Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Environment
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Environment
Table of Contents
Chapter: 1...................................................................................................................................... 4
Biodiversity ................................................................................................................................ 4
Chapter: 2...................................................................................................................................... 9
Biodiversity Hot Spot ................................................................................................................ 9
Chapter: 3.................................................................................................................................... 13
Wetland, Mangrove & Coral Reef .......................................................................................... 13
Chapter: 4.................................................................................................................................... 20
Threats to biodiversity ............................................................................................................ 20
Chapter: 5.................................................................................................................................... 25
Biodiversity Conservation Part-1............................................................................................ 25
Chapter: 6.................................................................................................................................... 29
Biodiversity Conservation Part-2............................................................................................ 29
Chapter: 7.................................................................................................................................... 36
Ecosystem Part- 1 .................................................................................................................... 36
Chapter: 8.................................................................................................................................... 43
Ecosystem Part- 2 .................................................................................................................... 43
Chapter: 9.................................................................................................................................... 49
Ecosystem Part- 3 .................................................................................................................... 49
Chapter: 10.................................................................................................................................. 57
Ecosystem Part- 4 .................................................................................................................... 57
Chapter: 11.................................................................................................................................. 62
Conservation Efforts ............................................................................................................... 62
Chapter: 12.................................................................................................................................. 73
International Conventions....................................................................................................... 73
Chapter: 13.................................................................................................................................. 78
Climate Change Part- 1 ........................................................................................................... 78
Chapter: 14.................................................................................................................................. 86
Climate Change Part- 2 ........................................................................................................... 86
Chapter: 15.................................................................................................................................. 91
Environmental Acts & Policies ............................................................................................... 91
Chapter: 16.................................................................................................................................. 97
Environmental Pollution Part- 1 ............................................................................................. 97
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Chapter: 17................................................................................................................................ 104
Environmental Pollution Part- 2 ........................................................................................... 104
Chapter: 18................................................................................................................................ 114
Environmental Pollution Part- 3 ........................................................................................... 114
Chapter: 19................................................................................................................................ 122
Renewable Energy Resources Part- 1 ................................................................................... 122
Chapter: 20................................................................................................................................ 130
Renewable Energy Resources Part- 2 ................................................................................... 130
Chapter: 21................................................................................................................................ 136
Renewable Energy Resources Part- 3 ................................................................................... 136
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Environment
Chapter: 1
Biodiversity
Biodiversity:
o Biodiversity Biological diversity
o United Nations Earth Summit (1992)
o “The variability among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine
and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this
includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems”.
o “Biodiversity or Biological diversity includes all the different plants, animals and
microorganisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystems of which they form a part”.
o “With just 2.4% of the land area, India accounts for nearly 7% of the recorded species
even while supporting almost 18% of human population”.
Levels of Biodiversity:
Biodiversity is considered to exist at three levels:
o Genetic diversity
o Species diversity
o Ecosystem/ Community diversity
Genetic Diversity:
o Genetic diversity allows species to adapt to changing environments.
o It is concerned with the variation in genes within a particular species.
o The genetic diversity gives us beautiful butterflies, roses, parakeets or coral in a myriad
hues, shapes and sizes.
o This diversity aims to ensure that some species survive drastic changes and thus carry on
desirable genes.
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Species diversity:
o It refers to the variety of living organisms on earth.
o Species differ from one another, markedly in their genetic makeup, do not inter-breed in
nature.
o It is the ratio of one species population over total number of organisms across all species
in the given biome.
o 'Zero' would be infinite diversity, and ‘one‘represents only one species present.
Measurement of Biodiversity:
o Diversity is a single statistic in which the number of species richness and evenness are
compounded.
o Biodiversity is measured by two major components;
species richness
species evenness
Species Richness
It is the measure of number of species found in a community.
Alpha diversity- It refers to the diversity within a particular area or ecosystem.
Beta diversity- It is a comparison of diversity between ecosystems.
Gamma diversity- It is a measure of the overall diversity for the different ecosystems
within a region.
Species evenness:
o It measures the proportion of species at a given site, e.g. low evenness indicates that a
few species dominate the site.
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o Social services
Ecosystem services:
o Protection of water resources
o Soils formation and protection
o Nutrient storage and recycling
o Pollution breakdown and absorption
o Contribution to climate stability
o Maintenance of ecosystems
o Recovery from unpredictable events
Biological services:
o Food
o Medicinal resources and pharmaceutical drugs
o Wood products
o Ornamental plants
o Breeding stocks, population reservoirs
o Future resources
o Diversity in genes, species and ecosystems
Social services:
o Research, education and monitoring
o Recreation and tourism
o Cultural values
Natural Causes:
o Floods,
o Earthquakes,
o Landslides,
o Rivalry among species,
o Lack of pollination and diseases
Man-Made causes:
o Habitat destruction
o Uncontrolled commercial exploitation
o Hunting & poaching
o Conversion of rich bio-diversity site for human settlement and industrial development
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o Extension of agriculture
o Pollution
o Filling up of wetlands
o Destruction of coastal areas
Biodiversity conservation:
o A reservoir of wild animals and plants is preserved, thus enabling them to be introduced,
if need be, in the surrounding areas.
o Conservation of biological diversity leads to conservation of essential ecological
diversity to preserve the continuity of food chains.
o The genetic diversity of plants and animals is preserved.
o It ensures the sustainable utilization of life support systems on earth.
o Biodiversity conservation assures sustainable utilization of potential resources.
o It provides a vast knowledge of potential use to the community.
Modes of Conservation:
o Ex-situ conservation: Conserving biodiversity outside the areas where they naturally
occur is known as ex-situ conservation.
Seed banks, botanical, horticultural and recreational gardens are important centers for
ex-situ conservation.
o In-situ conservation: Conserving the animals and plants in their natural habitats is
known as in-situ conservation. The established natural habitats are;
National parks
Sanctuaries
Biosphere reserves and
Reserved forests
Protected forests
Nature reserves
Botanical garden:
o Botanical garden refers to the scientifically planned collection of living trees, shrubs,
herbs, climbers and other plants from various parts of the globe.
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Zoo:
o The initial purpose of zoos was entertainment, over the decades, zoos have got
transformed into centers for wildlife conservation and environmental education.
o Zoo is an establishment, whether stationary or mobile, where captive animals are kept
for exhibition, to the public and includes a circus and rescue centers.
o Apart from saying individual animals, zoos have a role to play in species conservation
too (through captive breeding).
Questionary:
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Chapter: 2
Biodiversity Hot Spot
Biodiversity Hotspot:
o A biodiversity hotspot is an area with unusual concentration of species, many of which
are endemic.
o It is marked by serious threat to its biodiversity by humans.
o The concept was given in 1988 by Norman Myers.
Qualification:
To qualify as a hotspot, a region must meet two strict criteria:
Endemism: it must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants (> 0.5 percent of the
world’s total) as endemics, and
Loss of Habitat: it has to have lost at least 70 percent of its original habitat.
o Accordingly, 34 biodiversity hotspots have been so far identified. Collectively, the
Biodiversity hotspots support 60% of world’s plant and animal species with a high share
of endemics and cover around 2.5% of Earth’s land surface.
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Africa: Cape Floristic Region, Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa, Eastern Afromontane,
Guinean Forests of West Africa; Horn of Africa; Madagascar and the Indian Ocean
Islands; Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany; Succulent Karoo.
South Asia: Eastern Himalaya, Nepal; Indo-Burma, India and Myanmar; Western
Ghats, India; Sri Lanka
South East Asia and Asia-Pacific: East Melanesian Islands; New Caledonia; New
Zealand; Philippines; Polynesia-Micronesia; Southwest Australia; Sundaland; Wallacea;
East Asia: Japan; Mountains of Southwest China
West Asia: Caucasus; Irano-Anatolian
Central Asia: Mountains of Central Asia;
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Biodiversity Hotspots in India:
o India shares its territories into three biodiversity hotspots viz. Eastern Himalaya,
Western Ghats and Indo-Burma.
o Biodiversity Hotspots also work as funding regions for Conservation International for its
Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF).
o Eastern Himalaya and Western Ghats are mostly located within India’s territory.
o In the Indo-Burma Biodiversity hotspot, India shares only a small part in north East
India.
o While Bangladesh and Malaysia only extend marginally into the Indo-Burma hotspot.
o For this purpose, officially, the Indo-Burma Hotspot is defined as all non-marine parts of
Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam plus some parts of southern China.
o The Northeastern India is included in a separate CEPF funding region (Eastern
Himalayas Biodiversity Hotspot),
o This is the reason that India has only two biodiversity hotspots viz. Eastern Himalayas
and Western Ghats.
o “India has only 2.4% of the world land area & 40% of fresh water, yet accounts for 7.3%
of recorded species making it 3rd most mega diverse country (after Brazil & Costa Rica)
with highest concentration of species in Agasthyamalai Hills in western Ghats”.
Related Facts:
o 2010- International year for Biodiversity, declared by United Nations
o 22 May- International day for Biological diversity, declared by United Nations.
Hope Spots:
o Hope spots are about recognizing, empowering and supporting individuals and
communities around the world in their efforts to protect the ocean.
o Any special place that is critical to health of the ocean- Earth’s blue heart.
o Dr. Sylvia Earle introduced the concept in 2009.
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o In case of Lakshadweep, the coral reefs are quite sensitive to the ocean environment and
that needs protection.
o Andaman and Nicobar Islands have some of world’s unique species of birds and plants.
o Andaman and Nicobar & Lakshadweep Islands have been named as the new “hope
spots” by IUCN & Oceanographer Sylvia Earle of Mission Blue, an organization
involved in the study of Oceans.
o Area of Ocean that merits special protection because of its wildlife and significant
underwater habitats.
Questionary:
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Chapter: 3
Wetland, Mangrove & Coral Reef
Wetland ecosystem:
o Wetlands are areas intermediate in character between deepwater and terrestrial habitats,
also transitional in nature, and often located between them.
o They included lake littorals, floodplains and other marshy or swampy areas where water
gets stagnated due to poor drainage or relatively impervious substrata & Bogs, fens and
mangroves due to similar ecological characteristics.
o These habitats experience periodic flooding from adjacent deepwater habitats and
therefore supports plants and animals specifically adapted to such shallow flooding or
water logging of the substrate, were designated as wetlands.
o Areas of marsh, fen, peatland/water, whether natural (or) artificial, permanent (or)
temporary with water that is static (or) flowing, fresh brackish (or) salt, including areas
of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed 6 mtrs.
Characteristics:
o Covered by water (or) has waterlogged soil for atleast seven days during the growing
season.
o Adopted plant life (hydrophytes)
o Hydric soils (not enough 02 available for some plants)
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Wetlands Classification:
Functions of Wetlands:
o Habitat to aquatic flora and fauna, as well as, numerous species of birds, including
migratory species.
o Filtration of sediments and nutrients from surface water
o Nutrients recycling
o Water purification
o Provide drinking water, fish, fodder, fuel, etc
o Control rate of runoff in urban areas
o Buffer shorelines against erosion
o Floods mitigation
o Stabilization of local climate
o Source of livelihood to local people
o Genetic reservoir for various species of plants (especially rice)
o Supporting specific diversity
o Maintenance of stream flow
o Ground water recharging
o Comprise an important resource for sustainable tourism, recreation and cultural heritage
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o Habitat Destruction and Deforestation
o Pollution
o Domestic waste
o Agricultural runoff
Mitigation:
o Artificial regeneration
o Protective measures
o Soil conservation measures & afforestation
o Eutrophication abatement
o Environmental awareness
o Survey and demarcation
o Wildlife conservation
o Removal of encroachments
India's Wetlands:
o Wetlands are areas of critical ecological significance, as they support biodiversity,
support millions of people directly and indirectly, protect from storms, flood control,
improve water quality, supply food, fiber and raw materials.
o India has totally 27,403 wetlands, of which 23,444 are inland wetlands and 3,959 are
coastal wetlands.
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o Wetlands occupy 18.4% of the country's area of which 70% are under paddy cultivation.
Mangroves:
o Mangroves are the characteristic littoral plant formation of tropical and subtropical
sheltered coastlines. Mangroves are trees and bushes growing below the high water level
of spring tides which exhibits remarkable capacity for salt water tolerance.
Characteristics of mangroves:
o Some secrete excess salt through their leaves as if you look closely, you can see crystals
of salt on the back of the leaves; others block absorption of salt at their roots.
o They require high solar radiation and have the ability to absorb fresh water from
saline/brackish water.
o It produces pneumatophores (blind roots) to overcome respiration problem in the
anaerobic soil conditions.
o Mangroves exhibit viviparity mode of reproduction, i.e. seeds germinate in the tree itself
(before falling to the ground). This is an adaptative mechanism to overcome the problem
of germination in saline water.
o They are basically evergreen land plants growing on sheltered shores, typically on tidal
flats, deltas, estuaries, bays, creeks and the barrier islands.
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Role of mangroves:
o As prop roots, pneumatophores which help to impede water flow and thereby enhance
the deposition of sediment in areas, stabilize the coastal shores, provide breeding ground
for fishes.
o Mangroves moderate monsoonal tidal floods and reduce inundation of coastal lowlands.
o It prevents coastal soil erosion.
o It protects coastal lands from tsunami, hurricanes and floods.
o Mangroves enhance natural recycling of nutrients.
o Provide a safe and favorable environment for breeding, spawning, rearing of several
fishes.
