HSC-Intermediate Physics 1st Paper by Tanbircox PDF

Want more Updates: https://www.facebook.com/tanbir.
ebooks
঩দাথ঱বফজ্ঞান প্রশ্ন ঳ৃজন঱ীর ফা তত্ত্বীয় যমভনই য঴াক না যকন, ঩দাথ঱বফজ্ঞাননয যভৌবরক বফলয়঳ভূ ঴ ঳ফ঳ভয় একই থানক । এই
যভৌবরক বফলয়঳ভূ ঴ ঳ম্পনক঱ আ঩নায ঩বযস্কায ধাযণা থাকনর ,আ঩বন অফ঱যই যম যকান উদ্দী঩নকয জ্ঞান, অনু ধাফন, প্রনয়াগ ঑ উচ্চতয দক্ষতায
প্রশ্ন঳ভূ ন঴য উত্তয খুফ ঳ু ন্দয কনয ঳াবজনয় বরনখ আ঳নত ঩াযনফন।এই ই-ফু নক ঩দাথ঱বফজ্ঞাননয যভৌবরক বফলয়঳ভূ ঴ ঳ম্পনক঱ খুফ ঳঴নজ ধাযনা ঑
ফু ঝায জনয ঩দাথ঱বফজ্ঞাননয গুযত্ব঩ূ ন঱ বফলয়঳ভূ ন঴য প্রনয়াজনীয় উদা঴যণ ঑ বিত্র঳঴ ফযাখযাভূ রক ঳ভাধান কনয যদ঑য়া ঴নয়নে ।
ন োটঃ ‚ভূ র ফই তথা ঩াঠ্য ফইনয়য বফকল্প বকেু নাই ।‛ ঩দাথ঱বফজ্ঞান বানরা বানফ ফু ঝায জনয আ঩নানক অফ঱যই বফববন্ন যরখনকয ফই ঩ড়নত ঴নফ
অথ঱াৎ একই টব঩ক্স বফববন্ন ফইনত ঩ড়নত ঴নফ। যম টাকা বদনয় যকাবিিং কযনফন য঳ই টাকা বদনয় বফববন্ন যরখনকয ফই বকনু ন এফিং তা একফায কনয
঴নর঑ ঩ড়ুন , আ঱া কবয যকাবিিং এ ঩ড়ায যিনয় বানরা পরাপর ঩ানফন ।
ব঱ক্ষাথ঱ী কানে একান্ত অনু নযাধ , ঩দাথ঱বফজ্ঞান না ফু নঝ ভুখস্ত কযায বফ঱ার বুরবট বুনর঑ কযনফন না।ন঳টা বননজয ঩ানয় বননজই কুড়ার ভাযায
঳ভাথ঱ক।কাযন এনত ঳ভয় ঑ যভধা দু নটাই অ঩িয় ঴য় , এফিং এনত বফলয়টায উ঩য একটা অভূ রক অস্ববস্ত ঑ বীবত িনর আন঳।
অনটানভবটক স্ক্রনরয ভাধযনভ ই-ফুক ঩ড়া / বযনড়য জনযঃ
আ঩নায ই−ফুক ফা pdf বযডানযয Menu Bar এয View অ঩঱নবট যত বিক কনয Auto /Automatically Scroll অ঩঱নবট
ব঳নরক্ট করুন (অথফা ঳যা঳বয যমনত  Ctrl + Shift + H )। এবার ↑ up Arrow ফা ↓ down Arrow যত বিক কনয
আ঩নায ঩ড়ায ঳ু বফধা অনু ঳ানয স্ক্রর স্পীড বঠ্ক কনয বনন।
঳যা঳বয যমনত অধযানয়য নানভয উ঩য বিক করুনঃ
1. যবক্টয (Vector)
2. রযবখক গবত (Linear-Motion)
3. বিভাবত্রক গবত(Motion-In-Two-Dimensions)
4. গবত঳ূ ত্র (Laws-Of-Motion)
5. যকৌবণক গবত঳ূ ত্র (Laws-Of-Angular-Motion)
6. কাজ, ঱বি ঑ ক্ষভতা (Work-Energy-And-Power)
7. ভ঴াকল঱ (Gravitation)
8. ঳যর েবন্দত স্পন্দন (Simple-Harmonic-Oscillation)
9. বিবতিা঩কতা (Elasticity)
10. প্রফা঴ী ঩দাথ঱ (Fluid)
11. তা঩ ঑ গযা঳ (Heat-And-Gas)
12. তা঩ভাত্রা (Temperature)
13. তা঩ গবতবফদযায প্রথভ ঳ূ ত্র (First Law Of Thermodynamics)
14. তা঩ বফবকযণ (Heat Radiation)
15. অফিায ঩বযফত঱ন (Change Of State)
16. তা঩গবতবফদযায বিতীয় ঳ূ ত্র (Second Law Of Thermodynamics)
17. তযঙ্গ ঑ ঱ব্দ (Waves & Sound)
18. ঱ব্দ (Sound)
19. ঱নব্দয গবতনফগ (Speed Of Sound)
facebook /gmail/skype: -tanbir.cox Web: http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

Want more Updates: https://www.facebook.com/tanbir.ebooks
বদক/নবক্টয যাব঱ঃ ভান ঑ বদক উবয়ই আনে এফিং যম যকান একবট ফা উবয়বটয ঩বযফত঱ননয পনর যবক্টয যাব঱ ঩বযফবত঱ত
঴নত ঩ানয। উদা঴যণঃ ঳যণ, যফগ, ত্বযণ, ভন্দন, ফর, বযনফগ, অববকল঱জ ত্বযণ, যিৌম্বক প্রাফরয, রফদু যবতক প্রাফরয, বূ -
িুম্বনকয অনু বূবভক প্রাফরয, ঑জন, ঩ৃষ্ঠাটান, ঳াদ্রতাতা গুণািংক, ফনরয রামাভক, যিৌম্বক রামাভক, প্রফা঴ভাত্রা ইতযাবদ।
অবদক/নস্করাযঃ ভান আনে বকন্তু বদক যনই। উদা঴যণঃ দ্রুবত, কাজ, ক্ষভতা, ঱বি, তা঩, িা঩, যিৌম্বক ঑ রফদু যবতক বফবফ,
িাজ঱, বিবতিা঩ক গুণািংক ইতযাবদ।
যবক্টয যাব঱য যমাজনঃ যনৌকায গবত, িরন্ত গাবড়নত ঩ড়ন্ত ফৃ বি, ঩াবখয উড্ডয়ন।
যবক্টয যাব঱য বফনয়াজনঃ গুনটানা যনৌকা, রননযারায যঠ্রা, ঳যর যদারনকয গবত।
রবধঃ দু ই ফা তনতাবধক যবক্টয যমাগ কনয একবট নতুন যবক্টয ঩া঑য়া মায়। এ নতুন যবক্টযনক রবধ যবক্টয ফনর।
অিং঱কঃ যম যবক্টয঳ভূ ঴ যমাগ কনয রবধ ঩া঑য়া মায়, তানদযনক রবধয অিং঱ক ফা উ঩ািং঱ ফনর।
ভনন যাখনত ঴নফঃ

‡f±i ivwk (Vector Quantities):

‡h mKj †fŠZ ivwk‡K m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c cÖKvk Kivi Rb¨ gvb I w`K Df‡qi cÖ‡qvRb nq Zv‡ì‡K ‡f±i ivwk e‡j|
†hgb- miY, IRb, †eM, Z¡iY, ej BZ¨vw`|
‡¯‹jvi ivwk (Scalar Quantities):

‡h mKj †fŠZ ivwk‡K ïay gvb Øviv m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c cÖKvk Kiv hvq Zv‡ì‡K ‡¯‹jvi ivwk e‡j| †hgb- `ªæwZ, fi,
KvR, ‰`N©¨ BZ¨vw`|
‡¯‹jvi ivwk I ‡f±i ivwki g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ (Distinction between Scalar and Vector Quantities):
µwgK ‡¯‹jvi ivwk ‡f±i ivwk
‡h mKj †fŠZ ivwk‡K ïay gvb Øviv m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c ‡h mKj †fŠZ ivwk‡K m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c cÖKvk Kivi Rb¨
1| cÖKvk Kiv hvq Zv‡ì‡K ‡¯‹jvi ivwk e‡j| gvb I w`K Df‡qi cÖ‡qvRb nq Zv‡ì‡K ‡f±i ivwk
e‡j|
`ªæwZ, fi, KvR, ‰`N©¨ BZ¨vw` †¯‹jvi ivwki miY, IRb, †eM, Z¡iY, ej BZ¨vw` ‡f±i ivwki
2|
D`vniY| D`vniY|
Kgc‡ÿ GKwU ivwki gvb k~b¨ bv n‡j ¸bdj †Kvb ivwki gvb k~b¨ bv n‡jI ¸bdj k~b¨ n‡Z
3|
k~b¨ n‡Z cv‡i bv| cv‡i|
4| gvb Av‡Q wKš‘ w`K bvB| gvb I w`K Av‡Q|
‡hvM, we‡qvM, ¸b, I fvM ¯^vfvweK wbq‡g Kiv ‡hvM, we‡qvM, ¸b, I fvM ¯^vfvweK wbq‡g Kiv hvq
5|
hvq| bv|
`ywU Aw`K ivwki ¸bdj me©`v GKwU Aw`K ivwk `ywU w`K ivwki myweav RbK ¸bdj GKwU w`K ivwk
6|
nq| ev GKwU Aw`K ivwk nq|
GKK †f±i (Unit Vector):

‡h †f±‡ii gvb GK Zv‡K GKK †f±i e‡j| gvb k~b¨ bq Ggb †f±i‡K Gi gvb Øviv fvM Ki‡j H w`K ivwkwUi w`‡K

   A
GKwU GKK †f±i cvIqv hvq| g‡b Kwi A GKwU †f±i ivwk; A  0  A Gi w`‡K GKK †f±i    â (awi)
A
mxgve× †f±i (Restricted Vector):
‡h †f±‡ii Avw` we›`y †Kv_vq _v‡K Zv w¯’i _v‡K Zv‡K mxgve× †f±i e‡j| O we›`y‡Z
 
P ej OB †iLv eivei wµqv K‡i eySv‡j †f±i P mxgve× †f±i hvi cv` we›`y O |
mgvb †f±i (Equal Vector):

GKB w`‡K wµqviZ `yÕwU mgRvZxq †f±‡ii gvb mgvb n‡j Zv‡ì‡K mg‡f±i
 
ev mgvb †f±i e‡j| wP‡Î P I Q mgvb †f±i|
k~b¨ ev bvj †f±i (Zero or Null Vector):

†h †f±‡ii gvb k~b¨ Zv‡K k~b¨ ev bvj †f±i e‡j| bvj †f±‡ii Avw` I †kl we›`y GKB we›`y‡Z Aew¯’Z|

01| ‡f±i (Vector) 2

m`„k †f±i ev mgvšÍÍivj †f±i (Like Vector):
mgRvZxq `yB ev Z‡ZvwaK †f±i hw` GKB w`‡K wµqv K‡i Z‡e Zv‡ì‡K m`„k †f±i ev mgvšÍÍivj
 
†f±i e‡j| wP‡Î A I B m`„k †f±i ev mgvšÍÍivj †f±i|
wem`„k †f±i (Unlike Vector):

mgRvZxq `yB ev Z‡ZvwaK †f±i hw` wecixZ w`‡K wµqv K‡i Z‡e Zv‡ì‡K wem`„k †f±i e‡j|
 
wP‡Î A I B wem`„k †f±i|
mg‡iL †f±i (Co-linear Vector):

`yB ev Z‡ZvwaK †f±i hw` GKB mij‡iLv eivei ev ci¯úi mgvšÍÍiv‡j wµqv
  
K‡i Z‡e Zv‡ì‡K mg‡iL †f±i e‡j| wP‡Î A , B , C mg‡iL †f±i|
Ae¯’vb †f±i (Position Vector):

cÖm½ KvVv‡gvi g~j we›`yi mv‡c‡ÿ Ab¨ †Kvb we›`yi Ae¯’vb wbY©‡qi Rb¨ †h †f±i eënvi
Kiv nq Zv‡K Ae¯’vb †f±i e‡j|
e¨vL¨v t wP‡Î O n‡”Q cÖmsM KvVv‡gvi g~j we›`y Ges †h P †Kvb GKwU we›`y|
 
OP †f±iwU O we›`yi mv‡c‡ÿ P we›`yi Ae¯’vb wb‡`©k Ki‡Q| ZvB OP GKwU Ae¯’vb †f±i|
  
Ae¯’vb †f±i‡K A‡bK mgq e¨vmva© †f±i r Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq|  OP  r
AvqZGKK †f±i (Rectangular Unit Vector):

wÎgvwÎK ¯’vbv¼ eë¯’vq ci¯úi j¤^ wZbwU Aÿ _v‡K| h_v t X,Y Ges Z Aÿ| X A‡ÿi w`‡K
wewfbœ †f±i‡K cÖKvk Kivi Rb¨ GKwU GKK †f±i î eënvi Kiv nq| †Zgwb ˆj I k̂ h_vµ‡g
Y I Z A‡ÿi w`‡K GKK †f±i (Wvb cv‡k¦©i wPÎ)| î , ˆj Ges k̂ †K AvqZGKK †f±i e‡j|
e¨vmva© †f±i (Radius Vector): A‡bK mgq †Kvb we›`yi Ae¯’vb‡K †h †f±‡ii mvnv‡h¨ cÖKvk

Kiv nq Zv‡K e¨vmva© †f±i r e‡j| myZivs †Kvb we›`y P-Gi ¯’vbvsK (x,y,z) n‡j, e¨vmva©
     
