health as well as
stunts their morality wherein they are focused as vagabond instead of
national legacy of a nation in the future.
 Majority of 74 per cent of child labourers have no vision about the
future.
 Highlighting the ambition of child labourers it was found that 75 per
cent reveal that they wanted to start a business and earn money.
 A large majority 64 per cent of parents/guardians of child labourers
gave their views that the children are sent to job because of economic
hardships. The view elicited from parents/guardians is that children
willing to go for job is to support and help the family.

252
 About 60 per cent of parents/guardians is of the opinion that the
children have not suffered any major injury. Other 40 per cent stated
their children have developed injury in foot, hand, fingures and also
they had eye burn chest pain etc., 16 per cent of parents are guardians
stated that only the initial expenditure for the treatment was borne by
the employers.
 Regarding suggestions from parents/guardians for making
improvement in the working environment, 20 per cent did make some
suggestions. Majority 60 per cent suggested for making improvement
in wages, 8 per cent for better employer behavior and another 12 per
cent improvement in work premises.
 Highlighting preferences for education and work, 90 per cent of
parents/guardians consider that education is more important than work.
Nearly 10 per cent of the parents/ guardian prefer work to education
due to economic hardship, but they are aware of the educational needs
of their wards.
 Opinion of parents concerning the abolishing of child labour, it was
found that 84 per cent of parents were not infavour of abolition of child
labour and reasons stated by 66.67 per cent of parents/guardians were
the loss of child‟s earnings will lead to financial crisis in the family.
 The views given by the employers for employ child labourers were due
to the special qualities like adaptability, speed, visual acuity. Nearly 44
per cent of the employers favoured this view.

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 None of the parents/guardians has presented or produced any medical
certificate of fitness to the employers before or after getting his/her
child into the job.
 None of the employers have asked about the medical certificate of
fitness from parents/guardians or from child labourers and the initial
stage or after employing them.
 An overwhelming majority 78 per cent of employers did not favour for
the abolition of child labour. They viewed that it will have a harmful
effect on children and their families because it will increase the
problem of poverty.
 Regarding employer knowledge on various legislations concerning
child labour, 80 per cent of the employers are ignorant about the
legislative acts. Another 20 per cent had partial knowledge or
information about the different acts. Majority of the employers are not
interested in implementing the legal acts since they believe that it will
affect their business profit and prosperity.

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8.2 SUGGESTIONS
From the above study it is quite clear that children who are employed at an
early stage burn themselves out by the time they are 30 or 35 years old. So the
essentiality to tackle this issue is related to all angles as a whole and the suggestions
to the various stake holders are enlisted below.
Legislation, by itself cannot achieve the objective of eradication of child
labour. In places where child labour is rampant, the solution is unlikely to lie in
simply creating new laws or (even ensuring that labour inspectors implement the
existing laws. The adoption and implementation of laws needs to be supplemented by
social and economic measures.
Right to Education Act, 2009 should be compulsorily implemented by the
government. The extension and improvement of schools to attract and retain child
labour has been brought out by many studies to be an effective strategy to wean
children away from work force. Child labour and compulsory education cannot
coexist. Education, although will not by itself eradicate child labour but it will reduce
and discourage it. Employers will find child labour uneconomic if the children are
available for only half- a- day and if the working child becomes more visible by virtue
of being a student. Education, besides raising the capabilities and welfare of its
beneficiaries, also has a positive impact on health, mortality, fertility and family life.
What we need is an education system different+ from the conventional one – that is
properly resourced and valued that reaches the poorest children in terms of hearts and
minds that expand their horizons beyond the gate marked drudgery. The Gandhian
education system is relevant in this regard in order to provide decent relevant
education for all children. Schools must teach useful skills that are seems as relevant
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by both children and parents. They need to be more flexible and adept to local
children's circumstances. Education of this empowering kind can help to prevent a
child from being trapped by an exploitative employer. If there were no employer
prepared to exploit children, there would be no child labour.
Financial inclusion should be undertaken by the banks so as to generate more
employment opportunities for the women headed households, so that they are given
an opportunity to generate income for the family thereby reducing the dependence on
child labour who are the substitutes for generating the family income.
The most enduring steps towards eradicating child labour would be to improve
the economic conditions of the families from where the child labourers are drawn into
the work force. The provision of assistance in the form of income-generating assets
under different rural development and poverty eradication programmes needs to be
provided to such families that have a working child. An improvement in the economic
condition of the family makes ii significant difference in the attitude of parents
becoming conscious and inclined towards sending their children to schools.
A large number of programmes are implemented through NGOs. These
programmes essentially involve providing educational facilities, health care and skill
development for children. Some of the organizations are specifically aiming at
organizing children for better working condition. Several NGOs have concentrated on
developing innovative teaching methods in schools, both formal and informal, and in
making the curriculum more relevant to the needs of working children. Better
pedagogic inputs, flexible schedules to accommodate the requirements of the working
children and programmes aimed at imparting specific vocational skills have been the
main modus operandi of most voluntary groups.

