STRATIGRAPHIC VARIABILITY IN RESPONSE TO ENVIRONMENTAL

CHANGES ACROSS SHORT AND LONG TIME SCALES

ALONG THE SOUTHERN MONTEREY
BAY CONTINENTAL SHELF

An Undergraduate Thesis
Presented to
The Faculty of
California State University, Fullerton
Department of Geological Sciences

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Bachelor of Science
in Geology

By
Jamie Hayward
Spring, 2019

JOSEPH CARLIN, Faculty Advisor

1
ABSTRACT:

Modern continental shelf stratigraphy preserves a high-resolution record of complex natural and

anthropogenic processes that operate on a variety of timescales. Over the long-term, the

stratigraphy records sea level or climatic changes, whereas over shorter terms the stratigraphy

records extreme events such as storms and floods. The Salinas River Mudbelt (SRM), located in

Monterey Bay, CA, is influenced by short and long-term processes. Over longer terms, the SRM

is heavily influenced by climatic cycles; while over shorter times, the SRM is the sink to the

Salinas River, which has produced some of the most substantial event-driven sediment fluxes in

the conterminous U.S. Therefore, the SRM may offer insight to better understand the processes

that influence strata formation along continental margins. To address this, we analyzed short

sediment cores (~ 0.3 m) from the SRM to determine modern sedimentation rates via 210Pb/137Cs

geochronology, and characterize the sediment using grain size and X-ray fluorescence (XRF)

analyses. Site SR1707-02MC showed the most diverse and substantial changes, and thus was the

focus of the study. The geochronological results revealed three distinct sedimentation periods:

slow accumulation at the base, an event deposit, and rapid accumulation at the top of the core.

Elemental and grain size analysis showed increasing concentrations in zirconium, and decreasing

in iron, as well as increasing grain size coarsens up core, all indicative of a change in sediment

sources. The shift in sedimentation may reflect a longer-term trend of environmental change

caused by a combination of climate variability (warm phase PDO and ENSO), and human

activities (dam construction in coastal watersheds). This study demonstrates the usefulness of

continental shelf stratigraphy to preserve both long-term and short-term changes and highlights

the potential for lasting change as the result of decadal-scale processes.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………..pg.5

2. BACKGROUND………………………………………………………………………….pg.7

2.1 Characteristics of Shelf Sedimentation………………………………………...pg.7

2.2 Monterey Bay……………………………………………………………………pg.9

3. METHODS………………………………………………………………………………..pg.12

3.1 Sample Collection………………………………………………………………..pg.12

3.2 210Pb and 137Cs Geochronology.………………………………………………...pg.13

3.3 Sedimentological Analysis………………………………………………………pg.14

3.4 Elemental Analysis………………………………………………………………pg.15

4. RESULTS…………………………………………………………………………………pg.16

4.1 210Pb and 137Cs Profiles………………………………………………………….pg.16

4.2 Grain Size………………………………………………………………………..pg.17

4.3 Elemental Abundances………………………………………………………….pg.18

5. DISCUSSION……………………………………………………………………………..pg.21

5.1 Shifts in Sediment Texture and Composition………………………………….pg.21

5.2 Changes in site SR1707-02MC Sedimentation………………………………...pg.23

5.3 Potential Mechanisms for Late 20th Century Changes in Sedimentation…....pg.24

6. CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………...pg.27

7. REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………pg.29

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LIST OF FIGURES

Table 1. Core Collection Data………………………………………………………………..pg.12

Figure 1. Map of the study area in Monterey Bay, CA………………………………………pg.13

Figure 2. SR1707-02MC Geochronology…………………………………………………....pg.16

Figure 3. Sedimentological results…………………………………………………………...pg.17

Figure 4. Silica composition results………………………………………………………….pg.18

Figure 5. Iron composition results………………………………………………………...…pg.19

Figure 6. Zirconium composition results…………………………………………………….pg.20

Figure 7. Plots depicting trends in detrital elements and sand content with core depth……..pg.21

Figure 8. Ternary plot showing the relative percentage of silicon, zirconium, and iron results

from all cores……………………………………………………………………...pg.24

Figure 9. Shoreline change rates from Moss Landing to the Monterey Peninsula………..…pg.25

Figure 10. Plot of climatic variability over time……………………………………………..pg.27

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

Earth’s history, specifically its geologic processes, is largely recorded within sediments and

sedimentary rocks. Sediment layers can give insight into depositional processes, past

environments, and past climatic conditions. Sedimentary stratigraphy, or strata, represents the

direct link between Earth’s processes and the geologic record. In order to interpret Earth’s

history from the geologic record, it is critical to understand the way strata formation occurs

(Nittrouer, 1999). However, interpreting stratigraphy and determining its formative processes is

difficult because the rates at which strata form in many places is often too slow to provide an in-

depth record of Earth processes. Therefore, in order to gain a better understanding of strata

formation, ideal study locations would be dynamic, influenced by multiple processes, and have

relatively high sedimentation rates to allow for a high-resolution record. The continental shelf

for example, is one such environment that fulfills these criteria.

