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Environment

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Environment

Table of Contents
Chapter: 1...................................................................................................................................... 4
Biodiversity ................................................................................................................................ 4
Chapter: 2...................................................................................................................................... 9
Biodiversity Hot Spot ................................................................................................................ 9
Chapter: 3.................................................................................................................................... 13
Wetland, Mangrove & Coral Reef .......................................................................................... 13
Chapter: 4.................................................................................................................................... 20
Threats to biodiversity ............................................................................................................ 20
Chapter: 5.................................................................................................................................... 25
Biodiversity Conservation Part-1............................................................................................ 25
Chapter: 6.................................................................................................................................... 29
Biodiversity Conservation Part-2............................................................................................ 29
Chapter: 7.................................................................................................................................... 36
Ecosystem Part- 1 .................................................................................................................... 36
Chapter: 8.................................................................................................................................... 43
Ecosystem Part- 2 .................................................................................................................... 43
Chapter: 9.................................................................................................................................... 49
Ecosystem Part- 3 .................................................................................................................... 49
Chapter: 10.................................................................................................................................. 57
Ecosystem Part- 4 .................................................................................................................... 57
Chapter: 11.................................................................................................................................. 62
Conservation Efforts ............................................................................................................... 62
Chapter: 12.................................................................................................................................. 73
International Conventions....................................................................................................... 73
Chapter: 13.................................................................................................................................. 78
Climate Change Part- 1 ........................................................................................................... 78
Chapter: 14.................................................................................................................................. 86
Climate Change Part- 2 ........................................................................................................... 86
Chapter: 15.................................................................................................................................. 91
Environmental Acts & Policies ............................................................................................... 91
Chapter: 16.................................................................................................................................. 97
Environmental Pollution Part- 1 ............................................................................................. 97

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Chapter: 17................................................................................................................................ 104
Environmental Pollution Part- 2 ........................................................................................... 104
Chapter: 18................................................................................................................................ 114
Environmental Pollution Part- 3 ........................................................................................... 114
Chapter: 19................................................................................................................................ 122
Renewable Energy Resources Part- 1 ................................................................................... 122
Chapter: 20................................................................................................................................ 130
Renewable Energy Resources Part- 2 ................................................................................... 130
Chapter: 21................................................................................................................................ 136
Renewable Energy Resources Part- 3 ................................................................................... 136

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Chapter: 1
Biodiversity

 Biodiversity:
o Biodiversity Biological diversity
o United Nations Earth Summit (1992)
o “The variability among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine
and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this
includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems”.
o “Biodiversity or Biological diversity includes all the different plants, animals and
microorganisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystems of which they form a part”.
o “With just 2.4% of the land area, India accounts for nearly 7% of the recorded species
even while supporting almost 18% of human population”.

 Levels of Biodiversity:
Biodiversity is considered to exist at three levels:
o Genetic diversity
o Species diversity
o Ecosystem/ Community diversity

 Genetic Diversity:
o Genetic diversity allows species to adapt to changing environments.
o It is concerned with the variation in genes within a particular species.
o The genetic diversity gives us beautiful butterflies, roses, parakeets or coral in a myriad
hues, shapes and sizes.
o This diversity aims to ensure that some species survive drastic changes and thus carry on
desirable genes.

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 Species diversity:
o It refers to the variety of living organisms on earth.
o Species differ from one another, markedly in their genetic makeup, do not inter-breed in
nature.
o It is the ratio of one species population over total number of organisms across all species
in the given biome.
o 'Zero' would be infinite diversity, and ‘one‘represents only one species present.

 Ecosystem/ Community diversity:


o Each species adapts itself to a particular kind of environment.
o A habitat is the cumulative factor of the climate, vegetation and geography of a region.
o There are several kinds of habitats around the world. Corals, grasslands, wetland, desert,
mangrove and tropical rain forests are examples of ecosystems.
o As the environment changes, species best adapted to that environment becomes
predominant. Thus the variety or diversity of species in the ecosystem is influenced by
the nature of the ecosystem.
o This refers to the different types of habitats.
o A habitat is the cumulative factor of the climate

 Measurement of Biodiversity:
o Diversity is a single statistic in which the number of species richness and evenness are
compounded.
o Biodiversity is measured by two major components;
 species richness
 species evenness

 Species Richness
It is the measure of number of species found in a community.
 Alpha diversity- It refers to the diversity within a particular area or ecosystem.
 Beta diversity- It is a comparison of diversity between ecosystems.
 Gamma diversity- It is a measure of the overall diversity for the different ecosystems
within a region.

 Species evenness:
o It measures the proportion of species at a given site, e.g. low evenness indicates that a
few species dominate the site.

 Services provided by Biodiversity:


o Ecosystem services
o Biological services

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o Social services
 Ecosystem services:
o Protection of water resources
o Soils formation and protection
o Nutrient storage and recycling
o Pollution breakdown and absorption
o Contribution to climate stability
o Maintenance of ecosystems
o Recovery from unpredictable events

 Biological services:
o Food
o Medicinal resources and pharmaceutical drugs
o Wood products
o Ornamental plants
o Breeding stocks, population reservoirs
o Future resources
o Diversity in genes, species and ecosystems

 Social services:
o Research, education and monitoring
o Recreation and tourism
o Cultural values

 Causes for Biodiversity Loss:


o Natural causes
o Man-Made causes

 Natural Causes:
o Floods,
o Earthquakes,
o Landslides,
o Rivalry among species,
o Lack of pollination and diseases

 Man-Made causes:
o Habitat destruction
o Uncontrolled commercial exploitation
o Hunting & poaching
o Conversion of rich bio-diversity site for human settlement and industrial development

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o Extension of agriculture
o Pollution
o Filling up of wetlands
o Destruction of coastal areas

 Biodiversity conservation:
o A reservoir of wild animals and plants is preserved, thus enabling them to be introduced,
if need be, in the surrounding areas.
o Conservation of biological diversity leads to conservation of essential ecological
diversity to preserve the continuity of food chains.
o The genetic diversity of plants and animals is preserved.
o It ensures the sustainable utilization of life support systems on earth.
o Biodiversity conservation assures sustainable utilization of potential resources.
o It provides a vast knowledge of potential use to the community.

 Modes of Conservation:
o Ex-situ conservation: Conserving biodiversity outside the areas where they naturally
occur is known as ex-situ conservation.
 Seed banks, botanical, horticultural and recreational gardens are important centers for
ex-situ conservation.
o In-situ conservation: Conserving the animals and plants in their natural habitats is
known as in-situ conservation. The established natural habitats are;
 National parks
 Sanctuaries
 Biosphere reserves and
 Reserved forests
 Protected forests
 Nature reserves

 Botanical garden:
o Botanical garden refers to the scientifically planned collection of living trees, shrubs,
herbs, climbers and other plants from various parts of the globe.

 Purpose of botanical gardens:


o To study the taxonomy as well as growth of plants.
o To study the introduction and acclimatization process of exotic plants.
o It acts as a germplasm collection.
o It helps development of new hybrids.
o It augments conserving rare and threatened species.
o It facilitates training of staff. It acts as a source of recreation.

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 Zoo:
o The initial purpose of zoos was entertainment, over the decades, zoos have got
transformed into centers for wildlife conservation and environmental education.
o Zoo is an establishment, whether stationary or mobile, where captive animals are kept
for exhibition, to the public and includes a circus and rescue centers.
o Apart from saying individual animals, zoos have a role to play in species conservation
too (through captive breeding).

 Questionary:

1. What is biodiversity and why it is important?


2. Explain in detail: level of biodiversity
Services of biodiversity
Causes for losses

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Chapter: 2
Biodiversity Hot Spot

 Biodiversity Hotspot:
o A biodiversity hotspot is an area with unusual concentration of species, many of which
are endemic.
o It is marked by serious threat to its biodiversity by humans.
o The concept was given in 1988 by Norman Myers.

 Qualification:
To qualify as a hotspot, a region must meet two strict criteria:
 Endemism: it must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants (> 0.5 percent of the
world’s total) as endemics, and
 Loss of Habitat: it has to have lost at least 70 percent of its original habitat.
o Accordingly, 34 biodiversity hotspots have been so far identified. Collectively, the
Biodiversity hotspots support 60% of world’s plant and animal species with a high share
of endemics and cover around 2.5% of Earth’s land surface.

 List of Biodiversity Hotspots:


 North and Central America: California Floristic Province, Madrean pine-oak
woodlands, Mesoamerica
 The Caribbean: Caribbean Islands
 South America: Atlantic Forest, Cerrado, Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian Forests,
Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena, Tropical Andes
 Europe: Mediterranean Basin

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 Africa: Cape Floristic Region, Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa, Eastern Afromontane,
Guinean Forests of West Africa; Horn of Africa; Madagascar and the Indian Ocean
Islands; Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany; Succulent Karoo.
 South Asia: Eastern Himalaya, Nepal; Indo-Burma, India and Myanmar; Western
Ghats, India; Sri Lanka
 South East Asia and Asia-Pacific: East Melanesian Islands; New Caledonia; New
Zealand; Philippines; Polynesia-Micronesia; Southwest Australia; Sundaland; Wallacea;
 East Asia: Japan; Mountains of Southwest China
 West Asia: Caucasus; Irano-Anatolian
 Central Asia: Mountains of Central Asia;

 What Biodiversity Hotspots don’t do?


o The Biodiversity Hotspots are often criticized on the following arguments;
 Do not adequately represent other forms of species richness (e.g. total species richness or
threatened species richness).
 Do not protect ecosystem services
 Do not consider phylogenetic diversity.
 Do not adequately represent tax other than vascular plants (e.g. vertebrates, or fungi).
 Do not protect smaller scale richness hotspots.
 Do not make allowances for changing land use patterns. Hotspots represent regions that
have experienced considerable habitat loss, but this does not mean they are experiencing
ongoing habitat loss.
 On the other hand, regions that are relatively intact (e.g. the Amazon Basin) have
experienced relatively little land loss, but are currently losing habitat at tremendous
rates.

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 Biodiversity Hotspots in India:
o India shares its territories into three biodiversity hotspots viz. Eastern Himalaya,
Western Ghats and Indo-Burma.
o Biodiversity Hotspots also work as funding regions for Conservation International for its
Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF).
o Eastern Himalaya and Western Ghats are mostly located within India’s territory.
o In the Indo-Burma Biodiversity hotspot, India shares only a small part in north East
India.
o While Bangladesh and Malaysia only extend marginally into the Indo-Burma hotspot.

o For this purpose, officially, the Indo-Burma Hotspot is defined as all non-marine parts of
Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam plus some parts of southern China.
o The Northeastern India is included in a separate CEPF funding region (Eastern
Himalayas Biodiversity Hotspot),
o This is the reason that India has only two biodiversity hotspots viz. Eastern Himalayas
and Western Ghats.
o “India has only 2.4% of the world land area & 40% of fresh water, yet accounts for 7.3%
of recorded species making it 3rd most mega diverse country (after Brazil & Costa Rica)
with highest concentration of species in Agasthyamalai Hills in western Ghats”.

 Related Facts:
o 2010- International year for Biodiversity, declared by United Nations
o 22 May- International day for Biological diversity, declared by United Nations.

 Hope Spots:
o Hope spots are about recognizing, empowering and supporting individuals and
communities around the world in their efforts to protect the ocean.
o Any special place that is critical to health of the ocean- Earth’s blue heart.
o Dr. Sylvia Earle introduced the concept in 2009.

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o In case of Lakshadweep, the coral reefs are quite sensitive to the ocean environment and
that needs protection.
o Andaman and Nicobar Islands have some of world’s unique species of birds and plants.
o Andaman and Nicobar & Lakshadweep Islands have been named as the new “hope
spots” by IUCN & Oceanographer Sylvia Earle of Mission Blue, an organization
involved in the study of Oceans.
o Area of Ocean that merits special protection because of its wildlife and significant
underwater habitats.

 Questionary:

1. What are biodiversity hotspots?


2. What makes The Western Ghats a hotspot of biological diversity?

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Chapter: 3
Wetland, Mangrove & Coral Reef

 Wetland ecosystem:
o Wetlands are areas intermediate in character between deepwater and terrestrial habitats,
also transitional in nature, and often located between them.
o They included lake littorals, floodplains and other marshy or swampy areas where water
gets stagnated due to poor drainage or relatively impervious substrata & Bogs, fens and
mangroves due to similar ecological characteristics.
o These habitats experience periodic flooding from adjacent deepwater habitats and
therefore supports plants and animals specifically adapted to such shallow flooding or
water logging of the substrate, were designated as wetlands.
o Areas of marsh, fen, peatland/water, whether natural (or) artificial, permanent (or)
temporary with water that is static (or) flowing, fresh brackish (or) salt, including areas
of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed 6 mtrs.

 Characteristics:
o Covered by water (or) has waterlogged soil for atleast seven days during the growing
season.
o Adopted plant life (hydrophytes)
o Hydric soils (not enough 02 available for some plants)

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 Wetlands Classification:

 Functions of Wetlands:
o Habitat to aquatic flora and fauna, as well as, numerous species of birds, including
migratory species.
o Filtration of sediments and nutrients from surface water
o Nutrients recycling
o Water purification
o Provide drinking water, fish, fodder, fuel, etc
o Control rate of runoff in urban areas
o Buffer shorelines against erosion
o Floods mitigation
o Stabilization of local climate
o Source of livelihood to local people
o Genetic reservoir for various species of plants (especially rice)
o Supporting specific diversity
o Maintenance of stream flow
o Ground water recharging
o Comprise an important resource for sustainable tourism, recreation and cultural heritage

 Reasons for depletion:


o Removal of sand from beds
o Aqua culture
o Industrial effluents
o Climate change
o Conversion of lands for agriculture
o Overgrazing

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o Habitat Destruction and Deforestation
o Pollution
o Domestic waste
o Agricultural runoff

 Mitigation:
o Artificial regeneration
o Protective measures
o Soil conservation measures & afforestation
o Eutrophication abatement
o Environmental awareness
o Survey and demarcation
o Wildlife conservation
o Removal of encroachments

 Distinction from Lakes:


o Wetlands (generally less than 3 m deep over most of their area) are usually rich in
nutrients (derived from surroundings and their sediments) and have abundant growth of
aquatic macrophytes.
o These water bodies are used primarily for drinking water supplies, irrigation and/or
recreation.
o Excessive growth of macrophytes generally present in wetland affects the water quality
adversely and interferes with the utilization of the water body.
o National Lake Conservation Programme (NLCP) considers lakes as standing water
bodies which have a minimum water depth of 3 m, generally cover a water spread of
more than ten hectares, and have no or very little aquatic vegetation (macrophytes).
o Excessive growth of macrophytes generally present in wetland affects the water quality
adversely and interferes with the utilization of the water body.
o “Lakes are generally less important when compared to wetland from the viewpoint of
ecosystem and biodiversity conservation”.
o However, marginal aquatic vegetation (wetlands), particularly comprising of emergent
plants and those inhabiting waterlogged soils, is not only desirable but is to be promoted
because it checks erosion, serves habitat for wildlife and helps improve water quality

 India's Wetlands:
o Wetlands are areas of critical ecological significance, as they support biodiversity,
support millions of people directly and indirectly, protect from storms, flood control,
improve water quality, supply food, fiber and raw materials.
o India has totally 27,403 wetlands, of which 23,444 are inland wetlands and 3,959 are
coastal wetlands.

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o Wetlands occupy 18.4% of the country's area of which 70% are under paddy cultivation.

 Mangroves:
o Mangroves are the characteristic littoral plant formation of tropical and subtropical
sheltered coastlines. Mangroves are trees and bushes growing below the high water level
of spring tides which exhibits remarkable capacity for salt water tolerance.

 Characteristics of mangroves:
o Some secrete excess salt through their leaves as if you look closely, you can see crystals
of salt on the back of the leaves; others block absorption of salt at their roots.
o They require high solar radiation and have the ability to absorb fresh water from
saline/brackish water.
o It produces pneumatophores (blind roots) to overcome respiration problem in the
anaerobic soil conditions.
o Mangroves exhibit viviparity mode of reproduction, i.e. seeds germinate in the tree itself
(before falling to the ground). This is an adaptative mechanism to overcome the problem
of germination in saline water.
o They are basically evergreen land plants growing on sheltered shores, typically on tidal
flats, deltas, estuaries, bays, creeks and the barrier islands.

 Mangrove profile in India:


o The mangrove vegetation in the coastal zone of Kerala is very sparse and thin.
o In Gujarat (north-west coast) mangroves Avicennia marine, Avicennia officinalis and
Rhizophora mucronata are found mainly in Gulf of Kachchh and the Kori creek.
o The mangroves of Sundarbans are the largest single block of tidal holophytic mangroves
of the world.
o This mangrove forest is famous for the Royal Bengal Tiger and crocodiles.
o Mangroves of Pichavaram and Vedaranyam are degraded mainly due to construction of
aquaculture ponds and salt pans.
o Mangrove swamps occur in profusion in the intertidal mudflats on both sides of the
creeks in the Godavari-Krishna deltaic regions of Andhra Pradesh.
o The mangroves of Sundarbans are the largest single block of tidal holophytic mangroves
of the world.
o The mangroves of Bhitarkanika (Orissa), which is the second largest in the Indian sub
continent, harbour high concentration of typical mangrove species and high genetic
diversity.
o In size, mangroves range from bushy stands of dwarf mangroves found in Gulf of
Kuchchh, to taller stands found in the Sunderbans.
o On the Andaman & Nicobar Islands, the small tidal estuaries, neritic inlets and the
lagoons support a dense and diverse undisturbed mangrove flora.

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 Role of mangroves:
o As prop roots, pneumatophores which help to impede water flow and thereby enhance
the deposition of sediment in areas, stabilize the coastal shores, provide breeding ground
for fishes.
o Mangroves moderate monsoonal tidal floods and reduce inundation of coastal lowlands.
o It prevents coastal soil erosion.
o It protects coastal lands from tsunami, hurricanes and floods.
o Mangroves enhance natural recycling of nutrients.
o Provide a safe and favorable environment for breeding, spawning, rearing of several
fishes.

 Threat:
o They are destroyed for conversion of area for agricultural purpose, fuel, fodder and,
Stalinization, minig, oil spills, aquaculture (shrimp farming), use of chemical pesticides
& fertilizers, industrial purposes.

 Coral reefs:
o The builders of coral reefs are tiny animals called polyps. As these polyps thrive, grow,
then die, they leave their limestone (calcium carbonate) skeletons behind.
o The limestone is colonized by new polyps. Therefore, a coral reef is built up of layers of
these skeletons covered ultimately by living polyps.
o While the majority of coral reefs are found in tropical and sub-tropical water, there are
also deep water corals in colder regions.
o Coral is actually a living animal. Coral has a symbiotic relationship with 'zooxanthellae'
microscopic algae which live on coral.
o Zooxanthellae assist the coral in nutrient production through its photosynthetic activities.
o These activities provide the coral with fixed carbon compounds for energy, enhance
calcification, and mediate elemental nutrient flux.
o The host coral polyp in return provides its zooxanthellae with a protected environment to
live within, and a steady supply of carbon dioxide for its photosynthetic processes.
o The tissues of corals themselves are actually not the beautiful colors of the coral reef, but
are instead clear (white).
o There are two types of corals: hard corals and soft corals, such as sea fans and
gorgonians. Only hard corals build reefs.
o The corals receive their coloration from the zooxanthellae living within their tissues.

 Features:
o They occur in shallow tropical areas, where the sea water is clean, clear arid warm.
o Coral reefs are one of the most productive and complex coastal ecosystems with high
biological diversity.

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o The corals are generally slow growing colonies of animals while xooxanthellae are fast
growing plants.
o Even though corals live in nutrient poor waters, their capability to recycle the scarce
nutrients (by the whole nutrient community) is enormous.

 Classification and their location:


o The coral reefs are classified depending on their locations into fringing, patch, barrier
and atoll.
o Patch reefs are isolated and discontinuous patches, lying shoreward of offshore reef
structures as seen in the Palk bay, Gulf of Mannar and Gulf of Katchchh.
o Atolls are circular or semi circular reefs that arise from subsiding_ sea floor platforms as
coral reef building keeps ahead of subsidence. The examples are the atolls of
Lakshadweep and Nicobar.
o The fringing reefs are contiguous with the shore and they are the most common - by
occurring reef form, found in Andamans.
o Barrier reefs are linear offshore reef structures that run parallel to coastlines and arise
from submerged shelf platforms. The water body between the reef and the shore is
termed as lagoon. Barrier reefs are seen in Nicobar and Lakshadweep.
o Among the four major reef areas of India, Andaman and Nicobar Islands are found to be
very rich in species diversity followed by the Lakshadweep Islands, the Gulf of Mannar
and finally the Gulf of Kachchh.

 Functions of Coral Reefs:


o Coral reefs are natural protective barriers against erosion and storm surge.
o The coral animals are highly adapted for capturing plankton from the water, thereby
capturing nutrients.
o Largest biogenic calcium carbonate producer.
o They provide substrate for mangroves.
o Coral reefs provide habitat for a large variety of animals and plants including avifauna.

 Threat:
o Anthropogenic causes may be due to chemical pollution (pesticides, cosmetics, etc),
industrial pollution, mechanical damage, nutrient loading or sediment loading, Dredging,
shipping, tourism, mining or collection, thermal pollution, intensive fishing etc.
o Natural causes may be due to the outbreak of reef destroying mechanisms, "bleaching"
and depletion of essential symbiotants.
 Coral Bleaching:
o Bleaching, or the paling of coral colour occurs when;
 The densities of zooxanthellae decline and/or
 The concentration of photosynthetic pigments within the zooxanthellae fall.