256
Despite the formulation of specific policies for dealing with child labour and
the implementation of a large number of programmes by the government directly and
through NGOs in pursuance of these policies, the impact on child labour in the
country has been minimal. The basic reason why the policies and the programmes
adopted in the country by the government as well as by most NGOs have failed to
create much impact on child labour situation is that they are simply not designed to do
so. A closer look at the premise on which these policies and programmes are based
reveals that its very nature leads to a situation where no impact on child labour is
possible. The basic premises on which all these policies and programmes are based is
the poverty argument. In its simplest form, this states that households especially those
belonging to the lower economic strata of society cannot survive unless the children
in the family also work.
Child labour is, therefore, is an inevitable consequence of economic forces
operating in a family Any effort to withdraw a child from the workforce without
adequately rising the economic status of the child's family would only lead to further
economic stress for the family. Therefore, the best way to deal with child labour is to
stimulate rapid and broad-reaching economic expansion that will create ample adult
employment, rendering child work superfluous. This approach can be thought of as
the "economic development" route to child labour abolition/regulation. But it does not
necessarily follow that economic prosperity is a necessary precondition for starting to
curb the abuse of child workers. Because economic development takes a long time,
during which many young lives can be wasted. There is no guarantee that increase in
per capita GNP automatically reduces child labour. Therefore, much depends on the
distribution of income; only economic policies that enhance the prosperity of the
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poorer section of the population are likely to have much impact on child labour. At
the same time substantial economic progress is the most fundamental cure for child
labour problems, additional interim interventions are also required until acceptable
levels of prosperity and income equality have been reached.
Thus, besides legislative measures, there is an urgent need to give importance
to the supportive measures such as the removal of poverty and unemployment.
Income generation activities both wage and self-employment projects like Integrated
Rural Development Programme (IRDP), Jawahar Rojgar Yojana (JRY), and
Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) in its modern versions like Swarna Jayanthi
Sawrozgar Yojana and Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana are some of the strategies
which can have some impact on the incidence of child labour, if focused on the
families, particularly those having child workers. Projects like support for micro
enterprises, credit schemes, and employment training for parents will also help in
mitigation of child labour problem. They are designed to improve the economic
situation of families and communities, and thus make child labour less necessary.
Child labour is intimately connected with non-schooling of children.
Exploitation of child labourers is the consequence of social inequality, attitude of the
privileged classes and lack of public involvement in the protection of basic
entitlement. Lack of' parental motivation and high opportunity cost of schooling also
contribute to aggravation of the problem of child labour. Compulsory education as a
means to eliminate child labour depends significantly on the social security
arrangements necessary to do away with the need for child labour.
Thus the problem of child labour cannot be solved simply by introducing some
administrative measures like introduction of compulsory free education, mid-day meal

258
etc. along with prohibition of the use of child labour. The root cause of the entire
problem is poverty and is related to human deprivation. Successful implementation of
social sector reforms can only ensure elimination of the problem of child labour. As
such, it is the duty of the sovereign state as a member of the community of civilized
nations to intervene decisively to stamp out this evil irrespective of the efforts and
costs involved. As a multidimensional problem, a multidimensional approach is
necessary. Combined efforts of all including the Government, the politicians, policy
makers, parents, NGOs, and the international organizations may be of immense help
for achieving success in this task of social reconstruction and development.
The coverage by media of child labour will increase awareness and
consciousness amongst policy makers and others; the parents of child workers
themselves are often unaware of the health hazards their children face and educating
them about this with the help of audio-visual media is a priority. Voluntary effort by
Non-Governmental Organizations can help in advocacy of the cause by bringing
pressure upon the system to correct itself.
Statutory Commission on Child Labour needs to be established. Such a
Commission should have a clear mandate to make field visits and the power to
summon witnesses, the funds to commission research, and the autonomy to live up to
its mandate. There should be a requirement that the Commission‟s Reports be placed
before the Parliament so that their findings and recommendations are given due
weight. Hopefully, such a Commission will bring to the forefront of public
consciousness the exploitation of child labour and thereby provoke discussion and
debate as an impetus for change.