Threat:
o They are destroyed for conversion of area for agricultural purpose, fuel, fodder and,
Stalinization, minig, oil spills, aquaculture (shrimp farming), use of chemical pesticides
& fertilizers, industrial purposes.
Coral reefs:
o The builders of coral reefs are tiny animals called polyps. As these polyps thrive, grow,
then die, they leave their limestone (calcium carbonate) skeletons behind.
o The limestone is colonized by new polyps. Therefore, a coral reef is built up of layers of
these skeletons covered ultimately by living polyps.
o While the majority of coral reefs are found in tropical and sub-tropical water, there are
also deep water corals in colder regions.
o Coral is actually a living animal. Coral has a symbiotic relationship with 'zooxanthellae'
microscopic algae which live on coral.
o Zooxanthellae assist the coral in nutrient production through its photosynthetic activities.
o These activities provide the coral with fixed carbon compounds for energy, enhance
calcification, and mediate elemental nutrient flux.
o The host coral polyp in return provides its zooxanthellae with a protected environment to
live within, and a steady supply of carbon dioxide for its photosynthetic processes.
o The tissues of corals themselves are actually not the beautiful colors of the coral reef, but
are instead clear (white).
o There are two types of corals: hard corals and soft corals, such as sea fans and
gorgonians. Only hard corals build reefs.
o The corals receive their coloration from the zooxanthellae living within their tissues.
Features:
o They occur in shallow tropical areas, where the sea water is clean, clear arid warm.
o Coral reefs are one of the most productive and complex coastal ecosystems with high
biological diversity.
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o The corals are generally slow growing colonies of animals while xooxanthellae are fast
growing plants.
o Even though corals live in nutrient poor waters, their capability to recycle the scarce
nutrients (by the whole nutrient community) is enormous.
Threat:
o Anthropogenic causes may be due to chemical pollution (pesticides, cosmetics, etc),
industrial pollution, mechanical damage, nutrient loading or sediment loading, Dredging,
shipping, tourism, mining or collection, thermal pollution, intensive fishing etc.
o Natural causes may be due to the outbreak of reef destroying mechanisms, "bleaching"
and depletion of essential symbiotants.
Coral Bleaching:
o Bleaching, or the paling of coral colour occurs when;
The densities of zooxanthellae decline and/or
The concentration of photosynthetic pigments within the zooxanthellae fall.
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o When corals bleach they commonly lose 60-90% of their zooxanthellae and each
zooxanthella may lose 50-80% of its photosynthetic pigments.
o Photosynthesis pathways in zooxanthallae are impaired at temperatures above 30⁰C; this
effect could activate the disassociation of coral/algal symbiosis.
o Low- or high-temperature shocks results in zooxanthellae low as a result of cell adhesion
dysfunction.
o If zooxanthellae loss is prolonged, i.e. if the stress continues and depleted zooxanthellae
populations do not recover, the coral host eventually dies.
o High temperature and irradiance stressors have been implicated in the disruption of
enzyme systems in zooxanthellae that offer protection against oxygen toxicity.
Questionary:
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Chapter: 4
Threats to biodiversity
Threats to biodiversity:
o Habitat loss,
o Poaching of wildlife, man-wildlife conflicts,
o Endangered and endemic species of India,
o Extinction of Species and,
o IUCN, and the Red List
Loss of Biodiversity:
o In general, loss of biodiversity in a region may lead to decline in plant production,
lowered resistance to environmental perturbations such as drought and increased
variability in certain ecosystem processes such as plant productivity, water use, and pest
and disease cycles.
o Sixth Extinction presently is in progress with current species extinction rates estimated
to be 100 to 1,000 times faster than in the pre-human times.
o The IUCN Red List (2004) documents the extinction of 784 species in the last 500 years.
Some examples of recent extinctions include the three subspecies (Bali, Javan, Caspian)
of tiger.
o During the long period (> 3 billion years) since the origin and diversification of life on
earth there were five episodes of mass extinction of species.
o Ecologists warn that if the present trends continue, nearly half of all the species on earth
might be wiped out within the next 100 years.
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Cause for the loss of biodiversity:
o Habitat loss and fragmentation
o Over-exploitation
o Alien species invasions
o Co-extinctions
o Poaching
o Diseases that spread from cattle to wild animals
Poaching:
o Bears are killed for their gall bladders.
o Skin and bones from tigers, ivory from elephants, horns from rhinos and the perfume
from the must deer are extensively used abroad.
o A variety of wild plants with real or at times dubious medicinal value are being over
harvested.
o Specific threats to certain animals are related to large economic benefits.
o Corals and shells are also collected for export or sold on the beaches of Chennai and
Kanyakumari.
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Man – Animal Conflict:
o It refers to the interaction between wild animals and people and the resultant negative
impact on people or their resources, or wild animals or their habitat.
o It occurs when wildlife needs overlap with those of human populations, creating costs to
residents and wild animals.
Impacts:
o Crop damage and damage to property – elephants damage crops and villages.
o Livestock depredation – Himalayan snow leopard preys on goats in the Himalayan
region. Farmers trap and kill snow leopards to save their livestock.
o Injuries and deaths – Man eater tigers are reported to have injured and killed villagers
living on the periphery.
o Injuries to wildlife – leopards and other wild animals are hacked to death by mobs.
Species Extinction:
Extinction is caused through various processes:
o Deterministic processes that have a cause and effect. E.g. glaciations, human
interference such as deforestation.
o Stochastic processes (chance and random events) that effect the survival and
reproduction of individuals. E.g. unexpected changes of weather patterns, decreased
food supply, disease, increase of competitors, predators or parasites, etc. that may act
independently or add to deterministic effects.
o The impact of these processes will of course depend on the size and degree of genetic
diversity and resilience of populations.
Traits that adversely affect or increase a species vulnerability to extinction due to
habitat fragmentation have been identified. These are:
o rarity or low abundance
o poor dispersal ability
o high trophic status – as animals occupying a higher trophic level (i.e. the position of a
species in a food chain) usually have smaller populations than those at lower levels (e.g.
carnivores are fewer in number than herbivores)
o low adult survival rates
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Natural extinctions:
Have been caused due to several factors:
o continent drifting,
o climate change,
o tectonic activity,
o increased volcanic activity,
o The late Ordovician global glaciations (439 Mya).
o The late Cretaceous extinction assumed to be associated with an extra-terrestrial impact.
o Extinction in vascular plants has been more gradual compared with the loss of animals.
It is believed that extinction among this group was due more to competitive
displacement by more advanced plant forms, or due to a
o Gradual climate change, than due to any sudden catastrophic event.
Artificial Extinction:
o Even though species extinction is a natural process which can happen without the
intervention of humans, extinctions caused by humans is now happening over and above
the reasonable estimate of natural extinction rates.
o Species are threatened with extinction by the intervention of humans due to:
o Direct causes – such as hunting, collection or capture and persecution
o Indirect causes – such as habitat loss, modification and fragmentation and the
introduction of invasive species.
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Iucn classification of conservation priority:
Questionary:
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Chapter: 5
Biodiversity Conservation Part-1
Biodiversity Conservation:
o When we conserve and protect the whole ecosystem, its biodiversity at all levels is
protected. E.g. we save the entire forest to save the tiger. This approach is called in situ
(on site) conservation.
o However, when there are situations where an animal or plant is endangered or threatened
and needs urgent measures to save it from extinction, ex situ (off site) conservation is the
desirable approach.
In situ conservation:
o Faced with the conflict between development and conservation, many nations find it
unrealistic and economically not feasible to conserve all their biological wealth.
o Plantation, cultivation, grazing, felling trees, hunting and poaching are prohibited in
biosphere reserves, national parks and sanctuaries.
o On a global basis, this problem has been addressed by eminent conservationists.
o They identified for maximum protection certain ‘biodiversity hotspots’ regions with very
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high levels of species richness and high degree of endemism (that is, species confined to
that region and not found anywhere else).
o India now has 14 biosphere reserves, 90 national parks and 448 wildlife sanctuaries.
o Initially 25 biodiversity hotspots were identified but subsequently nine more have been
added to the list, bringing the total number of biodiversity hotspots in the world to 34.
o These hotspots are also regions of accelerated habitat loss. Three of these hotspots
Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, Indo-Burma and Eastern Himalayas cover our country’s
exceptionally high biodiversity regions.
o In India, ecologically unique and biodiversity-rich regions are legally protected
as biosphere reserves, national parks, sanctuaries, reserved forests, protected
forests and nature reserves.
Ex situ Conservation:
o In this approach, threatened animals and plants are taken out from their natural habitat
and placed in special setting where they can be protected and given special care.
o Zoological parks, botanical gardens, wildlife safari parks and seed banks serve this
purpose.
o There are many animals that have become extinct in the wild but continue to be
maintained in zoological parks.
o Seeds of different genetic strains of commercially important plants can be kept for long
periods in seed banks.
o The national gene bank at National Bureau Of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR),
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Delhi is primarily responsible for conservation of unique accessions on long-term basis,
as base collections for posterity, predominantly in the form of seeds.
o Gametes of threatened species can be preserved in viable and fertile condition for long
periods using cryopreservation techniques, eggs can be fertilized in vitro, and plants can
be propagated using tissue culture methods.
Botanical garden:
o Botanical garden refers to the scientifically planned collection of living trees, shrubs,
herbs, climbers and other plants from various parts of the globe.
Zoo:
o The initial purpose of zoos was entertainment, over the decades, zoos have got
transformed into centers for wildlife conservation and environmental education.
o Zoos provide an opportunity to open up a whole new world, and this could be used in
sensitizing visitors regarding the value and need for conservation of wildlife.
o Zoo is an establishment, whether stationary or mobile, where captive animals are kept
for exhibition to the public and includes a circus and rescue centers but does not include
an establishment of a licensed dealer in captive animals.
o The initial purpose of zoos was entertainment, over the decades; zoos have got
transformed into centers for wildlife conservation and environmental education.
o Ex situ conservation = conserving the organism in an artificial habitat by displacing it
from its natural habitat.
o Botanical Garden = Plants are bred in a protected environment far from their natural
home, especially for research purposes. So it’s ex situ conservation.
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Historic Citizen Movements:
o Chipko Movement
o Appiko Movement
Chipko Movement:
o Modern Chipko movement started in the early 1970s in the Garhwal Himalayas of
Uttarakhand, with growing awareness towards rapid deforestation.
o On March 26, 1974, when a group of peasant women in Reni village, Hemwalghati, in
Chamoli district, Uttarakhand, India, acted to prevent the cutting of trees and reclaim
their traditional forest rights that were threatened by the contractor system of the state
Forest Department.
o Gandhian methods of satyagraha and nonviolent resistance, through the act of hugging
trees to protect them from falling.
o Their actions inspired hundreds of such actions at the grassroots level throughout the
region.
Appiko Movement:
o The Chipko movement in Uttarakhand in the Himalayas inspired the villagers of the
district of Karnataka province in southern India to launch a similar movement to save
their forests.
o Appiko movement was a revolutionary movement based on environmental conservation
in India.
o Appiko movement gave birth to a new awareness all over southern India.
Questionary:
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Chapter: 6
Biodiversity Conservation Part-2
National parks:
o The difference between a Sanctuary and a National Park mainly lies in the vesting of
rights of people living inside.
o Unlike a Sanctuary, where certain rights can be allowed, in a National Park, no rights are
allowed.
o National parks are areas reserved for wild life where they can freely use the habitats and
natural resources.
o No grazing of any livestock shall also be permitted inside a National Park while in a
Sanctuary; the Chief Wildlife Warden may regulate, control or prohibit it.
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Difference between the two:
o Wildlife sanctuary can be created for a particular species whereas the national park is not
primarily focused on a particular species.
o The Central Government may also declare a National Park under certain conditions.
Boundaries:
o No alteration of boundaries of a sanctuary/National Park shall be made except on
recommendation of the National Board for Wild Life.
o Amendment Act of 1991 provided for the inclusion of territorial waters in areas to be
declared as sanctuaries for the protection of off-shore marine flora and fauna.
Conservation Reserves:
o It is an area owned by the State Government adjacent to National Parks and sanctuaries
for protecting the landscape, seascape and habitat of fauna and flora.
o It is managed through a Conservation Reserve Management Committee.
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o Tiruppadaimarathur conservation reserve in Tirunelveli, Tamil nadu is the first
conservation reserve established in the Country.
Community Reserve:
o Declaration of such area is aimed at improving the socio economic conditions of people
living in such area as well as conserving wildlife.
o Reserve is managed through Community reserve management committee.
o Marine National Park and Marine sanctary in the Gulf of Kutch form one unit (one
MPA). Similarly Bhitarkanika National Park and Bhitarkanika Sanctuary are an integral
part of one MPA. Thus, there a total of 31 MPAs in India.
o Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in India comprise of a 33 national parks and wildlife
sanctuaries designated under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
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Global initiative:
o Man and Biosphere Programme, (MAB)
o Biosphere Reserve
o Biodiversity Hotspots
o World Heritage Sites
Aim:
o Studying the effects of human interference and pollution on the biotic and abiotic
components of ecosystems.
o Conservation the ecosystems for the present as well as future.
Objective:
o Conserve representative samples of ecosystem.
o Provide long term in situ conservation of genetic diversity.
o Provide opportunities for education and training.
o Provide appropriate sustainable managements of the living resources.
o Promote international co-operation.