Continental shelves offer complexity through the integration of marine (Eittreim et al.,

2002; Xu et al., 2002), terrestrial (Farnsworth and Milliman, 2003; Gray et al., 2016; Slagel and

Griggs, 2008; Warrick et al., 2012), and climate processes (Farnsworth and Milliman, 2003;

Grossman et al., 2006; Inman and Jenkins, 1999), thereby recording a spectrum of Earth surface

processes. Further, due to relatively high sedimentation rates, this complexity is better preserved

in the stratigraphic record with a higher resolution compared to deep-sea deposits, or many

terrestrial settings. In this sense, continental shelf stratigraphy can be a powerful tool in

interpreting strata formation on sub-centennial to sub-decadal time scales (e.g. Kuehl et al.,

1986; Nittrouer and Sternberg, 1981; Palinkas, 2009; Sommerfield and Nittrouer, 1999); and

studying continental shelf sedimentation may provide insight into a variety of Earth surface

processes.

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 Within the continental shelf, the greatest potential for a high-resolution record lies in the

mid-shelf mud belts. Mid-shelf mud belts are located seaward of the dynamic wave-dominated

and often sand-dominated inner shelf, and landward of the passive shelf edge. The proximal

central shelf location allows for the rapid deposition of fine sediment through a few

mechanisms: shelf currents, oceanographic fronts, bathymetric control, or sediment suspension

in plumes (Hanebuth et al., 2015). The capacity to collect sediment at the edge of the active

inner shelf makes these features a major sediment sink for the shelf and provides a high-

resolution record of climatic and anthropogenic processes of the region (Hanebuth et al., 2015)

Additionally, mid-shelf mud belts are ubiquitous to continental shelves globally, present on high

and low latitude shelves, and along both active and passive margins (Hanebuth et al., 2015).

A particularly dynamic mudbelt is the Salinas River Mudbelt (SRM), located within

Monterey Bay along the central California coast. The SRM integrates a variety of processes

including active tectonics (McHugh et al., 1998), energetic ocean conditions (Storlazzi and

Field, 2000), episodic and extreme river discharge (Farnsworth and Milliman, 2003), a dynamic

climate driven by El Niño and Pacific Decadal Oscillation cycles that modulate both the marine

(Eittreim et al., 2002; Wheatcroft et al., 2013; Xu et al., 2002) and terrestrial processes (Lewis

et al., 2002; Warrick et al., 2012). Furthermore, over modern times these natural processes have

additional complexity stemming from anthropogenic activities within the Salinas River

watershed (Gray et al., 2016; Slagel and Griggs, 2008). Lastly, the SRM lies just south of one of

the world’s largest submarine canyons, the Monterey Bay Canyon. While this feature has been

heavily studied, the proximal SRM remains relatively understudied, particularly as it pertains to

modern sedimentation.

Therefore, this study uses the SRM to investigate modern changes in sedimentation in an

effort to directly link those changes to processes from historical observations to better understand

6
continental shelf strata formation. The objectives of this study were to: 1) determine sediment

accumulation rates in the SRM over the last 100 years to investigate changes in the supply of

sediment to the shelf, 2) characterize sediment texture to give insight into possible environmental

changes throughout time, and 3) identify mineralogical contributions to assess changes in

sediment province or source contributions over time. Investigating sedimentation within mud

depocenters over short time scales can improve our understanding of the processes influencing

shelf strata formation. By improving our understanding of strata formation, we can ultimately

improve our ability to interpret the stratigraphic record across a variety of time scales.

2.0 BACKGROUND

2.1 Characteristics of Shelf Sedimentation

Mud deposits along continental shelves have been the subject of an increasing number of

studies recently. Over the past several decades specifically, there have been a few studies that

took a more in-depth approach to investigate characteristics of sedimentation on the shelf.

Wheatcroft et al. (2013) for example investigated sediment accumulation rates (SAR) off the

Oregon shelf proximal to the Umpque River. They characterized accumulation into 3 different

types based on the measured 210Pb profiles. While surface mixed layer thickness was a defining

characteristic in the profile types, one type in particular - a mixed layer of 10 cm - was underlain

by a composite profile. This composite profile was attributed to the combined effect of changes

in interannual/interdecadal climate cycles, and recent logging within the Umpque river basin.

Further south along the Northern California shelf proximal to the Eel River, Sommerfield

and Nittrouer (1999) showed the preservation of short-term events in shelf sediments, events that

represent the combination of weather and oceanic processes. They observed that recent

storm/flood deposits were preserved within the shelf stratigraphy, as low 210Pb activities

7
corresponded to recent flooding events on the Eel River that were reworked by “ocean storms”

across the shelf. Lewis et al. (2002) studying the Monterey Bay continental shelf observed a

similar relationship between accumulation and rivers. They found mass accumulation rates of

0.42 g cm2/yr, were the highest in the mid shelf regions near river mouths. Grossman et al.