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The findings show that it is possible to eliminate child labour from
Trichirappalli within a definite time frame if tile policy makers have strong political
and social commitment. The study suggests the following strategy to achieve this
objective.
1. Formulation of' an action plan based on a campaign approach as was done
in the case of total literacy campaign.
2. Constitution of a child labour elimination authority under the chairmanship
of the Chief Minister.
3. Activate the Child Labour Rehabilitation cum Welfare Societies registered
in the district.
4. Pool the resources available under various departments like Labour, Social
Welfare, Education and UN agencies like ILO-IPEC and UNICEF.
5. Involve employers' organizations and trade unions, NGOs and media.
6. Enact a State law to abolish child labour in all its forms.
7. The government and voluntary organizations should take some steps to
make children stay back in their studies.
8. Support child workers organization along with their demand for more
protection and rights in the work place. If children's wages are raised to the level of
adults it will remove one of the main incentives to employ children.
9. Gather more information on child labour. More research is needed into the
invisible areas of child labour.
10. Systematic counselling services to the parents of child labourers is a
possible and realistic solution to child labour.

260
11. The state shall take the issue of child labour as an agenda in the people's
participation programme.
8.3 CONCLUSION
It is true that child labour cannot be washed away with a magic wand. Of
course, normal growth and development of children can be protected, absolute
poverty overcome, population growth slowed down and environment deterioration
arrested. For decades now, this has not been a question of possibilities but of
priorities. Whatever be the particular cause, be it democracy or human rights,
development or equality, gender equality or environmental protection, the growth,
development and education of the children is central to long term success. If we set
time-bound goals and follow, of course, with the continuing assistance of ILO and
UNICEF, it is possible to eliminate the exploitative child labour within our lifetime
.In conclusion, the problem of child labour is a socio-economic problem and not a
matter that can be settled by mere legislation, better enactment of laws and by
imposition of heavy penalties. Therefore, imposing a complete ban on child labour
without the attendant economic incentives would not be effective and would be
counterproductive it is therefore, essential to tackle this issue simultaneously from all
related angles so that as a whole the impact is visible and useful. . It is hoped that this
type of study and the suggestions contained therein will be useful for eliminating child
labour. If the study could be useful to the policy makers for making such an attempt, the
researcher shall feel that she is amply rewarded.