Biosphere Reserve:
o Biosphere Reserve (BR) is an international designation by UNESCO for representative
parts of natural and cultural landscapes extending over large area of terrestrial or
coastal/marine ecosystems or a combination thereof.
o Large areas of protected land for conservation of wild life, plant and animal resources
and traditional life of the tribals living in the area.
o May have one more national parks or wildlife sanctuaries in it.
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Structure and Function of BR:
o BRs are demarcated into following 3 inter-related zones:
Core Zone
Buffer Zone
Transition zone
Core Zone:
o Comprises a strictly protected ecosystem for
conserving ecosystems, species and genetic
variation.
o In core or natural zone human activity is not
allowed.
Buffer Zone:
o Used for scientific researc, monitoring, training
and education.
Transition Zone:
o Ecologically sustainable human settlements and economic activities (tourism) are
permitted.
o With the cooperation of reserve management and local people several human activities
like settlements, cropping, recreation, and forestry are carried out without disturbing the
environment.
Functions of BR:
o Tripartite functions of BR- Conservation, Development and logistic support.
o To conserve the diversity and integrity of plants and animals within natural ecosystems.
o To safeguard genetic diversity of species.
o It has the focus on local inhabitants through provision of supplementary and alternate
livelihood support to the people in the buffer and transition zones in order to reduce
biotic pressure on biodiversity of the natural reserves of core zone.
o BR scheme is different from other conservation related schemes.
o To ensure sustainable use of natural resources.
o To provide area for research and monitoring, & provide facilities for education and
training.
Biodiversity Hotspot:
o A biodiversity hotspot is an area with unusual concentration of species, many of which
are endemic.
o It is marked by serious threat to its biodiversity by humans.
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o The concept was given in 1988 by Norman Myers.
Qualification:
o To qualify as a hotspot, a region must meet two strict criteria:
Endemism: it must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants (> 0.5 percent of the
world’s total) as endemics, and
Loss of Habitat: it has to have lost at least 70 percent of its original habitat.
o Accordingly, 34 biodiversity hotspots have been so far identified. Collectively, the
Biodiversity hotspots support 60% of world’s plant and animal species with a high share
of endemics and cover around 2.5% of Earth’s land surface.
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o A world Heritage site is listed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) which is based in Paris, France.
o The World Heritage Committee is responsible for the implementation of the World
Heritage Convention, defines the use of the World Heritage Fund and allocates financial
assistance upon requests from States Parties.
Questionary:
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Chapter: 7
Ecosystem Part- 1
Biomes:
Terrestrial Ecosystem
o Forest
o Grassland
o Desert
Aquatic Ecosystem
o Fresh Water
o Saline Water
Forest Biomes:
o Temperate hardwood is much better than tropical hardwood as it is lighter in weight,
stronger and more durable & easier to work upon than tropical hardwood.
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Grassland:
Grassland
o Tropical Grassland
o Temperate Grassland
Tropical Grassland:
o Grasses with scattered trees
o Parkland Sawanna
o Taller (upto 3.5m), rough,
coarser, lack nutrients
o Terms for Tropical Grassland
Sawanna (Africa)
Campos (Brazil)
Lianos (Venezuela)
Tropical grasslands:
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Temperate Grassland
o Much purer form.
o Shorter & nutritious
o Classified as;
Prairies- North America
Pampas- South America
Veldts- South Africa
Downs- Australia
Steppe- Russia
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Mediterranean Type Climate:
o In summer- hot & dry
o In winter- cool & wet
o This transformation is because of shifting of pressure
belts.
o Most Scattered Biome
Mediterranean climate:
o Shifting wind belt
o In summer – apparent movement of the sun towards
north – region comes under influence of off-shore
North trade winds => no rain
o Distinct dry season
Desert Biome:
o Represents adoption of life more admirably.
o Lies in high pressure belt between 20⁰ and 30⁰ north and south and most of them occupy
the western sides of the continents in the trade wind belt.
o Very high temperature, clear skies and almost absence of rain.
Tropical Deserts:
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Climate Vegetation
China Type:
o Temperate Monsoon Type or Warm Temperate East Coast Type.
Southern Brazil
British type:
o Best climate for human habitation
o Warm current moderate climate – North Atlantic drift,
Alaskan current
o Moderate climate – warm summer, cool winters
o Low annual temperature range
o Rainfall from westerlies
o western coast receive the most – rainfall decreas
towards interior
o Temperate cyclones – rainfall in winters
o Tall trees with good canopy cover
o soft wood
o trees in pure stand
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o Oak, elm, birch
Laurentian type:
o Not in southern hemisphere- because hardly any land beyond 40 degree latitude
o South America – Andes block the westerlies – oceanic influence
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o summer – intense heating of land – rainfall - wind from pacific
o Winter – anti-cyclonic condition in the heart of Asia – cold wind blows out – snow fall
in mountainous area
Tundra:
o Arctic or polar climate
o Northern Canada and Northern Russia
o Periglacial climate
o Freezing winter, thawing in summer
o Summer short and cool
o Mosses, linchens (algae and fungi) –
ephemeral flowering plants
Aquatic Biomes:
Fresh Water
o Very small proportion of earth’s area that is only 0.8% of earth’s surface.
o Primary production controlled by light and nutrient availability.
o Standing Water- lakes and ponds
o Moving Water- Rivers and streams.
Transitional Communities
o Ecotone between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem.
o Esturies
o Wetlands
Marine Ecosystem
o About 71% of the earth’s surface is covered by marine ecosystem.
o Shorelines
o Coral Reef
o Open Ocean
Questionary:
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Chapter: 8
Ecosystem Part- 2
Ecosystems:
o Fundamentals of Ecology
o Concept of an ecosystem
o Structure and function of an ecosystem
Fundamentals of Ecology:
o Ecology
Eco Came from Greek word “Oikos” meaning house/ household/housekeeping/place
to live in
Logy Logia Study of
o Ecology is the scientific study of the inter-relationship among organisms and between
organisms, and between them and all aspects of living and non living of their
environment.
o Ecology is defined “as a scientific study of the relationship of the living organisms with
each other and with their environment."
This term was given by 2 scholars;
Ernst Heinrich Haeckel- He is usually given the credit for having coined the term
Ecology.
Hans Reiter- Some scholars believe that the term ecology was coined by Hans Reiter &
defined 1st by Haeckel.
Environment:
o The relationship and interaction between organism and environment are highly complex.
o No organism can live alone without interacting with other organisms.
o Each and everything with which we interact or which we need for our sustenance forms
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our environment.
o Everything that surrounds or affects an organism during its life time is collectively
known as its environment which comprises both living (biotic) and nonliving (abiotic)
components.
o The environment is not static.
Components of Environment:
Abiotic Biotic
Energy Green plants
Radiation Non-green plants
Temperature & heat flow Decomposers
Water Parasites
Atmospheric gases and wind Symbionts
Fire Animals
Gravity Man
Topography
Soil
Geologic substratum
Organisms:
o Organism is an individual living being that has the ability to act or function
independently. It may be plant, animal, bacterium, fungi, etc.
o It is a body made up of organs, organelles, or other parts that work together to carry out
on the various processes of life.
Population:
o Population is a group of organisms usually of the same species, occupying a defined area
during a specific time.
o Population growth rate can be positive or negative.
o The main factors that make population grow are birth and immigration.
o The main factors that make population decrease are death and emigration.
o The main limiting factors for the growth of a population are abiotic and biotic
components.
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Community:
o It is an assemblage of plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi, that live in an area and
interact with each other.
o Communities in most instances are named after the dominant plant form (species).
o A community is not fixed or rigid; communities may be large or small.
o Types of Community
Major Community- These are large-sized, well organized and relatively independent
Minor Community- These are dependent on neighboring communities and are often
called societies.
Ecosystem:
o An ecosystem is defined as a structural and functional unit of biosphere consisting of
community of living beings and the physical environment, both interacting and
exchanging materials between them.
o An Ecosystem is a complex set of relationship among the living resources, habitats, and
residents of an area.
o It includes-plants, trees, animals, fish, birds, micro-organisms, water, soil, and people.
o Ecosystem can be as small as a single tree or as large as entire forest.
Classification of Ecosystem:
Ecotone:
o Ecotone is a zone of junction between two or more diverse ecosystems.
o For e.g. the mangrove forests represent an ecotone between marine and terrestrial
ecosystem.
o Edge Effect- The tendency of increased variety and density of some organisms at the
ecosystem border is known as edge effect.
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Ecological Niche:
o The ecological niche of an organism represents the range of condition that it can tolerate,
the resources it utilizes and its functional role in ecological system.
o It is a description of all the biological, physical and chemical factors that a species needs
to survive, stay healthy and reproduce.
o A niche is unique for a species, which means no two species have exact identical niches.
Biomes:
o The terrestrial part of the biosphere is divisible
into enormous regions called biomes.
o It is a large regional unit characterized by a
major vegetation type and associated fauna
found in a specific climate zone.
o No two biomes are alike.
o The climate determines the boundaries of a
biome and abundance of plants and animals
found in each one of them.
o The most important climatic factors are
temperature and precipitation.
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Aquatic Zones:
o Aquatic systems are not called biomes, however they are divided into distinct life zones,
with regions of relatively distinct plant and animal life.
o The major differences between the various aquatic zones are due to salinity, levels of
dissolved nutrients; water temperature, depth of sunlight penetration.
Fresh water ecosystem-
Lotic (moving water)
Lentic (still or stagnant water)
Marine Ecosystem
Estuaries
Biosphere:
o Biosphere is a part of the earth where life can exist.
o It is a zone comprising of atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water) and lithosphere (land).
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Ecosystem:
Structure of an Ecosystem:
Biotic Components: All living organisms present in environment e.g. plants, animals
and human beings.
Abiotic Components: It includes basic organism elements and compound e.g. soil,
water, oxygen, calcium carbonate, phosphates and variety of organic compound (by
product of organic activity).
Function of an ecosystem:
o Radiant energy of the sun is the only significant energy source for any ecosystem. Thus,
the function of ecosystem can be studied under the following three heads;
Energy flow
Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles)
Ecological succession or ecosystem development
Questionary:
1. What are the Abiotic and biotic components of the environment? Explain in
detail.
2. What is the difference between ecosystem and ecotone?
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Chapter: 9
Ecosystem Part- 3
Ecosystem:
o A term used by A.G. Tansley to describe a discrete unit that consist of living and non-
living parts, interacting to form a stable system.
o Ecosystem principles can be applied at all scales.
o Diversity is the nature’s principle as it acts as a “hedge” against any eventuality.
o Man has simplified the ecosystem of the earth and as a result man modified ecosystem
have became fragile.
Biogeocoeonosis:
o The term Biogeocoeonosis in soviet and central European literature describes the same
as what we understand through Ecosystem.
System:
o A system is any ordered interrelated set of things and their attributes, linked by flow of
energy and matter, as distinct from their surrounding environment outside the system.
o Open System A natural system generally is not self contained, input of energy and
matter flow into the system and output flow from the system, Such a system is called
Open System.
o Closed System A system that is shut off from the surrounding environment so that it is
self contained, is a closed system.
o Earth is an open system in terms of energy, as are most natural system, solar energy
enters freely.
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Structure of an Ecosystem:
Biotic Components All living organisms present in environment e.g. plants, animals
and human beings.
Abiotic Components It includes basic organism elements and compound e.g. soil,
water, oxygen, calcium carbonate, phosphates and variety of organic compound (by
product of organic activity).
Components of Ecosystem:
Abiotic Components: Abiotic components are the inorganic and nonliving parts of the
world.
Energy- Energy from the sun is essential for maintenance of life.
Substratum- Land is covered by soil and a wide variety of microbes, protozoa, fungi
and small animals (invertebrates) thrive in it.
Rainfall- Water is essential for all living beings.
Materials- Organic Compounds (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, humic substances),
Inorganic Compound (carbon, carbon dioxide, water, sulphur, nitrates, phosphates,
and ions of various metals)
Temperature- Organisms can tolerate only a certain range of temperature and
humidity.
Atmosphere- It is made up of 21% oxygen, 78 % nitrogen 0.038% carbon dioxide,
and other inert gases (0.93% Argon, Neon etc).
Latitude and altitude- Latitude has a strong influence on an area's temperature,
resulting in change of climates such as tropical, temperate & polar.
Consumers:
Macro consumers:
o They feed on plants or animals or both and are categorised on the basis of their food
sources.
o Herbivores are primary consumers which feed mainly on plants e.g. cow, rabbit.
o Secondary consumers feed on primary consumers e.g. wolves.
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o Carnivores which feed on secondary consumers are called tertiary consumers e.g. lions
which can eat wolves.
o Omnivores are organisms which consume both plants and animals e.g. man
Function of an ecosystem:
o Radiant energy of the sun is the only significant energy source for any ecosystem. Thus,
the function of ecosystem can be studied under the following three heads;
Energy flow
Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles)
Ecological succession or ecosystem development
Energy flow:
o Energy is the basic force responsible for all metabolic activities. The flow of energy
from producer to top consumers is called energy flow which is unidirectional.
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Food chain:
o The transfer of energy from one trophic level
to next trophic level is called Food Chain.
o In nature, two main types of food chains have
been distinguished:
Grazing food chain: The consumers
which start the food chain, utilizing the
plant or plant part as their food, constitute
the grazing food chain.
Detritus food chain: The food chain starts
from dead organic matter of decaying
animals and plant bodies to the micro-
organisms and then to detritus feeding
organism called detrivores or decomposer
and to other predators.
Less energy flows through this. More energy flows through this.