(2006) also investigated shelf sediment on the Monterey Bay shelf, providing the architecture

and timing of the mud deposit over millennial time scales. As with the short time scales, mid

shelf regions proximal to river mouths over millennial times scales also exhibited the thickest

sediment accumulation (Grossman et al., 2006).

From these previous studies there are 3 main takeaways that we can highlight. First,

changes within watersheds can alter the continental shelf stratigraphic record, and therefore

terrestrial environmental changes are preserved within the marine stratigraphy (Wheatcroft et al.,

2013). Second, short-lived events such as storms can result in the preservation of unique

deposits, and these deposits are not limited to areas proximal to river mouths as energetic oceans

can remobilize sediment and river produced sediment flood plumes across the shelf

(Sommerfield and Nittrouer, 1999). Finally, sedimentation tends to be greatest in mid-shelf

regions proximal to rivers (Grossman et al., 2006; Lewis et al., 2002). With this knowledge, the

ideal locations with high sedimentation rates and the capability of producing multiple events

would be small mountainous river-dominated mid shelf regions such as Monterey Bay.

2.2 Study Area

Monterey Bay is a quasi-protected embayment (Eittreim et al., 2002) that lies along an

active continental margin. The northern half of the bay is protected by the uplifted bedrock

highlands, while the southern tip of the bay is protected by rocky headlands on the Monterey

Peninsula. In the central bay extending from the shallow water at Moss Landing lies the largest

8
sediment sink in the region, the Monterey submarine canyon (Eittreim et al., 2002). Flanking the

north and south side of the canyon are two mid-shelf mud belts that lie in 40-90 m water depths

(Eittreim et al., 2002). The northern belt extends past the bay up the coastline, while the southern

belt is confined to the bay’s perimeter. Also flanking the submarine canyon are two rivers, the

Pajaro river to the north, and the Salinas river to the south.

Most of the sediment delivered to Monterey Bay shelf is from rivers, and the dominant

river in the southern bay (and the largest draining anywhere in the bay) is the Salinas (Farnsworth

and Milliman, 2003). The Salinas river flows northwest within a 11,000 km drainage basin that is

240 km long and ~ 65 km wide (Farnsworth and Milliman, 2003). The drainage basin has a

maximum relief of 1900 m (Gray et al., 2015), is underlain by combination of highly-resistant

igneous, and metamorphic rocks (Inman and Jenkins, 1999). On the surface, the drainage basin

can be characterized into three zones: a riverbed, a bottomland (dominated by agriculture), and

flanking terraces (Gray et al., 2016) covered in chaparral, and grassland (Slagel and Griggs,

2008).

The mean discharge of the river, approximated from the lowest gauging station, is ~ 12

m/s(Gray et al., 2015), with an annual sand flux of ~380,000 m3/y. This discharge is modulated

by the basin’s climate; characterized by seasonal rainfall, where ~ 82 % of the precipitation falls

during winter (November through March), resulting in perennial streams (Willis and Griggs,

2003). As a result of this seasonality to discharge, during the summer the flow can be so low that

a sand bar develops at the mouth of the river creating a closed lagoon (Farnsworth and Milliman,

2003). This littoral sand that closes the mouth, also contributes to large sand dunes that are 10 –

45 m in height, throughout the southern Monterey Bay shore (Stamski, 2005).

Once fluvial sediment enters the ocean it is influenced by marine processes such as

currents and waves. Along the innershelf, Monterey Bay is divided into 2 general littoral cells

9
north and south of the canyon respectively. When the Salinas river is free flowing however, it

further bisects the southern bay littoral cell into two sub-cells. One flows northward ending at the

submarine canyon, and the other southward to the Monterey Peninsula (Stamski, 2005). In

addition to littoral cells influencing the bay, northern hemisphere swells (dominant from October

to May) strongly affect the Bay (Stamski, 2005). As the waves approach the bay they begin to

interact with the canyon, refract, and disperse the energy towards the center of the bay,

producing energetic erosive waves (Stamski, 2005). These winter swells typify the marine

processes that may influence shelf sediments.