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o When corals bleach they commonly lose 60-90% of their zooxanthellae and each
zooxanthella may lose 50-80% of its photosynthetic pigments.
o Photosynthesis pathways in zooxanthallae are impaired at temperatures above 30⁰C; this
effect could activate the disassociation of coral/algal symbiosis.
o Low- or high-temperature shocks results in zooxanthellae low as a result of cell adhesion
dysfunction.
o If zooxanthellae loss is prolonged, i.e. if the stress continues and depleted zooxanthellae
populations do not recover, the coral host eventually dies.
o High temperature and irradiance stressors have been implicated in the disruption of
enzyme systems in zooxanthellae that offer protection against oxygen toxicity.

 Questionary:

1. Why are wetlands important to the environment? Explain the function of


wetlands.
2. What are some of the threats to the coral reefs?

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Chapter: 4
Threats to biodiversity

 Threats to biodiversity:
o Habitat loss,
o Poaching of wildlife, man-wildlife conflicts,
o Endangered and endemic species of India,
o Extinction of Species and,
o IUCN, and the Red List

 Loss of Biodiversity:
o In general, loss of biodiversity in a region may lead to decline in plant production,
lowered resistance to environmental perturbations such as drought and increased
variability in certain ecosystem processes such as plant productivity, water use, and pest
and disease cycles.
o Sixth Extinction presently is in progress with current species extinction rates estimated
to be 100 to 1,000 times faster than in the pre-human times.
o The IUCN Red List (2004) documents the extinction of 784 species in the last 500 years.
Some examples of recent extinctions include the three subspecies (Bali, Javan, Caspian)
of tiger.
o During the long period (> 3 billion years) since the origin and diversification of life on
earth there were five episodes of mass extinction of species.
o Ecologists warn that if the present trends continue, nearly half of all the species on earth
might be wiped out within the next 100 years.

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 Cause for the loss of biodiversity:
o Habitat loss and fragmentation
o Over-exploitation
o Alien species invasions
o Co-extinctions
o Poaching
o Diseases that spread from cattle to wild animals

 Habitat loss and fragmentation:


o Some of these factors are: global warming, increased CO2 concentration in atmosphere,
nuclear radiation; UV-exposure; oil spills, etc.
o When large habitats are broken up into small fragments due to various human activities,
mammals and birds requiring large territories and certain animals with migratory habits
are badly affected, leading to population declines.
o Due to the growing human population, wetlands are being made dry through landfills, as
the demand for land increases.
o Natural forests are cleared for industry, agriculture, dams, habitation, recreational sports,
etc.
o Degradation of many habitats by pollution also threatens the survival of many species.
o For example, pollution that leads to greenhouse effect results in global warming. All
those species that are slow to adjust to the changed environment are eventually lost.
o Ex tropical rain forests.
o Once covering more than 14 per cent of the earth’s land surface, these rain forests now
cover no more than 6 per cent.
o Amazon rain forest ‘lungs of the planet’ harboring probably millions of species is
being cut and cleared for cultivating soya beans or for conversion to grasslands for
raising beef cattle.

 Poaching:
o Bears are killed for their gall bladders.
o Skin and bones from tigers, ivory from elephants, horns from rhinos and the perfume
from the must deer are extensively used abroad.
o A variety of wild plants with real or at times dubious medicinal value are being over
harvested.
o Specific threats to certain animals are related to large economic benefits.
o Corals and shells are also collected for export or sold on the beaches of Chennai and
Kanyakumari.

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 Man – Animal Conflict:
o It refers to the interaction between wild animals and people and the resultant negative
impact on people or their resources, or wild animals or their habitat.
o It occurs when wildlife needs overlap with those of human populations, creating costs to
residents and wild animals.

 Impacts:
o Crop damage and damage to property – elephants damage crops and villages.
o Livestock depredation – Himalayan snow leopard preys on goats in the Himalayan
region. Farmers trap and kill snow leopards to save their livestock.
o Injuries and deaths – Man eater tigers are reported to have injured and killed villagers
living on the periphery.
o Injuries to wildlife – leopards and other wild animals are hacked to death by mobs.

 Preventive and Mitigation strategies:


o Artificial and natural barriers (physical and biological) – very expensive.
o Guarding – very expensive.
o Alternative high-cost livestock husbandry practices
o Relocation: voluntary human population resettlement.
o Waste management systems that restrict wildlife access to refuse.
o Community based natural resource management schemes (CBNRMS)

 Species Extinction:
Extinction is caused through various processes:
o Deterministic processes that have a cause and effect. E.g. glaciations, human
interference such as deforestation.
o Stochastic processes (chance and random events) that effect the survival and
reproduction of individuals. E.g. unexpected changes of weather patterns, decreased
food supply, disease, increase of competitors, predators or parasites, etc. that may act
independently or add to deterministic effects.
o The impact of these processes will of course depend on the size and degree of genetic
diversity and resilience of populations.
Traits that adversely affect or increase a species vulnerability to extinction due to
habitat fragmentation have been identified. These are:
o rarity or low abundance
o poor dispersal ability
o high trophic status – as animals occupying a higher trophic level (i.e. the position of a
species in a food chain) usually have smaller populations than those at lower levels (e.g.
carnivores are fewer in number than herbivores)
o low adult survival rates

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 Natural extinctions:
Have been caused due to several factors:
o continent drifting,
o climate change,
o tectonic activity,
o increased volcanic activity,
o The late Ordovician global glaciations (439 Mya).
o The late Cretaceous extinction assumed to be associated with an extra-terrestrial impact.
o Extinction in vascular plants has been more gradual compared with the loss of animals.
It is believed that extinction among this group was due more to competitive
displacement by more advanced plant forms, or due to a
o Gradual climate change, than due to any sudden catastrophic event.

 Artificial Extinction:
o Even though species extinction is a natural process which can happen without the
intervention of humans, extinctions caused by humans is now happening over and above
the reasonable estimate of natural extinction rates.
o Species are threatened with extinction by the intervention of humans due to:
o Direct causes – such as hunting, collection or capture and persecution
o Indirect causes – such as habitat loss, modification and fragmentation and the
introduction of invasive species.

 The red data book:


o The Red Data Book was first issued in 1966 by the IUCN's Special Survival
Commission as a guide for formulation, preservation and management of species listed.
o Species judged as threatened are listed by various agencies as well as by some private
organizations. The most cited of these lists is the Red Data Book.
o "Red" of course is symbolic of danger that the species both plants and animals presently
experience throughout the globe.
o Species judged as threatened are listed by various agencies as well as by some private
organizations. The most cited of these lists is the Red Data Book.
o Green pages are used for those species that were formerly endangered, but have now
recovered to a point where they are no longer threatened. With passing time, the number
of pink pages continues to increase. There are pitifully few green pages.
o In this Book, information for endangered mammals and birds are more extensive than
for other groups of animals and plants, coverage is also given to less prominent
organisms facing extinction.
o The pink pages in this publication include the critically endangered species. As the status
of the species changes, new pages are sent to the subscribers.

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 Iucn classification of conservation priority:

 Questionary:

1. What are the main reasons for biodiversity loss?


2. What are the biggest threats to biodiversity? Why?

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Chapter: 5
Biodiversity Conservation Part-1

 Biodiversity Conservation:
o When we conserve and protect the whole ecosystem, its biodiversity at all levels is
protected. E.g. we save the entire forest to save the tiger. This approach is called in situ
(on site) conservation.
o However, when there are situations where an animal or plant is endangered or threatened
and needs urgent measures to save it from extinction, ex situ (off site) conservation is the
desirable approach.

 Benefits of Biodiversity conservation:


o Conservation of biological diversity leads to conservation of essential ecological
diversity to preserve the continuity of food chains.
o The genetic diversity of plants and animals is preserved.
o It ensures the sustainable utilization of life support systems on earth.
o It provides a vast knowledge of potential use to the community.
o A reservoir of wild animals and plants is preserved, thus enabling them to be introduced,
if need be, in the surrounding areas.
o Biodiversity conservation assures sustainable utilization of potential resources.

 In situ conservation:
o Faced with the conflict between development and conservation, many nations find it
unrealistic and economically not feasible to conserve all their biological wealth.
o Plantation, cultivation, grazing, felling trees, hunting and poaching are prohibited in
biosphere reserves, national parks and sanctuaries.
o On a global basis, this problem has been addressed by eminent conservationists.
o They identified for maximum protection certain ‘biodiversity hotspots’ regions with very

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high levels of species richness and high degree of endemism (that is, species confined to
that region and not found anywhere else).
o India now has 14 biosphere reserves, 90 national parks and 448 wildlife sanctuaries.
o Initially 25 biodiversity hotspots were identified but subsequently nine more have been
added to the list, bringing the total number of biodiversity hotspots in the world to 34.
o These hotspots are also regions of accelerated habitat loss. Three of these hotspots
Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, Indo-Burma and Eastern Himalayas cover our country’s
exceptionally high biodiversity regions.
o In India, ecologically unique and biodiversity-rich regions are legally protected
as biosphere reserves, national parks, sanctuaries, reserved forests, protected
forests and nature reserves.

 Protected Area Network in India:


 National Board for Wildlife (NBWL), chaired by the Prime Minister of
India provides for policy framework for wildlife conservation in the country.
 The National Wildlife Action Plan (2002-2016) was adopted in 2002, emphasizing the
people’s participation and their support for wildlife conservation.

 Reserved & Protected Forests:


As of present, reserved forests and protected forests differ in one important way:
o Rights to all activities like hunting, grazing, etc. in reserved forests are banned unless
specific orders are issued otherwise.
o In protected areas, rights to activities like hunting and grazing are sometimes given to
communities living on the fringes of the forest, who sustain their livelihood partially or
wholly from forest resources or products.
o The first reserve forest in India was Satpura National Park in Madhya Pradesh.
o Typically, reserved forests are often upgraded to the status of wildlife sanctuaries, which
in turn may be upgraded to the status of national parks, with each category receiving a
higher degree of protection and government funding.

 Ex situ Conservation:
o In this approach, threatened animals and plants are taken out from their natural habitat
and placed in special setting where they can be protected and given special care.
o Zoological parks, botanical gardens, wildlife safari parks and seed banks serve this
purpose.
o There are many animals that have become extinct in the wild but continue to be
maintained in zoological parks.
o Seeds of different genetic strains of commercially important plants can be kept for long
periods in seed banks.
o The national gene bank at National Bureau Of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR),

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Delhi is primarily responsible for conservation of unique accessions on long-term basis,
as base collections for posterity, predominantly in the form of seeds.
o Gametes of threatened species can be preserved in viable and fertile condition for long
periods using cryopreservation techniques, eggs can be fertilized in vitro, and plants can
be propagated using tissue culture methods.

 Botanical garden:
o Botanical garden refers to the scientifically planned collection of living trees, shrubs,
herbs, climbers and other plants from various parts of the globe.

 Purpose of botanical gardens:


o To study the taxonomy as well as growth of plants.
o To study the introduction and acclimatization process of exotic plants.
o It acts as a germplasm collection.
o It helps development of new hybrids.
o It augments conserving rare and threatened species.
o It facilitates training of staff.
o It acts as a source of recreation.

 Zoo:
o The initial purpose of zoos was entertainment, over the decades, zoos have got
transformed into centers for wildlife conservation and environmental education.
o Zoos provide an opportunity to open up a whole new world, and this could be used in
sensitizing visitors regarding the value and need for conservation of wildlife.
o Zoo is an establishment, whether stationary or mobile, where captive animals are kept
for exhibition to the public and includes a circus and rescue centers but does not include
an establishment of a licensed dealer in captive animals.
o The initial purpose of zoos was entertainment, over the decades; zoos have got
transformed into centers for wildlife conservation and environmental education.
o Ex situ conservation = conserving the organism in an artificial habitat by displacing it
from its natural habitat.
o Botanical Garden = Plants are bred in a protected environment far from their natural
home, especially for research purposes. So it’s ex situ conservation.

 Constraints in biodiversity conservation:


o Low priority for conservation of living natural resources.
o Exploitation of living natural resources for monetary gain.
o Values and knowledge about the species and ecosystem inadequately known.
o Unplanned urbanization and uncontrolled industrialization.

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 Historic Citizen Movements:
o Chipko Movement
o Appiko Movement

 Chipko Movement:
o Modern Chipko movement started in the early 1970s in the Garhwal Himalayas of
Uttarakhand, with growing awareness towards rapid deforestation.
o On March 26, 1974, when a group of peasant women in Reni village, Hemwalghati, in
Chamoli district, Uttarakhand, India, acted to prevent the cutting of trees and reclaim
their traditional forest rights that were threatened by the contractor system of the state
Forest Department.
o Gandhian methods of satyagraha and nonviolent resistance, through the act of hugging
trees to protect them from falling.
o Their actions inspired hundreds of such actions at the grassroots level throughout the
region.

 Appiko Movement:
o The Chipko movement in Uttarakhand in the Himalayas inspired the villagers of the
district of Karnataka province in southern India to launch a similar movement to save
their forests.
o Appiko movement was a revolutionary movement based on environmental conservation
in India.
o Appiko movement gave birth to a new awareness all over southern India.

 Questionary:

1. How is a national park different from a wildlife sanctuary?


2. What is biodiversity conservation?

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Chapter: 6
Biodiversity Conservation Part-2

 Protected Area Network:


o From 5 national parks and 60 sanctuaries to a network of 669 Protected Areas including
102 National Parks, 515 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 49 Conservation Reserves and 4
Community Reserves, covering a total of 1,61,583 km2 of geographical area of the
country which is approximately 4.92%.
o The adoption of a National Policy for Wildlife Conservation in 1970 and the enactment
of the Wildlife (Protection) Act in 1972 lead to a significant growth in the protected
areas network.

 Wild life sanctuary:


o The Wild life (Protection) Act of 1972 provided for the declaration of certain areas by
the State Government as wildlife sanctuaries if the area was thought to be of adequate
ecological, geomorphologic and natural significance.
o The Central Government may also declare a sanctuary under certain conditions.

 National parks:
o The difference between a Sanctuary and a National Park mainly lies in the vesting of
rights of people living inside.
o Unlike a Sanctuary, where certain rights can be allowed, in a National Park, no rights are
allowed.
o National parks are areas reserved for wild life where they can freely use the habitats and
natural resources.
o No grazing of any livestock shall also be permitted inside a National Park while in a
Sanctuary; the Chief Wildlife Warden may regulate, control or prohibit it.

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 Difference between the two:
o Wildlife sanctuary can be created for a particular species whereas the national park is not
primarily focused on a particular species.
o The Central Government may also declare a National Park under certain conditions.

 Boundaries:
o No alteration of boundaries of a sanctuary/National Park shall be made except on
recommendation of the National Board for Wild Life.
o Amendment Act of 1991 provided for the inclusion of territorial waters in areas to be
declared as sanctuaries for the protection of off-shore marine flora and fauna.

 Entry into the Protected Area:


o No person other than:-
 A public servant on duty.
 A person who has been permitted by the Chief Wild Life Warden or the authorized
officer to reside within the limits of the sanctuary/National Park.
 A person who has any right over immovable property within the limits of the
sanctuary/National Park.
 A person passing through the sanctuary/National Park along a public highway.

 Grant of permit for entry:


o The Chief Wild Life Warden may, on application, grant to any person a permit to enter
or reside in a sanctuary /National Park for all or any of the following purposes:
 investigation or study of wildlife
 Photography
 scientific research
 Tourism
 transaction of lawful business with any person residing in the sanctuary

 Conservation reserve and community reserve:


o Conservation reserve and Community reserve are the outcome of amendment to the
Wild life protection act in 2003.
o It provided for a mechanism to provide recognition and legal backing to the community
initiated efforts in wildlife protection.

 Conservation Reserves:
o It is an area owned by the State Government adjacent to National Parks and sanctuaries
for protecting the landscape, seascape and habitat of fauna and flora.
o It is managed through a Conservation Reserve Management Committee.

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o Tiruppadaimarathur conservation reserve in Tirunelveli, Tamil nadu is the first
conservation reserve established in the Country.

 Community Reserve:
o Declaration of such area is aimed at improving the socio economic conditions of people
living in such area as well as conserving wildlife.
o Reserve is managed through Community reserve management committee.

 Coastal Protected Area:


o Marine productivity in India is concentrated in small areas of coral reefs, lagoons,
mangroves, estuaries and sea grass beds around the coast.
o Marine Protected Area (MPA) as "any area intertidal or sub tidal terrain together with its
overlaying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has
been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed
environment“….. IUCN
o MPAs in marine environment in India, are primarily classified into following three
categories;
 Category-I: This covers National Parks and sanctuaries and having entire areas in
intertidal/sub-tidal or mangroves, coral reefs, creeks, sea grass beds, algal beds,
estuaries, lagoons.
 Category-II: Islands
 Category-IIIA: sandy beaches
 Category-IIIB: ever green or semi ever green forests of Islands.

o Marine National Park and Marine sanctary in the Gulf of Kutch form one unit (one
MPA). Similarly Bhitarkanika National Park and Bhitarkanika Sanctuary are an integral
part of one MPA. Thus, there a total of 31 MPAs in India.
o Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in India comprise of a 33 national parks and wildlife
sanctuaries designated under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

 Sacred groves of India:


o Sacred groves comprise of patches of forests or natural vegetation - from a few trees to
forests of several acres - that are usually dedicated to local folk deities.
o These spaces are protected by local communities because of their religious beliefs and
traditional rituals that run through several generations.
o Such sacred groves are found in Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya, Aravalli Hills of
Rajasthan, Western Ghat regions of Karnataka and Maharashtra and the Sarguja, Chanda
and Bastar areas of Madhya Pradesh.

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 Global initiative:
o Man and Biosphere Programme, (MAB)
o Biosphere Reserve
o Biodiversity Hotspots
o World Heritage Sites

 Man and Biosphere Programme:


o It was first started by UNESCO in 1971.
o Later introduced in India in 1986.

 Aim:
o Studying the effects of human interference and pollution on the biotic and abiotic
components of ecosystems.
o Conservation the ecosystems for the present as well as future.

 Objective:
o Conserve representative samples of ecosystem.
o Provide long term in situ conservation of genetic diversity.
o Provide opportunities for education and training.
o Provide appropriate sustainable managements of the living resources.
o Promote international co-operation.

 Biosphere Reserve:
o Biosphere Reserve (BR) is an international designation by UNESCO for representative
parts of natural and cultural landscapes extending over large area of terrestrial or
coastal/marine ecosystems or a combination thereof.
o Large areas of protected land for conservation of wild life, plant and animal resources
and traditional life of the tribals living in the area.
o May have one more national parks or wildlife sanctuaries in it.

 Criteria for designation of BR:


o Core area should be large enough to sustain viable populations representing all trophic
levels in the ecosystem.
o Management authority to ensure the involvement/cooperation of local communities.
o Area potential for preservation of traditional tribal or rural modes of living for
harmonious use of environment.
o A site must contain an effectively protected and minimally disturbed core area of value
of nature conservation.

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Environment
 Structure and Function of BR:
o BRs are demarcated into following 3 inter-related zones:
 Core Zone
 Buffer Zone
 Transition zone

 Core Zone:
o Comprises a strictly protected ecosystem for
conserving ecosystems, species and genetic
variation.
o In core or natural zone human activity is not
allowed.

 Buffer Zone:
o Used for scientific researc, monitoring, training
and education.

 Transition Zone:
o Ecologically sustainable human settlements and economic activities (tourism) are
permitted.
o With the cooperation of reserve management and local people several human activities
like settlements, cropping, recreation, and forestry are carried out without disturbing the
environment.

 Functions of BR:
o Tripartite functions of BR- Conservation, Development and logistic support.
o To conserve the diversity and integrity of plants and animals within natural ecosystems.
o To safeguard genetic diversity of species.
o It has the focus on local inhabitants through provision of supplementary and alternate
livelihood support to the people in the buffer and transition zones in order to reduce
biotic pressure on biodiversity of the natural reserves of core zone.
o BR scheme is different from other conservation related schemes.
o To ensure sustainable use of natural resources.
o To provide area for research and monitoring, & provide facilities for education and
training.

 Biodiversity Hotspot:
o A biodiversity hotspot is an area with unusual concentration of species, many of which
are endemic.
o It is marked by serious threat to its biodiversity by humans.

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o The concept was given in 1988 by Norman Myers.

 Qualification:
o To qualify as a hotspot, a region must meet two strict criteria:
 Endemism: it must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants (> 0.5 percent of the
world’s total) as endemics, and
 Loss of Habitat: it has to have lost at least 70 percent of its original habitat.
o Accordingly, 34 biodiversity hotspots have been so far identified. Collectively, the
Biodiversity hotspots support 60% of world’s plant and animal species with a high share
of endemics and cover around 2.5% of Earth’s land surface.

 Biodiversity Hotspots in India:


o India shares its territories into three biodiversity hotspots viz. Eastern Himalaya,
Western Ghats and Indo-Burma.
o Eastern Himalaya and Western Ghats are mostly located within India’s territory.
o In the Indo-Burma Biodiversity hotspot, India shares only a small part in north East
India.

 World heritage sites:


o World Heritage Sites means "Sites any of various areas or objects inscribed on the
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)World
Heritage List''.
o It may be a building, a city, a complex, a desert, a forest, an island, a lake, a monument,
or a mountain.
o According to the sites ranked by country, Italy is home to the greatest number of World
Heritage Sites with 51 sites, followed by China (48), Spain (44), France (41), Germany
(40), Mexico (33), and India (32).
o A World Heritage Site is a place on earth having a special cultural or physical
significance and outstanding universal value to the humanity.
o They have been inscribed on the World Heritage List to be protected for future
generations to appreciate and enjoy.
o This Convention was adopted by the UNESCO in 1972 (and enforced in 1975).
o This Convention was adopted by the UNESCO in 1972 (and enforced in 1975).

 Who lists World Heritage Sites?


o The International World Heritage Programme administered by the UNESCO World
Heritage Committee establishes the sites to be listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
o It is composed of 21 state parties which are elected by the General Assembly of States
Parties for a four-year term.
o Currently, India is a member of the World Heritage Committee.