261
APPENDICES
Child Labourers in Different Occupations
SOME CASE STUDIES
In the preceding chapters, socio-economic profile and working conditions of
children working in various occupations have been provided. However it is felt that
the fragmented and sub-divided description fails to give a comprehensive account of
any of the occupations. Hence to overcome this limitation a few case studies of child
labourers engaged in the occupations are selected as samples and presented here.
Child Labourer in a Food Processing Unit
Mariappan
Mariappan , a boy of 11 years old, works in a bakery . He has studied up to
fifth standard. Mariappan had to leave his studies due to the sudden death of his father
a year ago. His uncle and grandparents played a foul game and did not give their share
of property to him and his mother. They compelled his mother to get married to one
of their relatives, who is also a widower. Mariappan also has two brothers. He is the
eldest. The family resides in a pucca house. His stepfather is an alcoholic and always
beats him and his brothers. He is an irresponsible person who does not support the
family. Mariappan strongly believes that his stepfather has a key role in the death of
his father.
Mariappan joined this bakery with the help of a distant relative who works in
the same bakery. Mariappan has to work there for more than 12 hours a day. The
work is so hazardous that he has to work in high temperature. There are five other
child labourers and seven adult workers in this unit. He is works here for the last 7
months. He is gets a salary of Rs. 1800 per month. After his migration from his
village, he did not visit his family. Last month he gave Rs. 3000 to his mother through
262
his relative. He told that during work, he has to work like a machine and the exposure
to flour dust causes respiratory problems. The work is very tiresome and he suffers
from physical and psychological fatigue. "I cannot even manage to stand-up in the
morning. My whole body aches, but what to do; it is my fate; there is no holiday or
leisure hours as such for me.”
Child Labourer in a Hotel
Karthikeyan
Karthikeyan.M., is a 14 year old boy who works in a hotel located at the heart
of Thiruchirappalli town, for the last two years. He belongs to a scheduled caste
community (Pallan). His father is a violent alcoholic who recently ran away from
home. His family had migrated from Sanarpatti to Dindigul few years back. As they
were not able to find any means to live in Dindigul, they migrated to Tiruchirappalli
in search of a job. Karthikeyan had one brother and two sisters. As his father was not
satisfied with any job, he was unable to stick to one job. So, the responsibility of
looking after the family fell on his mother. Karthikeyan and his siblings had to help
their mother in running the family. Karthikeyan sobbingly says, “My father used to
beat us, if we don‟t bring money home after working. But now he has stopped coming
home. We don‟t know where he lives”. He continues, “As we went on shifting our
house, I was unable to attend school. I was also very poor in studies. So, I stopped my
studies at the age of 10 and joined a packing unit at Dindigul. There I got only Rs. 40
a day. When I was 12, I migrated to Tiruchirappalli and joined this hotel with the help
of my neighbours who work here. I get up at 5.30 a.m. and start my work. There are
18 workers in this hotel, 12adult workers and 6 child workers. All are immigrants
from various villages in Tamil Nadu. We work on a shift basis from 5.30 a.m. to 2
p.m. and 2 p.m. to 10 p.m. We the child workers are engaged in keeping the premises
263
neat and clean, sweeping and wiping the floor, washing plates, crockery and dishes,
cutting vegetables, fetching water etc. Some of us assist the cooks. Rarely we are
asked to give water to the customers”.
Karthikeyan has a mixed feeling with regard to working at a young age. He
says, “I don‟t have any regrets for working at this age. Because I am getting a salary
of Rs, 1, 500 per month plus free boarding and lodging. Where will I go for food if I
don‟t work? I am able to help my sick mother with my salary and the Pongal bonus.
So I feel happy that I am working .I am happy here, because my friends are working
here and the owner is very kind to me and allows us to watch movies on Sundays.
Only once he beat me for my minor mistake. I was not able to get up from bed for
several days. I don‟t want to give up the job because of my family circumstances.”
Pathetically he says, “I want to go to school. I want to own a hotel like my owner, but
how can I? I don't drink or take drugs. Actually we feel sad that we are working. But
we will feel sadder if you try to stop us working”.
Child Labourer in a Shop
Radha Krishnan
Radha Krishnan is a 13 year old child labourer. He lost his father at the age of
5. He was brought up by his maternal uncle. He belongs to a landless backward caste
(Yadava) family. His mother and two sisters are daily wage earners. They live in
Rajakapatti. One of the brothers of Radha Krishnan works in a hotel in Dindigul.
Radha Krishnan was working as a domestic servant for a rich land owner near his
native village for a monthly salary of Rs. 500 plus two meals a day. He had to look
after the cattle and assist in farm work under rain or shine. He worked from 7 a.m. to
7 p.m. with about a couple of hour's break at noon. But during peak agricultural
seasons the recess was reduced to only half an hour. The long and tedious hours of
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work adversely affected his health and thus he changed his work and migrated to
Tiruchirapalli with the help of his friends and found out a job in a printing unit for a
daily wage of Rs.80. He worked there for seven months. His payment there was
irregular and the working condition was not good. Therefore he quit the job and came
to this teashop where he works at night and earns Rs. 90 per day and three times food.
During daytime he has no work. He has to work from 6 p.m. to 7 a.m. He lives with
the employer. He strives for a better job with better wages. His ambition in life is to
become a big trader. At present he has a saving of Rs. 3,000. He does not want to do
this job for a long period.
Child Labourer in a Printing Unit
Amutha
Amutha, is a 14-year-old girl who works in a printing unit. In addition to her there are
three more children and four adult workers in the unit. Out of the four adult workers
two were once child labourers in the same unit. Amutha was sent to the unit two years
back by her parents. She joined the job when she was in the fifth standard. Her parents
were washer men. Amutha has three sisters and she is the youngest. At the time of
the marriage of the eldest sister her parents borrowed money from the employer. Now
she works in this unit without any salary. The work allotted to her is cutting and
binding. The work is arranged on the basis of shifts especially in busy season. Amutha
has to work for more than 10 hours. She gets only one day as a holiday in a week.
With tears welling up in her eyes, she says, “My owner is very rough towards us -
children. She beats us if we don‟t cut the sheets properly. By pressing the heavy paper
cutter, our fingers are all bruised and cut. I have chronic back and neck pain. Where
will I go for money for taking treatment? Though every day, I cry, what can I do? I
want to study but who will send me to school?”