†f±i r  OP  x i  y j  zk Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| Ges Gi gvb nq r  r  x 2  y 2  z 2
‡f±i ivwki mvgvšÍÍwiK m~Î (Law of Parallelogram) eY©bv I e¨vL¨v :

eY©bv: †Kvb KYvi Dci GKB mg‡q wµqvkxj `yÕwU †f±i ivwk‡K hw` †Kvb GK we›`y †_‡K AswKZ mvgvšÍÍwi‡Ki `yÕwU
mwbœwnZ evû Øviv wb‡`©k Kiv hvq Z‡e H we›`y ‡_‡K AswKZ mvgvšÍÍwi‡Ki KY©B †f±i `yÕwUi jwäi gvb I w`K wb‡`©k K‡i|
g‡bKwi GKwU KYvi Dci GKB mg‡q `yÕwU w`Kivwk P I Q,  †Kv‡Y wµqv Ki‡Q| OA Ges OC †iLv `yÕwU
h_vµ‡g P I Q gvb Ges Zxi wPý G‡ì w`K wb‡`©k Ki‡Q| GLv‡b AOC   | GB `yÕwU w`K ivwki jwäi gvb I w`K
wbY©q Ki‡Z n‡e|
AsKb : mvgvšÍÍwiK OABC AsKb K‡i Kb© OB hy³ Kwi| Zvn‡j OB Kb©B w`Kivwk `yÕwUi gvb I w`K wb‡`©k
Ki‡e| g‡b Kwi jwäi gvb R Ges †KvY GKwU myÿ‡KvY| GLb B we›`y †_‡K OA Gi ewa©Z As‡ki Dci BN j¤^ Uvwb|


jwäi gvb wbY©qt AB I OC mgvšÍÍivj|  AOC   | OBN wÎfy‡Ri ONB  GK mg‡Kvb|
 OB2 = ON2+ BN2
 OB 2 =(OA+AN)2 +BN2
 OB 2 = OA2 +2OA .AN +AN2 +BN2
 OB 2 = OA2 +(AN2 +BN2) +2OA .AN
AN
 OB 2 = OA2 +AB2 +2OA. AB.
AB
 OB 2 = OA2 +OC2 +2OA.OC Cos
 R2 = P2 +Q2 +2PQ Cos
 R  P 2  Q 2  2PQCos ... ... ... (1)
jwäi w`K wbY©q: g‡bKwi jwä R, P Gi mv‡_  †Kvb Drcbœ K‡i| A_©vr AOB    OBN mg‡KvYx wÎfy‡R
BN
tan  
ON
BN
 tan  
OA  AN
BN
AB
 tan   AB
AN
OA  AB
AB
QSin 
 tan  
P  QCos
QSin 
   tan 1 ... ... ... (2) (1) bs mgxKiY jwäi gvb I (2) bs mgxKiY jwäi w`K wb‡`©k K‡i|
P  QCos 
GKB mg‡q GKB we›`y‡Z wµqviZ `ywU w`Kivwki jwäi m‡e©v”P I me©wb¤§ gvb ivwk `yÕwUi †hvMdj I we‡qvM d‡ji mgvb t
P I Q, †Kv‡Y wµqv Ki‡j mvgvšÍÍwi‡Ki m~Îvbyhvqx Avgiv cvB,
 R  P 2  Q 2  2PQCos ... ... ... (1)
 R2 = P2 +Q2 +2PQ Cos
 R2  P2 Q2 = 2PQ Cos
R 2  P2  Q2
 Cos  Avevi Avgiv Rvwb, CosGi gvb
2PQ
1 †_‡K +1 Gi g‡a¨ mxgve×| A_©vr, 1  Cos  1
R 2  P 2  Q2
1  1 [CosGi gvb ewm‡q]
2PQ
 2PQ  R 2  P 2  Q 2  2PQ
 P 2  Q 2  2PQ  R 2  P 2  Q 2  2PQ [Dfq c‡ÿ P2+Q2 †hvM K‡i]
 ( P  Q) 2  R 2  ( P ~ Q) 2
 (P  Q)  R  (P ~ Q) Kv‡RB GKB mg‡q GKB we›`y‡Z wµqviZ `yÕwU w`K ivwki jwäi m‡e©v”P I me©wb¤§ gvb
ivwk `ywUi †hvMdj I we‡qvM d‡ji mgvb| Ab¨ fv‡eI ejv hvq, GKB mg‡q GKB we›`y‡Z wµqviZ `yÕwU w`K ivwki jwäi
m‡e©v”P gvb ivwk `ywUi †hvMdj n‡Z eo n‡Z cv‡i bv I me©wb¤§ gvb ivwk `ywUi we‡qvM dj †_‡K †QvU n‡Z cv‡i bv|


`yÕwU †f±i ivwk P I Q ci¯úi †Kv‡Y  AvY&Z| G‡ì †¯‹jvi ¸Yb I †f±i ¸Yb t
†¯‹jvi ¸Yb ev WU ¸Yb t `yÕwU w`K ivwki †¯‹jvi ¸Yb GKwU Aw`K ivwk Ges Gi gvb w`Kivwk `ywUi gv‡bi
¸Ydj Ges G‡ì gaëZ©x †Kv‡Yi Cosine Gi ¸Y d‡ji mgvb n‡e|
 
e¨vL¨vt g‡b Kwi, P I Q `yÕwU w`K ivwk ci¯úi  †Kv‡Y AvbZ& A_©vr P I Q Gi gaëZ©x †KvY | G‡ì WU
 
¸Yb A_©vr †¯‹jvi ¸Yb P.Q  PQCos
   
wPÎvbyhvqx, P  OA; Q  OB; BM, OA Gi Dci j¤^ I AN, OB
Gi Dci j¤^ | myZivs OM =OB Cos 
ev, OM =Q Cos 
  
 P.Q  P(QCos) = ( P Gi gvb) (OM)
  
= ( P Gi gvb) ( P Gi Dci Q Gi j¤^ Awf‡ÿ‡ci gvb)
    
Abyiƒcfv‡e,  Q.P  QPCos  Q ( PCos ) = ( Q Gi gvb) ( Q Gi Dci P Gi j¤^ Awf‡ÿ‡ci gvb) A_©vr `ywU †f±i
ivwki †¯‹jvi A_©vr WU ¸Ydj ej‡Z G‡ì †h †Kvb GKwU †f±i ivwk Øviv Dnviw`‡K Aci †f±i ivwkwUi Awf‡ÿ‡ci
¸Ydj †evSvq|
 
(K) hw` ‡f±i ivwkØq ci¯úi mg‡Kv‡b AvbZ& _v‡K Z‡e P.Q  PQ Cos 90  0 AZGe `yÕwU †f±iivwk mg‡Kv‡Y AvbZ&
_vK‡j G‡ì †¯‹jvi ¸bdj k~b¨ n‡e wecixZµ‡g `ywU †f±i ivwki †¯‹jvi ¸bdj k~b¨ n‡j ivwk `ywU ci¯ú‡ii Dci j¤^
n‡e|
awi wZbwU AvqZKvi †f±i ivwk î, ˆj I k̂ cÖ‡Z¨‡K ci¯ú‡ii Dci j¤^|
myZivs G‡ì †h †Kvb `yÕwUi †¯‹jvi ¸bdj k~b¨ n‡e| A_©vr iˆ. ˆj  ˆj.kˆ  kˆ.iˆ  0
(L) hw` `ywU †f±i ivwk GKB w`‡K wµqv K‡i Z‡e G‡ì gaëZ©x †KvY  = 0º;
      
†m †ÿ‡Î P.Q  PQ Cos 0  PQ n‡e| GKK w`K ivwki †ÿ‡Î cvB, i .i  j . j  k .k  1
 
(M) hw` P I Q `ywU †f±i ivwk ci¯úi wecixZgyLx nq Z‡e G‡ì gaëZ©x †KvY  = 180º
 
nq Z‡e †m †ÿ‡Î P.Q  PQ Cos 180   PQ n‡e|
†f±i ¸Yb ev µm ¸Yb t `yÕwU w`K ivwki †f±i (µm) ¸Yb GKwU †f±i ivwk hvi gvb w`Kivwk `ywUi gv‡bi ¸Ydj Ges
G‡ì gaëZ©x †Kv‡Yi Sine -Gi ¸Y d‡ji mgvb Ges GB ¸bdj ivwk `yÕwUi Z‡j j¤^fv‡e ¯’vwcZ GKwU Wvb cv‡Ki KK©
¯Œz‡K 1g †f±i ivwk ‡_‡K 2q †f±i ivwki w`‡K ÿz`ªZi †Kv‡Y Nyiv‡j GUv †h w`‡K AMÖmi nq †mB w`‡K wµqv K‡i|
 
e¨vL¨vt g‡b Kwi, P I Q `yÕwU w`K ivwk ci¯úi  †Kv‡Y AvbZ& A_©vr P I Q Gi gaëZ©x †KvY | G‡ì µm
     
¸Yb A_©vr ‡f±i ¸Yb P  Q   PQSin GLv‡b  GKwU GKK w`K ivwk hv ( P  Q ) Gi jwäi w`K wb‡`©k K‡i|
    
hw` P  Q  R aiv nq Z‡e R Gi AwfgyL P I Q Gi mgZ‡ji mv‡_ Awfj¤^ eivei n‡e|
   
 R  P  Q  PQSin 

  ( P Gi gvb) ( P Gi j¤^ eivei Q Gi gvb )
  
Avevi, Q  P  QPSin ()
  
 Q  P  QPSin 
  
 Q  P   ( Q Gi gvb) ( Q Gi j¤^ eivei P Gi gvb )
   
 P  Q  Q  P A_©vr †f±i ¸Yb wewbgq m~Î †g‡b P‡j bv|

Avgiv Rvwb, Wvb cv‡Ki KK© ¯Œz‡K evgw`‡K Nyiv‡j GwU Dc‡ii w`‡K Ly‡j Av‡m Avi Wvb w`‡K Nyiv‡j wb‡Pi w`‡K AMÖmi
    
nq, Z`ªæc P I Q Gi †f±i ¸Yb evgveZ©x n‡j G‡ì jwä R Gi AwfgyL DaŸ© w`‡K nq Ges P I Q Gi †f±i ¸Yb

`wÿbveZ©x n‡j G‡ì jwä R Gi AwfgyL wb¤§gyLx n‡e hv c~‡e©i Awfgy‡Li Dëv w`‡K n‡e|
Dc‡iv³ eY©bv Abymv‡i,
 
1) = 0 n‡j P  Q  0 n‡e KviY Sin 0º = 0
   
2) P|| Q n‡j P  Q  0 n‡e KviY Sin 0º = 0
   
3) P  Q n‡j P  Q  PQ n‡e KviY Sin 90º = 1
4) î, ˆj I k̂ mgKv‡Y wµqv Ki‡j î  ˆj  k̂, ˆj  k̂  î , k̂  î  ĵ
I î, ˆj I k̂ mgvšÍiv‡j wµqv Ki‡j î  î  ĵ  ĵ  k̂  k̂  0
‡¯‹jvi ¸Yb wewbgq m~Î †g‡b P‡j wKš‘ †f±i ¸Yb wewbgq m~Î †g‡b P‡j bv:
   
g‡b Kwi `ywU †f±i P I Q ,  †Kv‡Y AvbZ&  P.Q  PQCos ... ... ... (1)
 
Avevi, Q. P  QPCos
 
 Q.P  PQCos ... ... ... (2)
       
(1) I (2) n‡Z cvB, P. Q  Q. P A_©vr †¯‹jvi ¸Yb wewbgq m~Î †g‡b P‡j| Acic‡ÿ, (P  Q) I (Q  P) Gi gvb GKB
  
n‡jI G‡ì w`K wecixZ A_©vr P  Q   PQ Sin  ... ... ... (3)
  
Avevi, Q  P  Q P Sin ( )
  
 Q  P   PQ Sin  ... ... ... (4)
   
(3) I (4) n‡Z cvB, (P  Q)  (Q  P)
  
 P  Q  Q  P A_©vr †f±i ¸Yb wewbgq m~Î †g‡b P‡j bv|
‡f±i †hv‡Mi wÎfyR m~Î (Triangle Law) t

`ywU †f±i‡K GKwU wÎfy‡Ri `ywU mwbœwnZ evû Øviv GKB µ‡g w`‡K I gv‡b wb‡`©k
Ki‡j wÎfyRwUi Z…Zxq evû wecixZ µ‡g w`‡K I gv‡b Dnv‡ì jwä wb‡`©k K‡i|
 
e¨vL¨v t awi P I Q GKB RvZxq `ywU †f±i| ABC wÎfy‡Ri AB Ges BC
    
evû h_vµ‡g †f±i P I Q wb‡`©k K‡i| m~Îvbymv‡i, AC  AB BC
    
R  P  Q [ GLv‡ b, AC  R ]


   
‡f±‡ii †hv‡Mi wewbgq m~Î (Commutative Law) t A  B  B  A
   
cÖgvb t aiv hvK OP  A Ges OR  B `ywU †f±i O we›`y‡Z wµqv K‡i OPQR
mvgvšÍwiK c~Y© K‡i wÎfyR m~Îvbymv‡i cvB,
  
OP PQ  OQ ... ... ... ... (1)
  
Ges OR  RQ  OQ ... ... ... ... (2)
   
(1) I (2) †_‡K cvB, OP PQ  OR  RQ
   
A_©vr, A  B  B  A myZvivs ‡f±i †hvM wewbgq m~Î †g‡b P‡j|
     
‡f±‡ii †hv‡Mi ms‡hvM m~Î (Associative Law) : (A  B)  C  A  (B  C)
     
cÖgvb t aiv hvK OP  A , PQ  B Ges QR  C | GLb OQ, PR Ges OR a‡i
    
wÎf~R m~Îvbymv‡i cvB, OP PQ  OQ  (A  B)
    
Ges PQ QR  PR  (B C)
      
GLb OQ QR  OR A_©vr (A  B)  C  D
      
Avevi, OP PR  OR A_©vr A  (B  C)  D
     
 (A  B)  C  A  (B  C) myZvivs ‡f±i †hvM ms‡hvM m~Î †g‡b P‡j|
      
e›Ub m~Î: A .(B C)  A . B A .C Gi cÖgvY:
  
cÖgvY: g‡b Kwi, A, B I C †f±i wZbwU h_vµ‡g OP,OQI QR Øviv m~wPZ Kiv n‡q‡Q| GLb wPÎ †_‡K Avgiv
     
cvB, A .(B C)  A . (OQ  QR )
    