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Food web:
o Interconnected matrix of food chain.
o A food web illustrates, all possible transfers of energy and nutrients among the
organisms in an ecosystem, whereas a food chain traces only one pathway of the food.
Ecological pyramids:
o The steps of trophic levels expressed in a diagrammatic way are referred as ecological
pyramids.
o The number, biomass and energy of organisms gradually decrease with each step from
the producer level to the consumer level.
o The ecological pyramids are of three categories.
Pyramid of numbers,
Pyramid of biomass, and
Pyramid of energy or productivity.
Pyramid of Numbers:
o This deals with the relationship between the numbers of primary producers and
consumers of different levels.
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o This type of pyramid can be seen in grassland ecosystem.
Pyramid of Biomass:
o In order to overcome the shortcomings of pyramid of numbers, the pyramid of biomass
is used.
o In this approach individuals in each trophic level are weighed instead of being counted.
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Upward pyramid:
o For most ecosystems on land, the pyramid of biomass has a large base of primary
producers with a smaller trophic level perched on top.
Inverted pyramid:
o In contrast, in many aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass may assume an
inverted form.
Pyramid of Energy:
o To compare the functional roles of the trophic levels in an ecosystem, an energy pyramid
is most suitable.
o The pyramid is always upward, with a large energy base at the bottom.
o An energy pyramid, reflects the laws of thermodynamics
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Questionary:
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Chapter: 10
Ecosystem Part- 4
Biogeochemical cycles:
In Ecology, a bio-geo-chemical cycle is a circuit or pathway by which a chemical
element or molecule moves through both biotic and abiotic compartments of an
ecosystem.
All chemical nutrients or elements used in ecosystem by living organisms such as
carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and phosphorus operate on a closed system. The Energy of an
ecosystem occurs in an open system.
Nutrient Cycling:
Gaseous
Sedimentary
Biogeochemical cycles:
The following biogeochemical cycles are important in ecology;
Nitrogen Cycle
Phosphorus Cycle
Oxygen Cycle
Carbon Cycle
Hydrogen Cycle
Water Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle:
o Source of N²:Molecular N² in the Atmosphere
o Cannot be metabolized by plants & animals.
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o Molecular N² enters the biological pathways of N² cycle due to activities of several free
living & symbiotic N² fixing microbes.
o Important free living N² fixing bacteria residing in soil are: Azotobacter (aerobic) and
clostridium (anaerobic)
o Cyanobacteria: responsible for N² fixing in flooded rice fields in the tropics;
(Anabaena, Aulosira, and Nostoc).
o Legumes: Symbiotic combination with bacteria Rhizobium; play an important role in
the N² economy of natural terrestrial as well as manmade ecosystem.
o Ammonification: It is done by many heterotrophic bacteria actinomycetes and fungi, by
enzymatic ally degrading organic nitrogen, like protein and nucleic acid contained in
detritus into ammonia.
o Nitrification: Ammonia is converted into nitrite by the bacterium Nitrosomonas
followed by the conversion of nitrite into nitrate by Nitrobacter.
Phosphorus Cycle:
o Major constituent of nucleic acid, cell membrane,
cellular energy transfer s/m, bones & teeth.
o Rocks and natural phosphate deposits are the main
reservoirs of phosphorus.
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Ecological Succession:
o Ecological succession is the gradual process by which ecosystem changes and develops
over time.
o Changes of community structure due to environmental change through time are called
succession.
Pioneer: Climax ( Stable community or end point of succession)
o The series of communities that follow one another on the way to the stable stage is
called Sere.
o Each of the temporary communities is called Seral Stage.
Climax: It refers to stable and self perpetuating stage i.e.; the community that
seemingly resists further change i.e.; what appears to be culminating of succession
process.
o Ecological succession was 1st presented formally by American Ecologist F.E. Clement
(1916)
o Clement believes in;
Orderly Evaluation
Mono-climax Idea
Climax determined by Climate
In the early stage the number of species keeps increasing but as stability is achieved a
few usually become dominant and eliminate some rarer species by competition.
Therefore, at the maturity stage, there may be reduction in the number of species.
o A.G. Tansley believed in Poly-climax idea, according to him a mosaic of climax could
be present in one climatic area. These climaxes might be controlled by factors like
climate, soil, topography, fire etc.
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o Whittaker considers that, there is no absolute climax determined by environmental
condition. According to him, any community is an expression of its particular
environment/habitat and is therefore unique.
o Communities are constantly adjusting in response to physical environment.
Concluding Remark:
o The process of succession may not be as deterministic as we once thought, yet mature or
highly developed ecological community do often tend to be resilient and stable over long
periods.
o Perhaps, it is more accurate to say that the rate of succession is slow in a climax
community that from the perspective of a single human life time, it appears to be
unchanged.
Ecological Succession:
o Ecological Succession is broadly of 2 types;
Primary Succession
Secondary Succession
Primary Succession:
o Primary succession is on a site previously occupied by living organisms.
o For Ex; a newly emerged island, a newly formed body of water or a new volcanic flows
etc.
o This succession begins with pioneer species (often microbes, mosses, lichens etc) that
can withstand harsh condition and lack of resources.
o Pioneer species lead to environmental modification called Ecological Development or
Facilitation.
o The pioneer species gradually disappears as the environment changes, a new species
combination replaces the preceding community.
Secondary Succession:
o When an existing community is disrupted and a new one subsequently develops at the
site.
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o This disruption may be natural, catastrophic; like a fire or flood or human activity like
mining or deforestation.
o At present we find more examples of secondary succession around us.
Questionary:
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Chapter: 11
Conservation Efforts
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o These areas are notified by the State Government in consultation with an Expert
Committee (constituted for that purpose).
Buffer Zone:
o The Act defines buffer zone as the area peripheral to the critical tiger habitat or core area
providing supplementary habitat for dispersing tigers, besides offering scope for co-
existence of human activity (tribals).
o The limits of such areas are determined with the concerned Gram Sabha and an Expert
Committee constituted for the purpose.
National Board for Wild Life ==> Tiger Task Force ==> National Tiger
Conservation Authority
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NTCA members:
o The Wildlife Protection Amendment Act, 2006 provides for the constitution of the
National Tiger Conservation Authority.
o NTCA was set up under the Chairmanship of the Minister for Environment and Forests.
o The Authority will have;
Eight experts having qualifications in wildlife conservation and welfare tribals,
3 MPs,
The Inspector General of Forests, in charge of project Tiger, will be ex-officio Member
Secretary
Functions of NTCA:
o The Authority lays down standards, guidelines for tiger conservation in the Tiger
Reserves, National Parks and Sanctuaries.
o It would provide information on protection measures including future plan for
conservation.
o A provision has been made for the State Governments to prepare a Tiger Conservation
Plan.
o State level Steering Committees will be set up in the Tiger States under
the Chairmanship of respective Chief Ministers. This has been done with a view for
ensuring coordination, monitoring and protection of tigers in the States.
o The Authority would facilitate and support tiger reserve management in the States
through eco-development and people’s participation.
o The Tiger Conservation Authority would be required to prepare an Annual Report,
which would be laid in the Parliament along with the Audit Report.
o Provision will be made for the States to establish a Tiger Conservation
Foundation, based on the good practices emanating from some tiger reserves.
Legal Steps:
o Amendment of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 to Wild Life (Protection) Act, 2006
for providing enabling provisions towards constituting the National Tiger Conservation
Authority and the Tiger and Other Endangered Species Crime Control Bureau.
o Enhancement of punishment in cases of offence relating to a tiger reserve or its core
area.
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Administrative Steps:
o Strengthening of ant poaching activities, including special strategy for monsoon
patrolling.
o State level Steering Committees under the Chairmanship of Chief Ministers and
establishment of Tiger Conservation Foundation.
o Creation of Special Tiger Protection Force (STPF) [Budget 2008].
Financial Steps:
o Financial and technical help is provided to the States under various Centrally Sponsored
Schemes, viz. Project Tiger and Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats.
International Cooperation:
o India has signed a with Bangladesh for conservation of the Royal Bengal Tiger.
o A Global Tiger Forum of Tiger Range Countries has been created for addressing
international issues related to tiger conservation.
o India has a bilateral understanding with Nepal on controlling trans-boundary illegal trade
in wildlife.
o India is a party to CITES. CITES’s landmark decision states that ‘tigers should not be
bred for trade in their parts and derivatives’.
o India has signed a protocol on tiger conservation with China.
o A Global Tiger Forum of Tiger Range Countries has been created for addressing
international issues related to tiger conservation.
o “There are eight subspecies of tiger: among the eight, at present five subspecies are
present in the wild. They are: Bengal, South China, Indochinese, Sumatran, and
Siberian. Three subspecies of tiger—Caspian, Bali, and Javan—are extinct”.
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o Fire protection is effectively done by suitable preventive and control measures.
o Voluntary Village relocation has been done in many reserves.
o Livestock grazing has been controlled to a great extent in the tiger reserves.
o Stringent punishments for violators.
o GIS based digitized database development to evaluate tiger population.
o Various compensatory developmental works have improved the water regime and the
ground and field level vegetation.
Project Elephant:
o Tiger faces threat of extinction, whereas the elephant faces threat of attrition. The
elephant numbers have not increased or decreased drastically but there is an increasing
pressure on the elephant habitats and it is a serious concern which has to be addressed by
involving people in elephant conservation and welfare.
o Project Elephant was launched in 1992.
o It is a centrally sponsored scheme.
Objectives:
o The Project is being mainly implemented in 13 States/UTs, viz. Andhra Pradesh,
Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Meghalaya, Nagaland,
Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Small support is also
being given to Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh.
o To assist states having populations of wild elephants and to ensure long term survival of
identified viable populations of elephants in their natural habitats.
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o States are being given financial as well as technical assistance in achieving the
objectives of the Project.
o Developing scientific and planned management measures for conservation of elephants.
o Protecting the elephants from poachers, preventing illegal ivory trade and other
unnatural causes of death
o Addressing man-animal conflict.
Elephant Corridor:
o An elephant corridor is defined as a stretch/narrow strip of forested (or otherwise) land
that connects larger habitats with elephant populations and forms a conduit for animal
movement between the habitats. This movement helps enhance species survival and
birth rate.
o There are 88 identified elephant corridors in India.
o Out of total 88 corridors, 20 were in south India, 12 in north-western India, 20 in central
India, 14 in northern West Bengal and 22 in north-eastern India.
Mitigation:
o During the process of securing a corridor, monitoring for animal movement have to be
carried out; depending on the need, habitat restoration work shall also be done.
o Fusion of the corridors with nearby protected areas wherever feasible; in other cases,
declaration as Ecologically Sensitive Areas or conservation reserves to grant protection.
o Securing the corridors involves sensitizing local communities to the option of voluntarily
relocation outside the conflict zones to safer areas.
o Preventing further fragmentation of the continuous forest habitat by encroachment from
urban areas.
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Monitoring of Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) Programme:
o Mandated by COP resolution of CITES, MIKE program started in South Asia in the year
2003 with following purpose:
o To provide information needed for elephant range States to make appropriate
management and enforcement decisions, and to build institutional capacity within the
range States for the long-term management of their elephant populations
o Discussions covered a wide range of issues categorized under three basic themes.
Science and conservation
Management and conservation
Cultural and Ethical perspectives of conservation
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o The programme will be supported by WWF — India, the international rhino foundation
(IRF), and a number of local NGOs.
o Translocations are the backbone of the IRV 2020 program.
o Translocating rhinos will help to create a viable population of this threatened species.
o Manas National Park was selected as the first site for translocation of rhinos.
o The vision of this program is to increase the total rhino foundation in Assam from about
2000 to 3000 by the year 2020 and to ensure that these rhinos are distributed over at least
7 protected areas (PA) to provide long term viability of the one-horned rhino population.
o The goal set was to populate the potential rhino habitat areas identified viz. Manas NP,
Dibru Saikhowa WLS, Laokhowa – Bura Chapori WLS with a viable population of
rhino through translocations from Kaziranga NP and Pobitora WLS.
o Ten rhinos have been released into Manas since 2008. Ten more rhinos will be moved
from Kaziranga National Park before the end of the year.
Why?
o Concentrating so many rhinos in a single protected area like Kaziranga exposes the
species to risks of calamities (epidemics, floods, massive poaching attempts).
o Further, rhinos in Pabitora have exceeded carrying capacity and numbers must be
reduced to protect the habitat and to mitigate the increasing rhino-human conflicts.
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o High altitude lakes and bogs provide breeding grounds for a variety of avifauna
including the black-necked crane, barheaded Geese, brahminy ducks, and brown-headed
gulls, etc.
o India has ratified international agreements promoting the conservation of high altitude
wildlife species such as the snow leopard.
o Similarly, in 2003, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
(CITES) expanded the scope of the CITES Tiger Enforcement Task Force to include all
Asian big cat species including the snow leopard.
o In 2003, the Convention on Migratory Species included the snow leopard as a
Concerted Action Species under its Appendix I.
Objectives:
o To protect the remaining population of crocodilians in their natural habitat by creating
sanctuaries.
o To rebuild natural population quickly through ‘grow and release’ or ‘rear and release’
technique.
o To promote captive breeding.
Captive breeding means that members of a wild species are captured, then bred and
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raised in a special facility under the care of wildlife biologists and other expert.
Bringing an animal into captivity may represent the last chance to preserve a species in
the wild.