265
Child Labourer in a Metal Industry
Sakthivel
Sakthivel is a 10-year-old boy. He belongs to a scheduled caste (Pallan)
community. His family consists of parents, three sisters and two younger brothers. His
father is a cobbler and his mother works as a domestic servant. Sakthivel has studied
up to third standard and left his studies, as his father was not in a position to bear the
school expenses. Sakthivel is not interested in continuing his studies because his
teacher used to beat him regularly.
Sakthivel worked as an unskilled labourer in a metal industry with the help of
a relative who is also a child labourer who worked in the same unit. Sakthivel's friend
Murugan managed to get a job for him. Sakthivel has to work for 10 to 12 hours a day
from 8 am to 9 pm. He gets a salary of Rs. 1500 per month. He says, “I am working
in a small room which does not have any windows. I am engaged in sorting, grinding,
cutting, melting and mixing of raw materials. Most of the time, I feel suffocated
because of the excess heat and the smoke coming out of melting the metal.”
Child Labourer in a Construction Work
Murugan
Murugan is a 13-year-old boy. His father, Muthaiya, works in a rice mill. He is
a drunkard and deserted his family when Murugan was in his fourth standard.
Murugan is the eldest son of his family. He has one sister and a brother. His mother
sells vegetables and edibles in the market near his house. Due to the financial
difficulties and poverty of the family Murugan stopped his studies and engaged
himself in rag picking. As the income from it was very meagre, he lost interest in rag
picking.
266
After three months of rag picking, Murugan got a job in a construction
worksite. The employer offered Rs. 1800 as monthly salary and accommodation
within the construction site. He has to sweep the sand, cure the building and fetch
water from the public tap. Now Murugan stays along with his contractor. Though he
has to work in the hot sun he feels very happy to sleep at night in the open air. With
lots of hope in his eyes, he says, “One day I too will become like my contractor”.
Child Labourer in a Gem Cutting Unit
Thulasi
Thulasi is a 12-year-old girl who works in a gem-cutting unit. There are three adults
and two other child labourers aged 14 and 13 employed in the unit. Thulasi gets Rs.
1200 per month. She works in this unit for the last two years. In addition to her
wages, she is given a daily allowance of Rs.10. She is enjoys her Sundays as it is a
holiday. The employer gave five days of leave for the previous Deepawali. The
employer is very cordial to her and meets medical expenses whenever she fell sick.
She is satisfied with the present work and likes to continue this job.
Child Labourer in a Readymade Garment Unit
Kumari
Kumari is a 12-year-old girl who has studied up to fourth standard. Her father
and brother were agricultural labourers. They took her out of school after her mother
died. Her mother had been an agricultural coolie and the family forced Kumari to
work to compensate her mother‟s income. Her brother sent her to a handloom cottage
industry with a view to get more income. But after four months of work in that
industry, Kumari left that job as it was not remunerative. She joined this readymade
garment-tailoring unit with the help of her friend. She has been working here for the
last I0 months. She gets Rs 2400 as wages per month. She has to work only during
267
the day time (ie) from 9 am to 5 pm. Her employer treats her as his own child. Kumari
is always happy in doing this job. She does not consider the job as a tedious task.
Child Labourer in an Auto Workshop
Raja
Raja is a twelve-year-old boy working in an auto workshop near the railway
station. He left his family when he was studying in the seventh standard. He has two
brothers and one sister. His father is a blacksmith engaged in making knives and
selling them in the market. His father and mother used to quarrel continuously and
Raja was beaten up quite often by his father. Hence, Raja ran away from home and
migrated to Tiruchirapalli with the help of a friend. With the help of his friend, he got
the job in a road side restaurant.
Raja had to wake up nearly two hours before sunrise, put fire to the oven,
wash the utensils, cups and plates, sweep the floor and arrange the furniture. Then he
had to assist in the kitchen to prepare breakfast. After the preparation of the breakfast
he had to clean the plates used by the customers. He got rest only when the stream of
customers was broken at a point. If there was interval, hardly there was any place to
rest. He had to serve the customers and perform varieties of chores until 11p.m. There
was hardly any sleeping place provided to him. Sometimes he slept on the corner
floor of the restaurant and sometimes outside the restaurant. For the purpose of bath
and latrine, he had to go outside. He had free time only once in a week. He was
getting a salary of Rs. 1400 per month. But he gave nothing to his family. The long
and tedious hours of work adversely affected his health and thus he changed his work
with the help of his friends and found a job in an auto workshop. He works here for
the past seven months. His ambition is to become an auto consultant.

268
Child Labourer in a Manufacturing Unit of Slate Pencil
Kalaiselvi
Kalaiselvi is a fourteen-year-old girl who works in a manufacturing unit of
slate pencil. Her parents are rag pickers and they were staying near Musiri. Kalaiselvi
has been working in this unit for the last 4 years. She entered this unit at the age of
ten. She says, "This is my third working place. I quit my previous jobs in food
processing units because of the torturous behaviour of my employers. When they
offered me job, they promised that they would give me high wages. But when it came
to the payment, they paid very little. As my parents are illiterates and are very poor,
they can‟t question my employers. Also I had to work there for more than 12 hours a
day without any rest. Therefore I left the job and entered into rag picking. I did that
for 6 months. But that was also a problematic job. So I gave up that too. I got this job
with the help of my friend. The working condition here is comparatively good.
Therefore, I like to continue here. Though the owner is not good, my co- workers are
kind towards me. I have decided not leave this job. I will have to adjust so as to earn
and save money to meet my marriage expense.
The case studies stated above show that child labour is a combination of a
number of factors: poverty, illiteracy and ignorance of parents, large family,
migration, indebtedness and social attitudes, and employer's preference for hiring
children. In all the cases studied, it is seen that economic compulsion is a dominant
factor forcing children to enter into labour market. The study also reveals that lack of
parental motivation and high opportunity cost of schooling also contributes to the
aggravation of child labour. Data support the argument that the level of economic
development, the level of social expenditure by the state, family culture and the phase
of demographic transition determine the magnitude of child labour. Almost all the
269
cases studied contribute significantly to their family income. Thus the non-availability
of adequate employment opportunities followed by persistence of low wages
motivated the parents to send the children for work.
The employers prefer to substitute child worker for adult ones as the former
can be easily handled, are less demanding and do not protest to perform odd jobs.
Further non-availability of adult workers for certain jobs in the unorganized sector
motivates the employers to employ cheaply available child workers. This reflects that
child labour cannot be abolished as long as there is wide-spread poverty, especially in
the rural areas. Hence, eradication of' poverty by implementing various programmes
and development of consciousness among people about the social evil need to be
emphasized.
In conclusion, it can be stated that the problem of child labour is a socio-
economic one and not a matter that can be settled by mere legislation, better
enactment of laws and by imposition of heavy penalties. Imposing a complete ban on
child labour without removing the causes of it would be a futile effort. It is therefore,
essential to tackle this issue simultaneously from all related angles so that the result is
visible and useful.