 A .(B C)  A . OR
    
 A .(B C)  A  OP Gi Dci OR Gi j¤ ^ Awf‡ ¶ c
  
 A .(B C)  A  ON
  
 A .(B C)  A  (OM  MN )
Figure 1
  
 A .(B C)  A  OM  A  MN
      
 A .(B C)  A  OP Gi Dci OQ Gi j¤ ^ Awf‡ ¶ c  A  OP Gi Dci QR Gi j¤ ^ Awf‡ ¶ c
      
 A .(B C)  A . OQ A . QR
      
 A .(B C)  A . B A . C (cÖgvwYZ)


wÎgvwÎK ¯’vbv¼ eë¯’vvq GKwU Ae¯’vb †f±‡ii gvb wbY©q:
A_©vr r  x 2  y 2  z 2 Gi cÖgvY :
wÎgvwÎK ¯’vbv¼ eë¯’vq ci¯úi wZbwU †iLv OX, OY I OZ h_vµ‡g X, Y I

     
Z, Aÿ wb‡`©k K‡i Ges i , j I k Aÿ wZbwU eivei GKK †f±i| r GKwU Ae¯’vb †f±i| awi, r  OP Ges P we›`yi
¯’vbv¼ (x,y,z)| XZ Z‡ji Dci PN Ges N we›`y n‡Z X I Z A‡ÿi Dci h_vµ‡g NA I NB j¤^ AvuwK|
wPÎ n‡Z, BN =OA= x, AN=OB = z Ges NP = y
  
wÎfyR m~Î Abymv‡i, OP  ON  NP
   
 OP  OB BN  NP
   
 OP  BN  NP  OB

 r  x î  yĵ  zk̂
Avevi, OPN wÎfyR n‡Z, OP2=ON2+NP2
 OP2 = OB2+BN2+NP2
 OP2 = BN2 + NP2 +OB2
 r2  x 2  y2  z2
 r  x2  y2  z2 (cÖgvwYZ )
 
A.B  A x B x  A y B y  A z B z Gi cÖgvY:
 
awi, A  A x î  A y ĵ  A z k̂ I B  B x î  B y ĵ  B z k̂
 
d‡j, A . B  (A x î  A y ˆj  A z k̂) . ( Bx î  B y ĵ  B z k̂)
 
A . B  A x B x ( î .î )  A x B y ( î .ĵ)  A x B z ( î .k̂ )
 A y B x (ĵ. î )  A y B y (ˆj.ĵ)  A y B z (ĵ.k̂)
 A z B x (k̂ .î )  A z B y (k̂ .ˆj)  A z B z (k̂ .k̂ )
 
A . B  Ax Bx (1)  Ax By (0)  Ax Bz (0)  Ay Bx (0)  A y By(1)  A y Bz (0)  Az Bx (0)  Az By (0)  Az Bz (1)
 
A . B  Ax Bx  0  0  0  Ay By  0  0  0  Az Bz
 
A . B  Ax Bx  A y By  A z Bz ( Pr oved)
 
A  A x î  A y ĵ  A z k̂ I B  B x î  B y ĵ  B z k̂ n‡j


 
A  B wbY©q :
 
A  B  (A x î  A y ĵ  A z k̂)  (B x î  B y ĵ  B z k̂ )
 
 A  B  A x B x (î  î )  A x B y (î  ĵ)  A x B z (î  k̂)
 A y B x (ĵ  î)  A y B y (ĵ  ˆj)  A y B z (ˆj  k̂)
 A z B x (k̂  î )  A z B y (k̂  ˆj)  A z B z (k̂  k̂)
 
 A  B  0  A x B y (k̂)  A x B z (  ĵ)  A y B x (  k̂)  0  A y B z (î)  A z B x (ˆj)  A z B y (  î )  0
 
 A  B  A y B z (î)  A z B y (î)  A z B x (ĵ)  A x B z (ˆj)  A x B y (k̂)  A y B x (k̂)
 
 A  B  (A y B z  A z B y )î  (A z B x  A x B z )ĵ  (A x B y  A y B x )k̂
î ĵ k̂
 
A  B  Ax Ay A z (Ans.)
Bx By Bz
‡f±i wefvRb ev †f±i we‡køølb (Resolution Of Vectors) t

GKwU †f±i ivwk‡K `yB ev Z‡ZvwaK †f±i ivwk‡Z wef³ Kivi c×wZ‡K †f±‡ii wefvRb ev †f±‡ii we‡køølb e‡j|
 
g‡bKwi, wP‡Î OC †iLv R †f±iwUi gvb I w`K wb‡`©k K‡i| GLb R †f±iwU‡K Ggb `yÕwU As‡k wef³ Ki‡Z n‡e †h, G
¸‡jv OC Gi mv‡_ h_vµ‡g I †KvY Drcbœ K‡i| GLb O we›`y †_‡K OC †iLvi mv‡_ Gi `yB cv‡k I 
†KvY K‡i OB I OA †iLv Uvbv nj| OACB mvgvšÍwiKwU c~Y© Kiv n‡j mvgvšÍÍwi‡Ki

m~Îvbymv‡i OA Ges OB evû `ywU R †f±‡ii `ywU Dcvsk wb‡`©k Ki‡e|
   
g‡bKwi, wefvwRZ Dcvsk OA  X Ges OB  Y |
(K) wP‡Î,  BOC  OCA  
Ges OAC  180º -    GLb OAC wÎfyR we‡ePbv K‡i Avgiv cvB,
OA AC OC
 
Sin  Sin  Sin[180  (  )]
X Y R
   ( AC  OB  Y)
Sin  Sin  Sin (  )
RSin  RSin 
X  Ges Y  R †f±i‡K hw` mg‡Kv‡Y wefvwRZ Kiv hvq [wPÎ (L)] A_©vr
Sin (  ) Sin (  )
Dcvsk `ywU hw` ci¯úi j¤^ nq Z‡e Zvn‡j,+90º Sin+Sin 90º = 1
X = R SinGesY = R Sin †h‡nZz +90º 90º
Sin Sin () = Cos d‡j, X = R Cos GesY = R Sin

cÖ_g c‡Îi As‡Ki mgvavb
First Paper Math Solution
1| ‡f±i (Vector)
1| ‡f±i
   (2)(m)  (3)(2)  (5)(10)  2m  6  50  0
1| hw` A  3î  ˆj  2k̂ I B  2î  3 ĵ  k̂ nq Z‡e
  - 56
|A  B|  KZ? m  m  - 28 (Ans.)
2
î ĵ k̂
     
A B  3  1  2 5| A  2î  2ˆj  k̂ I B  6î  3ˆj  2k̂ n‡j A I B
2 3 1 Gi gaëZ©x †KvY wbY©q Ki|
 
A.B  AB cos   
 î (  1  6 )  ĵ(3  4 )  k̂ (9  2 )  5 î  7 ĵ  11k̂
    1 A . B
| A  B | 52  (7) 2  112  25 49  121 13 . 96(Ans.) A I B Gi gaëZ©x †KvY, θ  Cos  
AB
   
2| hw` A  6î  3 ĵ  2k̂ I B  2î  2 ĵ  k̂ nq Z‡e A .B  A x B x  A y B y  A z B z  (2)(6)  (2)(-3)
 
A.B  KZ?  (-1)(2)  12-6-2  4
  
A.B  A x B x  A y B y  A z B z 2 2 2
A  2  2  (1)  9  3 
 (6)(2)  (  3)(2)  (2)(1)  12  6  2  8 (Ans.) 
  B  6 2  (3) 2  2 2  36  9  4  49  7
3| A  5î  2 ĵ-3k̂ I B  15î  aĵ-9k̂ | a Gi gvb KZ  
  1 A .B -1 4 4
n‡j A I B ci¯úi mgvšÍivj n‡e?  θ  Cos    Cos  Cos 1
    AB (3)(7) 21
A I B ci¯úi mgvšÍivj n‡e hw` A  B  0 nq|
   79 .02 (Ans.)
î ĵ k̂ 
 
AB  5 2 3 6. ‡f±i B  6 î  3 ĵ  2 k̂ Gi Dci ‡f±i

15 a -9 A  2î  2ˆj  k̂ Gi j¤^ Awf‡ÿc wbY©q Ki|
 
  A.B  AB cos 
 A  B  î(  18  3a)  ĵ(-45  45)  k̂(5a-30)  
  A.B
 A  B  î (3a  18)  k̂(5a  30) A Gi j¤^ Awf‡ÿc, A cos   
  B
 A  B  (3a  18) 2  (5a  30) 2  
A .B  A x B x  A y B y  A z B z
   
cÖkœg‡Z, A I B ci¯úi mgvšÍivj n‡j A  B  0  ( 2)(6)  ( 2)(-3)  (1)(2)  12-6  2  8

B  6 2  (  3) 2  2 2  36  9  4  49  7
 (3a  18) 2  (5a  30) 2  0  
 (3a  18) 2  (5a  30) 2  0 [Dfq c¶ ‡ K eM K‡ i] A.B 8
A Gi j¤^ Awf‡ÿc =  
 32 (a  6) 2  5 2 (a  6) 2  0 B 7
 (a  6) 2 (32  5 2 )  0
  
 (a  6) 2  0 Dfq c¶ ‡ K (32  5 2 ) Øviv fvM K‡ i 7| A  3î  2 ĵ  k̂ , B  î  2 ĵ  3k̂ I C  î  ĵ  2k̂
     
 a  6 (Ans.) n‡j cÖgvY Ki †h, A.(B  C)  (A  B).C
  î ĵ k̂
4| A  2î  3 ĵ-5k̂ I B  mî  2ˆj - 10k̂ | m Gi  
  B C  1 2  3
gvb KZ n‡j A I B ci¯úi j¤^ n‡e|
    1 1 2
A I B ci¯úi j¤^ n‡j A . B  0 n‡e|  
  ev, B  C  î (4  3)  ˆj(2  3)  k̂(1-2)  7 î-5ˆj -k̂
A .B  Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz 0

  
L.H.S  A . (B  C) wKš‘ A  0, B  0  CosθC 0
 (3)(7)  (2)(-5)  (1)(-1)  21  10  1  10 ev , Cos θ  Cos 90  θ  90
 
AZGe A I Β ci¯ú‡ii Dc‡ii j¤^|
î ĵ k̂
   
GLb, A  B  3 2 1 10| hw` A  A x î  A y ĵ  A z k̂ I B  Bx î  B y ˆj  Bz k̂ nq
 
1 2 -3 Z‡e †`LvI †h, A.B  A x B x  A y B y  A z B z
 
  A . B  (A x î  A y ˆj  A z k̂) . ( Bx î  B y ĵ  B z k̂)
ev, A  B = î (  6  2 )  ˆj(  9  1)  k̂ ( 6 - 2 )  
A . B  A x B x ( î . î )  A x B y ( î .ĵ)  A x B z ( î .k̂)
  8 î  10 ĵ  4 k̂
    A y B x (ĵ. î )  A y B y (ĵ.ĵ)  A y B z (ĵ.k̂)
 R.H.S  ( A  B ) . C  (- 8 )(1)  (10 )(1)
 A z B x (k̂. î )  A z B y (k̂.ĵ)  A z B z (k̂.k̂ )
 ( 4 )( 2 )  - 8  10  8  10  
 L. H. S  R.H.S A . B  Ax Bx (1)  A x By (0)  Ax Bz (0)
     
A_©vr, A.(B  C)  (A  B).C ( Pr oved.)  Ay Bx (0)  A y By(1)  A y Bz (0)
    Az Bx (0)  Az By (0)  Az Bz (1)
8| A  î  3 ĵ  2k̂ , B  î  2ˆj  k̂ I C  2î  3 ĵ  4k̂  
       A . B  Ax Bx  0  0  0  Ay By  0  0  0  Az Bz
n‡j cÖgvY Ki †h, (B  C)  A  B  A  C  A  
  A . B  Ax Bx  A y By  A z Bz ( Pr oved)
(B  C)  (1  2) î  (2  3)ĵ  ( 1  4)k̂  3î  ĵ  3k̂
 
î ĵ k̂ 11| hw` A  2î  4ˆj  5k̂ I B  î  2 ĵ  3k̂ ‡f±i Ø‡qi jwä
   †f±‡ii mgvšÍivj GKK †f±i wbY©q Ki|
 L.H.S  (B  C)  A  3  1 3   
1 3 2 R  A  B  2 î  4 ĵ  5 k̂  î  2 ĵ  3k

 R  3î  6 ĵ  2k̂
 î (  2  9)  ĵ(6  3)  k̂(9  1)  11 î  3ˆj  10k̂ 
R
î ĵ k̂ R Gi mgvšÍivj GKK †f±i â  
  R
Avevi, B  A  1 2  1

1 3 2 R  32  6 2  (2) 2  9  36  4  49  7

 î(4  3)  ĵ(2  1)  k̂(3-2)  7î  3ĵ  k̂ R 3î  6ĵ  2k̂ 3 6 2
 â     î  ĵ  k̂ (Ans.)
7 7 7 7
î ˆj k̂ R
 
C A  2  3 4
12| GKB we›`y‡Z wµqvkxj `ywU mgvb gv‡bi †f±‡ii gaëZ©x †KvY KZ
1 3 2 n‡j G‡ì jwäi gvb †h †Kvb GKwU †f±‡ii mgvb n‡e?
 î(  6  12)  ĵ(4-4)  k̂(6  3)  18î  9k̂ R2=P2+Q2+2PQCos
    ev, X2= X2+X2+2X.X.Cos
R.H.S  B  A  C  A  7î  3ˆj  k̂  18î  9k̂ GLv‡b,
ev, X2- X2-X2=2X2Cos
  11 î  3 ĵ  10k̂ 2 2
ev, -X =2X Cos awi, ‡f±i, P=Q=X
       jwä, R= X
A_©vr, (B  C)  A  B  A  C  A ( Pr oved.) X2
ev , Cos    AšÍf
© ³
~ †KvY, 
2X 2
  1
9| A  9î  ĵ-6k̂ Ges B  4î  6ˆj  5k̂ †f±i `ywUi ev, Cos   
Mybdj wbY©q K‡i †`LvI †h, Giv ci¯ú‡ii Dci j¤^| 2
   1
A.B  A x B x  A y B y  A z B z ev ,   Cos 1    
 2
 (9)(4)  (1)(  6)  (  6)(5)  36  6  30  0    120  (Ans.)
 