Project Hangul:
o The Kashmir stag also called Hangul is a subspecies of Central Asian Red Deer native to
northern India.
o It is the state animal of Jammu & Kashmir.
o This dwindled to as low as 150 animals by 1970. However, the state of Jammu &
Kashmir, along with the IUCN and the WWF prepared a project for the protection of
these animals.
o Unfortunately, they were threatened, due to habitat destruction, over-grazing by
domestic livestock and poaching.
o In Kashmir, it’s found in Dachigam National Park at elevations of 3,035 meters.
o These deer once numbered from about 5,000 animals in the beginning of the 20th
century.
o It became known as Project Hangul. This brought great results and the population
increased to over 340 by 1980.
Ganges Dolphin:
o The Ministry of Environment and Forests notified the Ganges River Dolphin as
the National Aquatic Animal.
o The River Dolphin inhabits the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna and Karnaphuli-Sangu
river systems of Nepal, India, and Bangladesh.
o It is estimated that their total population is around 2,000 and they are listed in Schedule I
of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972).
o The Ganges Dolphin is among the four “obligate” freshwater dolphins found in the
world the other three are the ‘baiji found in the Yangtze River (China), the ‘bhulan’ of
the Indus (Pakistan) and the ‘boto’ of the Amazon River (Latin America).
o The Chinese River Dolphin was declared functionally extinct by a team of international
scientists in 2006.
o In India, the Ganges River Dolphin is threatened by river water pollution and siltation,
accidental entanglement in fishing nets and poaching for their oil.
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o In addition, alterations to the rivers in the form of barrages and dams are separating
populations.
o Although there are several species of marine dolphins whose ranges include some
freshwater habitats, these four species live only in rivers and lakes.
Questionary:
1. Why was the Project Tiger initialized in India? What are its essential
features?
2. Why are tiger numbers decreasing?
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Chapter: 12
International Conventions
Hazardous material:
o Stockholm Convention
o Basel Convention
o Rotterdam Convention
Land:
o United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
Marine environment:
o International Whaling Commission (IWC)
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Atmosphere:
o Vienna convention and Montreal Protocol
o United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
o Kyoto Protocol
Agenda 21:
o Agenda 21 is an action plan of the United Nations (UN) related to sustainable
development.
o It is a comprehensive blueprint of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally by
organizations of the UN, governments, and major groups in every area.
o The number 21 refers to an agenda for the 21st century.
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o The Agenda 21 for culture is the first document with worldwide mission that advocates
establishing the groundwork of an undertaking by cities and local governments for
cultural development.
Rio+5:
o In 1997, the General Assembly of the UN held a special session to appraise five years of
progress on the implementation of Agenda 21 (Rio +5).
o The Assembly recognized progress as 'uneven‘ and identified key trends including
increasing globalization, widening inequalities in income and a continued deterioration
of the global environment.
Rio +20:
o "Rio+20" is the short name for the United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development which took place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 2012.
The official discussions focused on two main themes:
How to build a green economy to achieve sustainable development and lift people out of
poverty; and
How to improve international coordination for sustainable development.
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The Convention clearly recognizes these twin aspects of modern biotechnology.
o Access to and transfer of technologies
o Appropriate procedures to enhance the safety of biotechnology technologies.
Objective:
o The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety is an additional agreement to the Convention on
Biological Diversity.
o The Protocol establishes procedures for regulating the import and export of LMOs from
one country to another.
Nagoya Protocol:
o It provides a transparent legal framework for the effective implementation of one of the
three objectives of the CBD.
Objective:
o Is the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic
resources, thereby contributing to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
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Important Agreements:
o Through conservation and restoration, Governments will restore at least 15 percent of
degraded areas
o Will make special efforts to reduce the pressures faced by coral reefs.
o Parties also agreed to a substantial increase in the level of financial resources in support
of implementation of the Convention.
o At least halve and where feasible bring close to zero the rate of loss of natural habitats
including forests
o Established a target of 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water areas and 10 per cent of
marine and coastal areas
CoP 11 Hyderabad:
o India has committed US $50 million towards strengthening the institutional mechanism
for biodiversity conservation in the country during its presidency of the Convention on
Biodiversity (CBD) called the “Hyderabad Pledge”.
o Commitment of the Parties to double the international financial flows for Biodiversity by
2015.
Questionary:
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Chapter: 13
Climate Change Part- 1
Introduction:
o ‘Climate change’ is a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to
human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in
addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.
o Climate is the long-term average of a region's weather events.
o The major characteristics of climate change include rise in average global temperature,
ice cap melting, changes in precipitation, and increase in ocean temperature leading to
sea level rise.
Global warning:
o "Global warming is an average increase in the temperature of the atmosphere near the
Earth's surface and in the troposphere, which can contribute to changes in global climate
patterns.
o In common usage, global warming often refers to the warming that can occur as a result
of increased emission of greenhouse gases from human activities.
o Increase in the average global temperature of Earth’s atmosphere, near the surface and in
the troposphere.
o Global warming can occur from a variety of causes, both natural and human induced.
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Global Warming – Impacts:
o Widespread vanishing of animal populations due to habitat loss
o Changes in rainfall patterns
o Melting of the ice caps
o Bleaching of Coral Reefs
o Loss of Plankton due to warming of seas.
o Increased likelihood of extreme events such as heat wave, flooding, hurricanes
o Melting of glaciers
o Widespread vanishing
o Loss of Plankton due to warming of seas.
Greenhouse Effect:
o The greenhouse effect is a process (similar to green house) caused by greenhouse gases,
which occur naturally in the atmosphere. This process plays a crucial role in warming
the Earth's surface, making it habitable.
o However, human-generated greenhouse gas emissions upset the natural balance and lead
to increased warmth.
o Naturally occurring phenomenon that blankets the lower atmosphere and warms it,
maintaining the temperature suitable for living to survive.
o Frozen and lifeless in the absence of Green House Effects, like moon
o Venus- thick atmosphere
o Average temperature: 15°C
o In the absence of green house effect: -19°C
o Gas that absorbs and emits infrared Radiation are known as Green House Gases.
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Greenhouse Gases:
o Greenhouse gases means those gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and
anthropogenic, those absorbs and re-emit infrared radiation.
o Water Vapour ( H2O)
o Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
o Methane (CH4)
o Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
o Fluorinated Gases (HFCs, PFCs, SF6, etc.)
o Nitrogen Fluoride ( NF3)
Carbon dioxide:
o Human activities are altering the carbon cycle bpth by adding more co2 to the
atmosphere and by reducing the ability of natural sinks, like forests, to remove co2 from
the atmosphere.
o While co2 emissions come from a variety of natural sources, human-related emissions
are responsible for the increase that has occurred in the atmosphere since the industrial
revolution.
o Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the primary greenhouse gas emitted through human activities.
Carbon dioxide is naturally present in the atmosphere as part of the Earth's carbon cycle
(the natural circulation of carbon among the atmosphere, oceans, soil, plants, and
animals).
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Main Sources:
o Many industrial processes emit C02 through fossil fuel combustion.
o The combustion of fossil fuels to generate electricity.
o The combustion of fossil fuels such as gasoline and diesel used for transportation.
o Several processes also produce C02 emissions through chemical reactions that do not
involve combustion, for example, the production and consumption of mineral products
such as cement, the production of metals such as iron and steel, and the production of
chemicals, etc.
Methane:
o Methane (CH4) is emitted by natural sources such as wetlands, as well as human
activities such as leakage from natural gas systems and the raising of livestock.
o Natural processes in soil and chemical reactions in the atmosphere help remove CH4
from the atmosphere.
Sources:
Natural Sources:
o Wetlands are the largest source, emitting CH4 from bacteria that decompose organic
materials in the absence of oxygen.
o Smaller sources include termites, oceans, sediments, volcanoes, and wildfires.
Human Induced:
o Agriculture
o Industry
o Waste from home and businesses
Nitrous oxide:
o Nitrous oxide (N20) is naturally present in the atmosphere as part of the Earth’s nitrogen
cycle, and has a variety of natural sources.
o However, human activities such as agriculture, fossil fuel combustion, wastewater
management, and industrial processes are increasing the amount of N20 in the
atmosphere.
Sources:
Natural Sources:
o Natural emissions of N20 are mainly from bacteria breaking down nitrogen in soils and
the oceans.
Human Induced:
o Agriculture
o Industry
o Transportation
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Fluorinated Gases:
o They are emitted through a variety of industrial processes such as aluminum and
semiconductor manufacturing & Substitution for Ozone-Depleting Substances.
o Fluorinated gases are removed from the atmosphere only when they are destroyed by
sunlight in the far upper atmosphere. In general, fluorinated gases are the most potent
and longest lasting type of greenhouse gases emitted by human activities.
Main Categories:
o There are three main categories of fluorinated gases
hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs),
per fluorocarbons (PFCs), and
Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6).
Industry:
o Per fluorocarbons are ,compounds produced as a by-product of various industrial
processes associated with aluminum production and the manufacturing of
semiconductors.
o Like HFCs, PFCs generally have long atmospheric lifetimes and high GWPs.
o Sulfur hexafluoride is used in magnesium processing and semiconductor manufacturing,
as well as a tracer gas for leak detection.
o HFC-23 is produced as a by-product of HCFC-22 production.
Black Carbon:
o Black carbon (BC) is a solid particle or aerosol, (though not a gas) contributes to
warming of the atmosphere.
o Black carbon, commonly known as soot, is a form of particulate air pollutant, produced
from incomplete combustion. It consists of pure carbon in several linked forms.
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Sources:
o Biomass burning,
o Cooking with solid fuels, and
o Diesel exhaust, etc.
Government Measures:
o Project Surya has been launched to reduce black carbon in atmosphere by introducing
efficient stove technologies, solar cookers, solar lamps and biogas plants.
Brown Carbon:
o Brown carbon is a ubiquitous and unidentified component of organic aerosol which has
recently come into the forefront of atmospheric research.
o Light-absorbing organic matter (other than soot) in atmospheric aerosols of various
origins, e.g., soil humics, humic-like substances (HULIS), tarry materials from
combustion, bioaerosols, etc.
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GWP & Lifetime of Green House Gases:
2 Methane 21 12
o Carbon dioxide (C02) has a GWP of 1 and serves as a baseline for other GWP
values
Receding Glaciers:
o A symptom of Global Climate change
o 150 years ago there were 147 glaciers in Glacier National park, but today only 37
glaciers remain, and scientists predict that they are likely to melt by the year 2030.
o Similarly, glaciers all across the Himalayas and Alps are retreating and disappearing
every year. There are almost 160,000 glaciers found in Polar Regions and high mountain
environments.
o Therefore, researchers are increasingly using satellite remote sensors to routinely survey
our world's glaciers in a fraction of the time.
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Questionary:
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Chapter: 14
Ocean Acidification
Ozone Depletion
Introduction:
o Oceans are an important reservoir for C02 absorbing a significant quantity of it (one-
third) produced by anthropogenic activities and effectively buffering climate change.
o Ocean acidification is the change in ocean chemistry - lowering of ocean pH (i.e.
increase in concentration of hydrogen ions) driven by the uptake of carbon compounds
by the ocean from the atmosphere.
o As the uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide by the ocean increases, the concentration of
hydrogen ions in the ocean increases, the concentration of carbonate ions decreases, the
pH of the ocean decreases and the oceans become less alkaline – this process is know as
ocean acidification.
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o That is because acidification is the direction of travel, the trend, regardless of the starting
point.
o Acidification refers to lowering pH from any starting point to any end point on the pH
scale.
Eutrophication:
o Coastal waters are also affected by excess nutrient inputs, mostly nitrogen, from
agriculture, fertilizers and sewage. The resulting eutrophication leads to large plankton
blooms, and when these blooms collapse and sink to the sea bed the subsequent
respiration of bacteria decomposing the algae leads to a decrease in sea water oxygen
and an increase in C02 (a decline in pH).
How it reacts?
o The term' ocean acidification' summarizes several processes that occur when C02 reacts
with sea water.
o CO2 + H2O H2CO3
o H2CO3 H+ + HCO3—
o The above reaction and release of hydrogen ions increases acidity and thus pH level is
reduced.
Mitigation:
o Reducing C02
o promoting government policies to cap co2 emissions,
o Eliminate offshore drilling.
o by .advocating for energy efficiency and
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o Alternative energy sources such as wind power, solar, etc.
Ozone Depletion:
Introduction:
o Ozone is a natural gas; it is an allotrope of oxygen consisting of three atoms of oxygen
bound together in a non-linear fashion. The chemical symbol of ozone is O3.
o It is found in two different layers of the atmosphere.
o The equilibrium between the formation and destruction of ozone, has been upset by the
influx of several substances into the atmosphere which react with ozone and destroy it.
o Ozone in the troposphere is “bad” because it dirties the air and helps to form smog,
which is not good to breathe.
o It implies that there is a significant decrease in the concentration of ozone in a particular
region of the atmosphere, hence the name ‘Ozone Depletion’.
o Ozone in the stratosphere is “good” because it protects life on earth by absorbing some
of the sun's harmful Ultra Violet (UV) rays.
o The best example of such an ozone hole is the, atmosphere over the Antarctic which has
only about 50 percent of the ozone that originally occurred there.
o The rate at which ozone is being destroyed is much faster than the rate at which it is
being formed.