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Environment
o A world Heritage site is listed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) which is based in Paris, France.
o The World Heritage Committee is responsible for the implementation of the World
Heritage Convention, defines the use of the World Heritage Fund and allocates financial
assistance upon requests from States Parties.

 Questionary:

1. What is the difference between a national park and a sanctuary?


2. What is a wildlife sanctuary?

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Environment

Chapter: 7
Ecosystem Part- 1

 Biomes:
 Terrestrial Ecosystem
o Forest
o Grassland
o Desert
 Aquatic Ecosystem
o Fresh Water
o Saline Water

 Forest Biomes:
o Temperate hardwood is much better than tropical hardwood as it is lighter in weight,
stronger and more durable & easier to work upon than tropical hardwood.

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 Grassland:
 Grassland
o Tropical Grassland
o Temperate Grassland

 Tropical Grassland:
o Grasses with scattered trees
o Parkland Sawanna
o Taller (upto 3.5m), rough,
coarser, lack nutrients
o Terms for Tropical Grassland
 Sawanna (Africa)
 Campos (Brazil)
 Lianos (Venezuela)

 Tropical grasslands:

South America Savannah in Africa

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 Temperate Grassland
o Much purer form.
o Shorter & nutritious
o Classified as;
 Prairies- North America
 Pampas- South America
 Veldts- South Africa
 Downs- Australia
 Steppe- Russia

Prairies of North America Pampas of S. Ame

 The Mediterranean Biome:


o Mediterranean type climate/ Vegetation Areas
o Area surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea.
o California
o Central Chile
o Cape Province in S. Africa
o S-W Australia
o All these areas having west facing coastal location.

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 Mediterranean Type Climate:
o In summer- hot & dry
o In winter- cool & wet
o This transformation is because of shifting of pressure
belts.
o Most Scattered Biome

 Mediterranean climate:
o Shifting wind belt
o In summer – apparent movement of the sun towards
north – region comes under influence of off-shore
North trade winds => no rain
o Distinct dry season

 Desert Biome:
o Represents adoption of life more admirably.
o Lies in high pressure belt between 20⁰ and 30⁰ north and south and most of them occupy
the western sides of the continents in the trade wind belt.
o Very high temperature, clear skies and almost absence of rain.

 Tropical Deserts:

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Climate Vegetation

 China Type:
o Temperate Monsoon Type or Warm Temperate East Coast Type.

 Warm temperate eastern margin:


China type Gulf type Natal type

Central and S E USA Natal, South Africa


north china

Southern (gulf of Mexico) Eastern Australia


Japan

Southern Brazil

 British type:
o Best climate for human habitation
o Warm current moderate climate – North Atlantic drift,
Alaskan current
o Moderate climate – warm summer, cool winters
o Low annual temperature range
o Rainfall from westerlies
o western coast receive the most – rainfall decreas
towards interior
o Temperate cyclones – rainfall in winters
o Tall trees with good canopy cover
o soft wood
o trees in pure stand

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o Oak, elm, birch

 Cool temperate Eastern margin:


o Laurentian Type
o Transition between British and Siberian climate
o Laurentian plateau, Labrador plateau – Quebec state
o New England region of USA
o China Manchurian part, South east part of Russia,
Northern Japan

 Laurentian type:
o Not in southern hemisphere- because hardly any land beyond 40 degree latitude
o South America – Andes block the westerlies – oceanic influence

 Laurentian climate, N. America:


o Rainfall throughout the year

o Summer - Westerlies bring rain due to moisture content of Great lakes


o Winter - Gulf stream increases moisture content of polar easterly wind from Atlantic

 Laurentian type, China:


o In china – summer max

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o summer – intense heating of land – rainfall - wind from pacific
o Winter – anti-cyclonic condition in the heart of Asia – cold wind blows out – snow fall
in mountainous area

 Tundra:
o Arctic or polar climate
o Northern Canada and Northern Russia
o Periglacial climate
o Freezing winter, thawing in summer
o Summer short and cool
o Mosses, linchens (algae and fungi) –
ephemeral flowering plants

 Aquatic Biomes:
 Fresh Water
o Very small proportion of earth’s area that is only 0.8% of earth’s surface.
o Primary production controlled by light and nutrient availability.
o Standing Water- lakes and ponds
o Moving Water- Rivers and streams.

 Transitional Communities
o Ecotone between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem.
o Esturies
o Wetlands

 Marine Ecosystem
o About 71% of the earth’s surface is covered by marine ecosystem.
o Shorelines
o Coral Reef
o Open Ocean

 Questionary:

1. Why do Mediterranean-climate biomes have such a huge diversity and a


density of vascular plants?
2. Where are temperate grasslands?

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Chapter: 8
Ecosystem Part- 2

 Ecosystems:
o Fundamentals of Ecology
o Concept of an ecosystem
o Structure and function of an ecosystem

 Fundamentals of Ecology:
o Ecology
 Eco Came from Greek word “Oikos” meaning house/ household/housekeeping/place
to live in
 Logy Logia Study of
o Ecology is the scientific study of the inter-relationship among organisms and between
organisms, and between them and all aspects of living and non living of their
environment.
o Ecology is defined “as a scientific study of the relationship of the living organisms with
each other and with their environment."
This term was given by 2 scholars;
 Ernst Heinrich Haeckel- He is usually given the credit for having coined the term
Ecology.
 Hans Reiter- Some scholars believe that the term ecology was coined by Hans Reiter &
defined 1st by Haeckel.

 Environment:
o The relationship and interaction between organism and environment are highly complex.
o No organism can live alone without interacting with other organisms.
o Each and everything with which we interact or which we need for our sustenance forms

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our environment.
o Everything that surrounds or affects an organism during its life time is collectively
known as its environment which comprises both living (biotic) and nonliving (abiotic)
components.
o The environment is not static.

 Components of Environment:

Abiotic Biotic
Energy Green plants
Radiation Non-green plants
Temperature & heat flow Decomposers
Water Parasites
Atmospheric gases and wind Symbionts
Fire Animals
Gravity Man
Topography
Soil
Geologic substratum

 Levels of organisations in ecology:


o In Ecology we study about the; organisms, population, biological community,
ecosystem, biomes and the biosphere.

 Organisms:
o Organism is an individual living being that has the ability to act or function
independently. It may be plant, animal, bacterium, fungi, etc.
o It is a body made up of organs, organelles, or other parts that work together to carry out
on the various processes of life.

 Population:
o Population is a group of organisms usually of the same species, occupying a defined area
during a specific time.
o Population growth rate can be positive or negative.
o The main factors that make population grow are birth and immigration.
o The main factors that make population decrease are death and emigration.
o The main limiting factors for the growth of a population are abiotic and biotic
components.

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 Community:
o It is an assemblage of plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi, that live in an area and
interact with each other.
o Communities in most instances are named after the dominant plant form (species).
o A community is not fixed or rigid; communities may be large or small.
o Types of Community
 Major Community- These are large-sized, well organized and relatively independent
 Minor Community- These are dependent on neighboring communities and are often
called societies.

 Ecosystem:
o An ecosystem is defined as a structural and functional unit of biosphere consisting of
community of living beings and the physical environment, both interacting and
exchanging materials between them.
o An Ecosystem is a complex set of relationship among the living resources, habitats, and
residents of an area.
o It includes-plants, trees, animals, fish, birds, micro-organisms, water, soil, and people.
o Ecosystem can be as small as a single tree or as large as entire forest.

 Classification of Ecosystem:

 Ecotone:
o Ecotone is a zone of junction between two or more diverse ecosystems.
o For e.g. the mangrove forests represent an ecotone between marine and terrestrial
ecosystem.
o Edge Effect- The tendency of increased variety and density of some organisms at the
ecosystem border is known as edge effect.

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 Ecological Niche:
o The ecological niche of an organism represents the range of condition that it can tolerate,
the resources it utilizes and its functional role in ecological system.
o It is a description of all the biological, physical and chemical factors that a species needs
to survive, stay healthy and reproduce.
o A niche is unique for a species, which means no two species have exact identical niches.

 Biomes:
o The terrestrial part of the biosphere is divisible
into enormous regions called biomes.
o It is a large regional unit characterized by a
major vegetation type and associated fauna
found in a specific climate zone.
o No two biomes are alike.
o The climate determines the boundaries of a
biome and abundance of plants and animals
found in each one of them.
o The most important climatic factors are
temperature and precipitation.

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 Aquatic Zones:
o Aquatic systems are not called biomes, however they are divided into distinct life zones,
with regions of relatively distinct plant and animal life.
o The major differences between the various aquatic zones are due to salinity, levels of
dissolved nutrients; water temperature, depth of sunlight penetration.
 Fresh water ecosystem-
 Lotic (moving water)
 Lentic (still or stagnant water)
 Marine Ecosystem
 Estuaries

 Biosphere:
o Biosphere is a part of the earth where life can exist.
o It is a zone comprising of atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water) and lithosphere (land).

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 Ecosystem:

 Structure of an Ecosystem:
 Biotic Components: All living organisms present in environment e.g. plants, animals
and human beings.
 Abiotic Components: It includes basic organism elements and compound e.g. soil,
water, oxygen, calcium carbonate, phosphates and variety of organic compound (by
product of organic activity).

 Function of an ecosystem:
o Radiant energy of the sun is the only significant energy source for any ecosystem. Thus,
the function of ecosystem can be studied under the following three heads;
 Energy flow
 Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles)
 Ecological succession or ecosystem development

 Questionary:

1. What are the Abiotic and biotic components of the environment? Explain in
detail.
2. What is the difference between ecosystem and ecotone?

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Chapter: 9
Ecosystem Part- 3

 Ecosystem:
o A term used by A.G. Tansley to describe a discrete unit that consist of living and non-
living parts, interacting to form a stable system.
o Ecosystem principles can be applied at all scales.
o Diversity is the nature’s principle as it acts as a “hedge” against any eventuality.
o Man has simplified the ecosystem of the earth and as a result man modified ecosystem
have became fragile.

 Biogeocoeonosis:
o The term Biogeocoeonosis in soviet and central European literature describes the same
as what we understand through Ecosystem.

 System:
o A system is any ordered interrelated set of things and their attributes, linked by flow of
energy and matter, as distinct from their surrounding environment outside the system.
o Open System A natural system generally is not self contained, input of energy and
matter flow into the system and output flow from the system, Such a system is called
Open System.
o Closed System A system that is shut off from the surrounding environment so that it is
self contained, is a closed system.
o Earth is an open system in terms of energy, as are most natural system, solar energy
enters freely.

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 Structure of an Ecosystem:
 Biotic Components All living organisms present in environment e.g. plants, animals
and human beings.
 Abiotic Components It includes basic organism elements and compound e.g. soil,
water, oxygen, calcium carbonate, phosphates and variety of organic compound (by
product of organic activity).

 Components of Ecosystem:
 Abiotic Components: Abiotic components are the inorganic and nonliving parts of the
world.
 Energy- Energy from the sun is essential for maintenance of life.
 Substratum- Land is covered by soil and a wide variety of microbes, protozoa, fungi
and small animals (invertebrates) thrive in it.
 Rainfall- Water is essential for all living beings.
 Materials- Organic Compounds (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, humic substances),
Inorganic Compound (carbon, carbon dioxide, water, sulphur, nitrates, phosphates,
and ions of various metals)
 Temperature- Organisms can tolerate only a certain range of temperature and
humidity.
 Atmosphere- It is made up of 21% oxygen, 78 % nitrogen 0.038% carbon dioxide,
and other inert gases (0.93% Argon, Neon etc).
 Latitude and altitude- Latitude has a strong influence on an area's temperature,
resulting in change of climates such as tropical, temperate & polar.

 Biotic Components: Biotic components include living organisms comprising plants,


animals and microbes.
 Primary producers - Autotrophy (self nourishing) Primary producers are basically
green plants (and certain bacteria and algae).
 Consumers - Heterotrophy (other nourishing)
o Consumers are incapable of producing their own food (photosynthesis).
o They depend on organic food derived from plants, animals or both.
o Consumers can be divided into two broad groups namely micro and macro consumers.

 Consumers:
 Macro consumers:
o They feed on plants or animals or both and are categorised on the basis of their food
sources.
o Herbivores are primary consumers which feed mainly on plants e.g. cow, rabbit.
o Secondary consumers feed on primary consumers e.g. wolves.

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o Carnivores which feed on secondary consumers are called tertiary consumers e.g. lions
which can eat wolves.
o Omnivores are organisms which consume both plants and animals e.g. man

 Micro consumers- Saprotrophs (decomposers or osmotrophs):


o They are bacteria and fungi which obtain energy and nutrients by decomposing dead
organic substances (detritus) of plant and animal origin.
o The products of decomposition such as inorganic nutrients which are released in the
ecosystem are reused by producers and thus recycled.

 Function of an ecosystem:
o Radiant energy of the sun is the only significant energy source for any ecosystem. Thus,
the function of ecosystem can be studied under the following three heads;
 Energy flow
 Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles)
 Ecological succession or ecosystem development

 Energy flow:
o Energy is the basic force responsible for all metabolic activities. The flow of energy
from producer to top consumers is called energy flow which is unidirectional.

 Trophic level interaction:


o There is a loss of some energy in the form of unusable heat at each trophic level so that
energy level decreases from the first trophic level upwards.

o There are usually four or five trophic levels


o The trophic level interaction involves three concepts namely;
 Food Chain
 Food Web
 Ecological Pyramids

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 Food chain:
o The transfer of energy from one trophic level
to next trophic level is called Food Chain.
o In nature, two main types of food chains have
been distinguished:
 Grazing food chain: The consumers
which start the food chain, utilizing the
plant or plant part as their food, constitute
the grazing food chain.
 Detritus food chain: The food chain starts
from dead organic matter of decaying
animals and plant bodies to the micro-
organisms and then to detritus feeding
organism called detrivores or decomposer
and to other predators.

Grazing Food Chain Detritus Food Chain

Transfer of energy starts from Transfer of energy starts from


producers detritus or decomposing organic
matter.

Less energy flows through this. More energy flows through this.

In aquatic ecosystem, it is major In terrestrial ecosystem, it is the


conduit for energy transfer. major conduit for energy transfer.

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 Food web:
o Interconnected matrix of food chain.
o A food web illustrates, all possible transfers of energy and nutrients among the
organisms in an ecosystem, whereas a food chain traces only one pathway of the food.

 Ecological pyramids:
o The steps of trophic levels expressed in a diagrammatic way are referred as ecological
pyramids.
o The number, biomass and energy of organisms gradually decrease with each step from
the producer level to the consumer level.
o The ecological pyramids are of three categories.
 Pyramid of numbers,
 Pyramid of biomass, and
 Pyramid of energy or productivity.

 Pyramid of Numbers:
o This deals with the relationship between the numbers of primary producers and
consumers of different levels.

 Pyramid of numbers – upright:


o In this pyramid, the number of individuals is decreased from lower level to higher
trophic level.

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o This type of pyramid can be seen in grassland ecosystem.

 Pyramid of numbers inverted:


o In this pyramid, the number of individuals is increased from lower level to higher trophic
level.

 Pyramid of Biomass:
o In order to overcome the shortcomings of pyramid of numbers, the pyramid of biomass
is used.
o In this approach individuals in each trophic level are weighed instead of being counted.

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 Upward pyramid:
o For most ecosystems on land, the pyramid of biomass has a large base of primary
producers with a smaller trophic level perched on top.

 Inverted pyramid:
o In contrast, in many aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass may assume an
inverted form.

 Pyramid of Energy:
o To compare the functional roles of the trophic levels in an ecosystem, an energy pyramid
is most suitable.
o The pyramid is always upward, with a large energy base at the bottom.
o An energy pyramid, reflects the laws of thermodynamics

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 Questionary:

1. What are the main structural components of an ecosystem?


2. What are Food Chains and Food Webs?

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Chapter: 10
Ecosystem Part- 4

 Biogeochemical cycles:
 In Ecology, a bio-geo-chemical cycle is a circuit or pathway by which a chemical
element or molecule moves through both biotic and abiotic compartments of an
ecosystem.
 All chemical nutrients or elements used in ecosystem by living organisms such as
carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and phosphorus operate on a closed system. The Energy of an
ecosystem occurs in an open system.

 Nutrient Cycling:
 Gaseous
 Sedimentary

 Biogeochemical cycles:
 The following biogeochemical cycles are important in ecology;
 Nitrogen Cycle
 Phosphorus Cycle
 Oxygen Cycle
 Carbon Cycle
 Hydrogen Cycle
 Water Cycle

 Nitrogen Cycle:
o Source of N²:Molecular N² in the Atmosphere
o Cannot be metabolized by plants & animals.

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o Molecular N² enters the biological pathways of N² cycle due to activities of several free
living & symbiotic N² fixing microbes.
o Important free living N² fixing bacteria residing in soil are: Azotobacter (aerobic) and
clostridium (anaerobic)
o Cyanobacteria: responsible for N² fixing in flooded rice fields in the tropics;
(Anabaena, Aulosira, and Nostoc).
o Legumes: Symbiotic combination with bacteria Rhizobium; play an important role in
the N² economy of natural terrestrial as well as manmade ecosystem.
o Ammonification: It is done by many heterotrophic bacteria actinomycetes and fungi, by
enzymatic ally degrading organic nitrogen, like protein and nucleic acid contained in
detritus into ammonia.
o Nitrification: Ammonia is converted into nitrite by the bacterium Nitrosomonas
followed by the conversion of nitrite into nitrate by Nitrobacter.

 Phosphorus Cycle:
o Major constituent of nucleic acid, cell membrane,
cellular energy transfer s/m, bones & teeth.
o Rocks and natural phosphate deposits are the main
reservoirs of phosphorus.

o Phosphorus occurs in soil solution mainly as


orthophosphate (PO4³).
o Absorption of phosphorus by the higher plants is promoted by the presence of
mycorrhizae.

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 Ecological Succession:
o Ecological succession is the gradual process by which ecosystem changes and develops
over time.
o Changes of community structure due to environmental change through time are called
succession.
Pioneer: Climax ( Stable community or end point of succession)
o The series of communities that follow one another on the way to the stable stage is
called Sere.
o Each of the temporary communities is called Seral Stage.
Climax: It refers to stable and self perpetuating stage i.e.; the community that
seemingly resists further change i.e.; what appears to be culminating of succession
process.
o Ecological succession was 1st presented formally by American Ecologist F.E. Clement
(1916)
o Clement believes in;
 Orderly Evaluation
 Mono-climax Idea
 Climax determined by Climate
 In the early stage the number of species keeps increasing but as stability is achieved a
few usually become dominant and eliminate some rarer species by competition.
 Therefore, at the maturity stage, there may be reduction in the number of species.
o A.G. Tansley believed in Poly-climax idea, according to him a mosaic of climax could
be present in one climatic area. These climaxes might be controlled by factors like
climate, soil, topography, fire etc.

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o Whittaker considers that, there is no absolute climax determined by environmental
condition. According to him, any community is an expression of its particular
environment/habitat and is therefore unique.
o Communities are constantly adjusting in response to physical environment.

 Climax community or Individual succession?


o The community unit theory was opposed by H.A.Gleason, who saw community history
as a much more unpredictable process.
o He argued that species are individualistic, each getting established according to its
ability to colonize and reproduce in an area.
o Gleason suggested that we see ecosystem as a stable and uniform only because our life
times are so short and our view is so limited.

 Concluding Remark:
o The process of succession may not be as deterministic as we once thought, yet mature or
highly developed ecological community do often tend to be resilient and stable over long
periods.
o Perhaps, it is more accurate to say that the rate of succession is slow in a climax
community that from the perspective of a single human life time, it appears to be
unchanged.

 Ecological Succession:
o Ecological Succession is broadly of 2 types;
 Primary Succession
 Secondary Succession

 Primary Succession:
o Primary succession is on a site previously occupied by living organisms.
o For Ex; a newly emerged island, a newly formed body of water or a new volcanic flows
etc.
o This succession begins with pioneer species (often microbes, mosses, lichens etc) that
can withstand harsh condition and lack of resources.
o Pioneer species lead to environmental modification called Ecological Development or
Facilitation.
o The pioneer species gradually disappears as the environment changes, a new species
combination replaces the preceding community.

 Secondary Succession:
o When an existing community is disrupted and a new one subsequently develops at the
site.

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o This disruption may be natural, catastrophic; like a fire or flood or human activity like
mining or deforestation.
o At present we find more examples of secondary succession around us.

 Questionary:

1. What are the types of biogeochemical cycle? Why is it important?


2. What is ecological succession and what is the difference between primary and
secondary succession?

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Chapter: 11
Conservation Efforts

 Project Tiger- Tiger Conservation:


o Indian tiger population at the end of the 20th century was estimated at 20,000 to 40,000
individuals.
o The first country-wide tiger census conducted in 1972 estimated the population to
comprise a little more than 1,800 individuals, an alarming reduction in tiger population.
o In 1973, Project Tiger was launched in the Palamau Tiger Reserve, and various tiger
reserves were created in the country based on a ‘core-buffer’ strategy.
o India has more than 80 national parks and 441 Sanctuaries of which some have been
declared as Tiger reserves.
o Tiger reserves are governed by the Project Tiger (1973).
o It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme of the Ministry of Environment and Forests.
o It is administered by the National Tiger Conservation Authority.
o Aim: Protect tigers from extinction by ensuring a viable population in their natural
habitats.
o Government has set up a Tiger Protection Force under PT to combat poachers.
o PT funds relocation of villagers to minimize human-tiger conflicts.

 Core & Buffer Zone:


 Core Zone:
o The core area is kept free of biotic disturbances and forestry operations, where collection
of minor forest produce, grazing, human disturbances are not allowed within.
o These areas are required to be kept for the purposes of tiger conservation, without
affecting the rights of the Scheduled Tribes or such other forest dwellers.