A . B  ABCosθ  0

 `ywU †f±‡ii µm ¸bdj †f±i `ywU Øviv MwVZ mgZ‡ji Dci j¤^ nq| †mB
13| Ae¯’vb †f±i r  x î  y ˆj  z k̂ †K eëKjb K‡i j¤^ †f±‡ii mgvšÍivj GKK †f±iB n‡e mgZ‡ji Dj¤^ w`‡K GKK
wKfv‡e †eM I Z¡iY cvIqv hvq?  
PQ
Avgiv Rvwb, †f±i| awi, †mB †f±i â , aˆ    
 PQ
 dr
‡eM, v 
dt î ˆj k̂
 
d P  Q  2 3  4  î (9  8)  ˆj(6  4)  k̂ (4  3)
 (x î  y ĵ  z k̂)
dt 1 2 3
dx dy dz  
 î  ĵ  k̂ (Ans.)  P  Q  î  10ˆj  7k̂
dt dt dt  
 P I Q ‡h Z‡j Aew¯’Z Zvi Dj¤^ w`‡K †f±i
 dv d  dx dy dz   
Avevi, Z¡iY a    î  ĵ  k̂ 
dt dt  dt dt dt   ( P  Q)  (î  10ĵ  7k̂)
 â    
d 2x d2 y d2z PQ (1) 2  (10) 2  (7) 2
 2 î  2 ĵ  2 k̂ (Ans.)
dt dt dt (î  10ˆj  7k̂)
 â   ( Ans.)
  150
14| P  t 2 î  t ˆj  ( 2 t  1) k̂ I Q  5tî  tĵ  t 3 k̂
d   d   16| †Kvb GKwU KYvi Ae¯’vb †f±i
(P. Q)  ? (P  Q)  ? 
dt dt r  [(3.5ms 1 )t  4.2m] î  [5.3ms 1 ]ˆj n‡j
 
P.Q  ( t )(5t )  ( t )(t )  (2t  1)( t 3 )
2
†eM V wbY©q Ki|
  
 P.Q  5t 3  t 2  2t 4  t 3 dr
  Avgiv Rvwb, V 
P.Q  2 t 4  4t 3  t 2 dt
d
d   d
 (P.Q)  (2 t 4  4t 3  t 2 )
V
dt

[(3.5ms 1 )t  4.2m] î  [5.3ms 1 t]ĵ 
dt dt
d    V  3.5 î  5.3ˆj (Ans.)
 (P.Q)  8t 3  12t 2  2t
dt
     
2 2
î ĵ k̂ 17| cÖgvY Ki t A  B  A.B  A 2 B2
 
PQ  t2  t 2t  1     2 2
LHS  A  B   A.B 
5t t  t3
2 2
   ÂB sin     AB cos 
 P  Q  î ( t 4  2 t 2  t )  ˆj(10 t 2  5t  t 5 )
 ˆ 2 A 2 B 2 sin 2   A 2 B 2 cos 2 
 k̂ ( t 3  5t 2 )
 1. A 2 B 2 sin 2   A 2 B 2 cos2 
d   d î ( t  2t  t )  ˆj(10t  5t  t )
4 2 2 5
dt
( P  Q)  
dt 

 k̂ (t 3  5t 2 

 A 2 B 2 sin 2   cos 2  
d   d
 A 2 B 2 .1  A2 B 2  L.H .S  R.H .S (Proved)
 (P  Q)  ( t 4  2t 2  t )î
dt dt   
d 5 d 18| P  î  2 ĵ  k̂ Ges Q  3î  6 ĵ  3k̂ n‡j †`LvI †h, P I
 ( t  10 t 2  5t )ˆj  ( t 3  5t 2 ) k̂ 
dt dt Q ci¯úi mgvšÍivj|
d      
 (P  Q)  (4 t 3  4 t  1)î  (5t 4  20 t  5) ĵ P I Q ci¯úi mgvšÍivj n‡e hw` P  Q  0 nq|
dt
 (3t 2  10 t )k̂ (Ans.) î ĵ k̂
 
P  Q  1  2 1  î (6  6)  ĵ(3  3)  k̂ (6  6)
 
15| P  2î  3ˆj  4k̂, Q  î - 2ˆj  3k̂ ‡f±i Øq †h Z‡j 3 6 3
Ae¯’vb K‡i Zvi Dj¤^w`‡K GKwU GKK †f±i wbY©q Ki|  
Avgiv Rvwb,  P  Q  î (0)  ĵ(0)  k̂ (0)  0  0  0  0

       
 P  Q  0  P  Q  0  P I Q ci¯úi mgvšÍivj| 21| P  2î  mĵ-3k̂ I Q  10î  5 ĵ-15k̂ | m Gi gvb KZ n‡j
 
(cÖgvwYZ) P I Q ci¯úi mgvšÍivj n‡e?
   
  P I Q ci¯úi mgvšÍivj n‡e hw` P  Q  0 nq|
19| P  2î  3 ĵ  4k̂ Ges Q  2î  ĵ  3k̂ ‡f±i Øq †h
Z‡j Aew¯’Z Zvi Dj¤^w`‡K GKwU GKK †f±i wbY©q Ki| î ĵ k̂
 
Avgiv Rvwb, PQ  2 m 3
`ywU †f±‡ii µm ¸bdj †f±i `ywU Øviv MwVZ mgZ‡ji Dci j¤^ 10  5 -15
nq| †mB j¤^ †f±‡ii mgvšÍivj GKK †f±iB n‡e mgZ‡ji Dj¤^  
 
P Q  P  Q  î (  15m  15)  ˆj(-30  30)  k̂(  10-10m)
w`‡K GKK †f±i| awi, †mB †f±i n̂ , nˆ      
P Q  P  Q  î (  15m  15)  k̂(  10  10m)
 
î ˆj k̂  P  Q  (  15m  15) 2  (  10  10m)2
     
PQ  2 3  4  î (9  4)  ˆj(6  8)  k̂ (2  6) cÖkœg‡Z, P I Q ci¯úi mgvšÍivj n‡j, P  Q  0
2 1 3
 (  15m  15) 2  (  10  10m)2  0
   (  15m  15) 2  (  10  10m) 2  0 [Dfq c¶ ‡ K eM  K‡ i]
 P  Q  13î  2 ĵ  8k̂
     152 (m  1) 2  102 (m  1) 2  0
Avevi, P  Q  132  2 2  8 2  P  Q  237
 (m  1) 2 ( 152  102 )  0
 
PQ 13iˆ  2 ˆj  8kˆ  (m  1) 2  0 Dfq c¶ ‡ K ( 152  102 ) Øviv fvM K‡ i
 nˆ      
PQ 237  m  1 (Ans.)
 13 ˆ 2 ˆ 8   
 nˆ   i j ( Ans.) 22| A  2iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ Ges B  6iˆ  3 ˆj  2kˆ `yÕwU ‡f±i ivwk|
 237 237 237  G‡ì j¤^ Awfgy‡L GKwU GKK †f±i wbY©q Ki|
  Avgiv Rvwb,
20| P  4î  4ˆj  k̂ Ges Q  2î  2 ĵ  k̂ †f±iØq `ywU †f±‡ii µm ¸bdj †f±i `ywU Øviv MwVZ mgZ‡ji Dci j¤^ nq| †mB
GKwU mgvšÍwi‡Ki `ywU mwbœwnZ evû wb‡`©k Ki‡j Gi †ÿÎdj wbY©q j¤^ †f±‡ii mgvšÍivj GKK †f±iB n‡e mgZ‡ji Dj¤^ w`‡K GKK
 
Ki| P Q
Avgiv Rvwb, `ywU †f±i GKwU mgvšÍwi‡Ki `ywU mwbœwnZ evû wb‡`©k †f±i| awi, †mB †f±i n̂ , nˆ    
Ki‡j H mgvšÍwi‡Ki †ÿÎdj n‡e †f±i `ywUi µm ¸Yd‡ji gv‡bi P Q
 
mgvb| P  Q  mgvšÍwi‡Ki †ÿÎdj| iˆ ˆj kˆ
 
GLb, PQ  2 2  1  iˆ(4  3)  ˆj (4  6)  kˆ(6  12)
î ĵ k̂ 6 3
2
   
PQ  4  4 1  î (4  2)  ĵ(4  2)  k̂ (8  8)
 P  Q  iˆ  10 ˆj  18kˆ
2  2 1    
  Avevi, P  Q  12  (10 2 )  ( 182 )  P  Q  425
 P  Q  6î  6 ĵ  
  PQ iˆ  10 ˆj  18kˆ
 P  Q  6 2  6 2  72  8.49 GKK (Ans.)  nˆ       (Ans.)
PQ 425

 ফাস্তফ যক্ষনত্র ঩যভবিবত ঑ ঩যভগবত অ঳ম্ভফ।

঩ৃ বথফীয গবত িরন ঘূ ণ঱ন গবত।
 ঘবড়য কাটায গবত ঩ম঱াফৃ ত্ত গবত।
 ভ঴াবফনেয ঳ফ ফস্ত্ত্তই গবত঱ীর, তাই বনশ্চর প্র঳ঙ্গ কাঠ্ানভা ঩া঑য়া মায় না।
 যনৌকায মাত্রী যনৌকায ঳ান঩নক্ষ আন঩বক্ষক বিবতনত থানক বকন্তু তীনযয ঳ান঩নক্ষ আন঩বক্ষক গবতনত থানক।
 ভুিবানফ উ঩য যথনক বননি ঩ড়ন্ত ফস্ত্ত্ত ঳ভত্বযনণয একবট ফাস্তফ উদা঴যণ এফিং খাড়া উ঩নযয বদনক বনবক্ষপ্ত ফস্ত্ত্তয ভন্দন ঳ভ-
ভন্দননয একবট ফাস্তফ উদা঴যণ।
঩ড়ন্ত ফস্ত্ত্তয ৩বট ঳ূ ত্র আবফষ্কায কনযনেন গযাবরবর঑ বকন্তু প্রভাণ কনযনেন বনউটন।
 অ঳ভ দ্রুবতনত ফা অ঳ভ যকৌবনক যফনগ ঘুযনত থাকনর কণাবটয ৩বট ত্বযণ থানক। মথা-যকদ্রতাভুখী ত্বযণ, স্প঱঱ীত্বযণ ঑ যকৌবনক
ত্বযণ।
ফরবফদযা ভূ রত দু ই প্রকায। মথা:
১। বিবতবফদযা: (ক) ঩যভবিবত (খ) আন঩বক্ষক বিবত।
২। গবতবফদযা: (ক) ঳ৃ বতবফদযা (খ) ির বফদযা।
গবতয প্রকায যবদঃ
(i) রযবখক গবত ফা একভাবত্রক গবতঃ যকান ফস্ত্ত্তয গবত মবদ একবট ঳যর যযখায উ঩য ঳ীভাফদ্ধ থানক। তা঴নর তায
গবতনক রযবখক গবত ফা একভাবত্রক গবত ফনর। যমভন-য঳াজা ঳ড়নক গাবড়য গবত।
(ii) ঳ভতরীয় ফা বিভাবত্রক গবতঃ গবত ঳ভতনরয উ঩য ঳ীভাফদ্ধ। যমভন- ব঩঩ঁড়ায গবত, ভানফ঱নরয গবত।
(iii) িাবনক গবত ফা বত্রভাবত্রক গবতঃ যকান ফস্ত্ত্তয গবত মবদ যম যকান বদনক গবত঱ীর ঴নত ঩ানয তনফ তায গবতনক িাবনক গবত ফা
বত্রভাবত্রক গবত ফনর।
বফববন্ন প্রকায গবতয রফব঱িয ঑ উদা঴যণঃ
১. িরন গবত এই গবতনত ফস্ত্ত্তয প্রবতবট কণা একই বদনক ঳ভান দূ যত্ব অবতক্রভ কযয।
উদা঴যণঃ যযর঩নথয উ঩য িরন্ত যযরগাবড়য ফবগয গবত।
঱ গবত এই গবতনত ফস্ত্ত্ত একবট বনবদি বফন্দু ফা অক্ষনক যকদ্রতা কনয িক্রাকানয ঩বযরামভন কনয।
২. ঘূ ণন
উদা঴যণঃ রফদু যবতক ঩াখায গবত, ঘবড়য কাঁটায গবত,
৩. িরন ঘূ ণন
঱ ফা বভশ্র ফা জবটর গবত এই গবতনত ফস্ত্ত্তয িরন ঑ ঘূ ণ঱ন দু বট গবতই থানক।
উদা঴যণঃ িরন্ত ঳াইনকর ফা গরুয গাবড়য িাকায গবত, ঳ূ নম঱য িাযবদনক ঩ৃ বথফীয গবত এফিং রাবটনভয গবত।
৪. ঩ম঱াফৃ ত্ত গবত এই গবতনত ফস্ত্ত্ত একবট বনবদ঱ি ঳ভয় ঩য ঩য একই ঩থ অবতক্রভ কনয একই বদনক িরনত থানক।
উদা঴যণঃ ঘবড়য কাঁটা, ইবিননয ব঩স্টন, রফদু যবতক ঩াখা, যদারক ব঩ন্ড ইতযাবদয গবত।
৫. যদারন গবত এই গবতনত ফস্ত্ত্তবট বনবদ঱ি ঳ভয় অন্তয অন্তয এবদক ঑বদক যদার যদয়।
উদা঴যণঃ যদারক ঘবড়য গবত, ঳যর যদারনকয

Mo‡eM (Average Velocity) :

msÁv: †h †Kvb mgq eëav‡b †Kvb e¯‘i M‡o cÖwZ GKK mg‡q †h miY nq Zv‡K e¯‘wUi Mo †eM e‡j|