Even though there are seasonal cycles, interannual climate variability also impacts

sediment fluxes from the Salinas River. The most influential modulator of sediment flux is

regional climate, because it directly affects the types of soil and vegetation that develop, and

subsequently the amount of fires that occur (Gray et al., 2016). For central California, one of the

most significant climatic drivers is the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). During ENSO

periods the region experiences increasing cyclones and precipitation (Storlazzi and Field, 2000),

leading to higher fluvial discharge during the ENSO warm phase, and an increase in suspended

sand sediment flux, but the fine suspended sediment remains relatively unaffected (Gray et al.,

2015). Additionally, the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) plays a role in Monterey Bay. The

PDO is a decadal scale El Nino, causing long periods of cool and warm phases that affect

precipitation and cyclone frequency. Although warm ENSO and PDO periods may not result in

significant changes to suspended sediment loads in rivers like the Salinas, the small drainage

basin of the Salinas has been shown to be more responsive to ENSO episodic events (Farnsworth

and Milliman, 2003). The result of which is that the river can deliver a large amount of sediment

in a very short period. As suspended sediment travels down the river, it discharges out of the

river mouth as a plume (Inman and Jenkins, 1999). Since the inner shelf is too dynamic for any

10
sediment to be deposited the material travels out further to where it sinks on the mid-shelf (Xu et

al., 2002).

Fire frequency has also been shown to be a factor in sediment delivery to the shelf. After

a fire has burned through an area, hillslopes lose their vegetation and are now vulnerable to any

rainfall, which will increase runoff and erosion of the slope’s soil for a few years (Warrick et al.,

2012). Therefore, the increase in cyclone activity by warm phases of ENSO, in addition to fire

frequency, may cause high variability in sediment flux to the shelf from year to year. This

variability leaves the Bay vulnerable to erosion in the years with low sediment flux (Storlazzi

and Field, 2000).

Additionally, sediment yield can be largely affected by human activities within the drainage

basin. The two largest anthropogenic influences within the Salinas Valley are dams, and

agriculture. Dams affect sediment transport by decreasing peak discharge, and trapping sediment

preventing it from moving further downstream (Willis and Griggs, 2003). Three large dams were

implemented on the Salinas River that significantly altered sediment discharge: Salinas Dam

(1941), Nacimiento Dam (1956), and San Antonio Dam (1965) (Farnsworth and Milliman,

2003). These dams were built because of an increase in California’s population, creating the need

for more water access and flood control for urbanized areas (Slagel and Griggs, 2008).

Agriculture is the single largest (by area) anthropogenic influence within the Salinas River

Watershed (Gray et al., 2016). For example, due to basin wide implementation of drip irrigation

in 1993, sediment loads decreased in the river. This is due to a decrease in sediment transport

that usually occurs as a result of overwatering in a single event from sprinklers and furrows

(Gray et al., 2016).

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3. METHODS

3.1 Sample Collection

Sample collection was conducted aboard the R/V Shana Rae in July 2017. Four sample

sites were selected, targeting areas with the thickest accumulation of post-glacial sediment south

of the Monterey canyon (Fig. 1). Site SR1707-02MC was both the site furthest south and west of

the Marina State Beach collected, site SR1707-03MC was collected from the thickest area of

post-glacial sediment cover, and sites SR1707-04MC and SR1707-05MC were collected to the

southwest and northwest of the Salinas River mouth respectively. These cores were collected in

water depths ranging from 45-90 m, with all locations ~ 4-9 km offshore (Table 1).

Table 1. Core Collection Data

Core ID Location Water Distance
Depth Offshore
SR1707-02MC West of Marina State
89m 9km
Beach
SR1707-03MC Northwest of Marina State
64m 5km
Beach
SR1707-04MC Southwest of Salinas River
47m 4.5km
Mouth
SR1707-05MC Northwest of Salinas River
49m 4.5km
Mouth

Samples were retrieved using a MC-400 Hendrick/Marrs Multi-Corer, with four

individually sealed polycarbonate sample tubes. At each site four subcores were retrieved

ranging from 15 to 30 cm in length, for a total of 16 cores. For analysis, one subcore from each

location was dedicated to geochronology and grain size analyses, one subcore was dedicated to

physical properties analyses (X-Ray Diffraction – XRD, this data will not be discussed), one

subcore was dedicated to core imaging and physical properties scanning (X-Ray Fluorescence -

XRF), and one subcore was preserved as an archive. Three cores from each site were transported

back to the Coastal and Marine Geology Lab (CMGL) at California State University Fullerton

12
(CSUF) for geochronology, physical property analysis, and archival. The last core was

transported to the Menlo Park USGS lab for core imaging and properties scanning. All cores

were stored in refrigerators until laboratory processing took place.

Figure 1. Map of the study area in Monterey Bay, CA. Coring locations are shown by the red circles. The blue contours represent
water depths.