Sources:
o Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
o Nitrogen Oxides
o Other Substances; bromine containing compounds, Sulphuric Acid particles, Carbon
tetrachloride, Methyl chloroform and other aerosol.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs):
o They are used as refrigerants, propellants in aerosol sprays, foaming agents in plastic
manufacturing, fire extinguishing agents, solvents for cleaning electronic and metallic
components, for freezing foods etc.
o CFCs molecules are made up of chlorine, fluorine and carbon.
o Two-thirds of CFC is used as refrigerants while one third is used as blowing agents in
foam insulation products.
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scavenging processes like photo dissociation, rain-out and oxidation.
o In fact, the residence time of CFCs in the atmosphere estimated to be between 40 and
150 years. During this period, the CFCs move upwards by random diffusion, from the
troposphere to the stratosphere.
Chemical Reaction:
o Chlorine + Chlorine monoxide + Oxygen
o Chlorine monoxide + monoxide (O) Chlorine + Oxygen
o Net Reaction:
o Ozone + monoxide (O) Oxygen + Oxygen
o A single chlorine atom destroys thousands of ozone molecules before encountering
reactive nitrogen or hydrogen compound that eventually return chlorine to its reservoirs.
o The depletion of 03 is catalytic. The element that destroys O3 (i.e chlorine) is being
reformed at the end of cycle.
Nitrogen Oxides:
o The sources of nitrogen oxides are mainly explosions of thermonuclear weapons,
industrial emissions and agricultural fertilizers.
o Nitric oxide (NO) catalytically destroys ozone.
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The escape of N 2 0:
o Nitrous oxide (N20) is released from solid through denitrification of nitrates under
anaerobic conditions and nitrification of ammonia under aerobic conditions.
o This N20 can gradually reach the middle of the stratosphere, where it is photolytic ally
destroyed to yield nitric oxide which in turn destroys ozone.
Other Substances:
o Sulphuric acid particles: These particles free chlorine from molecular reservoirs, and
convert reactive nitrogen into inert forms thus preventing the formation of chlorine
reservoirs.
o Carbon tetrachloride (a cheap, highly toxic solvent) and methyl chloroform (used as a
cleaning solvent for clothes and metals, and a propellant in a wide range of consumer
products, such as correction fluid, dry cleaning sprays, spray adhesives) and other
aerosols.
o Bromine containing compounds called halons and HBFCs, i.e. hydrobromo
fluorocarbons [both used in fire extinguishers and methyl bromide (a widely used
pesticide)]. Each bromine atom destroys hundred times of more ozone molecules than
what a chlorine atom does.
o Sulphuric acid particles: These particles free chlorine
Questionary:
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Chapter: 15
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Pollution Related Acts:
o Environment Act
o Water Acts
o Air Acts
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o The Act imposed an additional fine of up to Rs. 5,000 for every day of continuing
violation.
o Section 19 provides that any person, in addition to authorized government officials, may
file a complaint with a court alleging an offence under the Act.
o The Act provides provision for penalties. For each failure or contravention the
punishment included a prison term up to five years or fine up to Rs. 1 lakh, or both.
o By virtue of this Act, Central Government has armed itself with considerable powers
which include,
o Authority to issue direct orders, included orders to close, prohibits or regulates any
industry.
o If a failure or contravention occurs for more than one year, offender may be punished
with imprisonment which may be extended to seven years.
o This “Citizens’ Suit” provision requires that the person has to give notice of not less than
60 days of the alleged offence of pollution to the Central Government.
o The Act explicitly prohibits discharges of environmental pollutants in excess of
prescribed regulatory standards.
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The Wild Life Act provides for
o State wildlife advisory boards,
o Regulations for hunting wild animals and birds,
o Establishment of sanctuaries and national parks,
o Regulations for trade in wild animals, animal products and trophies, and
o Judicially imposed penalties for violating the Act.
o Hunting species, like those requiring special protection (Schedule II), big game
(Schedule III), and small game (Schedule IV), is regulated through licensing.
o An amendment to the Act in 1982, introduced a provision permitting the capture and
transportation of wild animals for the scientific management of animal population.
o Harming endangered species listed in Schedule 1 of the Act is prohibited throughout
India.
o A few species classified as vermin (Schedule V), may be hunted without restrictions.
o Wildlife wardens and their staff administer the act.
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o Increase in the forest and tree cover.
o Conservation of Biological Diversity and Genetic Resources of the country through ex-
situ and insitu conservation measures.
Water Act:
o The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974 and Amendment, 1988
o The main objective of this act is to provide prevention and control of water pollution.
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o The Central Government, after deducting the expenses of collection, pays the central
board and the states such sums, as it seems necessary.
o The Water Cess Act was passed to generate financial resources to meet expenses of the
Central and State Pollution Boards.
o To encourage capital investment in pollution control, the Act gives a polluter a 70%
rebate of the applicable cess upon installing effluent treatment equipment.
Air Act:
o The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981 and amendment, 1987
o To implement the decisions taken at the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment held at Stockholm in June 1972, Parliament enacted the nationwide Air
Act.
o The main objectives of this Act are to improve the quality of air and to prevent, control
and abate air pollution in the country.
Questionary:
1. What is the Environment Protection Act in India? What are the important
provisions of this Act?
2. What are Environmental legislations and how are they important for
environmental improvement and conservation?
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Chapter: 16
Environmental Pollution Part- 1
Pollution:
o Pollution is defined as 'an addition or excessive addition of certain materials to the
physical environment (water, air and lands), making it less fit or unfit for life'.
Pollutants:
o Pollutants are the materials or factors, which cause adverse effect on the natural quality
of any component of the environment.
Classification of Pollutants:
According to the form in which they persist after release into the environment;
Primary pollutants:
o These persist in the form in which they are added to the environment e.g. DDT, plastic.
Secondary Pollutants:
o These are formed by interaction among the primary pollutants.
o For example, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) is formed by the interaction of nitrogen oxides
and hydrocarbons.
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According to their nature of disposal;
Biodegradable Pollutants:
o Waste products, which are degraded by microbial action. E.g. sewage.
Non-biodegradable Pollutants:
o Pollutants, which are not decomposed by microbial action.
o E.g. plastics, glass, DDT, salts of heavy metals, radioactive substances etc.
According to origin;
o Natural
o Anthropogenic
Causes of pollution:
o Uncontrolled growth in human population
o Rapid industrialization
o Urbanization
o Uncontrolled exploitation of nature.
o Forest fires, radioactivity, volcanic eruptions, strong winds etc.
Air Pollution:
o The presence in the atmosphere of one or more contaminants in such quality and for
such duration as it is injurious, or tends to be injurious, to human health or welfare,
animal or plant life.
o Air pollution is aggravated because of four developments: increasing traffic, growing
cities, rapid economic development, and industrialization.
Ozone:
o At the ground level, it is a pollutant with highly toxic effects.
o Vehicles and industries are the major source of ground-level ozone emissions.
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Lead:
o It is present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints, hair dye products, etc. Lead affects
children in particular.
Smog:
o Photochemical smog (smog) is a term used to describe air pollution that is a result of the
interaction of sunlight with certain chemicals in the atmosphere.
Chloroflorocarbons (CFC):
o These are gases that are released mainly from air-conditioning systems and refrigeration.
Control Measures:
o Destroying the pollutants by thermal or catalytic combustion.
o Conversion of the pollutants to a less toxic form.
o Collection of the pollutant.
Different types of air pollutants can be eliminated/minimized by following methods;
Control of particulate matter
Control of Gaseous Pollutants
Control of Automobile Exhaust
Government Initiatives:
o National Air Quality Monitoring Programme
o National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
Water Pollution:
o Addition of certain substances to the water such as organic, inorganic, biological,
radiological, heat, which degrades the quality of water so that it becomes unfit for use.
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Sources:
Types of sources
Point Sources
Diffuse or non-point source
o Community waste water
o Industrial waste
o Agricultural sources
o Thermal Pollution
o Underground water pollution
o Marine Pollution
o Oil Spills
Thermal Pollution:
o Discharge of hot water may increase the temperature of receiving water by 10 to 15⁰C
above the ambient water temperature.
o Power plants- thermal and nuclear, chemical and other industries use lot of water for
cooling purposes and the used hot water is discharged into rivers, streams and oceans.
o This is thermal pollution.
o Increase in water temperature decreases dissolved oxygen in water which adversely
affects aquatic life.
Marine Pollution:
o Marine Pollution occurs when harmful, or potentially harmful, effects result from the
entry into the ocean of chemicals, particles, industrial, agricultural and residential waste,
noise or the spread of invasive organisms.
Control Measures:
o Domestic cleaning in tanks, streams and rivers, which supply drinking water, should be
prohibited.
o Treatment of sewage water and the industrial effluents should be done before releasing it
water bodies.
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o Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides should be avoided.
o Organic farming and efficient use of animal residues as fertilizers.
o Hot water should be cooled before release from the power plants.
Soil pollution:
o Soil pollution is defined as the “addition of substances to the soil, which adversely affect
physical, chemical and biological properties of soil and reduces its productivity”.
Causes:
o Indiscriminate use of fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides and herbicides.
o Dumping of large quantities of solid waste.
o Deforestation and soil erosion.
o Pollution Due to Urbanization.
Source:
o Fertilizers and manures
o Industrial Wastes
o Radioactive wastes
o Other pollutants
o Pesticides
o Discarded materials
Control measures:
o Use of bio pesticides, bio fertilizers, Organic farming
o Reducing chemical fertilizer and pesticide use
o Afforestation and Reforestation
o Four R's: Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle
o Solid waste treatment
o Reduction of waste from construction areas
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Noise Pollution:
o Noise pollution is an unpleasant noise created by people or machines that can be
annoying, distracting, intrusive, and/or physically painful.
o A person's hearing can be damaged if exposed to noise levels over 75 dB over a
prolonged period of time. The World Health Organization recommends that the sound
level indoors should be less than 30 dB.
Impacts of noise:
o Annoyance
o Physiological effects
o Loss of hearing
o Human performance
o Sleeplessness
o Damage to material
Control:
o Control at source
o Control in the transmission path
o Using protective equipment
Radioactive Pollution:
o Radioactivity is a phenomenon of spontaneous emission of proton (α-particles),
electrons (β-particles) and gamma rays (short wave electromagnetic waves) due to
disintegration of atomic nuclei of some elements.
o These cause radioactive pollution.
Sources:
o Natural-They include cosmic rays from space and terrestrial radiations from radio-
nuclides present in earth's crust such as radium-224, uranium-238, thorium-232,
potassium-40, carbon-14, etc.
o Man-made
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Nuclear power plants
Nuclear weapon
Transportation of nuclear material
Disposal of nuclear waste
Uranium Mining
Radiation therapy
Control Measures:
o Prevention is the best control measure as there is no cure available for radiation damage.
Questionary:
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Chapter: 17
Environmental Pollution Part- 2
Environmental Pollution:
o Environmental Degradation
o Human Modified Ecosystems
o Acid Rain – Acidification
o Environment Impact Assessment
Environmental Degradation:
o Environmental degradation is making the environment unfit or less suitable for the
survival of different life forms thereby causing immense ecological damage.
o Population explosion, urbanization and associated increase in human needs and comforts
have resulted in rapid industrialization.
o Rapid industrialization in turn led to overexploitation of natural resources.
o The consequences of such exploitation are evident in the form of soil erosion,
desertification, loss of biodiversity, pollution of land, air and water bodies.
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Types of Environmental Degradation:
Deforestation:
o Deforestation is the process of clearance of forests by logging and/or burning.
o Deforestation occurs due to many reasons that include trees or derived charcoal are used
as, or sold, for fuel or as a commodity, while cleared land is used as grassland for
livestock, plantations of commodities, and settlements
Extinction:
o It is the process by which a species, genus, or family, becomes extinct no longer existing
and living in the world.
Desertification:
o Desertification is the ruin of land in waterless and dry sub-humid areas due to many
factors such as climatic changes and human activities.
o Desertification results primarily from man-made activities.
o It is mainly caused by overgrazing, over drafting of groundwater and diversion of water
from rivers for human consumption and industrial use, all of these processes are
fundamentally driven by overpopulation.
Emmision:
o Emission leads to pollution such as emission is caused when chemicals are released into
the air.
o When fires break out in forests, they release smoke, soot, carcinogenic hydrocarbons,
dioxins, and carbon dioxide.
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o Emission is process in which human or natural forces discharge chemicals or other
substances into the environment.
o Many natural processes cause emissions. When a volcano explodes, it lets out acid, ash,
and many toxic gases.
Erosion:
o Erosion is the procedure of weathering and carriage of solids in the natural environment
or their source and deposits them elsewhere.
o It generally occurs due to transport by wind, water, or ice, by down-slope creep of soil
and other material under the force of gravity; or by living organisms, such as burrowing
animals, in the case of bio-erosion.
Major Causes:
o Particulate matter
o Burning of plastics: Emit poly chlorinated biphenyl’s (PCBs).
o Over exploitation of natural resources
o Industrial and domestic effluents: Pathogens, heavy metals in water bodies and soil.
o Secondary air pollutants
o Stress due to over harvesting
o Deforestation, over grazing, intensive cultivation, over irrigation etc. results in the loss
of top soil and fertility of the land. Prolonged degradation of land leads to
desertification.
o Habitat fragmentation and destruction
o Hazardous waste/Toxic substances
o Over exploitation of natural resources
Consequences:
Melting of ice caps and glaciers/Sea level change:
o Global warming is posing serious threat to Himalayan and polar ecosystems by melting
snow at a faster rate. Rise in sea level in future is a serious threat to costal landforms.