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o These areas are notified by the State Government in consultation with an Expert
Committee (constituted for that purpose).

 Buffer Zone:
o The Act defines buffer zone as the area peripheral to the critical tiger habitat or core area
providing supplementary habitat for dispersing tigers, besides offering scope for co-
existence of human activity (tribals).
o The limits of such areas are determined with the concerned Gram Sabha and an Expert
Committee constituted for the purpose.

 Tiger Task Force:


o The implementation of Project Tiger over the years has highlighted the need for a
statutory authority with legal backing to ensure tiger conservation.
o On the basis of the recommendations of National Board for Wild Life, a Task Force was
set up to look into the problems of tiger conservation in the country.
o The recommendations of the Task Force include strengthening of Project Tiger by
giving it statutory and administrative powers.

National Board for Wild Life ==> Tiger Task Force ==> National Tiger
Conservation Authority

 National Tiger Conservation Authority:


o The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) was established in December 2005
following a recommendation of the Tiger Task Force.
o National Tiger Conservation Authority administers Project Tiger.
o Administration of the tiger reserves will be in accordance with guidelines of NTCA.
o Tiger reserves in India are administered by field directors as mandated by NTCA.
o No alteration in the boundaries of a tiger reserve shall be made except on a
recommendation of the NTCA and the approval of the National Board for Wild Life.
o No State Government shall de-notify a tiger reserve, except in public interest with the
approval of the NTCA and the approval of the National Board for Wild Life.

 The Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2006:


o The Act provides for creating;
 National Tiger Conservation Authority and
 Tiger and Other Endangered Species Crime Control Bureau (Wildlife Crime Control
Bureau).

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 NTCA members:
o The Wildlife Protection Amendment Act, 2006 provides for the constitution of the
National Tiger Conservation Authority.
o NTCA was set up under the Chairmanship of the Minister for Environment and Forests.
o The Authority will have;
 Eight experts having qualifications in wildlife conservation and welfare tribals,
 3 MPs,
 The Inspector General of Forests, in charge of project Tiger, will be ex-officio Member
Secretary

 Functions of NTCA:
o The Authority lays down standards, guidelines for tiger conservation in the Tiger
Reserves, National Parks and Sanctuaries.
o It would provide information on protection measures including future plan for
conservation.
o A provision has been made for the State Governments to prepare a Tiger Conservation
Plan.
o State level Steering Committees will be set up in the Tiger States under
the Chairmanship of respective Chief Ministers. This has been done with a view for
ensuring coordination, monitoring and protection of tigers in the States.
o The Authority would facilitate and support tiger reserve management in the States
through eco-development and people’s participation.
o The Tiger Conservation Authority would be required to prepare an Annual Report,
which would be laid in the Parliament along with the Audit Report.
o Provision will be made for the States to establish a Tiger Conservation
Foundation, based on the good practices emanating from some tiger reserves.

 Steps Taken by the Government:


o Legal Steps
o Administrative Steps
o Financial Steps

 Legal Steps:
o Amendment of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 to Wild Life (Protection) Act, 2006
for providing enabling provisions towards constituting the National Tiger Conservation
Authority and the Tiger and Other Endangered Species Crime Control Bureau.
o Enhancement of punishment in cases of offence relating to a tiger reserve or its core
area.

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 Administrative Steps:
o Strengthening of ant poaching activities, including special strategy for monsoon
patrolling.
o State level Steering Committees under the Chairmanship of Chief Ministers and
establishment of Tiger Conservation Foundation.
o Creation of Special Tiger Protection Force (STPF) [Budget 2008].

 Financial Steps:
o Financial and technical help is provided to the States under various Centrally Sponsored
Schemes, viz. Project Tiger and Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats.

 International Cooperation:
o India has signed a with Bangladesh for conservation of the Royal Bengal Tiger.
o A Global Tiger Forum of Tiger Range Countries has been created for addressing
international issues related to tiger conservation.
o India has a bilateral understanding with Nepal on controlling trans-boundary illegal trade
in wildlife.
o India is a party to CITES. CITES’s landmark decision states that ‘tigers should not be
bred for trade in their parts and derivatives’.
o India has signed a protocol on tiger conservation with China.
o A Global Tiger Forum of Tiger Range Countries has been created for addressing
international issues related to tiger conservation.
o “There are eight subspecies of tiger: among the eight, at present five subspecies are
present in the wild. They are: Bengal, South China, Indochinese, Sumatran, and
Siberian. Three subspecies of tiger—Caspian, Bali, and Javan—are extinct”.

 Reasons for falling number of tigers:


 Pressure on habitat, Habitat fragmentation and Habitat destruction:
o Caused due to large-scale development projects such as dams, industry, mines, railway
lines etc.
 Incessant poaching:
o Tigers are killed so their body parts can be used for Traditional Chinese Medicine.
 Invasive species:
o Destroy the local producers. This has a cascading effect on the food chain. Tigers are the
worst hit as they are at the end of the food chain. [Tigers represent an “Umbrella
Species” that indicate the health of the ecosystem.]

 Reasons for slightly increased tiger population recently:


o Wireless communication systems and outstation patrol camps have been developed
within the tiger reserves, due to which poaching has declined considerably.

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o Fire protection is effectively done by suitable preventive and control measures.
o Voluntary Village relocation has been done in many reserves.
o Livestock grazing has been controlled to a great extent in the tiger reserves.
o Stringent punishments for violators.
o GIS based digitized database development to evaluate tiger population.
o Various compensatory developmental works have improved the water regime and the
ground and field level vegetation.

 Estimation of Tiger Populations:


o It is conducted at regular intervals to know the current tiger populations and population
trends.
o Besides estimating the number of tigers the method also helps to gather information on
the density of the tiger populations and associated prey.
o The process of estimating the number of tigers in a given area is called ‘Tiger censuses.
o The most commonly used technique in the past was ‘Pugmark Census Technique’.
o In this method the imprints of the pugmark of the tiger were recorded and used as a basis
for identification of individuals.
o Recent methods used to estimate the numbers of tigers are camera trapping and DNA
fingerprinting.
o In camera trapping, the photograph of the tiger is taken and individuals are differentiated
on the basis of the stripes on the body.
o Now it is largely used as one of the indices of tiger occurrence and relative abundance.
o In the latest technique of DNA fingerprinting, tigers can be identified from their scats.

 Project Elephant:
o Tiger faces threat of extinction, whereas the elephant faces threat of attrition. The
elephant numbers have not increased or decreased drastically but there is an increasing
pressure on the elephant habitats and it is a serious concern which has to be addressed by
involving people in elephant conservation and welfare.
o Project Elephant was launched in 1992.
o It is a centrally sponsored scheme.

 Objectives:
o The Project is being mainly implemented in 13 States/UTs, viz. Andhra Pradesh,
Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Meghalaya, Nagaland,
Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Small support is also
being given to Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh.
o To assist states having populations of wild elephants and to ensure long term survival of
identified viable populations of elephants in their natural habitats.

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o States are being given financial as well as technical assistance in achieving the
objectives of the Project.
o Developing scientific and planned management measures for conservation of elephants.
o Protecting the elephants from poachers, preventing illegal ivory trade and other
unnatural causes of death
o Addressing man-animal conflict.

 Elephant Corridor:
o An elephant corridor is defined as a stretch/narrow strip of forested (or otherwise) land
that connects larger habitats with elephant populations and forms a conduit for animal
movement between the habitats. This movement helps enhance species survival and
birth rate.
o There are 88 identified elephant corridors in India.
o Out of total 88 corridors, 20 were in south India, 12 in north-western India, 20 in central
India, 14 in northern West Bengal and 22 in north-eastern India.

 Threats to Elephant Corridors:


o Habitat loss leading to fragmentation and destruction caused by developmental activities
like construction of buildings, roads, railways, holiday resorts and the fixing solar
energized electric fencing, etc.
o Coal mining and iron ore mining is the two “single biggest threats” to elephant corridors
in central India.
o Orissa, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, are mineral-rich states, but also have the highest
number of elephant corridors in the country, which makes them known for elephant-man
conflicts.
o Elephants need extensive grazing grounds and most reserves cannot accommodate them.
If protected areas are not large enough, elephants may search for food elsewhere. This
often results in conflicts with humans, due to elephants raiding or destroying crops.
o There is also a serious poaching problem, as elephant ivory from the tusks is extremely
valuable.

 Mitigation:
o During the process of securing a corridor, monitoring for animal movement have to be
carried out; depending on the need, habitat restoration work shall also be done.
o Fusion of the corridors with nearby protected areas wherever feasible; in other cases,
declaration as Ecologically Sensitive Areas or conservation reserves to grant protection.
o Securing the corridors involves sensitizing local communities to the option of voluntarily
relocation outside the conflict zones to safer areas.
o Preventing further fragmentation of the continuous forest habitat by encroachment from
urban areas.

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 Monitoring of Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) Programme:
o Mandated by COP resolution of CITES, MIKE program started in South Asia in the year
2003 with following purpose:
o To provide information needed for elephant range States to make appropriate
management and enforcement decisions, and to build institutional capacity within the
range States for the long-term management of their elephant populations

 Haathi Mere Saathi:


o Haathi Mere Saathi is a campaign launched by the Ministry of environment and forest
(MoEF) in partnership with the wildlife trust of India (WTI).
o The campaign was launched at the “Elephant- 8” Ministerial meeting held in Delhi in
2011.
o The E-8 countries comprise of India, Botswana, the Republic of Congo, Indonesia,
Kenya, Srilanka, Tanzania, and Thailand.
o This public initiative was aimed at increasing awareness among people and developing
friendship, companionship between people and elephants.

 The campaign mascot ‘Gaju’:


o The campaign focuses on various target audience groups including locals near elephant
habitats, youth, and policy makers, among others.
o It envisions setting up of Gajah (the elephant) centers in elephant landscapes across the
country to spread awareness on their plight and invoke people’s participation in
addressing the threats to them.

 Elephant – 8 Ministerial Meeting:


o The E-8 ministerial meeting represented regions with all 3 species of elephants, viz.,
 Asian elephant
 African Bush Elephant
 African Forest Elephant

o Discussions covered a wide range of issues categorized under three basic themes.
 Science and conservation
 Management and conservation
 Cultural and Ethical perspectives of conservation

 Indian (One Horn) Rhino Vision 2020:


o One horned rhinos are poached for their horns.
o Indian rhino vision 2020 implemented by the department of environment and forests,
Assam.

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o The programme will be supported by WWF — India, the international rhino foundation
(IRF), and a number of local NGOs.
o Translocations are the backbone of the IRV 2020 program.
o Translocating rhinos will help to create a viable population of this threatened species.
o Manas National Park was selected as the first site for translocation of rhinos.
o The vision of this program is to increase the total rhino foundation in Assam from about
2000 to 3000 by the year 2020 and to ensure that these rhinos are distributed over at least
7 protected areas (PA) to provide long term viability of the one-horned rhino population.
o The goal set was to populate the potential rhino habitat areas identified viz. Manas NP,
Dibru Saikhowa WLS, Laokhowa – Bura Chapori WLS with a viable population of
rhino through translocations from Kaziranga NP and Pobitora WLS.
o Ten rhinos have been released into Manas since 2008. Ten more rhinos will be moved
from Kaziranga National Park before the end of the year.

 Why?
o Concentrating so many rhinos in a single protected area like Kaziranga exposes the
species to risks of calamities (epidemics, floods, massive poaching attempts).
o Further, rhinos in Pabitora have exceeded carrying capacity and numbers must be
reduced to protect the habitat and to mitigate the increasing rhino-human conflicts.

 Project Snow Leopard:


o The snow leopard is a globally endangered species.
o Merely 7,500 are estimated to be surviving over two million square kilometers in the
Himalaya and Central Asian mountains.
o Most snow leopards occur in China, followed by Mongolia and India.
o Threats posed due to
 Human interference,
 competition with livestock – people kill them to save their livestock,
 retreating deeper into mountains due to global warming, and
 Poaching.

 Why to conserve the high altitude ecosystem?


o This includes highly endangered populations of species such as the snow leopard, two
species of bears, wolf, red panda, mountain ungulates such as the wild yak, chiru,
Tibetan gazelle, Tibetan argali, Ladakh urial, two species of musk deer, the hangul, three
species of goral, serow, and takin, etc.
o The high altitudes of India (> 3000 m) (including the Himalaya and Trans-Himalaya
biogeography zones) support a unique wildlife assemblage of global conservation
importance.

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o High altitude lakes and bogs provide breeding grounds for a variety of avifauna
including the black-necked crane, barheaded Geese, brahminy ducks, and brown-headed
gulls, etc.
o India has ratified international agreements promoting the conservation of high altitude
wildlife species such as the snow leopard.
o Similarly, in 2003, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
(CITES) expanded the scope of the CITES Tiger Enforcement Task Force to include all
Asian big cat species including the snow leopard.
o In 2003, the Convention on Migratory Species included the snow leopard as a
Concerted Action Species under its Appendix I.

 Sea Turtle Project:


o One of the important achievements have been demonstration of use of Satellite
Telemetry to locate the migratory route of Olive Ridley Turtles in the sea and sensitizing
the fishermen and State Government for the use of Turtle Exclusion Device (TED) in
fishing trawlers to check turtle mortality in fishing net.
o A significant proportion of world’s Olive Ridley Turtle population migrates every winter
to Indian coastal waters for nesting mainly at eastern coast.
o The project has helped in preparation of inventory map of breeding sites of Sea Turtles,
identification of nesting and breeding habitats along the shore line, and migratory routes
taken by Sea Turtles, development of guidelines to safeguard and minimize turtle
mortality.
o The project is being implemented in 10 coastal States of the country with special
emphasis in State of Orissa.
o With the objective of conservation of olive ridley turtles and other endangered marine
turtles, MoEF initiated the Sea Turtle Conservation Project in collaboration of UNDP in
1999 with Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun as the Implementing Agency.

 Indian Crocodile Conservation Project:


o The Indian Crocodile Conservation Project has pulled back the once threatened
crocodilians from the brink of extinction and place them on a good path of recovery.

 Objectives:
o To protect the remaining population of crocodilians in their natural habitat by creating
sanctuaries.
o To rebuild natural population quickly through ‘grow and release’ or ‘rear and release’
technique.
o To promote captive breeding.
 Captive breeding means that members of a wild species are captured, then bred and

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raised in a special facility under the care of wildlife biologists and other expert.
 Bringing an animal into captivity may represent the last chance to preserve a species in
the wild.

o To take-up research to improve management.


o To build up a level of trained personnel for better continuity of the project through
training imparted at project-sites and through the (erstwhile) Central Crocodile Breeding
and Management Training Institute, Hyderabad.
o To involve the local people in the project intimately.

 Project Hangul:
o The Kashmir stag also called Hangul is a subspecies of Central Asian Red Deer native to
northern India.
o It is the state animal of Jammu & Kashmir.
o This dwindled to as low as 150 animals by 1970. However, the state of Jammu &
Kashmir, along with the IUCN and the WWF prepared a project for the protection of
these animals.
o Unfortunately, they were threatened, due to habitat destruction, over-grazing by
domestic livestock and poaching.
o In Kashmir, it’s found in Dachigam National Park at elevations of 3,035 meters.
o These deer once numbered from about 5,000 animals in the beginning of the 20th
century.
o It became known as Project Hangul. This brought great results and the population
increased to over 340 by 1980.

 Ganges Dolphin:
o The Ministry of Environment and Forests notified the Ganges River Dolphin as
the National Aquatic Animal.
o The River Dolphin inhabits the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna and Karnaphuli-Sangu
river systems of Nepal, India, and Bangladesh.
o It is estimated that their total population is around 2,000 and they are listed in Schedule I
of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972).
o The Ganges Dolphin is among the four “obligate” freshwater dolphins found in the
world the other three are the ‘baiji found in the Yangtze River (China), the ‘bhulan’ of
the Indus (Pakistan) and the ‘boto’ of the Amazon River (Latin America).
o The Chinese River Dolphin was declared functionally extinct by a team of international
scientists in 2006.
o In India, the Ganges River Dolphin is threatened by river water pollution and siltation,
accidental entanglement in fishing nets and poaching for their oil.

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o In addition, alterations to the rivers in the form of barrages and dams are separating
populations.
o Although there are several species of marine dolphins whose ranges include some
freshwater habitats, these four species live only in rivers and lakes.

 Questionary:

1. Why was the Project Tiger initialized in India? What are its essential
features?
2. Why are tiger numbers decreasing?

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Chapter: 12
International Conventions

 Major International Conventions to Protect Environment:


 Nature conservation:
o United Nations Conference On Environment And Development (UNCED)
o Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
o Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
o Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES)
o The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network (TRAFFIC)
o Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS)
o Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking (CAWT)
o International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTC)
o United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF)
o International Union for Conservation of Nature Natural Resources (IUCN)
o Global Tiger Forum (GTF)

 Hazardous material:
o Stockholm Convention
o Basel Convention
o Rotterdam Convention

 Land:
o United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
 Marine environment:
o International Whaling Commission (IWC)

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 Atmosphere:
o Vienna convention and Montreal Protocol
o United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
o Kyoto Protocol

 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED):


o 190 countries pledged their commitment to achieve by 2010, a significant reduction in
the current rate of biodiversity loss at global, regional and local levels.
o Earth Summit 1992 is also known as The United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development (UNCED).
o In 2012, the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development was also held in
Rio, and is also commonly called Rio+20 or Rio Earth Summit 2012.
o As a follow-up, the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Rio+10) was held in
2002 in Johannesburg, South Africa.

The issues addressed included;


o Systematic scrutiny of patterns of production.
o Alternative sources of energy.
o New reliance on public transportation systems in order to reduce vehicle emissions.
o The growing scarcity of water.

The Earth Summit resulted in the following documents:


o Rio declaration on environment and development
o Agenda21
o Forest Principles

Moreover, two important legally binding agreements;


o Convention on Biological Diversity
o Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

 Agenda 21:
o Agenda 21 is an action plan of the United Nations (UN) related to sustainable
development.
o It is a comprehensive blueprint of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally by
organizations of the UN, governments, and major groups in every area.
o The number 21 refers to an agenda for the 21st century.

 Agenda 21 for culture:


o During the first World Public Meeting on Culture, held in Porto Alegre, Brazil in 2002,
it came up with the idea to draw up document guidelines for local cultural policies.

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o The Agenda 21 for culture is the first document with worldwide mission that advocates
establishing the groundwork of an undertaking by cities and local governments for
cultural development.

 Rio+5:
o In 1997, the General Assembly of the UN held a special session to appraise five years of
progress on the implementation of Agenda 21 (Rio +5).
o The Assembly recognized progress as 'uneven‘ and identified key trends including
increasing globalization, widening inequalities in income and a continued deterioration
of the global environment.

 The Johannesburg Summit:


o The Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, agreed at the World Summit on Sustainable
Development (Earth Summit 2002) affirmed UN commitment to full implementation of
Agenda 21, alongside achievement of the Millennium Development Goals and other
international agreements.

 Rio +20:
o "Rio+20" is the short name for the United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development which took place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 2012.
The official discussions focused on two main themes:
 How to build a green economy to achieve sustainable development and lift people out of
poverty; and
 How to improve international coordination for sustainable development.

 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD):


o CBD is a legally binding Convention recognized for the first time.
o Agreement covers all ecosystems, species and genetic resources.

 Three main goals:


o The conservation of biodiversity.
o Sustainable use of the components of biodiversity.
o Sharing the benefits arising from the commercial and other utilization of genetic
resources in a fair and equitable way.

 Cartagena Protocol on Bio safety:


o Biosafety refers to the need to protect human health and the environment from the
possible adverse effects of the products of modern biotechnology.

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The Convention clearly recognizes these twin aspects of modern biotechnology.
o Access to and transfer of technologies
o Appropriate procedures to enhance the safety of biotechnology technologies.

 Objective:
o The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety is an additional agreement to the Convention on
Biological Diversity.
o The Protocol establishes procedures for regulating the import and export of LMOs from
one country to another.

 Nagoya-Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol:


o The Cartagena Protocol is reinforced by the Nagoya Kuala Lumpur Supplementary
Protocol on Liability and Redress.
o The Supplementary Protocol specifies response measures to be taken in the event of
damage to biodiversity resulting from LMOs.

 Nagoya Protocol:
o It provides a transparent legal framework for the effective implementation of one of the
three objectives of the CBD.

 Objective:
o Is the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic
resources, thereby contributing to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.

 The Biodiversity Target:


o Adopted in May 2002 during the sixth Conference of the Parties to the CBD.
o Target aimed to achieve, by 2010, a significant reduction of the current rate of
biodiversity loss at the global, regional and national level.

 Strategic Plan For Biodiversity 2011-2020:


o In the tenth meeting of the, Conference of the Parties, held in 2010, in Nagoya, Aichi
Prefecture, Japan, adopted a revised and updated Strategic Plan for Biodiversity,
including the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, for the 2011-2020 period.

 Aichi biodiversity targets:


o The strategic plan which is outcome of the Nagoya Protocol is “Aichi Target”.
o It includes 20 headline targets, organized under five strategic goals that address the
underlying causes of biodiversity loss, reduce the pressures on biodiversity, safeguard
biodiversity at all levels, enhance the benefits provided by biodiversity, and provide for
capacity-building.

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 Important Agreements:
o Through conservation and restoration, Governments will restore at least 15 percent of
degraded areas
o Will make special efforts to reduce the pressures faced by coral reefs.
o Parties also agreed to a substantial increase in the level of financial resources in support
of implementation of the Convention.
o At least halve and where feasible bring close to zero the rate of loss of natural habitats
including forests
o Established a target of 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water areas and 10 per cent of
marine and coastal areas

 CoP 11 Hyderabad:
o India has committed US $50 million towards strengthening the institutional mechanism
for biodiversity conservation in the country during its presidency of the Convention on
Biodiversity (CBD) called the “Hyderabad Pledge”.
o Commitment of the Parties to double the international financial flows for Biodiversity by
2015.