i
APPENDIX
CHILD LABOUR IN THE UNORGANISED SECTOR IN
TIRUCHIRAPPALLI
Interview Schedule
1) Name of the Revenue Division :
2) Age of the respondent :
3) Gender :
4) Religion :
a) Hindu b) Muslim c) Christian
5) Caste :
a) FC b) BC c) SC / ST
6) Native Residence :
a) Rural b) Semi Urban c) Urban
7) Reasons for Migration
Debts and financial liabilities of

parents
Economic compulsion of families
To earn money for themselves
Better earning
To get better jobs
To learn skills
Social stigmatism and unacceptability
To follow family
Discouraging behaviour of parents
Disinterest in studies
Run away to be independent
8) Source of Employment :
a) Through middlemen b) Through friends
b) Along with parents d) Others

ii
9) Reasons for Employment :
a) Poverty b) Forced by Parents c) Death of Father
d) Death of Mother e) Big size family f) Ill-treated by parents
g) Family conflict h) Lack of facility for studying
i) To earn money and study j) Others
10) Level of Education :
a)Illiterate b) Primary c) Middle
11) Presence of Parents :
a)Only father alive b) Only mother alive c)Both alive d) Both dead
12) Size of Family :
a)Below 4 b) 4 to 6 c) 7 to 9 d) Above 9
13) Educational Level of Parents :
Sl.No. Educational Level Father Mother

1 Illiterate
2 Primary
3 Middle
4 Secondary
14) Occupation of Parents :
Sl.No. Educational Level Father Mother

1 Agricultural worker
2 Factory worker
3 Construction
4 Coolie
5 Household labour
6 Service and commercial
establishment
7 Self employed
8 Unemployed
9 Others
iii
15) Ownership of House :
Sl.No. Ownership/Type Concrete Tiled Thatched
1 Own house
2 Rented house
3 Puramboke
16) Amenities Available in House :
Sl.No. Amenities Available Not Available

1 Water
2 Gas
3 Electricity
4 Latrine
5 Electrical Fittings
17) Monthly Income of the Respondents :
a)Up to Rs. 1000 b)Rs 1000- Rs.1500
c) Rs.1500-Rs.2000 d)Rs. 2000-Rs.2500 e)Rs.2500 and above
18) Monthly Family Income :
a)Up to Rs. 3,000 b)Rs. 3001 to Rs. 6000
c)Rs . 6001 to Rs. 9000 d)Rs.9001 toRs. 12000 e) Rs.12000 and above
19) Child Labourers Contribution to family income
a) upto 25 per cent b) 25 – 50 per cent c)50 – 75 per cent
d) 75 – 100 per cent
20) Debts of households :
a) No debt b) Up to 20000 c)Rs. 20001 –Rs.4 0000
d) Rs.40001 –Rs60000 e) Rs.60000 and above
21) Sources of Borrowing :

iv
a) Banks and Co-operatives b) Employers
c) Money lenders d) Friends and Relatives e) No borrowing
22) Purpose of Loan :
a) House construction b) Agriculture c) Marriage
d)Family expenses e) Medical treatment f) Education
g) Festival h) Others
23) Working Hours :
a)Below 8 hours b) 8 to 10 hours c) 10 to 12 hours
d)12 to 14 hours e) Above 14 hours
24) Working at Night :
a)Yes b) No
25) Working hours in Night Sift :
a)2 hours b) 2 to 4 hours c) 4 to 6 hours d) Above 6 hours
26) Rest Interval during Work :
a) No rest interval b) No fixed interval c) Half an hour only
d) One hour only e) Two hours and more
27) Number of Working Days per Week :
a)7 days b) 6 days c) Others
26)Observence of holidays:
a)festivals b)National and Religious holidays C)Others
28) Availability of Leave in Need :
a) Often b) Sometimes c) Rarely
29) Opinion about intensity of work
a)very hard b)not very hard