Genetic resistance:
o An increased use of insecticides, pesticides and antibiotics has speeded up directional
natural selection and caused genetic resistance in pathogens.
Effect on nutrient recycling:
o Use of fertilizers in agricultural fields interferes with the natural biogeochemical cycles.
Desertification:
o Lot of arable land is converted to waste land due to erosion, salinity and loss of fertility.
Change in weather patterns:
o The incidence of extreme weather events and change in weather patterns has become
common due to environmental degradation.
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Increased sensitivity to diseases:
o Cultivated species of plants, fishes and other domesticated animals have become
increasingly sensitive to pest and diseases.
Depletion of water resources:
o Water pollution has created tremendous scarcity of quality water resources.
Loss of biodiversity:
o Habitat destruction and habitat fragmentation are threatening the survival of many
endangered species.
Climate change/global warming:
o Air pollution is making the plant inhospitable due to events like global warming, acid
rain, ocean acidification etc.
Characteristics:
o Food chains are simple, small and undergo frequent changes.
o Depend on human (anthropogenic) support for survival.
o Species are highly susceptible to epidemic diseases.
o Highly unstable, unsustainable and have a devastating effect on the environment.
o Highly simplified with a very low species diversity and poor nutrient cycling.
o Highly subjected to soil erosion and soil degradation.
o Regeneration and recovery of the environment is very slow. Some adverse effects are
irreversible for a very long time.
Agro ecosystems:
o Agro ecosystems are large areas where commercial crops are cultivated.
o Crops are mostly cultivated as monoculture (growing only one type of crop) on the
entire field.
Characteristics of agro-ecosystems:
o Attract weeds and susceptible to plant diseases.
o Soil are poor, deficient in nutrients, require supplement of chemical or fertilizers.
o Need artificial irrigation and water management.
Disadvantages of agro-ecosystem:
o Protecting crops from pests and diseases requires large scale use of pesticides and
chemicals which pollute the environment.
o Deplete ground water in many areas due to well irrigation.
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o Large scale monoculture of agricultural crops results in severe loss of native biodiversity
including genetic diversity of crop plants.
o Runoff water from agricultural field laden with fertilizers and pesticides pollute river,
lakes and ponds (Eutrophication).
o High yielding varieties of crop plants are more susceptible to disease. E.g. smut of
sugarcane, maize and sorghum and rust of wheat and bajra.
Plantation Forest:
o It is a manmade ecosystem consisting of individuals of a particular tree species.
o The aim is to grow fast growing trees which are commercially valuable. E.g. Palm,
rubber, eucalyptus etc.
o Trees planted on barren land, private land, village panchayat land, roadsides, and canal
banks, along with railway line and on land not suitable for agriculture.
Characteristics:
o Plantation forests are generally monoculture, like oil palm plantation, rubber plantation,
coffee plantation, Jatropa curcare (biodiesel).
o Plantation forests have trees of approximately same age.
o Plantation forests are highly susceptible to pathogens.
Economic importance:
o Tree plantation are raised for fruits, oil, rubber, coffee, timber, fire wood, pulp wood for
making rayon and paper industries.
o Trees are also planted to serve as wind breaks or shelter belts.
o Tree plantations are also raised for controlling soil erosion and for increasing soil
fertility.
Aquaculture:
o Fisheries include the extraction of food from the sea and the fresh water whereas
aquaculture is rearing of the aquatic organisms in artificially made water bodies e.g.
culture of fish like carps, tilapia (also known as aquatic chicken.).
o Aquaculture is the artificial cultivation of aquatic plants or animals.
o It is primarily carried out for cultivating certain commercially important edible species
of fresh and marine water fishes, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants.
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Fish ranching:
o Fish ranching is a practice of keeping fishes in captivity for the first few years in floating
cages in coastal lagoons and releasing them from captivity into water bodies. Adults are
harvested when they return for spawning to the lagoons. E.g. Salmon and Hilsa which
migrate to rivers to spawn are cultivated by fish ranching method.
Merits of aquaculture:
o Ecological efficiency is high. 2 kg. of grains are required to add 1 kg live weight.
o High yield in small volume of water.
o Improved qualities of fish obtained by selection and breeding and genetic engineering.
o Aquaculture reduces over harvesting of fisheries.
o High profit.
Demerits of aquaculture:
o Large inputs of feed, water and land are required.
o Loss of native aquatic biodiversity. As it replaced by monoculture of a commercially
important fish species.
o Produces large amounts of fish wastes that pollute water bodies.
o Destroys mangrove forests or coastal vegetation.
o Aquaculture fishes are very sensitive to pesticide runoff from croplands.
o In aquaculture ponds high population density is maintained that makes them highly
vulnerable to diseases leading to total collapse of the crop.
Advantages of dams:
o Water released from dams is used to generate electricity.
o Hydroelectricity n reduces dependence on coal and hence reduces CO2 emission.
o Reduces downstream flooding.
o Reduces river silting below the dam.
o Supply irrigation water for croplands.
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Disadvantages of dams:
o Permanently submerge large areas of forests and crop lands.
o Displace large number of native people.
o Increase water pollution on account of reduced water flow.
o Reduce nutrients replenishment of downstream flood plains.
o Disrupt spawning and migration of some fish species.
o High costs and long gestation period.
The pH scale:
o The pH scale is a measure of how acidic or basic (alkaline) a solution is.
o It ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral.
o A pH less than 7 is acidic, and a pH greater than 7 is basic.
o It is based on hydrogen ion concentration in an aqueous solution.
o pH values decreases as hydrogen ion levels increases.
o A solution with pH 4 is ten times more acidic than solution with pH 5, and a hundred
times more acidic than solution with pH 6.
Wet Deposition:
o If the acid chemicals in the air are blown into areas where the weather is wet, the acids
can fall to the ground in the form of rain, snow, fog, or mist.
o As this acidic water flows over and through the ground, it affects a variety of plants and
animals.
Dry Deposition:
o In areas where the weather is dry, the acid chemicals may become incorporated into dust
or smoke and fall to the ground through dry deposition, sticking to the ground, buildings,
vegetation, cars, etc.
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o Dry deposited gases and particles can be washed from these surfaces by rainstorms,
through runoff. This runoff water makes the resulting mixture more acidic.
o About half of the acidity in the atmosphere falls back to earth through dry deposition.
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Rationale behind EIA:
o EIA looks into various problems, conflicts and natural resource constraints which may
not only affect the viability of a project but also predict if a project might harm to the
people, their land, livelihoods and environment.
o Once these potential harmful impacts are predicted, the EIA process identifies the
measures to minimize those impacts.
o If the EIA report has only one season data, then it’s called Rapid EIA.
o Once this report is prepared, it is submitted to the regulatory agency. The agency may
then decide if the project may go for formal EIA or not.
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EIA cycle:
The EIA process in India is made up of the following phases:
Public hearing
Screening
Baseline data collection
Mitigation measures and EIA report
Scoping and consideration of alternatives
Monitoring the clearance conditions
Public hearing
Decision making
Risk Assessment
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Chapter: 18
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o Inadequate monetary funds, lack of technical expertise and unavailability of required
land with the municipal bodies.
o Lack of segregation of the waste at source.
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Way Ahead:
o The key to efficient waste management is to ensure proper segregation of waste at
source and to ensure that the waste goes through different streams of recycling and
resource recovery.
o Installation of waste-to-compost and bio-methanation plants would reduce the load of
landfill sites.
o Civic bodies should be well equipped both in terms of finances and human resource to
redraw their long term vision in solid waste management that involves community
participation as well.
Disaster Management:
What is a disaster?
o A disaster is a physical event, phenomenon or human activity that leads to sudden
disruption of normal life, causing severe damage to life and property to an extent that
available social and economic protection mechanisms are inadequate to cope.
o Its origin can be natural or man-made.
o Disaster Management is an attempt to inquire into the process of a potential damage
(hazard) turning to disaster, to identify the causes and rectify the same through public
policy.
o Disasters could be, natural (geological, hydro-meteorological and biological) or induced
by human processes (environmental degradation and technological hazards).
o India is one of the most prone disaster zones in the world due to its geographical
characteristics.
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o 68% of land under cultivation is prone to Drought.
o For India, the major hazards are Earth quakes, Landslides, Drought, Cyclones, Floods,
Forest fires and other Fire accidents.
o Also according to the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
(UNISDR) in 2010, India ranked second after China for natural disasters.
o Natural hazard causes injury or loss of life, damage to property, social or economic
disruption and environmental degradation.
o According to World Bank report, India's direct loss due to disaster is around 2% of its
GDP.
o The vulnerability atlas prepared by Building Materials and Technology Promotion
Centre (BMTPC) shows that there are many areas which are prone to multiple hazards.
o Rapid increase of population and urbanization along prone areas and other developments
have increased the level of exposure to hazards.
Earth Quakes:
o Magnitude and Intensity of earth quakes are determined by Ritcher scale and modified
Mercalli scale.
o Earth quakes are unpredictable and unpreventable.
o 95% of the people die due to falling of buildings. So it is most dangerous when occur at
night.
o Earth quakes may cause floods, fires, landslides and huge ocean waves called Tsunamis.
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o Faults are planes that act as source of earth quake. Movement of plates with respect to
each other releasing energy causes it.
o Based on the risk, we have divided India into various zones.
Zone 1 – Not affected;
Zone 2 – Low risk;
Zone 3 – Moderate risk;
Zone 4 – High risk;
Zone 5 – Very high risk.
o Sub-Terranian areas of Himalayas are geologically active and are more prone to earth
quakes.
o Based on the effects seen, it is also classified in to 12 classes.
Class 1 -3: Felt by few people;
Class 4-6: Pendulum clock stops, felt by everyone, objects fall;
Class 7-10: Destruction; Class 11-12: Devastation.
o Train ourselves in basic rescue and first aid functions and also help the survivors
quickly.
o Retrofit the existing buildings, Use appropriate technology in building material and also
adhere to norms in new constructions and train ourselves to respond to the situation are
some of the steps to prepare for the earth quake.
o Preparing to face the hazard is the major step in disaster management.
Cyclones:
o Indian sub-continent is one of the six major cyclone prone areas in the world.
o Cyclones occur due to warm ocean temperature, high relative humidity and atmospheric
instability.
o During cyclones, strong winds uproot trees, destroy power and telecommunication,
terrestrial rain causes flood, high tidal waves hit the coastal areas.
How to prepare?
o Knowing the prone areas. In India, our east coast is the most prone area.
o Giving awareness and knowledge.
o The Disaster Warning System (DWS) helps in dissemination of warning at isolated
places in local languages.
o In cyclonic seasons, listen to TV/RADIO updates, Identify safe shelters Keep an
emergency kit, Check the perimeter for safety, Store adequate food, Keep a list of
emergency numbers, Conduct mock drills.
o Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) does forecasting and warning. They track
cyclones. It is done by INSAT satellite and cyclone detection radars.
o There is a no wind period in between the cyclone. It is the eye of the cyclone. The winds
are on the walls of the eye.
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o Forest along coasts acts as wind barriers. But deforestation and encroachment of coastal
shelter-belt is a threat. By destroying the mangrove forests, we are ourselves increasing
the risk.
Floods:
o The problems of sediment deposition, drainage congestion and synchronization of river
floods compound the flood hazard with sea tides in the coastal plains.
o The major causes are: Blocking of river channel, excessive rain, narrowness of river/
change in its course, insufficient engineering, sea tides, Tsunamis etc.
o Most flood prone areas are banks of Ganga and Brahmaputra. Eastern coastal deltaic
region also cause flood.
o Economically and socially backward communities are the most affected and they took
long for coming back to normal life.
o Seventy five per cent of rainfall is concentrated over four months of monsoon (June –
September) as a result of which almost all the rivers carry heavy discharge during this
period.
o Preparedness is the key to survive.
o During floods, the availability of drinking water is the major problem faced by people.
Overflow of contaminated water from various sources with the useful water in wells,
tanks etc. make them not available for drinking and cooking purposes.
o It should also be made sure during floods that enough food, water and medicines are
easily available. People should be immediately transported to shelter places. People
doing cattle rearing for livelihood are also worsely affected. So measures are needed to
make sure that these animals are also be moved to safer places.
Drought:
o Lack of nutrition, education and proper health, increased school dropouts and child
labour may also be seen.
o Based on the information given by IMD, we can make planned efforts to conserve
resources and to prevent misuse of land and water. Farmers and tribal groups are mostly
affected. Less availability of water for drinking, cooking, agriculture etc. cause decrease
in production and thereby creates unemployment.
o Drought causes lack of food, fodder, water and employment. Women are more affected
and there will be distressed migrations.
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o Use alternative crops
o Capacity building of communities
o Encourage crop and seed insurance scheme
o Awareness generation
o Setting up of efficient irrigation systems also helps saving water. Conserve natural
aquifers.
Disaster Management:
o Disaster management is a multi disciplinary area which includes forecasting, warning,
search and rescue, relief, reconstruction and rehabilitation.
o Without disaster management, sustainable development is not possible. And also disaster
management became part of the policy framework as poor and under privileged are more
affected.
o For developing countries, disaster management is a major concern as it directly
influences the economy, agriculture, food and sanitation, water, environment and health.
Disasters also have social, economic and psychological dimensions. So appropriate
strategies are necessarily been developed.
o Government of India had brought a shift from its relief centric approach to the one with
greater emphasis is on preparedness, prevention and mitigation.
o It is also a multi sectoral task as it involves administrators, scientists, planners,
volunteers and communities.