 Questionary:

1. What is the United Nations Agenda 21?


2. What is the importance of conservation?

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Chapter: 13
Climate Change Part- 1

o Ocean acidification, Ozone Depletion, Impact of Climate change in India, Mitigation


strategies
o India & Climate change
o Climate change Organizations
o Global Warming, Green house effect, green house gases, Global warming potential,
Receding Glaciers

 Introduction:
o ‘Climate change’ is a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to
human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in
addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.
o Climate is the long-term average of a region's weather events.
o The major characteristics of climate change include rise in average global temperature,
ice cap melting, changes in precipitation, and increase in ocean temperature leading to
sea level rise.

 Global warning:
o "Global warming is an average increase in the temperature of the atmosphere near the
Earth's surface and in the troposphere, which can contribute to changes in global climate
patterns.
o In common usage, global warming often refers to the warming that can occur as a result
of increased emission of greenhouse gases from human activities.
o Increase in the average global temperature of Earth’s atmosphere, near the surface and in
the troposphere.
o Global warming can occur from a variety of causes, both natural and human induced.

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 Global Warming – Impacts:
o Widespread vanishing of animal populations due to habitat loss
o Changes in rainfall patterns
o Melting of the ice caps
o Bleaching of Coral Reefs
o Loss of Plankton due to warming of seas.
o Increased likelihood of extreme events such as heat wave, flooding, hurricanes
o Melting of glaciers
o Widespread vanishing
o Loss of Plankton due to warming of seas.

 Green House (Glass House):


o A greenhouse/ glasshouse are a
building made of glass
chambers in which plants are
grown in cold countries or in
cold climate areas.
o There is a continued increase in
temperature in green house
even when the outside
temperature remained low.
o It protects plants from frost.

 Greenhouse Effect:
o The greenhouse effect is a process (similar to green house) caused by greenhouse gases,
which occur naturally in the atmosphere. This process plays a crucial role in warming
the Earth's surface, making it habitable.
o However, human-generated greenhouse gas emissions upset the natural balance and lead
to increased warmth.
o Naturally occurring phenomenon that blankets the lower atmosphere and warms it,
maintaining the temperature suitable for living to survive.
o Frozen and lifeless in the absence of Green House Effects, like moon
o Venus- thick atmosphere
o Average temperature: 15°C
o In the absence of green house effect: -19°C
o Gas that absorbs and emits infrared Radiation are known as Green House Gases.

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 Greenhouse Gases:
o Greenhouse gases means those gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and
anthropogenic, those absorbs and re-emit infrared radiation.
o Water Vapour ( H2O)
o Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
o Methane (CH4)
o Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
o Fluorinated Gases (HFCs, PFCs, SF6, etc.)
o Nitrogen Fluoride ( NF3)

 Water Vapour ( H2O):


o Water vapour is the biggest overall contributor to the greenhouse effect and humans are
not directly responsible for emitting this gas in quantities sufficient to change its
concentration in the atmosphere.
o However, C02 and other greenhouse gases are increasing the amount of water vapour in
the air by boosting the rate of evaporation.

 Carbon dioxide:
o Human activities are altering the carbon cycle bpth by adding more co2 to the
atmosphere and by reducing the ability of natural sinks, like forests, to remove co2 from
the atmosphere.
o While co2 emissions come from a variety of natural sources, human-related emissions
are responsible for the increase that has occurred in the atmosphere since the industrial
revolution.
o Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the primary greenhouse gas emitted through human activities.
Carbon dioxide is naturally present in the atmosphere as part of the Earth's carbon cycle
(the natural circulation of carbon among the atmosphere, oceans, soil, plants, and
animals).

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 Main Sources:
o Many industrial processes emit C02 through fossil fuel combustion.
o The combustion of fossil fuels to generate electricity.
o The combustion of fossil fuels such as gasoline and diesel used for transportation.
o Several processes also produce C02 emissions through chemical reactions that do not
involve combustion, for example, the production and consumption of mineral products
such as cement, the production of metals such as iron and steel, and the production of
chemicals, etc.

 Methane:
o Methane (CH4) is emitted by natural sources such as wetlands, as well as human
activities such as leakage from natural gas systems and the raising of livestock.
o Natural processes in soil and chemical reactions in the atmosphere help remove CH4
from the atmosphere.

 Sources:
 Natural Sources:
o Wetlands are the largest source, emitting CH4 from bacteria that decompose organic
materials in the absence of oxygen.
o Smaller sources include termites, oceans, sediments, volcanoes, and wildfires.
 Human Induced:
o Agriculture
o Industry
o Waste from home and businesses

 Nitrous oxide:
o Nitrous oxide (N20) is naturally present in the atmosphere as part of the Earth’s nitrogen
cycle, and has a variety of natural sources.
o However, human activities such as agriculture, fossil fuel combustion, wastewater
management, and industrial processes are increasing the amount of N20 in the
atmosphere.

 Sources:
 Natural Sources:
o Natural emissions of N20 are mainly from bacteria breaking down nitrogen in soils and
the oceans.
 Human Induced:
o Agriculture
o Industry
o Transportation

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 Fluorinated Gases:
o They are emitted through a variety of industrial processes such as aluminum and
semiconductor manufacturing & Substitution for Ozone-Depleting Substances.
o Fluorinated gases are removed from the atmosphere only when they are destroyed by
sunlight in the far upper atmosphere. In general, fluorinated gases are the most potent
and longest lasting type of greenhouse gases emitted by human activities.

 Main Categories:
o There are three main categories of fluorinated gases
 hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs),
 per fluorocarbons (PFCs), and
 Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6).

 Substitution for Ozone-Depleting Substances:


o Hydro fluorocarbons are used as refrigerants, aerosol propellants, solvents, and fire
retardants.
o These chemicals were developed as a replacement for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) because they do not deplete the stratospheric ozone
layer.

 Industry:
o Per fluorocarbons are ,compounds produced as a by-product of various industrial
processes associated with aluminum production and the manufacturing of
semiconductors.
o Like HFCs, PFCs generally have long atmospheric lifetimes and high GWPs.
o Sulfur hexafluoride is used in magnesium processing and semiconductor manufacturing,
as well as a tracer gas for leak detection.
o HFC-23 is produced as a by-product of HCFC-22 production.

 Transmission and Distribution of Electricity:


o Sulfur hexafluoride is used in electrical transmission equipment, including circuit
breakers.

 Black Carbon:
o Black carbon (BC) is a solid particle or aerosol, (though not a gas) contributes to
warming of the atmosphere.
o Black carbon, commonly known as soot, is a form of particulate air pollutant, produced
from incomplete combustion. It consists of pure carbon in several linked forms.

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 Sources:
o Biomass burning,
o Cooking with solid fuels, and
o Diesel exhaust, etc.

 What does BC do?


o Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing heat in the atmosphere and by reducing
albedo, when deposited on snow and ice.
o BC is the strongest absorber of sunlight and heats the air directly.
o Regionally, BC disrupts cloudiness and monsoon rainfall and accelerates melting of
mountain glaciers such as the Hindu Kush-Himalayan glaciers.

 Government Measures:
o Project Surya has been launched to reduce black carbon in atmosphere by introducing
efficient stove technologies, solar cookers, solar lamps and biogas plants.

 Brown Carbon:
o Brown carbon is a ubiquitous and unidentified component of organic aerosol which has
recently come into the forefront of atmospheric research.
o Light-absorbing organic matter (other than soot) in atmospheric aerosols of various
origins, e.g., soil humics, humic-like substances (HULIS), tarry materials from
combustion, bioaerosols, etc.

 Possible Sources of Brown Carbon:


o Biomass burning (possibly domestic wood burning) is shown to be a major source of
brown carbon
o Smoke from agricultural fires may be an additional source.
o "Brown carbon” is generally referred for greenhouse gases and "black carbon" for
particles resulting from impure combustion, such as soot and dust.

 Global Warming Potential:


o Global warming potential describes the impact of each gas on global warming.
o The two most important characteristics of a GHG in terms of climate impact are how
well the gas absorbs energy (preventing it from immediately escaping to space), and how
long the gas stays in the atmosphere.
o The Global Warming Potential (GWP) for a gas is a measure of the total energy that a
gas absorbs over a particular period of time (usually 100 years), compared to carbon
dioxide.

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 GWP & Lifetime of Green House Gases:

S.No. GAS GWP (100 years) Lifetime (years)

1 Carbon dioxide 1 100

2 Methane 21 12

3 Nitrous Oxide 310 120

4 Hydro fluoro carbons (HFCs) 140 – 11,700 1 – 270

5 Perfluoro carbons (PFCs) 6,500 – 9,200 800 – 50,000

6 Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) 23,900 3,200

o Carbon dioxide (C02) has a GWP of 1 and serves as a baseline for other GWP
values
 Receding Glaciers:
o A symptom of Global Climate change
o 150 years ago there were 147 glaciers in Glacier National park, but today only 37
glaciers remain, and scientists predict that they are likely to melt by the year 2030.
o Similarly, glaciers all across the Himalayas and Alps are retreating and disappearing
every year. There are almost 160,000 glaciers found in Polar Regions and high mountain
environments.
o Therefore, researchers are increasingly using satellite remote sensors to routinely survey
our world's glaciers in a fraction of the time.

 Impact of glacial retreat:


o The retreat of glaciers in the Andes and the Himalayas will have a potential impact on
water supplies.
o Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall, causing changes
in mass-balance of a glacier.
o The Himalayas and other mountain chains of central Asia support large regions that are
glaciated. These glaciers provide critical water supplies to dry countries such as
Mongolia, western China, Pakistan and Afghanistan. The loss of these glaciers would
have a tremendous impact on the ecosystem of the region.

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 Questionary:

1. What are the environmental impacts of global warming? Explain in detail.


2. Describe any five factors which are responsible for affecting the climate?
Explain with the help of examples for each factor.

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Chapter: 14

Climate Change Part- 2

 Ocean Acidification
 Ozone Depletion

 Introduction:
o Oceans are an important reservoir for C02 absorbing a significant quantity of it (one-
third) produced by anthropogenic activities and effectively buffering climate change.
o Ocean acidification is the change in ocean chemistry - lowering of ocean pH (i.e.
increase in concentration of hydrogen ions) driven by the uptake of carbon compounds
by the ocean from the atmosphere.
o As the uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide by the ocean increases, the concentration of
hydrogen ions in the ocean increases, the concentration of carbonate ions decreases, the
pH of the ocean decreases and the oceans become less alkaline – this process is know as
ocean acidification.

 Co2 effect on ocean acidification:


o The uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide is occurring at a rate exceeding the natural
buffering capacity of the ocean.
o The pH of the ocean surface waters has decreased by about 0.1 pH unit (i.e. 26%
increases in ocean hydrogen ion concentration) since the beginning of the industrial
revolution.
o The ocean currently has a pH around 8.0 and is therefore 'basic' and it is nearly
impossible, chemically, for all of it to actually become a pH less than 7.0. Why do we
therefore refer to 'ocean acidification'?

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o That is because acidification is the direction of travel, the trend, regardless of the starting
point.
o Acidification refers to lowering pH from any starting point to any end point on the pH
scale.

 Influence of other factors:


 Acid rain:
o Acid rain can have a pH between 1 and 6 and has impact on surface ocean chemistry. It
has major effect on ocean acidification locally and regionally but very small globally.

 Eutrophication:
o Coastal waters are also affected by excess nutrient inputs, mostly nitrogen, from
agriculture, fertilizers and sewage. The resulting eutrophication leads to large plankton
blooms, and when these blooms collapse and sink to the sea bed the subsequent
respiration of bacteria decomposing the algae leads to a decrease in sea water oxygen
and an increase in C02 (a decline in pH).

 How it reacts?
o The term' ocean acidification' summarizes several processes that occur when C02 reacts
with sea water.
o CO2 + H2O  H2CO3
o H2CO3  H+ + HCO3—
o The above reaction and release of hydrogen ions increases acidity and thus pH level is
reduced.

 Effect of ocean acidification:


o Seawater absorbs CO2 to produce carbonic acid (CO3), bicarbonate (HCO3--) and
carbonate ions (CO32-).
o These carbonate ions are essential to the calcification process that allows certain marine
organisms to build their calcium carbonate shells and skeletons.
o However, increases in atmospheric CO2 levels lead to decrease in pH level, increase in
the concentration of carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions, causing a decrease in the
concentration of carbonate ions.
o Thus carbonate ions are less available and calcification is therefore harder to achieve.

 Mitigation:
o Reducing C02
o promoting government policies to cap co2 emissions,
o Eliminate offshore drilling.
o by .advocating for energy efficiency and

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o Alternative energy sources such as wind power, solar, etc.

 Ozone Depletion:
 Introduction:
o Ozone is a natural gas; it is an allotrope of oxygen consisting of three atoms of oxygen
bound together in a non-linear fashion. The chemical symbol of ozone is O3.
o It is found in two different layers of the atmosphere.
o The equilibrium between the formation and destruction of ozone, has been upset by the
influx of several substances into the atmosphere which react with ozone and destroy it.
o Ozone in the troposphere is “bad” because it dirties the air and helps to form smog,
which is not good to breathe.
o It implies that there is a significant decrease in the concentration of ozone in a particular
region of the atmosphere, hence the name ‘Ozone Depletion’.
o Ozone in the stratosphere is “good” because it protects life on earth by absorbing some
of the sun's harmful Ultra Violet (UV) rays.
o The best example of such an ozone hole is the, atmosphere over the Antarctic which has
only about 50 percent of the ozone that originally occurred there.
o The rate at which ozone is being destroyed is much faster than the rate at which it is
being formed.

 Sources:
o Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
o Nitrogen Oxides
o Other Substances; bromine containing compounds, Sulphuric Acid particles, Carbon
tetrachloride, Methyl chloroform and other aerosol.

 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs):
o They are used as refrigerants, propellants in aerosol sprays, foaming agents in plastic
manufacturing, fire extinguishing agents, solvents for cleaning electronic and metallic
components, for freezing foods etc.
o CFCs molecules are made up of chlorine, fluorine and carbon.
o Two-thirds of CFC is used as refrigerants while one third is used as blowing agents in
foam insulation products.

 Why CFCs are used?


o CFCs has a wide and varied application due to its properties like non-corrosiveness, non-
inflammability, low toxicity and chemical stability, etc.

 Lifetime & removal of CFCs:


o Unlike other chemicals, CFCs cannot be eliminated fom the atmosphere by the usual

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scavenging processes like photo dissociation, rain-out and oxidation.
o In fact, the residence time of CFCs in the atmosphere estimated to be between 40 and
150 years. During this period, the CFCs move upwards by random diffusion, from the
troposphere to the stratosphere.

 The escape of CFCs:


o The CFCs enter into the atmosphere by gradual evaporation from their source. CFCs can
escape into the atmosphere from a discarded refrigerator.
o The molecules of chlorine monoxide further combine with an atom of oxygen.
o This reaction results in the formation of an oxygen molecule (O2) and reformation of the
free chlorine atom (Cl).
o Since the CFCs are thermally stable they can survive in the troposphere. But in the
stratosphere, they are exposed to UV radiation.
o The molecules of CFCs when exposed to UV radiation break up, thus freeing chlorine
atoms. A free chlorine atom reacts with an ozone molecule to form chlorine monoxide
(CIO).

 Chemical Reaction:
o Chlorine +  Chlorine monoxide + Oxygen
o Chlorine monoxide + monoxide (O)  Chlorine + Oxygen
o Net Reaction:
o Ozone + monoxide (O)  Oxygen + Oxygen
o A single chlorine atom destroys thousands of ozone molecules before encountering
reactive nitrogen or hydrogen compound that eventually return chlorine to its reservoirs.
o The depletion of 03 is catalytic. The element that destroys O3 (i.e chlorine) is being
reformed at the end of cycle.

 CFC substitutes – Characteristics:


o The substitute for CFCs should be safe, low cost, increased energy efficiency of CFC
replacement technology, effective refrigerants with low ozone layer depletion potential
(ODP) and low global warming potential (GWP).
o CFC-12 (R-12) is a widely used refrigerant. HFC 134a (R-134a) is the most promising
alternative (R-143a) and (R-152a) can also be used.

 Nitrogen Oxides:
o The sources of nitrogen oxides are mainly explosions of thermonuclear weapons,
industrial emissions and agricultural fertilizers.
o Nitric oxide (NO) catalytically destroys ozone.

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 The escape of N 2 0:
o Nitrous oxide (N20) is released from solid through denitrification of nitrates under
anaerobic conditions and nitrification of ammonia under aerobic conditions.
o This N20 can gradually reach the middle of the stratosphere, where it is photolytic ally
destroyed to yield nitric oxide which in turn destroys ozone.

 Other Substances:
o Sulphuric acid particles: These particles free chlorine from molecular reservoirs, and
convert reactive nitrogen into inert forms thus preventing the formation of chlorine
reservoirs.
o Carbon tetrachloride (a cheap, highly toxic solvent) and methyl chloroform (used as a
cleaning solvent for clothes and metals, and a propellant in a wide range of consumer
products, such as correction fluid, dry cleaning sprays, spray adhesives) and other
aerosols.
o Bromine containing compounds called halons and HBFCs, i.e. hydrobromo
fluorocarbons [both used in fire extinguishers and methyl bromide (a widely used
pesticide)]. Each bromine atom destroys hundred times of more ozone molecules than
what a chlorine atom does.
o Sulphuric acid particles: These particles free chlorine

 Environmental Effects Of Ozone Depletion:


o Effects on human and animal health
o Effects on terrestrial plants
o Effects on aquatic ecosystems
o Effects on bio-geochemical cycles
o Effects on air quality
o Effects on materials

 Questionary:

1. What are the effects of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) on the environment?


2. What is ocean acidification, and how does it affect the environment?

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Chapter: 15

Environmental Acts & Policies

 National Environmental Legislation:


o However, after the United Nations Conference on Human Environment, held
in Stockholm in 1972, Indian constitution was amended to include protection of the
environment as a constitutional mandate.
o Our constitution, originally, did not contain any direct provision regarding the
protection of natural environment.
o Environment related legislation came very late in 1972 with Wild Life Protection Act
1971.
o The forty second amendment Clause (g) to Article 51A of the Indian constitution made it
a fundamental duty to protect and improve the natural environment.
o Clause (g) to Article 51A of the Indian constitution states “It shall be the duty of every
citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes,
rivers and wild life and have compassion for living creatures.”
o The Environment Protection Act of 1986 (EPA) came into force soon after the Bhopal
Gas Tragedy and is considered umbrella legislation as it fills many lacunae in the
existing legislations.
o There is a directive, given to the State as one of the Directive Principles of State Policy
regarding the protection and improvement of the environment.
o The Department of Environment was established in India in 1980 to ensure a healthy
environment for the country. This later became the Ministry of Environment and Forests
(MoEF) in 1985.
o Article 48A states “The State shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and
to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country”.

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 Pollution Related Acts:
o Environment Act
o Water Acts
o Air Acts

 Environment and Biodiversity Related Acts:


o The most important legislation in this category is, “The Environment (Protection) Act of
1986”.
o Through this Act Central Government gets full power for the purpose of protecting and
improving the quality of the environment.

 Environment (Protection) Act of 1986:


o The purpose of the Act is to implement the decisions of the United Nations Conference
on the Human Environment of 1972, in so far as they relate to the protection and
improvement of the human environment and the prevention of hazards to human beings,
other living creatures, plants and property.
o In the wake of the Bhopal tragedy, the government of India enacted the Environment
(Protection) Act of 1986.
o The Act is an “umbrella” for legislations designed to provide a framework for Central
Government, coordination of the activities of various central and state authorities
established under previous Acts, such as the Water Act and the Air Act.
o “Environmental pollution” is the presence of pollutant, defined as any solid, liquid or
gaseous substance present in such a concentration as may be or may tend to be injurious
to the environment.
o In this Act, main emphasis is given to “Environment”, defined to include water, air and
land and the inter-relationships which exist among water, air and land and human beings
and other living creatures, plants, micro-organisms and property.
o “Hazardous substances” include any substance or preparation, which may cause harm to
human beings, other living creatures, plants, microorganisms, property or the
environment.

 Important provisions of this Act:


o Coordination of action by state, planning and execution of nationwide programmes,
laying down environmental quality standards, especially those governing emission or
discharge of environmental pollutants, placing restriction on the location of industries
and so on.
o There is also a specific prohibition against handling hazardous substances except those
in compliance with regulatory procedures and standards.
o Power of entry for examination, testing of equipment and other purposes and power to
analyze the sample of air, water, soil or any other substance from any place.

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o The Act imposed an additional fine of up to Rs. 5,000 for every day of continuing
violation.
o Section 19 provides that any person, in addition to authorized government officials, may
file a complaint with a court alleging an offence under the Act.
o The Act provides provision for penalties. For each failure or contravention the
punishment included a prison term up to five years or fine up to Rs. 1 lakh, or both.
o By virtue of this Act, Central Government has armed itself with considerable powers
which include,
o Authority to issue direct orders, included orders to close, prohibits or regulates any
industry.
o If a failure or contravention occurs for more than one year, offender may be punished
with imprisonment which may be extended to seven years.
o This “Citizens’ Suit” provision requires that the person has to give notice of not less than
60 days of the alleged offence of pollution to the Central Government.
o The Act explicitly prohibits discharges of environmental pollutants in excess of
prescribed regulatory standards.

 Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972:


o This is because of the fact that the "Forest“ including "Wildlife" was then a State subject
falling in Entry 20 List II of Seventh Schedule, Parliament had no power to make law on
the same except as provided in Articles 249,250 and 252 of the constitution.
o Having regard to the importance of the matter, the Act has been adopted by all the States
except that of Jammu and Kashmir which has a similar law enacted for the purpose of
wildlife protection. The operation of the Act is mandatory in the Union Territories too.
o The passing of the Wildlife Act of 1972 constitutes an important landmark in the history
of wildlife legislation in the country.
o The Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 provides the basic framework to ensure the
protection and management of wildlife. The Act was amended subsequently in 1982,
1986, 1991 and 1993 to accommodate provision for its effective implementation.

 Salient features of the Act:


o The Wildlife Act of 1972 as amended in 1982, 1986, 1991 and 1993 has 7 Chapters, 66
Sections and 6 Schedules. The Act with its various amendments provides the necessary
tool to prevent damage to the wildlife.
o The rating of the Schedules I to V is in accordance with the risk of survival of the
wildlife {fauna} enlisted in them. Animals included in Schedule are provided for total
protection from hunting and the trade and commerce related to such animals are strictly
regulated. The schedule VI has been added to include the specified plant species to be
protected by the Wild life (Protection) Amendment Act of 1991.

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The Wild Life Act provides for
o State wildlife advisory boards,
o Regulations for hunting wild animals and birds,
o Establishment of sanctuaries and national parks,
o Regulations for trade in wild animals, animal products and trophies, and
o Judicially imposed penalties for violating the Act.
o Hunting species, like those requiring special protection (Schedule II), big game
(Schedule III), and small game (Schedule IV), is regulated through licensing.
o An amendment to the Act in 1982, introduced a provision permitting the capture and
transportation of wild animals for the scientific management of animal population.
o Harming endangered species listed in Schedule 1 of the Act is prohibited throughout
India.
o A few species classified as vermin (Schedule V), may be hunted without restrictions.
o Wildlife wardens and their staff administer the act.

 National forest policy 1988:


o The principal aim of National Forest Policy, 1988 is to ensure environmental stability
and maintenance of ecological balance including atmospheric equilibrium which are
vital for sustenance of all life forms, human, animal and plant.
o Checking soil erosion and denudation in the catchments areas of rivers, lakes, reservoirs
in the "interest of soil and water conservation, for mitigating floods and droughts and for
the retardation of siltation of reservoirs.
o Increasing the productivity of forests to meet essential national needs.
o Conserving the natural heritage of the country by preserving the remaining natural
forests with the vast variety of flora and fauna, which represent the remarkable
biological diversity and genetic resources of the country.
o Increasing substantially the forest/tree cover in the country through massive afforestation
and social forestry programmes, especially on all denuded, degraded and unproductive
lands.
o Checking the extension of sand-dunes in the desert areas of Rajasthan and along the
coastal tracts.
o Encouraging efficient utilization of forest produce and maximizing substitution of wood.

 Major Achievements of NFP 1988:


o Involvement of local communities in the protection, conservation and management of
forests through Joint Forest Management Programme.
o Meeting the requirement of fuel wood, fodder minor forest produce and small timber of
the rural and tribal populations.
o Significant contribution in maintenance of environment and ecological stability in the
country.

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o Increase in the forest and tree cover.
o Conservation of Biological Diversity and Genetic Resources of the country through ex-
situ and insitu conservation measures.

 Biological diversity act,2002:


o The Biological Diversity Act 2002 was born out of India's attempt to realize the
objectives enshrined in the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
1992 which recognizes the sovereign rights of states to use their own Biological
Resources.
o Sustainable use of its components; and
o Fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic
resources.
o An Act to provide for conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of its
components and fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of
biological resources, knowledge and for matters connected therewith or incidental
thereto.
o Conservation of biological diversity
o The Act envisages a three-tier structure to regulate access to the biological resources,
comprising of National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), State Biodiversity Boards .(SBB)
and Biodiversity Management Committees (BMC) at the local level

 Water Act:
o The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974 and Amendment, 1988
o The main objective of this act is to provide prevention and control of water pollution.

 Important Provisions of this Act:


o A Central Pollution Control Board performs the same functions for Union Territories
and formulates policies and coordinates activities of different State Boards.
o The Act grants power to SPCB and CPCB to test equipment and to take the sample for
the purpose of analysis.
o The Act vests regulatory authority in State Pollution Control Boards to establish and
enforce effluent standards for factories.
o Prior to its amendment in 1988, enforcement under the Act was achieved through
criminal prosecutions initiated by the Boards.
o The 1988 amendment act empowered SPCB and CPCB to close a defaulting industrial
plant.

 Water Cess Act of 1977:


o The Act creates economic incentives for pollution control and requires local authorities
and certain designated industries to pay a cess (tax) for water effluent discharge.

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o The Central Government, after deducting the expenses of collection, pays the central
board and the states such sums, as it seems necessary.
o The Water Cess Act was passed to generate financial resources to meet expenses of the
Central and State Pollution Boards.
o To encourage capital investment in pollution control, the Act gives a polluter a 70%
rebate of the applicable cess upon installing effluent treatment equipment.

 Air Act:
o The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981 and amendment, 1987
o To implement the decisions taken at the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment held at Stockholm in June 1972, Parliament enacted the nationwide Air
Act.
o The main objectives of this Act are to improve the quality of air and to prevent, control
and abate air pollution in the country.

 Important provisions of Air Act:


o Under the Air Act, all industries operating within designated air pollution control areas
must obtain“consent” (permit) from the State Boards.
o Prior to its amendment in 1988, enforcement under the Act was achieved through
criminal prosecutions initiated by the Boards.
o The Air Act expanded the authority of the central and state boards established under the
Water Act, to include air pollution control.
o Notably, the 1987 amendment introduced a citizen’s suit provision into the Air Act and
extended the Act to include noise pollution.
o The states are required to prescribe emission standards for industry and automobiles
after consulting the central board and noting its ambient air quality standards.
o States not having water pollution boards were required to set up air pollution boards.
o The Act grants power to SPCB and to test equipment and to take the sample for the
purpose of analysis from any chimney, fly ash or dust or any other.
o The 1988 amendment act empowered SPCB and CPCB to close a defaulting industrial
plant.

 Questionary:

1. What is the Environment Protection Act in India? What are the important
provisions of this Act?
2. What are Environmental legislations and how are they important for
environmental improvement and conservation?

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Chapter: 16
Environmental Pollution Part- 1

 Pollution:
o Pollution is defined as 'an addition or excessive addition of certain materials to the
physical environment (water, air and lands), making it less fit or unfit for life'.

 Pollutants:
o Pollutants are the materials or factors, which cause adverse effect on the natural quality
of any component of the environment.

 Classification of Pollutants:
 According to the form in which they persist after release into the environment;
 Primary pollutants:
o These persist in the form in which they are added to the environment e.g. DDT, plastic.
 Secondary Pollutants:
o These are formed by interaction among the primary pollutants.
o For example, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) is formed by the interaction of nitrogen oxides
and hydrocarbons.

 According to their existence in nature;


 Quantitative Pollutants:
o These occur in nature and become pollutant when their concentration reaches beyond a
threshold level. E.g. carbon-dioxide, nitrogen oxide.
 Qualitative Pollutants:
o These do not occur in nature and are man-made. E.g. fungicides, herbicides, DDT etc.

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 According to their nature of disposal;
 Biodegradable Pollutants:
o Waste products, which are degraded by microbial action. E.g. sewage.
 Non-biodegradable Pollutants:
o Pollutants, which are not decomposed by microbial action.
o E.g. plastics, glass, DDT, salts of heavy metals, radioactive substances etc.

 According to origin;
o Natural
o Anthropogenic

 Causes of pollution:
o Uncontrolled growth in human population
o Rapid industrialization
o Urbanization
o Uncontrolled exploitation of nature.
o Forest fires, radioactivity, volcanic eruptions, strong winds etc.

 Air Pollution:
o The presence in the atmosphere of one or more contaminants in such quality and for
such duration as it is injurious, or tends to be injurious, to human health or welfare,
animal or plant life.
o Air pollution is aggravated because of four developments: increasing traffic, growing
cities, rapid economic development, and industrialization.

 Major air pollutants:


 Carbon monoxide (CO):
o It is a colorless, odourless gas that is produced by the incomplete burning of carbon-
based fuels including petrol, diesel, and wood.
o It lowers the amount of oxygen that enters our blood.

 Carbon dioxide (C02):


o It is the principle greenhouse gas emitted as a result of human activities such as the
burning of coal, oil, and natural gases.

 Ozone:
o At the ground level, it is a pollutant with highly toxic effects.
o Vehicles and industries are the major source of ground-level ozone emissions.

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 Lead:
o It is present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints, hair dye products, etc. Lead affects
children in particular.

 Suspended particulate matter (SPM):


o It consists of solids in the air in the form of smoke, dust, and vapour that can remain
suspended for extended periods and is also the main source of haze which reduces
visibility.

 Smog:
o Photochemical smog (smog) is a term used to describe air pollution that is a result of the
interaction of sunlight with certain chemicals in the atmosphere.

 Chloroflorocarbons (CFC):
o These are gases that are released mainly from air-conditioning systems and refrigeration.

 Sulphur dioxide (S02)


o It is a gas produced from burning coal, mainly in thermal power plants.
o It is a major contributor to smog and acid rain.
o Sulfur dioxide can lead to lung diseases.

 Control Measures:
o Destroying the pollutants by thermal or catalytic combustion.
o Conversion of the pollutants to a less toxic form.
o Collection of the pollutant.
Different types of air pollutants can be eliminated/minimized by following methods;
 Control of particulate matter
 Control of Gaseous Pollutants
 Control of Automobile Exhaust

 Government Initiatives:
o National Air Quality Monitoring Programme
o National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)

 Water Pollution:
o Addition of certain substances to the water such as organic, inorganic, biological,
radiological, heat, which degrades the quality of water so that it becomes unfit for use.

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 Sources:
 Types of sources
 Point Sources
 Diffuse or non-point source
o Community waste water
o Industrial waste
o Agricultural sources
o Thermal Pollution
o Underground water pollution
o Marine Pollution
o Oil Spills

 Thermal Pollution:
o Discharge of hot water may increase the temperature of receiving water by 10 to 15⁰C
above the ambient water temperature.
o Power plants- thermal and nuclear, chemical and other industries use lot of water for
cooling purposes and the used hot water is discharged into rivers, streams and oceans.
o This is thermal pollution.
o Increase in water temperature decreases dissolved oxygen in water which adversely
affects aquatic life.

 Marine Pollution:
o Marine Pollution occurs when harmful, or potentially harmful, effects result from the
entry into the ocean of chemicals, particles, industrial, agricultural and residential waste,
noise or the spread of invasive organisms.

 Effects of Water Pollution:


o Effects on aquatic ecosystem
 Polluted water reduces Dissolved Oxygen (DO) content, thereby, eliminates sensitive
organisms like plankton, molluscs and fish etc.
o Effects on human health
o Hazards of ground water pollution
o Biological Magnification
o Eutrophicaiton

 Control Measures:
o Domestic cleaning in tanks, streams and rivers, which supply drinking water, should be
prohibited.
o Treatment of sewage water and the industrial effluents should be done before releasing it
water bodies.

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o Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides should be avoided.
o Organic farming and efficient use of animal residues as fertilizers.
o Hot water should be cooled before release from the power plants.

 Soil pollution:
o Soil pollution is defined as the “addition of substances to the soil, which adversely affect
physical, chemical and biological properties of soil and reduces its productivity”.

 Causes:
o Indiscriminate use of fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides and herbicides.
o Dumping of large quantities of solid waste.
o Deforestation and soil erosion.
o Pollution Due to Urbanization.

 Source:
o Fertilizers and manures
o Industrial Wastes
o Radioactive wastes
o Other pollutants
o Pesticides
o Discarded materials

 Types of Soil Pollution:


o Agricultural Soil Pollution
o Pollution due to industrial effluents and solid wastes
o Pollution due to urban activities

 Effects of soil pollution on:


o Agriculture
o Health
o Environment
o Urban Areas

 Control measures:
o Use of bio pesticides, bio fertilizers, Organic farming
o Reducing chemical fertilizer and pesticide use
o Afforestation and Reforestation
o Four R's: Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle
o Solid waste treatment
o Reduction of waste from construction areas

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 Noise Pollution:
o Noise pollution is an unpleasant noise created by people or machines that can be
annoying, distracting, intrusive, and/or physically painful.
o A person's hearing can be damaged if exposed to noise levels over 75 dB over a
prolonged period of time. The World Health Organization recommends that the sound
level indoors should be less than 30 dB.

 Impacts of noise:
o Annoyance
o Physiological effects
o Loss of hearing
o Human performance
o Sleeplessness
o Damage to material

 Control:
o Control at source
o Control in the transmission path
o Using protective equipment

 Radioactive Pollution:
o Radioactivity is a phenomenon of spontaneous emission of proton (α-particles),
electrons (β-particles) and gamma rays (short wave electromagnetic waves) due to
disintegration of atomic nuclei of some elements.
o These cause radioactive pollution.

 Types of radiation particles:


 Alpha particles can be blocked by a piece of paper and human skin.
 Beta particles, can penetrate through skin, while can be blocked by some pieces of glass
and metal.
 Gamma rays, can penetrate easily to human skin and damage cells on its way through,
reaching far, and can only be blocked by a very thick, strong, massive piece of concrete.

 Sources:
o Natural-They include cosmic rays from space and terrestrial radiations from radio-
nuclides present in earth's crust such as radium-224, uranium-238, thorium-232,
potassium-40, carbon-14, etc.
o Man-made

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 Nuclear power plants
 Nuclear weapon
 Transportation of nuclear material
 Disposal of nuclear waste
 Uranium Mining
 Radiation therapy

 Control Measures:
o Prevention is the best control measure as there is no cure available for radiation damage.

 Questionary:

1. What are the major air pollutants?


2. What are the major sources of water pollution?

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Chapter: 17
Environmental Pollution Part- 2

 Environmental Pollution:
o Environmental Degradation
o Human Modified Ecosystems
o Acid Rain – Acidification
o Environment Impact Assessment

 Environmental Degradation:
o Environmental degradation is making the environment unfit or less suitable for the
survival of different life forms thereby causing immense ecological damage.
o Population explosion, urbanization and associated increase in human needs and comforts
have resulted in rapid industrialization.
o Rapid industrialization in turn led to overexploitation of natural resources.
o The consequences of such exploitation are evident in the form of soil erosion,
desertification, loss of biodiversity, pollution of land, air and water bodies.

 Factors that Led Environmental Degradation;


There are basically two factors namely:
o Natural factors such as drought, storms on sea, land and deserts such as hurricanes,
tornadoes, carina and volcanic eruptions. These factors lead to land degradation through
erosion.
o Human factors which include deforestation, industrialization and urbanization. These
factors lead to water, air and land pollution.

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 Types of Environmental Degradation:

 Deforestation:
o Deforestation is the process of clearance of forests by logging and/or burning.
o Deforestation occurs due to many reasons that include trees or derived charcoal are used
as, or sold, for fuel or as a commodity, while cleared land is used as grassland for
livestock, plantations of commodities, and settlements

 Extinction:
o It is the process by which a species, genus, or family, becomes extinct no longer existing
and living in the world.

 Desertification:
o Desertification is the ruin of land in waterless and dry sub-humid areas due to many
factors such as climatic changes and human activities.
o Desertification results primarily from man-made activities.
o It is mainly caused by overgrazing, over drafting of groundwater and diversion of water
from rivers for human consumption and industrial use, all of these processes are
fundamentally driven by overpopulation.

 Emmision:
o Emission leads to pollution such as emission is caused when chemicals are released into
the air.
o When fires break out in forests, they release smoke, soot, carcinogenic hydrocarbons,
dioxins, and carbon dioxide.

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o Emission is process in which human or natural forces discharge chemicals or other
substances into the environment.
o Many natural processes cause emissions. When a volcano explodes, it lets out acid, ash,
and many toxic gases.

 Erosion:
o Erosion is the procedure of weathering and carriage of solids in the natural environment
or their source and deposits them elsewhere.
o It generally occurs due to transport by wind, water, or ice, by down-slope creep of soil
and other material under the force of gravity; or by living organisms, such as burrowing
animals, in the case of bio-erosion.

 Major Causes:
o Particulate matter
o Burning of plastics: Emit poly chlorinated biphenyl’s (PCBs).
o Over exploitation of natural resources
o Industrial and domestic effluents: Pathogens, heavy metals in water bodies and soil.
o Secondary air pollutants
o Stress due to over harvesting
o Deforestation, over grazing, intensive cultivation, over irrigation etc. results in the loss
of top soil and fertility of the land. Prolonged degradation of land leads to
desertification.
o Habitat fragmentation and destruction
o Hazardous waste/Toxic substances
o Over exploitation of natural resources

 Consequences:
 Melting of ice caps and glaciers/Sea level change:
o Global warming is posing serious threat to Himalayan and polar ecosystems by melting
snow at a faster rate. Rise in sea level in future is a serious threat to costal landforms.
 Genetic resistance:
o An increased use of insecticides, pesticides and antibiotics has speeded up directional
natural selection and caused genetic resistance in pathogens.
 Effect on nutrient recycling:
o Use of fertilizers in agricultural fields interferes with the natural biogeochemical cycles.
 Desertification:
o Lot of arable land is converted to waste land due to erosion, salinity and loss of fertility.
 Change in weather patterns:
o The incidence of extreme weather events and change in weather patterns has become
common due to environmental degradation.

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 Increased sensitivity to diseases:
o Cultivated species of plants, fishes and other domesticated animals have become
increasingly sensitive to pest and diseases.
 Depletion of water resources:
o Water pollution has created tremendous scarcity of quality water resources.
 Loss of biodiversity:
o Habitat destruction and habitat fragmentation are threatening the survival of many
endangered species.
 Climate change/global warming:
o Air pollution is making the plant inhospitable due to events like global warming, acid
rain, ocean acidification etc.

 Human Modified Ecosystems:


o Some examples of human modified ecosystems are: agro-ecosystems, plantation forests,
rural and urban ecosystems, aquaculture etc.

 Characteristics:
o Food chains are simple, small and undergo frequent changes.
o Depend on human (anthropogenic) support for survival.
o Species are highly susceptible to epidemic diseases.
o Highly unstable, unsustainable and have a devastating effect on the environment.
o Highly simplified with a very low species diversity and poor nutrient cycling.
o Highly subjected to soil erosion and soil degradation.
o Regeneration and recovery of the environment is very slow. Some adverse effects are
irreversible for a very long time.

 Agro ecosystems:
o Agro ecosystems are large areas where commercial crops are cultivated.
o Crops are mostly cultivated as monoculture (growing only one type of crop) on the
entire field.

 Characteristics of agro-ecosystems:
o Attract weeds and susceptible to plant diseases.
o Soil are poor, deficient in nutrients, require supplement of chemical or fertilizers.
o Need artificial irrigation and water management.

 Disadvantages of agro-ecosystem:
o Protecting crops from pests and diseases requires large scale use of pesticides and
chemicals which pollute the environment.
o Deplete ground water in many areas due to well irrigation.

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o Large scale monoculture of agricultural crops results in severe loss of native biodiversity
including genetic diversity of crop plants.
o Runoff water from agricultural field laden with fertilizers and pesticides pollute river,
lakes and ponds (Eutrophication).
o High yielding varieties of crop plants are more susceptible to disease. E.g. smut of
sugarcane, maize and sorghum and rust of wheat and bajra.

 Plantation Forest:
o It is a manmade ecosystem consisting of individuals of a particular tree species.
o The aim is to grow fast growing trees which are commercially valuable. E.g. Palm,
rubber, eucalyptus etc.
o Trees planted on barren land, private land, village panchayat land, roadsides, and canal
banks, along with railway line and on land not suitable for agriculture.

 Characteristics:
o Plantation forests are generally monoculture, like oil palm plantation, rubber plantation,
coffee plantation, Jatropa curcare (biodiesel).
o Plantation forests have trees of approximately same age.
o Plantation forests are highly susceptible to pathogens.

 Economic importance:
o Tree plantation are raised for fruits, oil, rubber, coffee, timber, fire wood, pulp wood for
making rayon and paper industries.
o Trees are also planted to serve as wind breaks or shelter belts.
o Tree plantations are also raised for controlling soil erosion and for increasing soil
fertility.

 Aquaculture:
o Fisheries include the extraction of food from the sea and the fresh water whereas
aquaculture is rearing of the aquatic organisms in artificially made water bodies e.g.
culture of fish like carps, tilapia (also known as aquatic chicken.).
o Aquaculture is the artificial cultivation of aquatic plants or animals.
o It is primarily carried out for cultivating certain commercially important edible species
of fresh and marine water fishes, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants.

There are two types of aquaculture;


 Fish farming:
o Fish farming is cultivation of fish in a controlled environment often a coastal or inland
pond, lake, reservoir or rice field (paddy) and harvesting when they reach the desired
size.

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 Fish ranching:
o Fish ranching is a practice of keeping fishes in captivity for the first few years in floating
cages in coastal lagoons and releasing them from captivity into water bodies. Adults are
harvested when they return for spawning to the lagoons. E.g. Salmon and Hilsa which
migrate to rivers to spawn are cultivated by fish ranching method.

 Merits of aquaculture:
o Ecological efficiency is high. 2 kg. of grains are required to add 1 kg live weight.
o High yield in small volume of water.
o Improved qualities of fish obtained by selection and breeding and genetic engineering.
o Aquaculture reduces over harvesting of fisheries.
o High profit.

 Demerits of aquaculture:
o Large inputs of feed, water and land are required.
o Loss of native aquatic biodiversity. As it replaced by monoculture of a commercially
important fish species.
o Produces large amounts of fish wastes that pollute water bodies.
o Destroys mangrove forests or coastal vegetation.
o Aquaculture fishes are very sensitive to pesticide runoff from croplands.
o In aquaculture ponds high population density is maintained that makes them highly
vulnerable to diseases leading to total collapse of the crop.