3.2 210 Pb and 137Cs Geochronology

Sediment accumulation rates (SAR) and sediment geochronologies were determined by

measuring excess 210Pb and 137Cs activities down core at 1-2 cm intervals. Each sample interval

was dried, ground to a fine powder, packed in petri dishes, and then analyzed for at least 24

hours on a High-Purity Broad Energy Germanium Gamma Detector (BE3825, Canberra

Industries Inc.) with a multi-channel analyzer (DSA-LX, Canberra Industries Inc.). Lead-210

decays with an expected half-life of 22.23 years, making it an excellent decadal-scale

chronometer over a ~100-150 year period. We measured down-core excess 210Pb activity to

create a profile that follows an exponential curve, from which we can calculate SAR based on

the half-life (Swarzenski, 2014). The activity of total 210Pb was determined from the energy peak
13
at 46.5 keV, with supported 210Pb determine by averaging the activities of the 214Pb peaks (295

keV and 351.9 keV) and the 214Bi peak (609 keV). Excess 210Pb (210Pbxs) was calculated for each

sample by subtracting the measured supported 210Pb from the measured total 210Pb. Excess 210Pb

activities were corrected for self-absorption following the methods of Cutshall et al. (1983). An

age model for SR1707-02MC was calculated based on the 210Pbxs data using the Constant Rate of

Supply (CRS) model (Appleby and Oldfield, 1978). Age models were inconclusive for the three

other cores, and therefore will not be discussed.

Cesium-137 is useful for determining SARs independent to 210Pb since it has well-

established specific time linkages to the early 1950s to early 1960s as a result of nuclear weapon

testing (Krishnaswamy et al., 1971). The activity of 137Cs was also determined concurrently with
210
Pb for all samples from the energy peak at 661 keV. All radioisotope activities were decay-

corrected to the date when the core was collected, and all errors were propagated from counting

statistics.

3.3 Sedimentological Analysis

Particle size distributions were determined by laser diffraction. For analysis, ~0.5 g of

homogenized wet sediment was used at a 1 cm sampling frequency for all cores, totaling to 72

samples. Each sample underwent three separate pretreatments prior to analysis that included 30-90

ml of 30% H2O2 to remove organic matter, 10 ml of HCl to remove carbonates, and 10 ml of NaOH

to remove biogenic silica. These pretreatments ensured that the subsequent grain size

measurement reflects the particle size distribution of the lithogenic fraction only. Particle size

distributions were measured by a Malvern Mastersizer 2000 and a Malvern Hydro G accessory

unit. Quality control for the instrument was routinely assessed by measuring a 1-16 μm tuff

standard at the start of each daily measurement batch, after every 10th sample analyzed, and at
14
the end of each measurement day (N = 48, Avg = 5.05 ± 0.06 μm). The results were initially

binned and exported as percent sand (63-2000 μm), silt (4-63 μm) and clay (< 4 μm).

3.4 Elemental Analysis

Sediment composition was determined for each core through XRF using a Thermo Scientific

portable XRF (p-XRF) model XL3t in mode “Mining Cu/Zn” at the Menlo Park USGS facility.

The handheld p-XRF unit was attached to a custom-designed sediment core track to ensure

consistency in instrument orientation during measurements. Split-core faces were cleaned and

covered with a 4µm thick Ultralene film to prevent the contamination of the measurement prism. The

cores were measured at a 1 cm sampling frequency with a factory-calibrated instrument setting of

four energy filters at 30 seconds per filter to obtain elemental concentrations in parts per million

(ppm). For these analyses, we focused on titanium, iron, silica and zirconium abundances in the cores

as proxies for detrital terrestrial sediment. Quality control for the instrument was routinely

assessed by measuring 3 standards (Instrument blank- SiO2, a marine sediment internal standard,

and a soil internal standard) in triplicate with the same four energy filters, at the beginning and

end of each core.

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4. RESULTS

4.1 210 Pb and 137Cs Profiles

Geochronology results from site

SR1707-02 are shown in Figure 2 for

Figure 2. SR1707-02MC
both 210Pb and 137Cs activities. The 137Cs Geochronology. From the
210Pb we have identified 3
zones within the core: a rapid
had a maximum penetration of 11 cm, a accumulation layer (yellow)
with near uniform activity at
depth, an event deposit
depth which we can assign the date of (brown) with relatively
elevated and uniform
1953 CE. From the 210Pb activities, we activities we have dated to
~1978, and a slow
accumulation layer (green)
observed three distinct layers. The upper where activities decrease
exponentially with depth.
From the zone of
layer, from the surface down to a depth of accumulation, we have
estimated a sedimentation
6 cm, showed a steep/nearly vertical rate of ~0.8mm/yr. From the
137Cs data we have identified

the 1953 horizon (dashed

slope, thus we classify this as the rapid black line).

accumulation layer at an estimated rate of

0.59 cm/yr (Figure 2). The second layer,

from 6-9 cm, showed relatively uniform activity with depth, but slightly elevated activities from

the surface mixed layer, therefore no SAR can be determined. The bottom layer, below 9 cm,

activities decrease exponentially with depth but with a much lower slope than the upper layer,

thus reflecting steady-state accumulation at an estimated rate of 0.08 cm/yr. Geochronology for

sites SR1707-03MC, SR1707-04MC, and SR1707-05MC showed relatively uniform activity

with depth and therefore we could not distinguish rapid sedimentation versus sediment mixing.

However, 137Cs was detected throughout the core to the base of all three cores, indicating that all

the sediment was deposited after 1953 CE.