Five-fold Processes:
Political process: It includes countries to develop policies, legislative and institutional
frameworks and also allocate resources for its prevention.
Technical process: It includes science and technology for assessing, monitoring,
identifying disasters and develops early warning systems.
Socio-educational process: It includes awareness and skill development; also safety and
resilience in all levels.
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Development process: It includes integration of disaster risk in all sectors of
development planning and programs.
Humanitarian process: It includes factoring disaster risk reduction in disaster response
and recovery.
o India started to work on these ideas in 1999 by constituting a High Powered Committee
(HPC) on Disaster Management under Shri. J.C.Pant (Former Secretary of Agriculture to
the Govt. of India), along with experts.
o After December 26, 2004; Tsunami incident, India decided to enact a law on Disaster
Management (DM) to provide a requisite institutional mechanism for drawing up and
monitoring the implementation of DM plans.
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Chapter: 19
Renewable Energy Resources Part- 1
Natural Resources:
o Renewable resources
o Non Renewable resources
Renewable Energy:
o Renewable energy resources are called ‘renewable’ because they are constantly renewed
or regenerated.
o The energy from the sun, the movement of the waves, the flow of the river – these are
some of the activities that have been happening over millions of years and will continue
to happen in the future.
o They are constant and reliable sources. The solar energy, tidal energy, wind energy,
hydroelectric energy, geothermal energy, etc. will never get exhausted as they can be
generated at the same rate at which they are being used.
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Non-renewable energy:
o When we talk about the non-renewable energy source, they are limited in quantity. They
cannot be renewed easily once they are depleted. They take thousands of years to be
formed.
o At the present rate of consumption, these resources will get exhausted in less than a
hundred years.
o It is very important to use the non-renewable energy resources in a judicious manner.
Otherwise, our future generations will not be left with any of the m.
Solar Energy:
o Direct solar energy can be used as heat, light, and electricity through the use of solar
cells.
o Direct use of solar energy can be used through various devices broadly directed into
three types of systems;
passive,
Active
Photovoltaic.
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o Such systems also require pumps and motors to move the fluids or blow air by fan in
order to deliver the captured heat.
o A number of different active solar heating systems are available. The main application of
these systems is to provide hot water, primarily for domestic use.
With reference to technologies for solar power production, consider the following
statements:
1) ‘Photovoltaic’s’ is a technology that generates electricity by direct conversion of light
into electricity, while ‘Solar Thermal’ is a technology that utilizes the Sun’s rays to
generate heat which is further used in electricity generation process.
2) Photovoltaic’s generates Alternating Current (AC), while Solar Thermal generates
Direct Current (DC).
3) India has manufacturing base for Solar Thermal technology, but not for Photovoltaics.
Which of the statements given above is / are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1, 2 and 3
d) None
Explanation:
o Photoelectric effect = When light strikes on a material, electrons are dislodged [photons
dislodge electrons].
o Photovoltaic = The dislodged electrons if channeled through a conductor will create
electric current (voltage Or potential difference) = Solar Panels. [Electric current is
nothing but movement of electrons from high potential to low potential area (more
electrons to less electrons region)]
o Solar thermal = converting light into heat = solar cooker, solar water heater.
o Photovoltaics generate direct current (DC). [Rotating = AC, Stationary = DC. Electric
generator, wind turbine generate AC while solar panels generate DC]
o Solar thermal is mostly used for water heating purposes. Electricity can be generated by
using hot water steam to rotate turbine = AC current.
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o In India both solar panels and solar cookers are manufactured.
Member Countries:
o The ISA is open to 121 prospective member countries (sunshine countries), most of
them located between the Tropic of Cancer & Capricorn.
o So far, 60 countries have signed the framework agreement.
o Countries that do not fall within the tropics can also join the ISA and enjoy all benefits
as other members, with the exception of voting rights.
Secretariat:
o Interim Secretariat of ISA is located at Surya Bhawan, National Institute of Solar Energy
in Guru Gram, Haryana.
o The ISA is the first international body that will have a secretariat in India.
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Timeline:
2015:
o On the sideline of COP21 UN Climate Change Conference at Paris, PM MODI &
President of France jointly launched the initiative of ISA.
2017 (December):
o With the framework agreement of ISA coming into force on 6th December 2017, the
ISA became an international intergovernmental treaty.
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Is ISA part of UN program?
o Strictly speaking, the ISA agreement is separate from the United Nations-mandated
climate change talks that are held every year.
o But it was proposed at the Paris Climate Conference in 2015, and has become a reality at
the Marrakesh meeting, in the process getting linked closely with the UN climate
process.
Challenges:
o Solar modules manufactured in India account for less than 10% of consumption.
o Flood of cheap Chinese exports is making it difficult for Indian domestic manufacturers
to compete.
o Funding is another key concern. India requires nearly US$125 billion to meet its own
renewable energy ambitions.
Wind Energy:
o Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the movement of atmospheric air.
o Wind turbines transform the energy in the wind into mechanical power, further
converting to electric power to generate electricity.
o Germany, USA, Denmark, Spain and India – account for 80% of the world’s installed
wind energy capacity.
Wind Farm:
o A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used for production of
electricity.
Onshore Wind farms
Offshore Wind farms
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o It has estimated it over 302 GW and there are 8 windy states namely Maharashtra,
Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and
Telangana
o India is world’s largest biomass, third largest solar and fourth largest wind energy
producer.
o Indian company Suzlon has expanded beyond the country and has 7.7% market share
worldwide in wind turbine sales.
o Globally, India is at 4th position in term of installed wind power capacity after China,
USA and Germany.
o India has achieved the largest-ever wind power capacity addition of 3,423 MW in 2015-
16, exceeding the target by 44%
Important Facts:
o Currently, installed capacity of wind power in India is spread in north, south and western
parts. As of now, East and North East have no wind power connected to grid. Among the
three regions, maximum installed capacity is of south, followed by west and north.
o Among the various wind farms, Muppandal wind farm at Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu
has largest capacity of 1500MW. Jaisalmer Wind Park of Suzlon is the second largest
with 1064MW.
o Almost three fourth of India’s wind energy is generated between May to September
because that period coincides with South West Monsoon.
o Currently, all wind power is generated in onshore wind farms. India has not yet entered
into the offshore wind power generation. Although some demonstration projects have
been done so far.
o Among states, maximum wind power installed capacity is of Tamil Nadu with 7455MW
installed capacity, followed by Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan. Tamil Nadu shares
35% of India’s total wind power installed capacity.
o Wind energy accounts for around 70 per cent of installed capacity among renewable and
almost all investment in India is coming through private sector investments.
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o These projects situated at Thoppalaakkarai and Sethupuram in Virudhunagar District and
Sellaiya Sezhiyanallur in Tirunelveli District of Tamil Nadu.
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Chapter: 20
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Is Hydropower completely clean?
o Hydropower is not completely clean because the dams produce significant amount of
CO2 and Methane, both GHGs.
o It is cheaper as compared to electricity generated from coal and gas fired plants. It also
reduces the financial losses due to frequency fluctuations and it is more reliable as it is
inflation free due to not usage of fossil fuel.
o When a large dam is built, flora gets immerged in water and rots under anaerobic
conditions producing methane.
o The hydropower generation is highly capital-intensive mode of electricity generation but
being renewable source of energy with no consumables involved; there is very little
recurring cost and hence no high long term expenditure.
Key problems:
o The key problems include high investment costs in building large dams, dependency on
hydrology, problem of environment, loss or modification of the fish habitat and
displacement of the local populations.
o India has one of the largest hydropower potential in the world but only one fifth of that
potential has been harnessed so far.
o These projects have long gestation period in comparison to thermal power projects.
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Silt resistant equipments of withstanding the silt.
Effective operation of the reservoir to minimize silt deposition.
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Basin Wise Power Potential:
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o A 1 % reduction in the flow can reduce electricity output by roughly three per cent.
o Floods, droughts, changes in temperature, precipitation and melting glaciers are all
symptoms of climate change. Since the amount of electricity a hydropower plant can
produce directly depends on the availability of water resources, lower the river
discharge, lesser the power generation.
o Moreover, one cannot ignore the economic risks of investing in a hydropower project
under the prevailing conditions of climate change.
o Floods, droughts, changes in temperature, precipitation and melting glaciers are all
symptoms of climate change. Since the amount of electricity a hydropower plant can
produce directly depends on the availability of water resources, lower the river
discharge, lesser the power generation.
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o Military shore-side bases and communities in the tropics, many of which are largely
dependent on imported fossil fuels for power and transportation, are ideal candidates for
such a system.
o The energy source of OTEC is abundantly available, free and will be so for as long as
the sun shines and an ocean current exists.
o Estimates suggest that ocean thermal energy could contain more than twice the world’s
electricity demand.
o Here the efficiency of the system depends on the temperature difference. Greater the
temperature difference, greater the efficiency.
Cogeneration:
o Producing two forms of energy from one fuel.
o In a conventional power plant, fuel is burnt in a boiler to generate high pressure steam.
This steam is used to drive a turbine, which in turn drives an alternator through a steam
turbine to produce electric power.
o One of the forms of energy must always be heat and the other may be electricity or
mechanical energy.
o The exhaust steam is generally condensed to water which goes back to the boiler.
o As the low pressure steam has a large quantum of heat which is lost in the process of
condensing, the efficiency of conventional power plant is only around 35%.
o In the cogeneration plant, the low pressure exhaust steam coming out of the turbine is
not condensed, but used for heating purpose in factories or houses and thus very high
efficiency levels, in the range of 75%-90%, can be reached.
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Chapter: 21
Renewable Energy Resources Part- 3
Waste of Energy:
o NITI Aayog has recommended setting up a
Waste to Energy Corporation of India under
the Ministry of Urban development.
o There is need for a sustainable plan for solid
waste management in Indian cities.
o According to NITI Aayog, incineration or
“Waste to Energy” (WtE) is the best option
as a sustainable disposal solution for the
solid waste of large cities.
Conversion Methods:
o The most common conversion method of MSW to energy is combustion and although it
is currently entrenched in the market, there are three emerging technologies moving
toward the forefront:
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Biological treatment method via anaerobic digestion: Anaerobic digestion is a waste-to-
fuel application; waste can be converted into purified biogas which can then be used to
power gas engines or turbines to create heat or electricity. The biogas can also be
purified and compressed to be used as vehicle fuel.
Thermal treatment methods that yield energy in the form of heat and electricity include
combustion, gasification, and pyrolysis.
Pyrolysis used in the production of cellulosic ethanol – there are multiple facilities in the
pilot and commercialization stages.
Conversion Technology:
Incineration:
o Incineration of waste is the most prevalent form of converting MSW to energy.
o The waste is combusted, and the heat or biogas created is harnessed and either
distributed as heat or converted into another form of useful energy i.e. steam or
electricity.
Gasification:
o Another thermal treatment process is gasification, which is effective in minimizing air
pollutants.
o Gasification occurs in the presence of limited oxygen and generates a synthetic gas to be
used in a heat and electricity producing gas turbine.
Pyrolysis:
o It is a thermo-chemical process that produces syngas, and most recently cellulosic
ethanol.
Combustion :
o Combustion processes are classified as mass burn combustion, where waste is not pre-
sorted, or RDF combustion, a more costly process where recyclable materials are sorted
from the rest of the waste.
o This process is also known as the Solid Recovered Fuel (SRF) combustion process.
Pyrolysis:
o It is a thermo-chemical process that produces syngas, and most recently cellulosic
ethanol.
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o When WTE Plants in cities use un-segregated waste to generate electricity, they emit
harmful toxic gases into air as by-product which will lead to more air pollution and other
complications.
o There are funding issues for the new energy plant suggested by the Aayog.
o India does not have adequate and effective mechanisms for monitoring gas emissions
and such emissions from WtE plants will make things tougher.
The first element is segregation of biodegradable or wet waste from dry waste at source.
The second is that once segregation is achieved, municipal governments can use wet
waste to produce compost and biogas in biomethanation plants.
And the third is that the dry waste, after removing recyclable elements, should go
to waste-to-energy plants. This will reduce the volume of waste that remains to be sent
to landfills.
Geothermal Energy:
o Geothermal energy is natural heat from
the interior of the earth that can be used
to generate electricity as well as to heat
up buildings.
o The core of the earth is very hot and it is
possible to make use of this geothermal
energy.
o These are areas where there are
volcanoes, hot springs, and geysers, and
methane under the water in the oceans and seas.
o In some countries, such as in the USA water is pumped from underground hot water
deposits and used for heating of houses.
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Geothermal resource falls into three major categories:
Geopressurized zones,
hot-rock zones and
Hydrothermal convection zones.
Of these three only the first is currently being exploited on a commercial basis.
Environmental impact:
o Geothermal energy can pose several environmental problems which includes on-site
noise, emissions of gas and disturbance at drilling sites.
o The steam contains hydrogen sulphide gas, which has the odour of rotten eggs, and
cause air pollution.
o The minerals in the steam are also toxic to fish and they are corrosive to pipes, and
equipment, requiring constant maintenance.
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Fuel Cells for power generation:
o Fuel cell systems are excellent for small scale decentralized power generation.
o Fuel cells can supply heat and power to commercial buildings, hospitals, airport and
military installation at remote location.
o Fuel cells have efficiency level up to 55% as compared to conventional power plants.
Constraint:
o Though rapid progress has been made; high initial cost is still the biggest hurdle in the
widespread commercialization of fuel cells.
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