 Dams, Reservoirs And Diversions:


o A dam is a structure built in order to store river or tidal water. Dams, reservoirs and
diversions capture and store runoff water and release it as needed. They are used for:
o controlling or moderating floods,
o producing hydroelectric power, and
o Supply water for irrigation, industry and other uses to rural, suburban and urban areas.
Support recreational activities such as swimming and boating.

 Advantages of dams:
o Water released from dams is used to generate electricity.
o Hydroelectricity n reduces dependence on coal and hence reduces CO2 emission.
o Reduces downstream flooding.
o Reduces river silting below the dam.
o Supply irrigation water for croplands.

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 Disadvantages of dams:
o Permanently submerge large areas of forests and crop lands.
o Displace large number of native people.
o Increase water pollution on account of reduced water flow.
o Reduce nutrients replenishment of downstream flood plains.
o Disrupt spawning and migration of some fish species.
o High costs and long gestation period.

 Acid Rain – Acidification:


o Acid rain refers to any precipitation (rain, fog, mist, snow) that is more acidic than
normal (pH of less than 5.6. [pH below 7 = acidic]).
o Acid rain is caused by atmospheric pollution from acidic gases such as sulphur
dioxide and oxides of nitrogen emitted from burning of fossil fuels.
o It is also recognized that acidic smog, fog, mist, move out of the atmosphere and settle
on dust particles which in turn accumulate on vegetation as acid depositions. When rain
falls, the acid from these depositions leak and form acid dews.

 The pH scale:
o The pH scale is a measure of how acidic or basic (alkaline) a solution is.
o It ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral.
o A pH less than 7 is acidic, and a pH greater than 7 is basic.
o It is based on hydrogen ion concentration in an aqueous solution.
o pH values decreases as hydrogen ion levels increases.
o A solution with pH 4 is ten times more acidic than solution with pH 5, and a hundred
times more acidic than solution with pH 6.

Types of Acid Deposition:


o “Acid rain” is a broad term referring to a mixture of wet and dry deposition (form of
deposition material) from the atmosphere.

 Wet Deposition:
o If the acid chemicals in the air are blown into areas where the weather is wet, the acids
can fall to the ground in the form of rain, snow, fog, or mist.
o As this acidic water flows over and through the ground, it affects a variety of plants and
animals.

 Dry Deposition:
o In areas where the weather is dry, the acid chemicals may become incorporated into dust
or smoke and fall to the ground through dry deposition, sticking to the ground, buildings,
vegetation, cars, etc.

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o Dry deposited gases and particles can be washed from these surfaces by rainstorms,
through runoff. This runoff water makes the resulting mixture more acidic.
o About half of the acidity in the atmosphere falls back to earth through dry deposition.

 Chemistry of Acid Rain;


o The atmosphere receives oxides of sulfur and nitrogen from natural and man-made
sources.
o Some of these oxides fall back directly to the ground as dry deposition, either close to
the place of origin or some distance away.
o Sunlight stimulates the formation of photo-oxidants (such as ozone) in the atmosphere.
o These photo-oxidants interact with the oxides of sulfur and nitrogen and other gases (like
NH3) to produce H2SO4 (sulphuric acid) and HNO3 (nitric acid) by oxidation.
o Acid rain containing ions of sulfate, nitrate, ammonium and hydrogen falls as wet
deposition.

 Harmful effects of acid rain:


o Acid precipitation affects both aquatic and terrestrial organisms.
o It also damages buildings and monuments.

 Environment Impact Assessment:


o Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) is a formal process used to predict the
environmental consequences of any development project.
o Environment Impact Assessment in India is statutory backed by the Environment
Protection Act in 1986, which contains various provisions on EIA methodology and
process.

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 Rationale behind EIA:
o EIA looks into various problems, conflicts and natural resource constraints which may
not only affect the viability of a project but also predict if a project might harm to the
people, their land, livelihoods and environment.
o Once these potential harmful impacts are predicted, the EIA process identifies the
measures to minimize those impacts.

 Objective of the EIA:


o Identify the environmental, social and economic impacts of a project prior to taking a
decision on its implementation.
o On the basis of the conclusion of EIA process, the government can decide if a project
should be given environment clearance or not.
o Once the assessment is complete, the EIA findings are communicated to all stakeholders
viz. developers, investors, regulators, planners, politicians, affected communities etc.
o Mitigation of harmful impacts and maximizes the beneficial effects.
o The developers and investors can also shape the project in such a way that its harms can
be mitigated and benefits can be maximized.

 The EIA Process:


o First of all, the developer has to prepare an EIA report with the help of an environment
consultant. On the basis of such report, the EIA may be either comprehensive
EIA or Rapid EIA.
o If the EIA report has to incorporate the data of all four seasons of a year, it is
called Comprehensive EIA.

o If the EIA report has only one season data, then it’s called Rapid EIA.
o Once this report is prepared, it is submitted to the regulatory agency. The agency may
then decide if the project may go for formal EIA or not.

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 EIA cycle:
The EIA process in India is made up of the following phases:
 Public hearing
 Screening
 Baseline data collection
 Mitigation measures and EIA report
 Scoping and consideration of alternatives
 Monitoring the clearance conditions
 Public hearing
 Decision making
 Risk Assessment

 Questionary:

1. Define environmental degradation. Explain the major causing environmental


degradation.
2. What is an Aquaculture and Agro ecosystem? Explain advantages and
disadvantages of Aquaculture and Agro ecosystem.

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Chapter: 18

Environmental Pollution Part- 3

 What is Solid Waste?


o SW includes commercial and residential wastes
generated in municipal or notified areas in either
solid or semi-solid form excluding industrial
hazardous wastes including bio-medical wastes.
o It consists of household waste, wastes from
hotels and restaurants, construction and
demolition debris, sanitation residue, and waste
from streets.

 Solid Waste Management (SWM) in India:


o Indian urban centres generate 62 million tonnes of municipal solid waste per annum. Of
this, about 68% is collected and only 19% of the collected waste is treated and the rest is
dumped in landfill sites.
o SWM service is provided by municipal authorities in the country. However, almost all
municipal authorities deposit solid waste at a dump yard within or outside the city.

 Issues concerning waste management in India:


o Absence of scientific methods of disposal and disregard for environment.
o More than three-fourth of solid waste management budget is allotted to collection and
transportation, leaving very little for processing or resource recovery and disposal.
o Indifferent attitude of citizens at large towards the problem of solid waste.

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o Inadequate monetary funds, lack of technical expertise and unavailability of required
land with the municipal bodies.
o Lack of segregation of the waste at source.

 Consequences of improper waste management:


o Dumping sites act as breeding sites for flies, mosquitoes, rats, dogs that prove
detrimental to human health.
o Improper waste management results in environmental hazards like air and water
pollution, soil contamination, spread of diseases etc.
o Landfill fires (caused due to release of methane during decomposition) and the landfill
slide, like the recent one in Ghazipur (Delhi), are other problems emanating from
improper waste management.

 Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016:


o The Rules forbid the throwing, burning, or burying the solid waste on streets, open
public spaces, in the drain, or water bodies.
o These rules supersede the Municipal Solid Waste Rules, 2000 and expand the ambit of
rule application to every urban local body, including outgrowths in urban
agglomerations, census towns, areas under Railways and airports.
o They impose ‘user fee’ on the consumer and ‘spot fine’ for littering and non-segregation.
o It puts the onus of segregation on the waste generator and requires segregation into 6
categories biodegradable, non-biodegradable, domestic-hazardous, sanitary,
construction-demolition and horticulture.
o The Rules require setting up of a material recovery facility to enable informal/authorised
waste collectors to sort out recyclable products.

 Kasturirangan Task Force Recommendations:


o The K Kasturirangan task force (2014) recommended an integrated approach towards
municipal solid waste management, stressing the need for segregation of waste at source
with private sector help.
o It recommended adoption of the principles of reduce, reuse, recover, recycle and
remanufacture (5Rs).
o It recommended setting up of centralised (incineration, gasification, pyrolysis) and
decentralised (biomethanation, vermicomposting) waste processing facilities.
o Setting up Common Regional Sanitary Landfill Facility to reduce the land requirement.
o It also recommended setting up of 215 Waste to Energy plants by 2031 through public-
private partnerships (PPPs) with viability gap funding of up to 40 per cent.

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 Way Ahead:
o The key to efficient waste management is to ensure proper segregation of waste at
source and to ensure that the waste goes through different streams of recycling and
resource recovery.
o Installation of waste-to-compost and bio-methanation plants would reduce the load of
landfill sites.
o Civic bodies should be well equipped both in terms of finances and human resource to
redraw their long term vision in solid waste management that involves community
participation as well.

 Integr ated Solid Waste Management:

 Disaster Management:
 What is a disaster?
o A disaster is a physical event, phenomenon or human activity that leads to sudden
disruption of normal life, causing severe damage to life and property to an extent that
available social and economic protection mechanisms are inadequate to cope.
o Its origin can be natural or man-made.
o Disaster Management is an attempt to inquire into the process of a potential damage
(hazard) turning to disaster, to identify the causes and rectify the same through public
policy.
o Disasters could be, natural (geological, hydro-meteorological and biological) or induced
by human processes (environmental degradation and technological hazards).
o India is one of the most prone disaster zones in the world due to its geographical
characteristics.

 Vulnerability Atlas of India:


o About 60% area is vulnerable to Earthquakes
o 8% - Cyclones
o 12% - Floods

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o 68% of land under cultivation is prone to Drought.
o For India, the major hazards are Earth quakes, Landslides, Drought, Cyclones, Floods,
Forest fires and other Fire accidents.
o Also according to the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
(UNISDR) in 2010, India ranked second after China for natural disasters.
o Natural hazard causes injury or loss of life, damage to property, social or economic
disruption and environmental degradation.
o According to World Bank report, India's direct loss due to disaster is around 2% of its
GDP.
o The vulnerability atlas prepared by Building Materials and Technology Promotion
Centre (BMTPC) shows that there are many areas which are prone to multiple hazards.
o Rapid increase of population and urbanization along prone areas and other developments
have increased the level of exposure to hazards.

 Being Prepared - A Vital Part Of Disaster Management:


o Community being the first responder, immediately affected and can give help before
others, must be made aware and trained to cope with the disaster.
o It includes steps to be taken prior to, during and after disaster and involves preparedness,
mitigation, response and recovery.
o Development must be planned in a judicious manner and in tune with sustaining and
protecting the environment. To face disasters, we must be very well aware of its causes
and effects to form a disaster resilient society.
o Economic developments must be in accordance with protection of the environment.
o October 29 – National Day for Disaster Reduction.
o Environmental degradation is an important factor of disaster.
o Disaster preparedness means the steps or activities and precautions taken collectively
before a disaster to reduce the impact and to cope with it effectively.
o The activities to mitigate effects of disasters and emergency situations, to provide a
framework for helping people at risk, avoiding or recover from the impacts of the
disaster is called disaster management.
o Manmade disasters are preventable. Natural disasters can only be mitigated. Without
that, we may be taken backwards in development and progress.

 Earth Quakes:
o Magnitude and Intensity of earth quakes are determined by Ritcher scale and modified
Mercalli scale.
o Earth quakes are unpredictable and unpreventable.
o 95% of the people die due to falling of buildings. So it is most dangerous when occur at
night.
o Earth quakes may cause floods, fires, landslides and huge ocean waves called Tsunamis.

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o Faults are planes that act as source of earth quake. Movement of plates with respect to
each other releasing energy causes it.
o Based on the risk, we have divided India into various zones.
 Zone 1 – Not affected;
 Zone 2 – Low risk;
 Zone 3 – Moderate risk;
 Zone 4 – High risk;
 Zone 5 – Very high risk.
o Sub-Terranian areas of Himalayas are geologically active and are more prone to earth
quakes.
o Based on the effects seen, it is also classified in to 12 classes.
 Class 1 -3: Felt by few people;
 Class 4-6: Pendulum clock stops, felt by everyone, objects fall;
 Class 7-10: Destruction; Class 11-12: Devastation.
o Train ourselves in basic rescue and first aid functions and also help the survivors
quickly.
o Retrofit the existing buildings, Use appropriate technology in building material and also
adhere to norms in new constructions and train ourselves to respond to the situation are
some of the steps to prepare for the earth quake.
o Preparing to face the hazard is the major step in disaster management.

 Cyclones:
o Indian sub-continent is one of the six major cyclone prone areas in the world.
o Cyclones occur due to warm ocean temperature, high relative humidity and atmospheric
instability.
o During cyclones, strong winds uproot trees, destroy power and telecommunication,
terrestrial rain causes flood, high tidal waves hit the coastal areas.

 How to prepare?
o Knowing the prone areas. In India, our east coast is the most prone area.
o Giving awareness and knowledge.
o The Disaster Warning System (DWS) helps in dissemination of warning at isolated
places in local languages.
o In cyclonic seasons, listen to TV/RADIO updates, Identify safe shelters Keep an
emergency kit, Check the perimeter for safety, Store adequate food, Keep a list of
emergency numbers, Conduct mock drills.
o Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) does forecasting and warning. They track
cyclones. It is done by INSAT satellite and cyclone detection radars.
o There is a no wind period in between the cyclone. It is the eye of the cyclone. The winds
are on the walls of the eye.

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o Forest along coasts acts as wind barriers. But deforestation and encroachment of coastal
shelter-belt is a threat. By destroying the mangrove forests, we are ourselves increasing
the risk.

 Floods:
o The problems of sediment deposition, drainage congestion and synchronization of river
floods compound the flood hazard with sea tides in the coastal plains.
o The major causes are: Blocking of river channel, excessive rain, narrowness of river/
change in its course, insufficient engineering, sea tides, Tsunamis etc.
o Most flood prone areas are banks of Ganga and Brahmaputra. Eastern coastal deltaic
region also cause flood.
o Economically and socially backward communities are the most affected and they took
long for coming back to normal life.
o Seventy five per cent of rainfall is concentrated over four months of monsoon (June –
September) as a result of which almost all the rivers carry heavy discharge during this
period.
o Preparedness is the key to survive.
o During floods, the availability of drinking water is the major problem faced by people.
Overflow of contaminated water from various sources with the useful water in wells,
tanks etc. make them not available for drinking and cooking purposes.
o It should also be made sure during floods that enough food, water and medicines are
easily available. People should be immediately transported to shelter places. People
doing cattle rearing for livelihood are also worsely affected. So measures are needed to
make sure that these animals are also be moved to safer places.

 Drought:
o Lack of nutrition, education and proper health, increased school dropouts and child
labour may also be seen.
o Based on the information given by IMD, we can make planned efforts to conserve
resources and to prevent misuse of land and water. Farmers and tribal groups are mostly
affected. Less availability of water for drinking, cooking, agriculture etc. cause decrease
in production and thereby creates unemployment.
o Drought causes lack of food, fodder, water and employment. Women are more affected
and there will be distressed migrations.

 Steps To Mitigate Effects Of Drought:


o Rain harvesting
o Increase vegetative cover
o Promote watershed programs
o Adopt drought resilient varieties

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o Use alternative crops
o Capacity building of communities
o Encourage crop and seed insurance scheme
o Awareness generation
o Setting up of efficient irrigation systems also helps saving water. Conserve natural
aquifers.

 Disaster Management:
o Disaster management is a multi disciplinary area which includes forecasting, warning,
search and rescue, relief, reconstruction and rehabilitation.
o Without disaster management, sustainable development is not possible. And also disaster
management became part of the policy framework as poor and under privileged are more
affected.
o For developing countries, disaster management is a major concern as it directly
influences the economy, agriculture, food and sanitation, water, environment and health.
Disasters also have social, economic and psychological dimensions. So appropriate
strategies are necessarily been developed.
o Government of India had brought a shift from its relief centric approach to the one with
greater emphasis is on preparedness, prevention and mitigation.
o It is also a multi sectoral task as it involves administrators, scientists, planners,
volunteers and communities.

 Managing Disasters In India:


o According to World Bank report- 'Natural Hazards, Unnatural Disasters', floods and
storms are the most widespread while droughts are prevalent.
o The Hyogo Framework of Action (HFA) of 2015 by UNISDR to which India is a
signatory advocates mainstreaming disaster risk reduction into socio-economic
development planning and activities by adopting five priorities for action through a five-
fold process.
o The changing climatic pattern worsens the situation. So we have to recognize the
hazards and vulnerabilities in a comprehensive manner and should take effective steps
for prevention, mitigation and management.

 Five-fold Processes:
 Political process: It includes countries to develop policies, legislative and institutional
frameworks and also allocate resources for its prevention.
 Technical process: It includes science and technology for assessing, monitoring,
identifying disasters and develops early warning systems.
 Socio-educational process: It includes awareness and skill development; also safety and
resilience in all levels.

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 Development process: It includes integration of disaster risk in all sectors of
development planning and programs.
 Humanitarian process: It includes factoring disaster risk reduction in disaster response
and recovery.

o India started to work on these ideas in 1999 by constituting a High Powered Committee
(HPC) on Disaster Management under Shri. J.C.Pant (Former Secretary of Agriculture to
the Govt. of India), along with experts.
o After December 26, 2004; Tsunami incident, India decided to enact a law on Disaster
Management (DM) to provide a requisite institutional mechanism for drawing up and
monitoring the implementation of DM plans.

 Questionary:

1. What is meant by disaster management? How can we minimize the adverse


effects of disasters?
2. What are the measures to tackle drought in India?

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Chapter: 19
Renewable Energy Resources Part- 1

 Natural Resources:
o Renewable resources
o Non Renewable resources

 Renewable and Non-renewable Resources:


o Renewable resource is the energy source which can be replenished within a short period
of time. Whereas, the non-renewable resources take a significant amount of time to be
replenished by the environment.
o The non-renewable resources comprise of the fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, oil, etc.,
the usage of which has detrimental effects on the environment. Comparatively, the
renewable resources are more environment-friendly. They include energy from the sun,
tides, wind, biomass, etc.

 Renewable Energy:
o Renewable energy resources are called ‘renewable’ because they are constantly renewed
or regenerated.
o The energy from the sun, the movement of the waves, the flow of the river – these are
some of the activities that have been happening over millions of years and will continue
to happen in the future.
o They are constant and reliable sources. The solar energy, tidal energy, wind energy,
hydroelectric energy, geothermal energy, etc. will never get exhausted as they can be
generated at the same rate at which they are being used.

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 Non-renewable energy:
o When we talk about the non-renewable energy source, they are limited in quantity. They
cannot be renewed easily once they are depleted. They take thousands of years to be
formed.
o At the present rate of consumption, these resources will get exhausted in less than a
hundred years.
o It is very important to use the non-renewable energy resources in a judicious manner.
Otherwise, our future generations will not be left with any of the m.

 Solar Energy:
o Direct solar energy can be used as heat, light, and electricity through the use of solar
cells.
o Direct use of solar energy can be used through various devices broadly directed into
three types of systems;
 passive,
 Active
 Photovoltaic.

 Passive solar energy:


o As you know some of the earliest uses of solar energy were passive in nature such as to
evaporate sea water for producing salt and to dry food and clothes.
o In fact solar energy is still being used for these purposes. The more recent passive uses
of solar energy is for cooking, heating, cooling and for the day lighting of homes and
buildings.

 Active use of solar energy:


o Active solar heating and cooling systems rely on solar collectors which are usually
mounted on roofs.

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o Such systems also require pumps and motors to move the fluids or blow air by fan in
order to deliver the captured heat.
o A number of different active solar heating systems are available. The main application of
these systems is to provide hot water, primarily for domestic use.

 Solar cells or photovoltaic technology:


o Solar energy can be converted directly into electrical energy (direct current, DC) by
photovoltaic (PV) cells commonly called solar cells.
o Photovoltaic cells are made of silicon and other materials. When sunlight strikes the
silicon atoms it causes electrons to eject. This principle is called as ‘photoelectric effect’.
o A typical solar cell is a transparent wafer that contains a very thin semiconductor.
o Sunlight energizes and causes electrons in the semiconductor to flow, creating an
electrical current.

 With reference to technologies for solar power production, consider the following
statements:
1) ‘Photovoltaic’s’ is a technology that generates electricity by direct conversion of light
into electricity, while ‘Solar Thermal’ is a technology that utilizes the Sun’s rays to
generate heat which is further used in electricity generation process.
2) Photovoltaic’s generates Alternating Current (AC), while Solar Thermal generates
Direct Current (DC).
3) India has manufacturing base for Solar Thermal technology, but not for Photovoltaics.
Which of the statements given above is / are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1, 2 and 3
d) None

 Explanation:
o Photoelectric effect = When light strikes on a material, electrons are dislodged [photons
dislodge electrons].
o Photovoltaic = The dislodged electrons if channeled through a conductor will create
electric current (voltage Or potential difference) = Solar Panels. [Electric current is
nothing but movement of electrons from high potential to low potential area (more
electrons to less electrons region)]
o Solar thermal = converting light into heat = solar cooker, solar water heater.
o Photovoltaics generate direct current (DC). [Rotating = AC, Stationary = DC. Electric
generator, wind turbine generate AC while solar panels generate DC]
o Solar thermal is mostly used for water heating purposes. Electricity can be generated by
using hot water steam to rotate turbine = AC current.

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o In India both solar panels and solar cookers are manufactured.

 International Solar Alliance:


o It shows that India's energy needs are still based on non-renewable resources.
o In coping with need of the hour, the PM Shri Narendra Modi, and the former President
of France Mr. François Hollande, jointly laid the foundation stone of the International
Solar Alliance (ISA) on 25th Jan, 2016.
o Currently India is generating around 58 G.W. energy from renewable resources which is
about 18.5% of India's total energy production.
o Prime Minister Modi, along with French President Immanuel Macroon, organized
the first summit of the International Solar Coalition (ISA) on 11 March 2018 in New
Delhi.

 What is International Solar Alliance?