  Δr
e¨L¨v: t mgq eëav‡b †Kvb e¯‘i miY r n‡j Mo †eM v  n‡e|
t
‡eM (Velocity):
msÁv: mgq eëavb k~‡bï KvQvKvwQ n‡j mg‡qi mv‡_ e¯‘i mi‡Yi nvi‡K †eM e‡j|
 
  Δr Δr   
e¨L¨v: t mgq eëav‡b †Kvb e¯‘i miY r n‡j †eM v  lim wKš‘ n‡”Q Mo †eM v | myZivs v  lim v
t 0 t t t  0
A_©vr mgq eëavb k~‡bï KvQvKvwQ n‡j Mo †e‡Mi mxgvwšÍK gvb‡KB †eM e‡j|
mg‡eM ev mylg †eM (Uniform Velocity) :

hw` †Kvb e¯‘i MwZKv‡j Zvi †e‡Mi gvb I w`K AcwiewZ©Z _v‡K Zvn‡j †mB e¯‘i †eM‡K mg‡eM e‡j| A_©vr †Kvb e¯‘
hw` wbw`©ó w`‡K mgvb mg‡q mgvb c_ AwZµg K‡i Zvn‡j e¯‘i
†eM‡K mg‡eM e‡j| k‡ãi †eM, Av‡jvi †eM, cÖf„wZ mg‡e‡Mi cÖK…ó
cÖvK…wZK D`vniY|
Amg‡eM (Variable Velocity) t

‡Kvb e¯‘i MwZKv‡j hw` Zvi †e‡Mi gvb ev w`K ev DfqB cwiewZ©Z nq Zvn‡j †mB †eM‡K Amg‡eM e‡j| Avgiv
mPvivPi †h MwZkxj e¯‘ †`wL Zv‡ì †eM Amg‡eM|
ZvrÿwbK †eM (Instantaneus Velocity) :

GKwU e¯‘ mij ev eµ c‡_ Amg‡e‡M Pj‡j cÖwZwbqZ Gi †e‡Mi cwieZ©b nq| Gfv‡e Amg‡e‡M PjšÍ †Kvb e¯‘i †h
†Kvb gyû‡Z©i †eM‡K H e¯‘i ZvrÿwbK †eM e‡j| ZvrÿwbK †e‡Mi w`K e¯‘wUi H gyû‡Z©i Ae¯’v‡b AswKZ MwZc‡_i
¯úk©K eivei|
Z¡iY (Acceleration) :

  v
mg‡qi mv‡_ †eM e„w×i nvi‡K Z¡iY e‡j| t mgq eëav‡b e¯‘i †e‡Mi cwieZ©b v n‡j Z¡iY a  n‡e| Ab¨fv‡e
t
ejv hvq mgq eëavb k~‡bï KvQvKvwQ n‡j mg‡qi mv‡_ e¯‘i †eM e„w×i nvi‡K Z¡iY e‡j| t mgq eëav‡b e¯‘i †e‡Mi

  v
cwieZ©b v n‡j Z¡iY a  lim n‡e|
t  0  t
mgZ¡iY ev mylg Z¡iY (Uniform Acceleration) :

GKB w`‡K GKB mgq eëav‡b †e‡Mi e„w×i nvi mgvb n‡j Zv‡K mgZ¡iY ev mylg Z¡iY e‡j| AwfK‡l©i Uv‡b gy³fv‡e
cošÍ e¯‘i †eM e„w×i nvi‡K AwfKl©R Z¡iY e‡j| AwfKl©R Z¡iY, mgZ¡iY wewkó MwZi GKwU cÖKó… D`vniY| mgZ¡i‡Y,
Z¡i‡Yi gvb I w`K mg‡qi mv‡_ AcwiewZ©Z _v‡K| mgZ¡i‡Y MwZkxj e¯‘‡Z mgej wµqvK‡i e¯‘i cici †m‡K‡Ûi
†e‡Mi

02| ‰iwLK MwZ (Linear Motion) 2

AšÍiB mgZ¡iY| wP‡Î GKwU mij‡iLv eivei cici †m‡K‡Ûi †eM †`wL‡q Gi Z¡i‡bi cÖK…wZ wb‡`©k Kiv n‡q‡Q| GLv‡b
mgZ¡i‡Yi gvb 2ms2 |
miY ( Displacement ) t wbw`©ó w`‡K e¯‘i Ae¯’v‡bi cwieZ©b‡K miY e‡j| miY‡K s ev d Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| Gi
GKK wgUvi| wbw`©ó w`‡K †Kvb e¯‘ t mgq a‡i v †e‡M Pj‡j, miY s = v t n‡e| miY GKwU †f±i ivwk|
Av‡cwÿK †eM: `ywU MwZkxj e¯‘i GKwUi Zzjbvq (mv‡c‡ÿ) AciwUi Ae¯’v‡bi cwieZ©‡bi nvi‡K Av‡cwÿK †eM e‡j|
ga¨ †eM: †Kvb GKwU MwZkxj e¯‘i cÖ_g Ges †kl †eM Gi AwfgyL GKB n‡j Zv‡ì †hvM d‡ji A‡a©K‡K ga¨ †eM
vi  v f
e‡j| ‡Kvb wbw`©ó w`‡K †Kvb e¯‘i Avw`‡eM viI †kl †eM vf n‡j ga¨‡eM = n‡e|
2
`ªwZ I †e‡Mi cv_©K¨ (Distinction between Speed and Velocity) :

µwgK `ªywZ ‡eM
‡h †Kvb w`‡K e¯‘i ¯’vb cwieZ©‡bi nvi‡K e¯‘i wbw`©ó w`‡K e¯‘i ¯’vb cwieZ©‡bi nvi‡K e¯‘i †eM
1|
`ªæwZ e‡j| e‡j|
`ªæwZi †Kej gvb Av‡Q, w`K bvB| d‡j `ªæwZ ‡e‡Mi gvb I Av‡Q , w`K I Av‡Q | d‡j, †eM
2|
me©`vB abvZ¡K| abvZ¡K I n‡Z cv‡i FbvZ¡K I n‡Z cv‡i|
3| `ªywZ GKwU †¯‹jvi ivwk ev Aw`K ivwk| ‡eM GKwU †f±i ivwk ev w`K ivwk|
4| `ªæwZ cwigv‡ci h‡š¿i bvg w¯ú‡WvwgUvi| ‡eM cwigv‡ci h‡š¿i bvg †fjv‡UvwgUvi|
‡Kvb e¯‘ t mg‡q r `yiZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡j wbw`©ó w`‡K ‡Kvb e¯‘ t mg‡q s `yiZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡j
5| dr ds
`ªwZ = n‡e| ‡eM = n‡e|
dt dt
†eM I Z¡i‡Yi cv_©K¨ (Distinction between Velocity and Acceleration) :

µwgK ‡eM Z¡iY
wbw`©ó w`‡K e¯‘i ¯’vb cwieZ©‡bi nvi‡K e¯‘i mg‡qi mv‡_ †eM e„w×i nvi‡K Z¡iY e‡j|
1|
†eM e‡j|
2| †eM‡K v Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| Z¡iY‡K a Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq|
3| ‡e‡Mi GKK ms1| Z¡i‡Yi GKK ms2|
4| ‡e‡Mi gvÎv [LT 1]| Z¡i‡Yi gvÎv [LT 2]|
(K) vx  vxo  ax t cÖwZcv`b|

g‡bKwi, X Aÿ eivei GKwU e¯‘ mylg Z¡i‡Y MwZkxj| Av‡iv awi, GB MwZi cÖviw¤¢K kZ©vw` nj mgq Mbbvi ïiæ‡Z
A_©vr hLb t = 0 ZLb Avw` Ae¯’vb x = 0 Ges Avw`‡eM vx = vxo | Av‡iv awi, t mgq ci e¯‘wUi Ae¯’vb x = x Ges
Ges †eM vx = vx| ‡h‡nZz †h †Kvb gyn‡~ Z©i mg‡qi mv‡c‡ÿ †Kvb KYvi †eM e„w×i nvi‡K Z¡iY e‡j|
dv x
myZivs, ax 
dt
hLb t = 0 ZLb vx = vxo Ges x = xo Avevi, hLb t = t ZLb vx = vx Ges x = x
 dv x  ax dt
GB mxgvi g‡a¨ mgxKiY‡K mgvKjb K‡i cvB,


vx t
 dv x  a x  dt  ax  aª “eK
v xo 0
vx t
 v x   ax t 
v x0 o
 v x  v xo  a x t  0 
 v x  v xo  a x t mgxKiYwU cÖwZcv`b Kiv nj|
1
(L) x  x o  ( v xo  v x )t cÖwZcv`b:
2
g‡bKwi, X Aÿ eivei GKwU e¯‘ mylg Z¡i‡Y MwZkxj| Av‡iv awi, GB MwZi cÖviw¤¢K kZ©vw` nj mgq Mbbvi ïiæ‡Z
A_©vr hLb t = 0 ZLb Avw` Ae¯’vb x = x0 Ges Avw`‡eM vx = vxo | Av‡iv awi, t mgq ci e¯‘wUi Ae¯’vb x Ges Ges
†kl‡eM vx | Mo‡e‡Mi msÁv n‡Z Avgiv Rvwb, ÿz`ªvwZÿz`ª mgq eëav‡b †eM I mgq eëav‡bi ¸bd‡ji mgwó wb‡q
Zv‡K †gvU mgq w`‡q fvM Ki‡j H mg‡qi Mo‡eM e‡j| myZivs KYvwUi t mgq ci Mo‡eM v x n‡j,
1t
v x   v x dt
t0
1 t dx  dx 
 v x   dt  vx  
t 0 dt  dt 
 x  x o  v x t ... ... ... ... (1)
mymg Z¡i‡Y Pjgvb e¯‘wUi †ÿ‡Î †eM v x mg‡qi mv‡_ mymgfv‡e cwiewZ©Z nq e‡j †h †Kvb mgq eëav‡b Zvi Mo gvb H
1
mgq eëav‡bi ïiæ I †k‡li †e‡Mi gvbØ‡qi mgwói A‡a©K| A_©vr v x  ( v xo  v x ), v x Gi GB gvb (1) bs
2
1 1
mgxKi‡Y ewm‡q cvB, x  x o  ( v xo  v x ) t  x  x o  ( v xo  v x ) t mgxKiYwU cÖwZcv`b Kiv nj|
2 2
1
(M) x  xo  vxo t  ax t 2 cÖwZcv`b:
2
g‡bKwi, X Aÿ eivei GKwU e¯‘ ax mylg Z¡i‡Y MwZkxj| Av‡iv awi, GB MwZi cÖviw¤¢K kZ©vw` nj mgq Mbbvi ïiæ‡Z
A_©vr hLb t = 0 ZLb Avw` Ae¯’vb x = xo Ges Avw`‡eM vx = vxo | Av‡iv awi, t mgq ci e¯‘wUi Ae¯’vb x = x Ges
Ges †eM vx = vx| ‡h‡nZz †h †Kvb gyn‡~ Z©i mg‡qi mv‡c‡ÿ †Kvb KYvi †eM e„w×i nvi‡K Z¡iY e‡j|
dvx
myZivs, ax 
dt
 dvx  ax dt hLb t = 0 ZLb vx = vxo Ges x = xo Avevi, hLb t = t ZLb vx = vx Ges x = x GB
mxgvi g‡a¨ mgxKiY‡K mgvKjb K‡i cvB,
vx t
 dv x  a x  dt  ax  aª æeK 
v xo 0
 v x vxxo  ax t o
v t
 vx  vxo  ax t  0
 vx  vxo  ax t ... ... ... ... ... (1) †h †Kvb gyû‡Z© e¯‘i miY e„w×i nvi‡K †eM e‡j| D³
dx dx
(1) mgxKi‡Y vx  ewm‡q cvB,  v xo  a x t
dt dt


 dx  vxo dt  a x t dt
x t t
  dx  v xo  dt  a x  t dt
xo o o
t
t2 
 x   v xo t   ax  
x t
xo o
 2 o
1
 x  xo  vxo t  0   a x t 2  0 
2
1
 x  xo  vxot  a xt 2 mgxKiYwU cÖwZcv`b Kiv nj|
2
1 2 1 2
ev,  x  xo  vxot  a xt  S  v xot  a xt mgxKiYwUI cÖwZcv`b Kiv nj| w¯’i
2 2
1 2
Ae¯’vb †_‡K mgZ¡i‡Y Pjgvb e¯‘i †ÿ‡Î, v xo  0 Ges a x  aª æeK ,d‡j S  0   aª æeK  t  S  aª æeK t 2
2
2
 S t Kv‡RB, w¯’i Ae¯’vb †_‡K mgZ¡i‡Y Pjgvb e¯‘i AwZµvšÍ `yiZ¡ mg‡qi e‡M©i mgvbycvwZK|
(N) v 2x  v 2xo  2ax ( x  x o ) cÖwZcv`b :

awi, GKwU e¯‘ X Aÿ eivei ax mylg Z¡i‡Y MwZkxj| GB MwZi cÖviw¤¢K kZ©vw` nj hLb mgq Mbbvi ïiæ‡Z hLb t = 0
ZLb Avw` Ae¯’vb x = xo Ges Avw`‡eM vx = vxo Avevi, t mgq ci KYvwUi Ae¯’vb x Ges †eM vx | †h‡nZz ‡h †Kvb
gyn‡~ Z© mg‡qi mv‡c‡ÿ e¯‘i †eM e„w×i nvi‡K Z¡iY e‡j|
dv x
myZivs Z¡ iY a x 
dt
dv dx
 ax  x 
dx dt
dv  dx 
 ax  x  v x   vx 
dx  dt 
 v x dv x  a x dx
hLb x = xo ZLb vx = vxo Ges hLb x = x ZLb vx = vx GB mxgvi g‡a¨ Dc‡iv³ mgxKiY‡K mgvKjb K‡i cvB,
vx x
 v x dv x  ax  dx
v xo xo
vx
 v2 
  x   a xx
x x
 2  vxo o
v 2x  v 2xo
  ax ( x  x o )
2
 v 2x  v 2xo  2a x ( x  x o ) mgxKiYwU cÖwZcv`b Kiv nj|