v
30) Mode of Payment of Wages :
a)Dailyb) Weekly c) Monthly d) Yearly
e)Employer‟s conveniences
31) Mode of Receiving Wages :
a)Fully received by the worker b) Fully received by parents
c)Partly hand over to parents d) Parents get advance
32) Fringe Benefits :
a)Getting Benefits b) Not Getting
33) Level of Satisfaction on wages :
a)dissatisfied b)satisfied c)very much satisfied
34) Opinion about wages :
a) Less wages for less work b) Fair wage for normal work
c)low wages for more work
35) Expectation about amount of work and wage :
a)Less work less wages b)Less work for the present wages
c)Same work more wages
36) Problems confronted :
a) Strenuous work b) Heavy lifting of' loads
c)Over work to the extent of 10 hours a day d) Irregular hours of food
e)Inadequate sleep f) Low wages
g) Ill treatment h)Lack of safety measures i) Lack of toilet facilities
j)Cramped sleeping space
37) Experience of Health Problems :
a)Body pain b)Skin diseases c) Asthma d) Allergic

vi
e)Heart ailment f) Burns on heat and feet g) Permanent rashes and
itches h)Stress i) Boils and eruption
k) Gastric enteritis
38) Employer-Employee Relationship :
a)Very cordial b)Cordial c) Strict
d) Very strict e) Very harsh
39) Approach of the adult workers :
a)Very cordial b)Cordial c) strict d)indifferent e)harsh
40) Approach of the Employers :
a)Give advice b) Punish c) Scold
41) Approach of the Employers when you committed mistakes:
a) Give advice b) Punish c) Scold
42) Experience of Physical Punishment :
a)Beating b) Burning c) others
43) Experience of emotional abuse :
a) Scolding b) Terrorizing c) others
44) Perception on the attitude of employers :
a)Favourable b) Indifferent c) Unfavourable
45) Experience from customers :
a) Good b) Bad c) No specific experience
46) Perception on the attitude of customers :
a)Favourable b) Unfavourable c) Indifferent
47) Willingness to continue working as child labourers:
a)like to continue b)don‟t like to continue

vii
48) Reasons for continuing to work as child labourers:
a)Help himself and family economically b)gain experience
c)to keep away from bad company d)lack of interest to go to school
49) Reasons for not continuing to work as child labourers:
a)Health affected b)Bad behaviour of the employer
c)like to go to school d)no future prospects
50) Awareness of legal provisions :
a)Minimum Age b)Working hours c) No awareness
51) Alternatives required by child labourers :
a)Financial help b) Rehabilitation c) Educational facilities
52) Opinion on forming union :
a)Necessary b) Not necessary c) No response
53) Involvement of bad habits :
a)Chewing of tobacco b) Smoking c) Alcohol d) No undesirable habit
49)Ambition of child labourers:
a)to start a business b)to earn more money c)to be educated well
d)to have comfortable living e)to let fortune decide
54) Perceptions about future :
a)Think often b) Think occasionally c) Not thought at all

viii
Parents/Guardians Opinion regarding Child Labour
1. Factors responsible for taking up the present job
1. Personal and natural reasons
2. Economic hardship
3. Social and customary reasons
4. Educational backwardness
5. Career advancement
2. Source of getting the present job
1. Middlemen
2. Relatives/acquaintance/friends
3. Employers invitation
4. Children own initiative
3. Children‟s willingness for the job
1. Child likes to help the family
2. Child likes to become a skilled worker
3. Child does not like the job
4.Parents/Guardians visit to the place of work of their children
1. Not visited
2. Working with the Parents/Siblings

3. Visiting regularly on a fixed day
4. Visiting only on wage day
5. Visiting irregularly
5. Work Environment
1. No change
2. Physical weakness
3. Various other health problems
ix
6.Injuries during the work
1. No injuries reported
2. Injured foot, hand, finger
3. Burns and boils
4. Back pain , knee pain, eye burnt
5. Chest pain
7.Responses of parents/guardians indicating relief produced by employers during
injuries
1. No such experience
2. Partial medical help
3. Leave with pay medical relief
8. Descried change in work environment and satisfaction
1. Improvement in wages
2. Better employer/ colleague behavior
3. Improvement in physical facilities
4. NA/DK
9. Perception of child labour
1. Important
2. Not so important
10. Preference to work and or Education
1. Education
2. Work
3. NA/DK
x
11. Abolition of Child Labour
1. Yes
2. No
12. Reasons against abolition of Child Labour
1. Pick up bad habits
2. Loss of child‟s earnings will lead to financial crises in the family
3. Child will become a financial burden
4. NA/DK
xi
Employer’s opinion regarding child labour
1. Motivation of employing children