16
Figure 3. Sedimentological results. Graphs display percent sand down core, for sites SR1707-02MC, 03MC, 04MC, and 05MC.

4.2 Grain Size

Grain size results from site SR1707-02MC show an upward coarsening sequence,

increasing consistently from 5% to 25% sand content over the full ~15 cm length of the core

(Figure 3a). For site SR1707-03 grain size results reveal a similar coarsening upward sequence

over 23 cm (Figure 3b). Notably, this core has a much higher sand content than site SR1707-02,

with increases from ~55% to a maximum of ~70% sand. Site SR1707-04 (Figure 3c) displays a

sharp increase in sand at the base of the core, overlain by a relatively consistent ~ 20 cm sand

layer with ~75% sand. The uppermost 4 cm of the core are slightly finer with the sand content

ranging between 65-75 %. Site SR1707-05 (Figure 3d) also consisted of mostly sand apart from

a relatively finer layer in the uppermost 2 cm.

17
4.3 Element Abundances

We chose to focus on elemental abundances of silica, iron, and zirconium from the XRF

analysis as these all represent various proxies for terrestrial sediment sources. Silica serves as an

overall terrestrial sediment indicator. It is present in quartz and feldspar and other silicate

minerals, one of the most abundant mineral groups on Earth. Further, it can be indicative of drier

to more quiescent depositional periods within marine deposits (Hendy et al., 2015). Iron is used

as a “fresh” watershed indicator. Minerals with iron are readily erodible from the watershed and

are transported to the shelf by rivers during periods of increased run-off (Hendy et al., 2015).

Zirconium is a detrital sediment proxy, it will come from minerals originating in igneous rocks.

Minerals with zirconium are more resistant (Croudace et al., 2006), and therefore are likely

sourced from high-energy environment such as the innershelf and/or littoral zone.

Figure 4. Silica composition result. Concentrations are in part per million for sites SR1707-02MC, 03MC, 04MC, and 05MC.

18
 The silica concentrations downcore for all sites are shown in Figure 4. At site SR1707-

02MC silica steadily decreases up core from the base up to 15 cm (Figure 4a). This is overlain by

a ~ 3 cm layer of slightly elevated silica content. From ~ 8 – 11 cm there is a low-silica layer,

with minimum values at a depth of ~ 9 cm, but silica again increases above this layer to the top

of the core. Sites SR1707-03MC (Figure 4b) and SR1707-04MC (Figure 4c) exhibit an opposite

trend with increasing concentrations from the base of the core to ~ 13 cm where concentrations

gradually decrease. Near the surface at both sites concentrations slightly increase, overlain by a

low surface concentration. Site SR1707-05MC (Figure 4d) is generally consistent up core, with

low concentrations at the surface.

Figure 5. Iron composition result. Concentrations are in parts per million for sites SR1707-02MC, 03MC, 04MC, and 05MC.

In Figure 5, site SR1707-02 (Figure 5a) is unique, as it is the only core with a consistent

decrease in iron concentration up core. Within this decreasing trend, there are two distinct

19
positive peaks at 12 cm and 6 cm. Sites SR1707-03MC (Figure 5b), SR1707-04MC (Figure 5c),

and SR1707-05MC (Figure 5d) are generally consistent up core with slight variations. SR1707-

03MC has a minimum value at the surface, while SR1707-04MC as a minimum value just below

the surface, and SR1707-05MC has a minimum value around 10cm depth. Notably, site SR1707-

02MC has greater values on average compared to the other three cores.

Figure 6. Zirconium composition results. Concentrations are in parts per million for sites SR1707-02MC, 03MC, 04MC, and
05MC.

The Zirconium results are presented in Figure 6, where again site SR1707-02MC is

unique (Figure 6a). It has a distinguishable increasing up core trend with a maximum value near

the surface. Site SR1707-03MC (Figure 6b) is relatively consistent up core, with a minimum

value near the surface followed by a maximum value at the surface. Site SR1707-04MC (Figure

6c) begins increasing at the base of the core, followed by a steady decrease up to 9 cm. The

20
maximum value is near the top of the core just below the surface. Site SR1707-05MC (Figure

6d) is also relatively consistent up core with a maximum value around a depth of 9 cm.

5. DISCUSSION

5.1 Shifts in Sediment Texture and Composition

In an effort to quantify changes in texture and composition we had to pick parameters

that would effectively show the differences between cores, as well as parameters that would

reflect any changes in sediment source. There are two groups of parameters. Iron is a terrigenous

indicator that allows for a distinction between wet (increased runoff and fluvial supply when iron

is relatively enriched) and non-wet climate periods (when iron concentrations are relatively low).

Group two, zirconium and sand, represent high energy deposition and can also provide insight

into sediment source. Sand is indicative of a close source; less distance traveled over time

equates to larger grain size. The presence of zirconium may indicate the sediment came from a

detrital setting, where the material has been consistently re-worked for long periods of time such

that all that remains are the most resistant material like the inner shelf or littoral zone.