1 (2t  1)
(O) s t  v o  a (2t  1) ev, s t  v o  a cÖwZcv`b :
2 2
g‡bKwi, vo Avw`‡e‡M Ges a mgZ¡i‡Y AB mij‡iLv eivei Pjgvb KYvwUi Avw` Ae¯’vb A we›`y‡Z| (t-1) †m‡K‡Û Ges t
†m‡K‡Û hw` Gi Ae¯’vb h_vµ‡g C I B we›`y‡Z nq Z‡e t Zg †m‡K‡Û e¯‘ KYvwU BC `~iZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡e| MwZi
m~Îvbyhvqx t †m‡K‡Û e¯‘ KZ…K AwZµvšÍ `~iZ¡ AB
1
AB  v0 t  at 2 ... ... ... ... ... (1)
2
(t-1) †m‡K‡Û e¯‘ KZ…K AwZµvšÍ `~iZ¡ AC
1
AC  v 0 ( t  1)  a ( t  1) 2 ... ... ... ... ... (2)
2
Kv‡RB t Zg †m‡K‡Û e¯‘ KZ…K AwZµvšÍ Í `yiZ¡ st n‡j
st = CB
 s t  AB  AC
 1   1 
 s t  v 0 t  at 2   v 0 (t  1)  a ( t  1) 2 
 2   2 
1 1
 s t  v 0 t  at 2  v 0 ( t  1)  a (t  1) 2
2 2
1 2 1 2
 s t  v 0 t  at  v 0 t  v 0  a (t  2t  1)
2 2
1 1 1
 s t  v 0 t  at 2  v 0 t  v 0  at 2  at  a
2 2 2
1
 s t  v 0  at  a
2
1
 s t  v 0  at  a
2
1 (2 t  1)
s t  v o  a (2 t  1) ev, s t  v o  a mgxKiYwU cÖwZcv`b Kiv nj|
2 2
Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K wbwÿß e¯‘i †ÿ‡Î me©vwaK D”PZv wbY©q :

g‡bKwi, †Kvb GKwU e¯‘‡K Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K v0 †e‡M †Qvov nj| G †ÿ‡Î e¯‘i Dci wµqviZ Z¡iY = g, KviY g
c„w_exi †K›`ªvwfgyLx| Kv‡RB h D”PZvq v MwZ‡eM AR©b Ki‡j MwZi mgxKiY †_‡K Avgiv cvB, v 2  v 2o  2gH Kv‡RB
e¯‘wU D‡aŸ© DV‡Z _vK‡j Gi †kl †e‡Mi gvb µgkt Kg‡Z _vK‡e| Kv‡RB †h we›`y‡Z wbwÿß e¯‘i †eM k~b¨ H we›`yB
e¯‘i MwZ c‡_i m‡e©v”P we›`y wb‡`©k K‡i| myZivs †h we›`y‡Z e¯‘i †kl ‡eM k~b¨, †mB we›`yi D”PZv H n‡j ,
0 2  v o2  2gH
v 2o v o2
H  Kv‡RB Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K wbwÿß e¯‘i †ÿ‡Î -B nj e¯‘ KZ©…K AwZµvšÍ Í m‡e©v”P
2g 2g
D”PZv|
Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K wbwÿß e¯‘i †ÿ‡Î me©vwaK D”PZvq †cŠQ‡Z mgq wbY©q :
g‡bKwi, †Kvb GKwU e¯‘‡K Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K vo †e‡M †Qvov nj| G †ÿ‡Î e¯‘i Dci wµqviZ Z¡iY = -g, KviY g
c„w_exi †K›`ªvwfgyLx| t mgq c‡i †Kvb wbw`©ó D”PZvq e¯‘wUi †eM v n‡j, MwZi mgxKiY n‡Z cvB, v = vo  gt Kv‡RB
†`Lv hv‡”Q †h, Dc‡ii w`‡K wbwÿß e¯‘i †eM ax‡i ax‡i Kg‡Z _v‡K| †Kvb wbw`©ó D”PZvq hLb gt Gi gvb vo Gi mgvb
ZLb †kl †eM v = 0 n‡e| A_©vr e¯‘wU Avi Dc‡i DV‡Z cvi‡e bv| GB D”PZvB m‡Ÿ©v”P D”PZv| awi, m‡e©v”P D”PZvq


vo v
MgbKvj t, myZiv&s 0 = vo gt  t  Kv‡RB Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K wbwÿß e¯‘i †ÿ‡Î o -B nj e¯‘ KZ©…K AwZµvšÍ
g g
m‡e©v”P D”PZvq †cŠQ‡bvi mgq|
Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K wbwÿß e¯‘i †ÿ‡Î DÌv‡bi, cZ‡bi, DÌvb cZ‡bi mgq wbY©q :
g‡bKwi, †Kvb GKwU e¯‘‡K Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K vo †e‡M †Qvov nj| G †ÿ‡Î e¯‘i Dci wµqviZ Z¡iY = g, KviY g
c„w_exi †K›`ªvwfgyLx| t mgq c‡i h D”PZvq e¯‘wUi †eM v n‡j MwZi mgxKiY n‡Z cvB,
v = vo – gt ... ... ... ... (1)
Ges v 2  v 2o  2gH ... ... ... (2)
myZivs †`Lv hv‡”Q †h, Dc‡ii w`‡K wbwÿß e¯‘i †eM ax‡i ax‡i Kg‡Z _v‡K| GB †eM GK mgq 0 (k~b¨) n‡e| A_©vr
e¯‘wU Avi Dc‡i DV‡e bv| d‡j e¯‘wU †h D”PZvq D‡V ZvB-B e¯‘ KZ©…K AwZµvšÍ me©vwaK D”PZv H| awi GB D”PZvq
†h‡Z mgq jv‡M t1 myZivs (1) bs mgxKiY n‡Z cvB,
0 = vo – gt1
v
 t1  o ... ... ... ... ... (3)
g
v
me©vwaK D”PZvq DÌvb Kvj t 1  o , Avevi (2) mgxKiY n‡Z cvB,
g
2
0  v o  2gH
v o2
H  ... ... ... ... (4) me©vwaK D”PZvq e¯‘i †kl‡eM k~b¨| Kv‡RB m‡e©v”P D”PZv n‡Z f~wg‡Z
2g
covi mgq Gi Avw`‡eM n‡e k~b¨ Ges ïay AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Y e¯‘wU wb‡P co‡Z _vK‡e| m‡e©v”P we›`y †_‡K f~wg‡Z wd‡i
Avm‡Z t2 mgq jvM‡j, MwZi mgxKiY †_‡K cvB,
1
H  0  t 2  gt 22
2
1 v2
 gt 22  H  0
2 2g
v o2
 t 22 
g2
v
 t 2  o ... ... ... ... (5)
g
DÌvb cZ‡bi †gvU mgq T n‡j T = t1+t2
v v
T o  o
g g
2v
 T  o BnvB DÌvb cZ‡bi †gvU mgq|
g
Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K wbwÿß e¯‘ fywg‡Z wd‡i Avmvi mgq wbY©q :
g‡bKwi, †Kvb GKwU e¯‘‡K Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K vo Avw`‡e‡M †Qvov nj| G †ÿ‡Î e¯‘i Dci wµqviZ Z¡iY = g,
KviY g c„w_exi †K›`ªvwfgyLx| d‡j e¯‘wUi †eM ax‡i ax‡i Kg‡Z _vK‡e Ges GKwU wbw`©ó D”PZvq †eM k~b¨ n‡e A_©vr
e¯‘wU Avi Dc‡i DV‡ebv| Kv‡RB GB D”PZvq e¯‘ K©Z…K AwZµvšÍ Í m‡e©v”P D”PZv| awi m‡e©v”P D”PZv H, d‡j MwZi
mgxKiY †_‡K cvB, v 2  v 2o  2gH
 0  v o2  2gH


2
v o
H  ... ... ... (1)
2g
Avevi m‡e©v”P D”PZv †_‡K fywg‡Z cÖZ¨veZ©bKv‡j e¯‘i Avw`‡eM k~b¨ n‡e Ges ïay gvÎ AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Y e¯‘wU wb‡P co‡Z
_vK‡e| m‡e©v”P we›`y †_‡K fywg‡Z wd‡i Avm‡Z e¯‘i t mgq jvM‡j MwZi mgxKiY †_‡K cvB,
1
H  0  t  gt 2
2
2
v 1
 o  gt 2
2g 2
2
2v 
 t   o 
 g 
v
 t  o ... ... ... ... (2) BnvB m‡e©v”P D”PZv n‡Z cZbKvj|
g
awi, fywg‡Z wd‡i Avm‡Z †h mgq jv‡M †mB mg‡qi †k‡l e¯‘i †eM = v
myZivs v = 0 + gt
v
 v  g o
g
 v  v o myZivs f~wg †_‡K e¯‘‡K †h †e‡M Dc‡ii
w`‡K wb‡ÿc Kiv nq, e¯‘wU wd‡i G‡m †mB †e‡M f~wg‡Z AvNvZ K‡i|
cošÍ e¯‘i m~Î eY©bv (Laws of falling bodies) :

evavnxb fv‡e cošÍ e¯‘ wb‡¤§v³ wZbwU m~Î †g‡b P‡j| 1589 wLª÷v‡ã weÁvbx M¨vwjwjI m~Î wZbwU Avwe®‹vi K‡ib t
1g m~Ît e¯‘ mgvb mg‡q mgvb c_ AwZµg K‡i|
2q m~Ît wbw`©ó mg‡q e¯‘ †h †eM jvf K‡i Zv H mg‡qi mgvbycvwZK| t mg‡q v †eM jvf Ki‡j, m~Îvbyhvqx †eM n‡e,
vt
3q m~Ît wbw`©ó mg‡q e¯‘ KZ…K AwZµvšÍ `~iZ¡ H mg‡qi e‡M©i mgvbycvwZK| t mg‡q AwZµvšÍ `yiZ¡ h n‡j, m~Îvbyhvqx
D”PZv n‡e, ht 2
¯^b©gy`ªv I cvjK cixÿv:

hš¿cvwZt (K) j¤^v GKwU k³, †gvUv I duvcv `yBgyL †Lvjv KvPbj B| (L) GKwU Uzwc C
(M) GKwU ÷c KK© S (N) GKwU cvjK |
cixÿvi weeiY: KvPb‡ji GKcÖv‡šÍGKwU Uzwc C Ges Aci cÖv‡šÍGKwU ÷c KK© S _v‡K|
Uzwc Ly‡j GKwU ¯^b©gy`ªv G Ges GKwU cvjK F b‡ji g‡a¨ XyKv‡bv nq| ócK‡K©i Pvwe Ly‡j
cv‡¤úi mvnv‡h¨ bjwU‡K evqyc~b© ev evqyk~b¨ Kiv hvq| bjwU‡K nVvr Dwë‡q gy`ªv I cvjK‡K
wb‡Piw`‡K co‡Z †Ìqv nq| cixÿvq †`Lv hvq †h (1) evqyc~b© Ae¯’vq gy`ªvwU cvj‡Ki Av‡M
wb‡Pi cÖv‡šÍc‡o| (2) evqyk~b¨ Ae¯’vq gy`ªv I cvjK GKB mv‡_ wb‡Pi cÖv‡šÍ c
Í ‡o|
djvdjt evqyk~b¨ ¯’v‡b mKj e¯‘ mgvb mg‡q mgvb c_ AwZµg K‡i|


1
mgZ¡iY MwZi †ÿ‡Î †eM ebvg mgq (v  t)†jLwPÎ AsKb Ges †jLwPÎ n‡Z s  v o t  at 2 mgxKiYwU cÖwZcv`b:
2
mgZ¡i‡Y MwZkxj †Kvb e¯‘i †ÿ‡Î X A‡ÿi w`‡K mgq t Ges Y A‡ÿi w`‡K †eM v wb‡q v ebvg t ‡jL wPÎ AsKb
Kiv nj| GwU Y Aÿ‡K †Q`Kvix GKwU mij †iLv nq hv, v = vo+at mgxKiY †g‡b P‡j| GB ‡jLwPÎ †_‡K t mg‡q
e¯‘i AwZµvšÍ `~iZ¡ s wbb©q Kiv hvq| AB ‡iLvi Dci †h †Kvb we›`y P †bqv nq| P †_‡K X A‡ÿi Dci PQ j¤^ Uvbv
nq| Zvn‡j OQ = t mg‡q AwZµvšÍ `~iZ¡ s n‡e AOQP ‡ÿ‡Îi
†ÿÎdj| aiv hvK, KYvwUi mgZ¡iY a
Ges Avw`‡eM, vo = AO
AwZµvšÍ mgq, t = OQ
Ges t mg‡q AwZµvšÍ `~iZ¡ , s = AOQP ‡ÿ‡Îi †ÿÎdj|
= AOQR ‡ÿ‡Îi †ÿÎdj  ARP ‡ÿ‡Îi †ÿÎdj|
= AO×OQ + 1
2 ×AR×PR
s = AO×OQ + 12 ×OQ×PR [∵ AR = OQ ]
wKš‘ AB ‡iLvi Xvj n‡”Q KYvwUi Z¡iY a,
PR
a 
AR
PR = a×AR
= a×OQ
s = AO×OQ + 12 ×OQ×a×OQ
 s = AO×OQ + 12 ×a×OQ2
1
 s  v o t  at 2 mgxKiYwU cÖwZcv`b Kiv nj| 
2