1. Helping poverty stricken families
2. Children have special qualities
3. Religion and sentimental consideration
4. Caste and Community consideration
2. Recruitment
1. Request of the child labour
2. Middlemen
3. Parents/ friends/ Relatives
4. No specific method
3. Special qualification for recruitment
1. Job and skill aptitude
2. Personal qualities
3. No special qualification
4. Employer‟s opinion an abolition of child labour
1. Yes
2. No
5.Employers and legislation concerning child labour
1. Aware
2. Not aware
6. Difficulties experienced in the implementation of legislation
1. Labour in disguised farm
2. Shift from regular wage wake to piece rate wage
3. Making them work in the unit in residential area
4. Unethical activities
5. No difficulty
xii
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Child Labour in Tiruchirappalli's Unorganised Sector

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A STUDY ON CHILD LABOUR IN THE UNORGANISED

SECTOR IN TIRUCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT,

THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN COMMERCE

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

POST GRADUATE AND RESEARCH DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

This is to certify that the thesis “A STUDY ON CHILD LABOUR IN THE

UNORGANISED SECTOR IN TIRUCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT, TAMILNADU ”

submitted to Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli is a bonafide record of the research

Date: (Dr.(Mrs).S.M.PUSHPA RANI

carried out by me under the guidance and supervision of

Dr.(Mrs).S.M.PUSHPA RANI, M.Com., M.Phil., Ph.D., Associate Professor in

Commerce, Holy Cross College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli. This work has

at any other university.

(MARY JOSEPHINE ISABELLA)

I record my deep sense of gratitude and profound thanks to

Dr.(Mrs).S.M.Pushpa Rani, M.Com., M.Phil., Ph.D., Associate Professor in

I whole heartedly thank Dr. A.Venkatachalam, Associate Professor,

not have materialised but for his inspiring support.

I am very much grateful to the authorities of Bharathidasan University for

Dr.(Sr).Sagayam, Secretary, Dr.(Sr).Jesuin Francis, Principal and Sr.Christina

Bridget, Head of the Department of Commerce, Holy Cross College(Autonomous)

Trichy, for providing me an opportunity to carry out my research in this esteemed

I thank Dr. (Mrs).D.Christy Selvarani, Associate Professor in Commerce,

suggestions as a Doctoral Committee member.

I acknowledge my gratefulness to former principals Rev.Dr.(Sr.)Rosy,

Rev.Dr.(Sr.)Anne Xavier and Rev.Dr.(Sr.)Sarguna, Dr.(Mrs.) Valsamma Antony,

(Autonomous), Trichy, for their blessings and constant support.

Management of Parvathy‟s Arts and Science collge, Dindigul, Dr.R.Chakkaravarthy,

Associate Professor, Department of English ,G.T.N.Arts College,Dindigul for their

My Profound thanks to Mrs.M.Suganthi, Assistant Professor, Department of

timely help in framing and shaping the thesis in a concrete way.

No word would suffice to express my deep sense of gratitude to Dr.N. Shaik

Mohamed, Associate Professor, Department of Commerce, Jamal Mohamed College,

Trichy, for his timely help in the completion of this research.

I thank Mrs.A.Baby, project co-ordinator, Mr. M.Sivasubramanian, who

have helped me in collecting data and information at various levels.

I also thank the library authorities of Holy Cross College (Autonomous),

Trichy, St.Joseph‟s College (Autonomous), Trichy, Bharathidasan University,

Madurai Kamaraj University for proving the reference materials.

execution and printing of the thesis.

On a personal note, I appreciate the help rendered by my Parents and my

my absence during the period of research with understanding.

I NATURE AND DESIGN OF THE STUDY 1

III PROFILE OF TIRUCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT 64

IV CHILD LABOUR – A REVIEW 82

V SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OF THE 98

VI WORKING CONDITIONS OF CHILD 147

VII DIMENSION OF CHILD LABOUR 220

VIII FINDINGS, SUGGESTIONS AND CONCLUSION 247

1.1 SAMPLE FRAME – CHILD LABOURERS 17

3.1 CENSUS OF INDIA 2011 TAMIL NADU POPULATION DATA 66

3.2 RELIGIONWISE CLASSIFICATION OF POPULATION IN 69

3.3 LITERACY LEVEL IN TIRUCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT 72

3.4 OCCUPATIONAL PATTERN OF TIRUCHIRAPPALLI 73

3.5 BANKS IN TIRUCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT 74

3.6 DETAILS OF SOURCES OF IRRIGATION IN 77

3.7 DETAILS OF REGISTERED INDUSTRIAL UNITS IN 79

4.1 PERCENTAGE OF CHILDREN IN TOTAL POPULATION (IN 83

4.2 CHILD POPULATION ACROSS THE STATES/UNION 84

4.3 STATE-WISE DISTRIBUTION OF WORKING CHILDREN IN 86

4.4 SECTOR-WISE DISTRIBUTION OF CHILD LABOURERS IN 93