 ISA is a coalition of solar resource rich countries which aims to :
o Reducing the cost of finance & technology for immediate deployment of solar
generation.
o Formulate financial instruments to mobilize more than US$1000 billion dollars in
investments that will be required by 2030 for the massive deployment of affordable solar
energy (Target of 1 TW).

 International Solar Alliance:


o On 11th March, 2018 International Solar Allaince (ISA) celebrated its founding day.
o It was followed by the first summit of the Alliance.
o In 26th March 2018, ISA became a juridical personality.

 Member Countries:
o The ISA is open to 121 prospective member countries (sunshine countries), most of
them located between the Tropic of Cancer & Capricorn.
o So far, 60 countries have signed the framework agreement.
o Countries that do not fall within the tropics can also join the ISA and enjoy all benefits
as other members, with the exception of voting rights.

 Secretariat:
o Interim Secretariat of ISA is located at Surya Bhawan, National Institute of Solar Energy
in Guru Gram, Haryana.
o The ISA is the first international body that will have a secretariat in India.

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 Timeline:
 2015:
o On the sideline of COP21 UN Climate Change Conference at Paris, PM MODI &
President of France jointly launched the initiative of ISA.

 2017 (December):
o With the framework agreement of ISA coming into force on 6th December 2017, the
ISA became an international intergovernmental treaty.

 2018 (March): ISA Summit


o ISA celebrated its founding day on 11th March, 2018.
o First ISA summit was also held where India made a stream of commitments.
o Getting France to allocate $700 million for financing projects.
o Committing $ 1.4 billion line of credit that will cover 27 solar energy projects in 15
countries.

 2018 (March): Host Country Agreement


o On 26th March 2018, International Solar Alliance and the MEA, signed the host country
agreement (Headquarter Agreement).
o By this, ISA became a juridical personality.

 What is the working plan of ISA?


o The countries within the tropics also happen to be the ones in which the much growth in
energy demand is expected in the years to come.
o The ISA is an effort to ensure that as these countries increase their electricity production,
they should predominantly use solar energy and avoid fossil fuels.
o However, this can happen only if the costs of solar energy are competitive as compared
to the traditional sources of power.
o The ISA seeks to do three things to bring down the costs of technology as well as of
finance needed for a solar project.
 It seeks to boost global demand, which will result in further reduction in the prices of
solar energy deployment.
 It seeks to promote standardisation in the use of equipment and processes for
generating electricity. Standardisation will make the manufacturing of equipment and
other hardware cheaper.
 And it seeks to boost research and development, particularly in areas of efficient
storage systems.

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 Is ISA part of UN program?
o Strictly speaking, the ISA agreement is separate from the United Nations-mandated
climate change talks that are held every year.
o But it was proposed at the Paris Climate Conference in 2015, and has become a reality at
the Marrakesh meeting, in the process getting linked closely with the UN climate
process.

 India’s Solar Diplomacy:


o Importance of renewables in Global Politics.
o China- undisputed renewable growth leader.
o India’s response: International Solar Alliance.

 Challenges:
o Solar modules manufactured in India account for less than 10% of consumption.
o Flood of cheap Chinese exports is making it difficult for Indian domestic manufacturers
to compete.
o Funding is another key concern. India requires nearly US$125 billion to meet its own
renewable energy ambitions.

 Wind Energy:
o Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the movement of atmospheric air.
o Wind turbines transform the energy in the wind into mechanical power, further
converting to electric power to generate electricity.
o Germany, USA, Denmark, Spain and India – account for 80% of the world’s installed
wind energy capacity.

 Wind Farm:
o A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used for production of
electricity.
 Onshore Wind farms
 Offshore Wind farms

 Wind Energy in India:


o The Union Government has set an ambitious target of achieving 175 Giga Watt (GW)
power capacity from clean renewable energy resources by 2022.
o The National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE) under the MNRE assesses the wind
power potential in the country at 100 meter above ground level.
o Out of this, 60 GW target is set for wind power. The present installed wind power
capacity in the country is nearly 26.7 GW accounting for nearly 9% of total installed
capacity.

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o It has estimated it over 302 GW and there are 8 windy states namely Maharashtra,
Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and
Telangana
o India is world’s largest biomass, third largest solar and fourth largest wind energy
producer.
o Indian company Suzlon has expanded beyond the country and has 7.7% market share
worldwide in wind turbine sales.
o Globally, India is at 4th position in term of installed wind power capacity after China,
USA and Germany.
o India has achieved the largest-ever wind power capacity addition of 3,423 MW in 2015-
16, exceeding the target by 44%

 Important Facts:
o Currently, installed capacity of wind power in India is spread in north, south and western
parts. As of now, East and North East have no wind power connected to grid. Among the
three regions, maximum installed capacity is of south, followed by west and north.
o Among the various wind farms, Muppandal wind farm at Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu
has largest capacity of 1500MW. Jaisalmer Wind Park of Suzlon is the second largest
with 1064MW.
o Almost three fourth of India’s wind energy is generated between May to September
because that period coincides with South West Monsoon.
o Currently, all wind power is generated in onshore wind farms. India has not yet entered
into the offshore wind power generation. Although some demonstration projects have
been done so far.
o Among states, maximum wind power installed capacity is of Tamil Nadu with 7455MW
installed capacity, followed by Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan. Tamil Nadu shares
35% of India’s total wind power installed capacity.
o Wind energy accounts for around 70 per cent of installed capacity among renewable and
almost all investment in India is coming through private sector investments.

 India’s first offshore wind project:


o The National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE) under Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy (MNRE) has issued Expression of Interest (EoI) for first offshore wind energy
project of India.
o The global EoI is for prospective offshore wind energy developers for developing 1000
MW (1 GW) offshore wind energy project in Gulf of Khambat, off the coast of Gujarat.

 NLCIL’s solar power projects:


o Neyveli Lignite Corporation India Limited (NLCIL)’s three 100 MW Solar Power
Projects for commercial operation were inaugurated recently.

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o These projects situated at Thoppalaakkarai and Sethupuram in Virudhunagar District and
Sellaiya Sezhiyanallur in Tirunelveli District of Tamil Nadu.

 Global Wind Summit:


o The first edition of Global Wind Summit will be held in Hamburg, Germany from
September 25 to 28, 2018.
o It will be largest and most important meeting of the wind industry worldwide.
o The summit will see participation of speakers from about 100 countries, including India,
China, the US, Spain and Denmark.

 Questionary:

1. What are different forms of energy?


2. Distinguish between Renewable and Non-renewable Resources.

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Environment

Chapter: 20

Renewable Energy Resources Part- 2

 Hydropower as an Energy Source:


o Hydropower is not completely clean because the dams produce significant amount of
CO2 and Methane, both GHGs. When a large dam is built, flora gets immerged in water
and rots under anaerobic conditions producing methane. Thus, whatever negative
impacts of Hydropower are there, they are mainly because of alternation of surroundings
of the dams, natural habitats and wildlife.
o Hydro-electric power is a renewable natural resource known for their almost nil GHG
emission. The oldest Hydropower power plant in India is in Darjeeling District in West
Bengal. Its installed capacity is 130KW and was commissioned in the year 1897.
o India began with a humble 560MW capacity in 1950-51. With over 41000 MW installed
capacity and 15.2% share in total installed capacity, hydropower is second largest source
of electricity generation after coal.

 Advantages of Hydro power:


o Hydropower is considered to be most economical source of power. Since no fuel is burnt
to produce power, there is no problem of pollution.
o Oil, coal and natural gas resources which can be used for producing electricity are in
short supply and have implications in terms of high costs and exert greater pressure on
foreign exchange resources; Hydel power can easily replace them.

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 Is Hydropower completely clean?
o Hydropower is not completely clean because the dams produce significant amount of
CO2 and Methane, both GHGs.
o It is cheaper as compared to electricity generated from coal and gas fired plants. It also
reduces the financial losses due to frequency fluctuations and it is more reliable as it is
inflation free due to not usage of fossil fuel.
o When a large dam is built, flora gets immerged in water and rots under anaerobic
conditions producing methane.
o The hydropower generation is highly capital-intensive mode of electricity generation but
being renewable source of energy with no consumables involved; there is very little
recurring cost and hence no high long term expenditure.

 Key problems:
o The key problems include high investment costs in building large dams, dependency on
hydrology, problem of environment, loss or modification of the fish habitat and
displacement of the local populations.
o India has one of the largest hydropower potential in the world but only one fifth of that
potential has been harnessed so far.
o These projects have long gestation period in comparison to thermal power projects.

 Types of Hydro Power Project:


o The small hydro project has a capacity of less than 25 MW. The small hydro projects
come under the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy.
o Ministry of Power is responsible for large hydro projects.
o There are two types Hydro power projects in India viz. large and small.
o The small hydro projects are further classified into Micro, Mini and small projects.

 World’s largest Hydro-electric power station:


o Three gorges project in China on Yang-Yang river is the largest power station in the
world having installed capacity of around 18,200 MW.

 Problem of Sedimentation in Reservoirs:


o Sedimentation and silting in reservoirs leads to reduction in active storage capacity;
makes flood management difficult and causes damaged to turbines due to abrasive action
of silt. This is a major problem of the hydropower generation.
The following are some approaches to tackle sedimentation problem of reservoir:-
 Effective desilting arrangements for prevention of silt.
 Catchment Area Treatment (CAT) for reduction of silt load includes forestations of
the catchment area and constructions of check dams on the tributaries and upstream of
the river.

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 Silt resistant equipments of withstanding the silt.
 Effective operation of the reservoir to minimize silt deposition.

 Need to Find the Right Balance:


o While hydropower projects are critical for economic growth and development, it is
equally important to fully assess its potential social and environmental impact in the
long-term.
o The challenge lies in finding the right balance between the need for rapid development
and the necessity of protecting the environment.

 Global Hydropower potential:


o According to the World Energy Council, Hydropower is the leading renewable source
for electricity generation globally, supplying 71% of all renewable electricity.
o Several countries, in order to mitigate climate change, have turned to exploring
hydropower sources.
o Reaching 1,064 GW of installed capacity in 2016, it generated 16.4% of the world’s
electricity from all sources.”
o China tops the world’s hydropower capacity with 319 GW, followed by the United
States with 102 GW.

 Hydropower potential of India:


o India is the 7th largest producer of hydroelectric power in the world ranking third
worldwide in the total number of dams.
o An additional 6,780 MW from smaller hydro schemes (with capacities of less than 25
MW) is estimated as exploitable.
o So far, around 26% of Hydropower potential has been exploited in India.
o The private sector is also expected to grow with the development of hydroelectric energy
in the Himalayan mountain ranges and in the northeast of India. Indian companies have
also constructed hydropower projects in Bhutan, Nepal, Afghanistan, and other
countries.
o India’s hydroelectric power potential is estimated at 84,000 MW at 60% load factor.
o Maximum potential is in the state of Arunachal Pradesh. It has 33% of the total
hydroelectric potential of India.
o The public sector accounts for 92.5% of India’s hydroelectric power production.
o It is noteworthy that India became a net exporter of electricity for the first time between
April 2016 and February 2017, exporting around 5,585 million units to Nepal,
Bangladesh and Myanmar.
o India’s economically exploitable and viable hydroelectric potential is estimated to be
148,701 MW.

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 Basin Wise Power Potential:

 Hurdles against hydropower projects:


o Standard procedures including for environmental impact assessments and public
hearings have been bypassed.
o In central India, the hydroelectric power potential from the Godavari, Mahanadi,
Nagavali, Vamsadhara and Narmada river basins has not been developed on a major
scale due to potential opposition from the tribal population.

 Impact on the environment:


o Methane alone accounts for 104 million metric tonnes of all these emissions annually.
o Mostly, methane is generated by the decomposition of vegetation and soil submerged by
the reservoirs.
o Although methane in the atmosphere stays for only a short while compared to carbon
dioxide, more than 80 per cent of methane emissions come from water storage reservoirs
created by dams, contributing almost three times more to global warming compared to
carbon dioxide.
o Significant amounts of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane are emitted from
reservoirs, turbines and spillways.
o Hydropower dams located in tropical regions generate more methane than those located
in temperate zones.

 Climate Change and Vulnerability of Hydropower:


o Water is constantly replenished by a process of hydrological cycle in the atmosphere, but
this cycle could get altered due to climate change.
o Major rivers like the Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra are fed by snow and glacier melt.
But the retreat of glaciers in the Himalayas is likely to alter the pattern of river flow,
resulting in the disruption of hydropower production.
o Climate change by altering the river discharge impacts the availability of water
resources, water regularity and hydropower generation.

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o A 1 % reduction in the flow can reduce electricity output by roughly three per cent.
o Floods, droughts, changes in temperature, precipitation and melting glaciers are all
symptoms of climate change. Since the amount of electricity a hydropower plant can
produce directly depends on the availability of water resources, lower the river
discharge, lesser the power generation.
o Moreover, one cannot ignore the economic risks of investing in a hydropower project
under the prevailing conditions of climate change.
o Floods, droughts, changes in temperature, precipitation and melting glaciers are all
symptoms of climate change. Since the amount of electricity a hydropower plant can
produce directly depends on the availability of water resources, lower the river
discharge, lesser the power generation.

 What should be done?


o The social impact of large dams by way of population displacement and loss of income
from farming and livestock should also not be overlooked.
o While hydropower projects are critical for economic growth and development, it is
equally important to fully assess its potential social and environmental impact in the
long-term.
o The challenge lies in finding the right balance between the need for rapid development
and the necessity of protecting the environment.

 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion:


o With global warming a certainty, it is imperative that we turn to non-polluting and
renewable sources of energy. One such source of energy is Ocean Thermal Energy
Conversion (OTEC).
o Non conventional sources of energy are turning out to be extremely important sources of
energy for mankind.
o The sun’s heat warms the surface water a lot more than the deep ocean water, which
creates the ocean’s naturally available temperature gradient, or thermal energy.
o In geographical areas with warm surface water and cold deep water, the temperature
difference can be leveraged to drive a steam cycle that turns a turbine and produces
power.
o Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) is a marine renewable energy technology
that harnesses the solar energy absorbed by the oceans to generate electric power.
o The distinctive feature of OTEC is the potential to provide base load electricity, which
means day and night (24/7) and year-round.
o Warm surface sea water passes through a heat exchanger, vaporizing a low boiling point
working fluid to drive a turbine generator, producing electricity.
o The distinctive feature of OTEC is the potential to provide base load electricity, which
means day and night (24/7) and year-round.

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o Military shore-side bases and communities in the tropics, many of which are largely
dependent on imported fossil fuels for power and transportation, are ideal candidates for
such a system.
o The energy source of OTEC is abundantly available, free and will be so for as long as
the sun shines and an ocean current exists.
o Estimates suggest that ocean thermal energy could contain more than twice the world’s
electricity demand.
o Here the efficiency of the system depends on the temperature difference. Greater the
temperature difference, greater the efficiency.

 Cogeneration:
o Producing two forms of energy from one fuel.
o In a conventional power plant, fuel is burnt in a boiler to generate high pressure steam.
This steam is used to drive a turbine, which in turn drives an alternator through a steam
turbine to produce electric power.
o One of the forms of energy must always be heat and the other may be electricity or
mechanical energy.
o The exhaust steam is generally condensed to water which goes back to the boiler.
o As the low pressure steam has a large quantum of heat which is lost in the process of
condensing, the efficiency of conventional power plant is only around 35%.
o In the cogeneration plant, the low pressure exhaust steam coming out of the turbine is
not condensed, but used for heating purpose in factories or houses and thus very high
efficiency levels, in the range of 75%-90%, can be reached.

 Questionary:

1. What is the importance of hydropower as a form of energy?


2. What are ocean thermal energy conversion systems? How does ocean
thermal energy conversion work?

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Environment

Chapter: 21
Renewable Energy Resources Part- 3

 Waste of Energy:
o NITI Aayog has recommended setting up a
Waste to Energy Corporation of India under
the Ministry of Urban development.
o There is need for a sustainable plan for solid
waste management in Indian cities.
o According to NITI Aayog, incineration or
“Waste to Energy” (WtE) is the best option
as a sustainable disposal solution for the
solid waste of large cities.

 Waste to Energy Technology:


o Waste-to-Energy (WTE) technology utilizes Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) to create
electric and heat energy through various complex conversion methods.
o WTE technology provides an alternative source of renewable energy in a world with
limited or challenged fossil reserves.
o MSW is considered a source of renewable energy because it contains a large amount of
biological and renewable materials.

 Conversion Methods:
o The most common conversion method of MSW to energy is combustion and although it
is currently entrenched in the market, there are three emerging technologies moving
toward the forefront:

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 Biological treatment method via anaerobic digestion: Anaerobic digestion is a waste-to-
fuel application; waste can be converted into purified biogas which can then be used to
power gas engines or turbines to create heat or electricity. The biogas can also be
purified and compressed to be used as vehicle fuel.
 Thermal treatment methods that yield energy in the form of heat and electricity include
combustion, gasification, and pyrolysis.
 Pyrolysis used in the production of cellulosic ethanol – there are multiple facilities in the
pilot and commercialization stages.

 Conversion Technology:
 Incineration:
o Incineration of waste is the most prevalent form of converting MSW to energy.
o The waste is combusted, and the heat or biogas created is harnessed and either
distributed as heat or converted into another form of useful energy i.e. steam or
electricity.
 Gasification:
o Another thermal treatment process is gasification, which is effective in minimizing air
pollutants.
o Gasification occurs in the presence of limited oxygen and generates a synthetic gas to be
used in a heat and electricity producing gas turbine.
 Pyrolysis:
o It is a thermo-chemical process that produces syngas, and most recently cellulosic
ethanol.
 Combustion :
o Combustion processes are classified as mass burn combustion, where waste is not pre-
sorted, or RDF combustion, a more costly process where recyclable materials are sorted
from the rest of the waste.
o This process is also known as the Solid Recovered Fuel (SRF) combustion process.
 Pyrolysis:
o It is a thermo-chemical process that produces syngas, and most recently cellulosic
ethanol.

 Criticism in Indian Context:


The NITI Aayog’s backing to WTE Technologies is not very much appreciated due
to following reasons;
o The solid waste in India is of high moisture content and low calorific value (800-1000
kcal per kg) which is very less than what is required (2000 kcal per kg) for WtE Plants to
work effectively.
o There is need to segregate dry solid waste from wet solid waste at the source of waste
generation.

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o When WTE Plants in cities use un-segregated waste to generate electricity, they emit
harmful toxic gases into air as by-product which will lead to more air pollution and other
complications.
o There are funding issues for the new energy plant suggested by the Aayog.
o India does not have adequate and effective mechanisms for monitoring gas emissions
and such emissions from WtE plants will make things tougher.

 Solid Waste Management:


A credible solution on the management of solid waste or garbage in our cities must
have three elements;

 The first element is segregation of biodegradable or wet waste from dry waste at source.
 The second is that once segregation is achieved, municipal governments can use wet
waste to produce compost and biogas in biomethanation plants.
 And the third is that the dry waste, after removing recyclable elements, should go
to waste-to-energy plants. This will reduce the volume of waste that remains to be sent
to landfills.

 What are the challenges faced?


o The level of subsidy required to make WTE plants financially viable presents another set
of problems. These plants involve significant capital investment and the cost of energy
produced is higher than from the grid, unless there are government subsidies.
o Municipal bodies give benefits to WTE plants, such as land for free or at token amounts
plus a tipping fee for each tonne of waste processed. However, this does not suffice to
make the cost of electricity produced from these plants competitive with conventional
sources.

 Geothermal Energy:
o Geothermal energy is natural heat from
the interior of the earth that can be used
to generate electricity as well as to heat
up buildings.
o The core of the earth is very hot and it is
possible to make use of this geothermal
energy.
o These are areas where there are
volcanoes, hot springs, and geysers, and
methane under the water in the oceans and seas.
o In some countries, such as in the USA water is pumped from underground hot water
deposits and used for heating of houses.

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Geothermal resource falls into three major categories:
 Geopressurized zones,
 hot-rock zones and
 Hydrothermal convection zones.
 Of these three only the first is currently being exploited on a commercial basis.

 Geothermal energy in India:


o In India, Northwestern Himalayas and the western coast are considered geothermal
areas.
o The Geological Survey of India has already identified more than 350 hot spring sites,
which can be explored as areas to tap geothermal energy.
o The Puga valley in the Ladakh region has the most promising geothermal field.

 Environmental impact:
o Geothermal energy can pose several environmental problems which includes on-site
noise, emissions of gas and disturbance at drilling sites.
o The steam contains hydrogen sulphide gas, which has the odour of rotten eggs, and
cause air pollution.
o The minerals in the steam are also toxic to fish and they are corrosive to pipes, and
equipment, requiring constant maintenance.

 Fuel Cell Technology:


o Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert the chemical energy of a fuel directly
and very efficiently into electricity (DC) and heat, thus doing away with combustion.
o The most suitable fuel for such cells is hydrogen or a mixture of compound containing
hydrogen.
o A fuel cell consists of electrolyte sandwiched between two electrodes.
o Oxygen passes over one electrode and hydrogen over another, and they
electrochemically to generate electricity, water, and heat.

 Fuel Cells for automobile transport:


o Compared to vehicles powered by the internal
combustion engine, fuel cell powered vehicles
have very high energy conversion efficiency,
and near zero pollution, CO2 and water
vapour being the only emission.
o Fuel cell powered EV’s score over battery
operated EV’s in terms of increased efficiency
and easier and faster refuelling.

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 Fuel Cells for power generation:
o Fuel cell systems are excellent for small scale decentralized power generation.
o Fuel cells can supply heat and power to commercial buildings, hospitals, airport and
military installation at remote location.
o Fuel cells have efficiency level up to 55% as compared to conventional power plants.

 Constraint:
o Though rapid progress has been made; high initial cost is still the biggest hurdle in the
widespread commercialization of fuel cells.

 Questionary:

1. Why should we save energy?


2. How does fuel cell technology work? What happened to fuel cell technology?

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