2| ‰iwLK MwZ (Linear Motion)
1| GKwU e›`y‡Ki ¸wj †Kvb †Ìqv‡ji g‡a¨ 0.04m cÖ‡ek Kivi

ci A‡a©K †eM nvivq | MywjwU †Ìqv‡ji 3| 20ms-1 †e‡M MwZkxj GKwU e¯‘i †eM cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û 3ms-1 nv‡i
g‡a¨ Avi KZUzKz cÖ‡ek Ki‡e? n«vm cvq| †_‡g hvIqvi Av‡M e¯‘wU KZ `~iZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡e?
Avgiv Rvwb, v2 = u2 – 2as GLv‡b,
g‡b Kwi, ev, 0 = 202 – 2(3)s Avw`‡eM, u = 20 ms-1
jÿ¨¯’‡j cÖ‡e‡ki gyn‡~ Z© ¸wji Avw`‡eM = u ev, 6s = 400 g›`b, a = 3 ms-2
Ges ¸wjwU AviI x wgUvi `~iZ¡ cÖ‡ek Ki‡e| 400 ‡kl‡eM, v = 0
u ev, s 
6 _vgvi Av‡M e¯‘wU KZ…K
 0.04 m cÖ‡ek Kivi ci †eM n‡e =
2  s  66.7 m (Ans.) AwZµvšÍ `~iZ,¡ s = ?
Ges †kl †eM n‡e 0 (k~b¨)|
Avgiv Rvwb, cÖ_g As‡ki Rb¨ 4| Dc‡ii w`‡K wbwÿß GKwU ej †Uwj‡dvb Zvi‡K 0.70ms-1 `ªæwZ‡Z
2
u 2 AvNvr K‡i| †Qvovi ¯’vb †_‡K ZviwUi D”PZv 5.1m n‡j ejwUi Avw`
   u  2a(0.04)
2 `ªæwZ KZ wQj?
u2 Avgiv Rvwb,
 0.08a  u 2  GLv‡b,
4 v 2  u 2  2gh D”PZv, h =5.1m
3u 2 3u 2 2 2
 (0.7)  u  2  9.8  5.1 g = 9.8 ms-2
a  ..... .......... (1)
4  0.08 0.32  u 2  (0.7) 2  2  9.8  5.1 ‡kl †eM, v =0.70ms-1
wØZxq As‡ki Rb¨, Avw` `ªæwZ, u =?
2  u 2  0.49  99.96
u  u 2  100.45
0     2ax
 2 u  100.45  10.02 ms-1 (Ans.)
2
u 3u 2
ev , 0     2  x 5| GKwU †Uªb 3ms-2 mgZ¡i‡b Pj‡Q Ges Avw`‡eM 10m/s †UªbwU hLb
2 0.32
60m c_ AwZµg Ki‡e ZLb Gi †eM KZ n‡e|
6u 2 x u 2 Avgiv Rvwb,
ev ,  GLv‡b,
0.32 4 2 2 Z¡iY, a = 3ms-2
0.32 v  u  2as
 x  0.0133 m (Ans.) Avw`‡eM, u = 10 ms-1
6 4  v 2  10 2  2  3  60 miY, s = 60m
 v 2  100  360 ‡kl‡eM, v = ?
2| 50 wgUvi DPuy †_‡K GKwU e¯‘ f~wg‡Z cwZZ nq|  v 2  460
(K) fywg‡Z †cŠuQ‡Z Gi KZ mgq jvM‡e?
(L) fywg‡Z †cŠuQevi c~e© gyn‡~ Z© Gi †eM KZ n‡e?  v  460  21.447  21.45ms 1 ( Ans )
1 2
(K) h  ut  gt GLv‡b, 6| GKwU e¯‘‡K 98 ms-1 †e‡M Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K wb‡ÿc Kiv n‡j
2 D”PZv, h =50m †`LvI †h, 3 Sec I 17 Sec mg‡q e¯‘i †eMØq mgvb wKš‘ w`K
1 Avw`‡eM, u = 0 wecixZ gyLx|
 50  0  9.8  t 2
2 g = 9.8 ms-2 Avgiv Rvwb,
GLv‡b,
 50  4.9 t 2 (K) mgq, t = KZ? 3 †mt c‡i †eM
Avw`‡eM, u = 98 ms-1
50 (L) ‡kl †eM, v = KZ ? v1 = u gt1 mgq, t1 = 3S
 t2  ev, v1 = 989.8×3
4. 9 mgq, t2 = 17S
ev, v1 = 9829.4 †kl‡eM, v1 =?
50
t  v1 = 68.6ms-1 †kl‡eM, v2 =?
4.9 Avevi, 17 †mt c‡i †eM
t = 3.19 s (Ans.) v2 = u gt2
Avevi, ev, v2 = 98 9.8×17
(L) v = u + gt ev, v2 = 98 166.6
⇒ v = 0 + 9.8 × 3.19  v2 = 68.6 ms-1
 v = 31.26 ms-1 (Ans.)  3 †mt I 17 †mt c‡i †eR Øq mgvb I wecixZ (cÖgvwYZ)

1
1  2  0   2  t 22
7| s  t 3  3t m~Îvbymv‡i GKwU e¯‘ mij †iLvq Pj‡Q| 2
3 2
 t2  2
2 †m‡KÛ ci Gi †eM KZ n‡e?
Avgiv Rvwb,  t 2  2  1.414s
ds ‡k‡li 1m `~iZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡Z mgq
v jv‡M, t  t 2  t1  (1.414  1) s  0.414s (Ans.)
dt GLv‡b,
d 1  mgq, t = 2 Sec
 v   t 3  3t  10| GKwU ‡Uªb w¯’i Ae¯’vb n‡Z 10ms-2 Z¡i‡Y Pj‡Z Avi¤¢ Kij| GKB
dt  3  ‡eM, v =?
mgq GKwU Mvwo 100ms-1 mg‡e‡M †Uª‡bi mgvšÍiv‡j Pjv ïiæ Kij| †Uªb
1 MvwowU‡K KLb wcQ‡b †dj‡e?
v  3t 2  3
3 g‡b Kwi, t mgq ci †Uªb MvwowU‡K wcQ‡b †d‡j P‡j hv‡e,
 v  t2  3 t mgq †Ub KZ…K AwZµvšÍ `~iZ¡,
 v  2 2  3 [t Gi gvb ewm‡q] 1 GLv‡b,
x  0  at 2 Mvwoi mg‡eM, V = 100ms-1
 v  7 GKK („Ans.) 2
1 ‡Uª‡bi Z¡iY, a = 10ms-2
8| 54 kmh1 †e‡M PjšÍ GKwU †ij Mvwo‡Z †÷mb †_‡K wKQy `y‡i  x   10  t 2 mgq, t = ?
2
0.75ms-2 g›`b m„wóKvix †eªK ‡Ìqvq MvwowU †÷m‡b G‡m †_‡g †Mj|
†÷mb ‡_‡K KZ `~‡i †eªK †Ìqv n‡qwQj Ges MvwowU _vg‡Z KZ  x  5t 2 ... ... ... (1)
mgq †j‡MwQj? t mg‡q Mvwo KZ…K AwZµvšÍ `~iZ¡, x   Vt
Avgiv Rvwb,  x   100 t ... ... ... (2)
v2 = u22as GLv‡b, kZ©g‡Z †Uªb hLb MvwowU‡K AwZµg Ki‡e ZLb x  x  n‡e|
2
 0  15  2  0.75  s Avw`‡eM, u = 54 kmh-1 5t 2  100 t
15 15 54  1000 1 100
s m  ms t  t  20s (Ans.)
2  0.75 3600 5
 s  150 m (Ans.) =15ms-1
Avevi, v = u  at g›`b, a = 0.75ms-2 11| w¯’ive¯’v †_‡K Pj‡Z Avi¤¢ K‡i 625m `~iZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡j GKwU
 0  15  0.75  t †kl‡eM, v = 0 e¯‘i †eM 125ms-1 nj| Z¡iY wbY©q Ki|
15 mgq, t = ? Avgiv Rvwb,
t s GLv‡b,
0.75 miY, s=? v 2  u 2  2as Avw`‡eM, u = 0
 t  20s (Ans.)  125 2  0  2  a  625 AwZµvšÍ `~iZ¡ , s = 625m
125 2 ‡kl †eM, v = 125 ms-1
a ms 2 Z¡iY, a =?
9| GKwU e¯‘ w¯’i Ae¯’vb n‡Z hvÎv ïiæ K‡i cÖ_g †m‡K‡Û 1m 2  625
`~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i| cieZ©x 1m `~iZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡Z KZ mgq  a  12.5ms 2 (Ans.)
jvM‡e|
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
Avw`‡eM, u = 0 12| 64m DuPz `vjv‡bi Qv` †_‡K 5kg f‡ii GKwU cv_i †Q‡o w`‡j
1 f~wg‡Z †cuŠQv‡Z Gi KZ mgq jvM‡e?
s1  ut 1  at12 mgq, t1 = 1s
2 Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
miY, s1 =1m
1 1 Avw`‡eM, u = 0
 1  0  a (1) 2 Z¡iY, a=? h  ut  gt 2
2 2 AwZµvšÍ `~iZ¡ , h = 64m
a fi, m= 5kg
1 1
 64  0   9.8  t 2 mgq, t =?
2 2
 a  2ms 2  64  4.9t 2
GLb cÖ_g †_‡K s2 = (1m+1) =2m `~iZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡Z mgq
64
jv‡M = t2 t  t  3.61 s. (Ans.)
1 2 4.9
s 2  ut 2  at 2
2

13| w¯’i Ae¯’vb n‡Z hvÎv Avi¤¢ K‡i GKwU e¯‘ cÖ_g †m‡K‡Û 2m 14| GKwU e¯‘ cÖ_g `yB †m‡K‡Û 30m I cieZ©x Pvi †m‡K‡Û 150m
`~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i| cieZ©x 2m `~iZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡Z e¯‘wUi KZ ‡Mj| Z¡iY AcwiewZ©Z _vK‡j e¯‘wU Gi ci GK †m‡K‡Û KZUv c_
mgq jvM‡e| AwZµg Ki‡e? GLv‡b,
Avgiv Rvwb, `~iZ¡, s1 = 30m
Avgiv Rvwb, 1 mgq, t1 = 2s
GLv‡b, s1  ut1  at 12
1 2 miY, s2 = (30+150)
s1  ut1  at 12 Avw`‡eM, u = 0
2 1 =180m
1 mgq, t1 = 1s  30  u  2  a  2 2
 2  0  a(1) 2 2 miY, s7 =?
2 miY, s1 =1m u  a  15..........(1)
a Z¡iY, a =? cÖ_g †_‡K t2= (2+4)= 6 †m‡K‡Û e¯‘wU hvq s2=(30+150)m=180m
2
2 1
 a  4ms 2  s2  ut2  at 22
2
1
GLb cÖ_g †_‡K s2 = (2m+2m) = 4m `~iZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡Z  180  u  6  a  6 2
mgq jv‡M = t2 2
u  3a  30..........(2)
1 2
s 2  ut 2 
at 2 u  a  15..........(1)
2
1 we‡qvM K‡i, 2a= 15  a  7.5ms 2
 4  0   4  t 22 GLb (1) bs mgxKi‡Y a Gi gvb ewm‡q,
2
2
 t2  2 u  7.5  15 u  7.5ms 1
6 ‡m‡K‡Ûi c‡ii †m‡KÛ A_©vr 7g †m‡K‡Û AwZµvšÍ `~iZ¡,
 t 2  2  1.414s a
‡k‡li 2m `~iZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡Z mgq st  u  (2t  1)
2
jv‡M, t  t 2  t 1  (1.414  1) s  0.414s (Ans.) 7.5
 s7  7.5  ( 2  7  1)
2
7.5
 s7  7.5  13
2
 s7  7.5  48.75
 s7  56.25m ( Ans)

cÖkœt wb¤œwjwLZ mgxKiY¸wj mivmwi †f±i iƒ‡c cÖwZcv`b Ki|

             
( K) v  v  at ( L) r  r  1 (v  v )t ( M) r  r  v t  1 at 2 ( N) v 2  v 2  2a (r  r )
0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0
  
( K) v  v  at cÖwZcv`b|
0
awi, GKwU e¯‘ a mgZ¡i‡Y †Kvb Z‡j MwZkxj| GB MwZi cÖviw¤¢K kZ©vw` nj hLb ti  o ZLb Avw` Ae¯’vb †f±i
     
r  r0 Ges Avw`‡eM v  v0 Avevi, t f  t mg‡q e¯‘wUi Ae¯’vb †f±i r Ges †eM v |
‡h †Kvb gyn‡~ Z© mg‡qi mv‡c‡ÿ e¯‘i †eM e„w×i nvi‡K Z¡iY e‡j|

 dv
Z¡ iY a 
dt
 
ev, dv  adt
   
hLb t = 0 ZLb v  v0 Ges hLb t = t ZLb v  v GB mxgvi g‡a¨ Dc‡iv³ mgxKiY‡K mgvKjb K‡i cvB,

v
 t
  a  dt

d
v0
v
0
  
 v  vvo  at  0t
  
 v  v0  a (t  o)
  
 v  v0  a t
  
 v  v0  at
   
(L) r  r  1 (v  v )t cÖwZcv`b|
0 2 0
awi, GKwU e¯‘ a mgZ¡i‡Y †Kvb Z‡j MwZkxj| GB MwZi cÖviw¤¢K kZ©vw` nj hLb ti  0 ZLb Avw` Ae¯’vb †f±i
     

myZivs KYvwUi t mgq eëav‡b Mo†eM V n‡j
 1t 
V   v dt
t0
 1 t dr  dr

V   dt [ v  ]
t 0 dt dt

 1r 
 V   dr
t r0
 1  
 V  [r ]rr0
t
 1  
 V  (r  r0 )
t
  
 r  r0  V t
   
 r  r0  12 (v  v0 )t V  1
2
 
( v  v0 ) 
   
 r  r0  12 (v  v0 )t

3| wØgvwÎK MwZ (Motion In Two Dimention) 2

   2
(M) r  r  v t  1 a t cÖwZcv`b |
0 0 2
     

 dv
Z¡ iY a 
dt
 
ev, dv  adt
   
hLb ti = 0 ZLb v  v0 Ges hLb tf = t ZLb v  v GB mxgvi g‡a¨ Dc‡iv³ mgxKiY‡K mgvKjb K‡i cvB,

v
 t
  a  dt

d
v0
v
0
 v  t
 v  vo  at  0
  
 v  v0  a (t  o)
  
 v  v0  a t
  
 v  v0  a t
Avevi, †h‡nZz †Kvb gyn‡~ Z© mg‡qi mv‡c‡ÿ e¯‘i Ae¯’vb †f±i e„w×i nvi‡K †eM e‡j, ZvB msÁvbymv‡i,
 
 dr dr  
v ewm‡q cvB,  v0  a t
dt dt
  
 dr  v0 dt  atdt
   
hLb ti = 0 ZLb r  r0 Ges hLb tf = t ZLb r  r GB mxgvi g‡a¨ Dc‡iv³ mgxKiY‡K mgvKjb K‡i cvB,

r
  t t
  d r  v 0  dt  a  tdt

r0 0 0
  
 [r ]rr0  v0 [t ]t0  a 
t2
2
t
0
  
 r  r0  v0 (t  0)  a (t 2  0)
2
   
 r  r0  v 0 t  12 a t 2
   
 r  r0  v 0 t  12 a t 2
2   
(N) v  v 2  2 a ( r  r ) cÖwZcv`b |
0 0
     

 dv
Z¡ iY a 
dt
 
ev, dv  adt
   
hLb t = 0 ZLb v  v0 Ges hLb t = t ZLb v  v GB mxgvi g‡a¨ Dc‡iv³ mgxKiY‡K mgvKjb K‡i cvB,

v
 t
 dv  a  dt

v0 0
  
 v  vvo  at  0t


  
 v  v0  a (t  o)
  
 v  v0  a t
  
 v  v0  at
Dfq cÿ‡K GB mgxKiY w`‡q ¸Y K‡i cvB,
    
v .v  (v0  at ).(v0  at )
       
 v .v  v0 .v0  v0 .at  v0 .at  a.at 2
     
 v.v  v0 .v0  2v0 .at  a.at 2
     1
 v.v  v0 .v0  2a.(v0t  at 2 )
2
        12   
 v .v  v0 .v0  2a.r  r0    v0 t  a t  ( r  r0 ) 
2 
  
 v  v0  2a.r  r0 
2 2
cÖkœt cÖvm Kv‡K e‡j?