Figure 7. Plots depicting trends in detrital elements and sand content with core depth. The three plots show iron (terrigenous
source indicator), zirconium and sand content (high energy deposition indicators) with core depth.

21
 Using these parameters, we can observe trends in terrestrial elements and percent sand

composition (Figure 7). Iron concentrations are relatively consistent for sites SR1707-03MC,

SR1707-04MC, and SR1707-05MC, however SR1707-02MC is the only site showing a

decreasing trend in concentration up core supported by a R2 value of 0.81. In zirconium, again

SR1707-02MC is the only site that displays any type of change, with an increasing trend up core

supported by a R2 value of 0.72. For percent sand composition site SR1707-02MC, again, has

the greatest increase in coarseness up core support by a R2 value of 0.74. Site SR1707-03MC has

a slight increase up core, but SR1707-04MC and SR1707-05MC display little variability.

Overall, the data reflects very small, if any changes in elemental and sand concentrations

throughout cores SR1707-03MC, SR1707-04MC, and SR1707-05MC (Figure 7). Site SR1707-

02MC consistently had more dramatic and notable changes than the other cores. It has increasing

sand content and zirconium concentrations (indicating a closer sediment source from a more

energetic setting), as well as decreasing iron concentration (indicating a reduction in fluvial

supplied sediment). However, despite SR1707-02MC showing the most change, its changes

converge toward the concentrations of the other three cores. The geochronology results also

exemplify this difference between the cores, sites SR1707-03MC, SR1707-04MC, and SR1707-

05MC all had 137Cs at their base, indicating all the sediment was deposited after 1953 CE. The

maximum 137Cs penetration in SR1707-02MC was only 9 cm (Figure 2), indicating the sediment

collected in this core represents a longer timeline, despite being comparable in length to the

others. Therefore, cores SR1707-03MC, SR1707-04MC, and SR1707-05MC have only recorded

the most recent sedimentation with little variability over the past few decades. Core SR1707-

02MC on the other hand, has recorded sedimentation over a longer period, enough to

demonstrate a change in state in the region overtime, but with variability that converge towards

the other three cores within the deposits of the same estimated ages. Therefore, site SR1707-

22
02MC has the longest and most variable record that represents the changes in sedimentation to

the whole SRM and will be the focus for the rest of the discussion.

5.2 Changes in site SR1707-02MC sedimentation

Based on the geochronology results, we can divide site SR1707-02MC into three distinct

sedimentation periods: pre – 1953, event deposit, and post – 1953 (1953 represent the base of the

cesium deposit in the core). The pre – 1953 deposit has a sediment accumulation rate of

0.08cm/yr, representing relatively slow steady-state deposition. The event deposit, recognized by

the uniform activity with depth (Sommerfield and Nittrouer, 1999), doesn’t have a calculatable

SAR because sedimentation would be instantaneous (the likely cause of the event deposit will be

further discussed below). Lastly, the post – 1953 sedimentation has an much higher SAR of

0.59cm/yr.

These three sedimentation regimes in SR1707-02MC’s are also reflected in the XRF data.

If we look at Figure 8, pre-1953, the event deposit, and post-1953 are represented by green,

brown, and yellow circles respectively. To reiterate what each element represents here, silica is a

low-runoff terrestrial proxy, iron represents the terrestrial wet climate periods, and zirconium is a

high energy coastal sediment proxy. From pre- to post-1953 data points, we see an increase in

silica and zirconium, and a decrease in iron concentrations. This represents a shift from a more

fluvial source at the base of the core, to a drier climate/low runoff coastal source at the top. The

event deposit is characterized by higher concentrations of zirconium and lower concentrations of

silica than the sediment deposited before 1953, indicating it was a shift back to fluvial

deposition. However, moving forward in time, as mentioned, the core displays a shift to a coastal

source. Additionally, just as in Figure 7, Figure 8 shows that SR1707-02MC is converging

towards the other cores.

23
Figure 8. Ternary plot showing the relative percentage of silicon, zirconium, and iron results from all cores combined with
specific groupings outlined by time of deposition. The green, brown, and yellow circles represent pre-1953 sedimentation, event
deposit, and post 1953 sedimentation. Sites 03MC, 04MC, and 05MC are represented by purple plus signs, blue stars, and
magenta x’s respectively.

5.3 Potential Mechanisms for Late 20th Century Changes in Sedimentation

To reiterate the main point from the previous section, we see that core SR1707-02MC has

changed from a fluvial sediment source, to a coastal sediment source. This is also supported by

coastal erosion data (Figure 9). Below the Salinas River Mouth the erosion rates can be as great

as 1.3 m/yr, as averaged from the last ~150 years. Specifically looking at short term erosion

(from 1940-2002 CE) we see widespread and significant erosion all along the coastline with a

maximum of 2 m/yr.

But what is the cause for these increasing erosional rates? The potential explanation is

related to both the changes that have happened within the Salinas river watershed, as well as with

climatic shifts in Monterey Bay over the last 100 years. As state above, the Salinas river is the

main contributor of sediment to the shelf, with two tributary rivers, the Nacimiento river and San

Antonio river. In 1940, 1961, and 1965 the Salinas dam, Nacimiento dam, and San Antonio dam

24
were emplaced respectively for agricultural and population needs (Farnsworth and Milliman,

2003; Willis and Griggs, 2003). Dam installation greatly reduces the sediment flux to the shelf

because the sediment is trapped behind the dam. Without sediment delivery to the shelf, and

subsequently to downstream beaches, it leaves the coastline vulnerable to greater erosion as

beach sand is not as readily replenished following major storms (Barnard et al., 2017).

Figure 9. Shoreline change rates from Moss Landing to the Monterey Peninsula over the long term (black line – 1850s-2002) and
the short-term (grey line and shaded region 1940-2002). Rates greater than 0 represent accretion (shaded in blue), rates less than
0 represent erosion (shaded in red). The maximum long-term erosion rate was -1.3 m/yr on Indian Head Beach near Marina. The
maximum short-term erosion rate of –2.4 m/yr further south in the bay. Locations south of the Salinas River experienced greater
erosion than locations north of the river (Hapke and Reid, 2006).

Increasing storminess in Monterey Bay is a function of climate as the region is heavily

influenced by PDO and ENSO cycles. PDO operates on a decadal scale, and ENSO occur

25
approximately every 7 years. When the PDO and ENSO are both in warm phases, the effects of

El Nino’s are greatly increased. Figure 10 emphasizes this point; the background red and blue

shading represent the cool and warm PDO phases. The centralized red and blue peaks in the

middle represent El Nino and La Nina years respectively. From this figure it demonstrates that

the El Nino periods are amplified to greater strengths during the corresponding warm PDO

phase. During a warm PDO and ENSO phase, the wave energy is much stronger and more

capable of coastal erosion. Increased rates of coastal erosion, plus low sediment delivery to the

coast creates an even greater net coastal erosion. Looking at Figure 9 again we can see that

within the short term (past 60 years beginning sometime after 1953 CE), coastal erosion is much

greater than in the long term. In some places there is a more than a meter difference between the

two times periods of erosion, emphasizing that something else has increased erosion rates, which

we conclude is the shift in climate. Additionally, these increases in erosional rates correlate to

the changes we see in SAR. Before 1953 the SAR of core 02MC is 0.08 cm/yr, after the event

deposit the SAR is 0.59 cm/yr, thus the increase in SAR offshore is the result of coastal sediment

derived from elevated coastal erosion.

While we were never able to identify the direct cause of the event deposit because of

possible mixing within the core and the resolution of analysis, we can constrain it to a time

period that also reflects this climate change. By using the lower rate and counting upwards that

puts the deposit in the late 1970s, and using the upper rate and counting downwards it is

sometime before the early 2000s. The late 1970s – early 2000s is a period of intense ENSO

events so the deposit may reflect one of those El Nino years (1982, 1997, etc) where the event

deposit is related to a combined fluvial flood and wave erosion event consistent with the XRF

source characteristics (Figure 8).

26
Figure 10. Plot of climatic variability over time. The plot shows the Multivariant El Nino Index (MEI) where El Nino years are
shown in red and La Nina years in blue. The background shading represents the longer-term Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO)
highlighting warm phases (translucent red) and cool (translucent blue) phases. For central and California, a warm phase PDO
usually corresponds to more frequent and intense El Niño events.

Overall, we believe the combined effect of human and climatic changes is responsible for

changes we see to the stratigraphy of the SRM. Combined, these two factors have changed the

sediment source (i.e. coarser grains and changing elemental abundance), increased erosional

rates, and increased SAR. We no longer see the sediment coming from the river (fluvial), but

rather the sediment is being eroded from the coastline and depositing within the SRM. This study

demonstrates the usefulness of continental shelf stratigraphy to preserve both long-term and

short-term changes to the system and highlights the potential for lasting change as the result of

decadal-scale processes or singular events.

6. CONCLUSIONS

Using geochronology and characterizing the sediment texture through grain size and

XRF, we can conclude the stratigraphy of the SRM reflects a shift in in sedimentation over the

past several decades. The terrestrial elements show a net decrease over time (iron), but sand and

high energy deposition indicators (zirconium) increase. Changes in SAR, sediment texture, and

sediment composition reflect a longer-term environmental response to a combined climate shift

27
(e.g. PDO and ENSO) and anthropogenic (human) changes. Preliminary conclusions indicate the

observed sedimentation changes were caused by a combination of climate and anthropogenic

effects, and the sediment source to the shelf has shifted from fluvial to coastal. Further work is

being conducted to test this preliminary conclusion and determine if the shelf source is indeed

the coast.

28
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