DËit †Kvb e¯‘‡K Abyfywg‡Ki mv‡_ wZh©Kfv‡e †Kvb ¯’v‡b wb‡ÿc Kiv n‡j Zv‡K cÖvm e‡j| wZh©Kfv‡e wbwÿß
wXj, ey‡j‡Ui MwZ BZ¨vw` cÖvm MwZi D`vniY|
cÖÖkœt Abyfywg‡Ki mv‡_ wZh©Kfv‡e wbwÿß cÖv‡mi MwZc‡_i mgxKiY wbb©q Ki Ges †`LvI †h, GB MwZc_ Awae„ËvKvi|
DËit g‡bKwi, evqyga¨w¯’Z O we›`y n‡Z GKwU cÖvm‡K wb‡ÿc Kiv nj|
wb‡ÿc †eM ev Avw`‡eM = vo
wb‡ÿc ‡KvY = 
g wb‡Pi w`‡K wµqvkxj| AZGe ay = -g; ax = 0;
wb‡ÿc we›`y I g~j we›`y GKB nIqvq xo = yo = 0
 Avw`‡e‡Mi Abyf~wgK Dcvsk = voCoso
Ges Avw`‡e‡Mi Dj¤^ Dcvsk = voSino
X Aÿ eivei MwZi cwieZ©b D³ Aÿ eivei Z¡i‡Yi Dci wbf©ikxj| Y Aÿ eivei MwZi cwieZ©b D³ Aÿ
eivei Z¡i‡Yi Dci wbf©ikxj| G `ywU Aÿ eivei MwZi cwieZ©b Awbf©ikxj|
awi t mg‡q cÖvmwU P(x,y) Ae¯’v‡b _v‡K| ZLb Gi †eM = v
Abyf~wg‡Ki w`‡K Z¡iY, ax= 0
Abyf~wg‡Ki w`‡K miY = x
x = voCoso t + 1
2 axt2
ev, x = voCoso t + 0 [ax= 0]
ev, x = voCoso t
x
t  .......................(1)
vo Cos o
Dj¤^ w`‡K Z¡iY ay=g;
Dj¤^ w`‡K miY y; Abyiƒcfv‡e
y=voSinot 12 gt2


2
x 1  x 
ev, y  v Sin    g  
[t Gi gvb ewm‡q]
o o v Cos  2  v Cos  
o o  o o 
 g  2
ev, y  tan  o x   2 2
 x
 2vo Cos  o 
2  g 
 y  bx  cx awi, aª æeK tan θo  b Ges 2 2
 c 
 2voCos θo 
Dc‡iv³ mgxKiYwU GKwU Awae„‡Ëi mgxKiY|  cÖv‡mi MwZc_ GKwU Awae„Ë (c¨viv‡evjv)|
cÖkœt cÖgvY Ki, evqynxb Ae¯’vq f~wg n‡Z D”PZvq Aew¯’Z †h †Kvb Ae¯’vb n‡Z Abyf~wgK Awfgy‡L wbwÿß e¯‘i MwZc_
GKwU Awae„Ë|
g‡bKwi, k~‡b¨ Aew¯’Z O we›`y n‡Z vo †e‡M f~wgi mgvšÍiv‡j GKwU e¯‘KYv wbwÿß nj| e¯‘ KYvwU g Gi cÖfv‡e
bx‡P co‡e| awi cÖ‡ÿcb Z‡j Abyf~wgK OX †iLv X Aÿ Ges OY †iLv Y Aÿ| awi t mgq c‡i e¯‘ KYvwU MwZ c‡_i
P(x,y) we›`y‡Z gyn‡~ Zi Rb¨ Ae¯’vb Ki‡e| g bx‡Pi w`‡K wµqvkxj|
AZGe ay = g; ax= 0 ;
Avw`‡e‡Mi Abyf~wgK Dcvsk = vo
Ges Avw`‡e‡Mi Dj¤^ Dcvsk = 0
tmg‡q AwfKl©RZ¡iYnxb Abyf~wgK miY x = vot
 x 2  v o2 t 2 ... ... ... ... ... ... (1 )
tmg‡q Dj¤^ miY y = 0.t + 12 gt2
y= 1
2 gt2... .... .... .... .... .... .... (2)
(1) ‡K (2) Øviv fvM K‡i cvB
x2 v 2t 2
 1o 2
y 2 gt
x 2 2 v 2o
 
y g
 2v 2 
 x 2   o  y
 g 
 2vo2 
 x 2  4ay  awi ,  4a  aª æeK 
 g 
Dc‡iv³ mgxKiYwU GKwU Awae„‡Ëi mgxKiY| ZvB wbwÿß e¯‘i MwZc_ GKwU Awae„Ë (c¨viv‡evjv)|
cÖkœt Abyfywg‡Ki mv‡_ wZh©K fv‡e wbwÿß e¯‘i ‡ÿ‡Î (K) m‡e©v”P D”PZvq †cŠQ‡Z mgq (L) m‡e©v”P D”PZv (M) wePiY
Kvj (N) cvjøv (O) me©vwaK cvjøv wbb©q Ki|
g‡b Kwi, evqyga¨w¯’Z O we›`y n‡Z GKwU cÖvm‡K vo †e‡M o †Kv‡Y wZh©Kfv‡e wb‡ÿc Kiv nj| cÖvmwU t mg‡q m‡e©v”P
D”PZv P(x,y) G Ae¯’vb Ki‡e Ges ZLb Gi †eM n‡e v|
(K) m‡e©v”P D”PZvq †cŠQ‡Z mgqt vo †e‡Mi Dj¤^ Dcvsk voSino
t mgq c‡i P we›`y‡Z †eM, vy = voSino gt.................(1)
P we›`yMvgx m‡e©v”P D”PZvq vy= 0..................................... (2)


(1) bs mgxKi‡Y vy= 0 ewm‡q cvB
0 = voSino gt
v Sin o
 t o ..................................(3)
g
(L) m‡e©v”P D”PZvt

g‡bKwi, m‡e©v”P D”PZv = H
 H = voSinot  12 gt2
2
v Sin o 1  vo Sin o 
 H  vo Sin o  o  2 g    (3) bs n‡ Z t Gi gvb ewm‡ q  
g  g 
2 2
vo Sin o  vo Sin o 
H   
g 2g
v o2Sin 2 o
H  ... ... ... ... ... ... ... (4) 
2g
(M) DÇqb (wePiY) Kvj (Time of Flight) t

g‡b Kwi wePiY Kvj T A_©vr T mg‡q cÖvmwU mgZ‡j wd‡i Av‡m|
 t mg‡q Dj¤^ w`‡K miY y = voSinot  12 gt2GB mgxKi‡Y mgq t = T Ges miY y = 0 ewm‡q cvB,
0 = voSinoT  12 gT2
ev, 12 gT2 = voSinoT
2vo Sinθo
T  ... ... ... ... ... ... (5) 
g
(N) cvjøv (Range)t

g‡b Kwi cvjøv R A_©vr T mg‡q cÖvmwU Abyfywg‡Ki w`‡K †h `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i ZvBB cvjøv R
 R = ( voCoso ) × T
2v Sin o
 R  voCos o  o [(5) bs n‡Z T Gi gvb ewm‡q]
g
vo2 2Sin o Cos o
R
g
vo2 Sin 2 o
R  ...........................(6)
g
(O) me©vwaK cvjøv (Maximum Range) t

g‡bKwi me©vwaK cvjøv Rmax| wbw`©ó vo Gi Rb¨, Sin20 Gi gvb me©vwaK n‡j cvjøv n‡e me©vwaK| Sin20 Gi
me©vwaK gvb = 1
A_©vr Sin20 = 1
ev, Sin20 = Sin900
ev, 20 = 900
 0 = 450 myZivs wb‡ÿc †KvY0 = 450 n‡j cvjøv me©vwaK


2 o
v Sin 2  45
 me©vwaK cvjøv Rmax  o
g
vo2 Sin 90 o
 Rmax 
g
vo2  1
 Rmax 
g
vo2
 Rmax  ... ... ... ... ... (7)
g
  
cªkœt îwLK †eM I †KŠwbK †e‡Mi msÁv `vI Ges G‡ì g‡a¨ m¤úK© ¯’vcb Ki| ev, v  r ev , v    r cÖgvb Ki |
  
ev, v    r cÖgvY Ki |
‰iwLK †eM (Linear Velocity)t wbw`©ó w`‡K îwLK c‡_ †Kvb e¯‘ GKK mg‡q †h `yiZ¡ AwZµg K‡i Zv‡K H e¯‘i ‰iwLK
d
†eM e‡j| îwLK †eM‡K v Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| wbw`©ó w`‡K e¯‘ t mg‡q d `~iZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡j †eM v  n‡e| †eM
t
GKwU †f±i ivwk| îwLK †e‡Mi GKK ms-1
‡KŠwYK †eM (Angular Velocity) t mgq eëavb k~‡bï KvQvKvwQ n‡j †Kvb we›`y ev Aÿ‡K †K›`ª K‡i e„ËvKvi c‡_
Pjgvb †Kvb e¯‘i mg‡qi mv‡_ †KŠwbK mi‡Yi nvi‡K †KŠwbK †eM e‡j| Ab¨ K_vq e„ËvKvi c‡_ †Kvb e¯‘ GKK mg‡q
†h †KŠwbK `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i Zv‡K H e¯‘i †KŠwbK †eM e‡j| †KŠwbK †eM‡K  Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| wbw`©ó w`‡K e¯‘ t

mg‡q  ‡KvY Drcbœ Ki‡j †KŠwbK †eM   n‡e| †KŠwbK †e‡Mi GKK rad s-1
t
† KvY Pvc L
Gi gvÎv n‡”Q     T-1
mgq e¨vmva©  mgq L  T
m¤úK© (Relation) t
g‡bKwi GKwU e¯‘KYv OC= OB = r e¨vmva© wewkó GKwU e„‡Ëi
cwiwa eivei‡KŠwbK †e‡M Nyi‡Q| hw` T †m‡K‡Û e¯‘ KYvwU e„‡Ëi cwiwa
eivei GKevi Ny‡i Av‡m Z‡e †KŠwbK `~iZ¡  =  †iwWqvb n‡e|
2π
 ‡KŠwbK †eM, ω 
T
2π
ev, T  ... ... ... ... ...(1)
ω
GLb e¯‘ KYvwU hw` e„ËvKvi c‡_ bv Ny‡i H GKB mg‡q mij †iLv eivei PjZ Z‡e T mg‡q e¯‘KYvwU e„ËwUi
2πr
cwiwai mgvb c_ r `~iZ¡ AwZµg KiZ|  îwLK †eM v 
T
2πr
T  ... ... ... ... ...( 2)
v
(1) bs I (2) mgxKiYØq n‡Z cvB
2 2 r

 v


1 r
 
 v
 v = r A_©vr ‰iwLK †eM = †KŠwbK †eM × e„‡Ëi e¨vmva©|
v = r mgxKi‡Yi ‡f±i iƒc:
  
g‡b Kwi, u    r ... ... ... (3) 
  
u ‡f±‡ii gvb u  r sin 90  r [  r ]
   
µm ¸Y‡bi wbqg Abymv‡i,   r ev , u †f±‡ii AwfgyL Ges v †f±‡ii AwfgyL Awfbœ| Avevi v = r| †`Lv hv‡”Q †h,
 
gvb I w`K we‡ePbvq u I v ‡f±i Awfbœ|
 
 u  v ... ... ... (4)
  
(3) I (4) n‡Z v    r (cÖgvwYZ)
cÖkœ: †KŠwbK †eM I îwLK †e‡Mi g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ eY©bv Ki|
†KŠwbK †eM I îwLK †e‡Mi g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ (Distinction between Angular Velocity and Linear Velocity)
µwgK †KŠwbK †eM îwLK †eM
†KŠwbK c‡_ e¯‘i †KŠwbK mi‡bi nvi‡K †KŠwbK †eM wbw`©ó w`‡K ‰iwLK c‡_ †Kvb GKwU e¯‘i ¯’vb
1|
e‡j| cwieZ©‡bi nvi †K ‰iwLK †eM e‡j|
2| G‡K Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| G‡K Øviv v cÖKvk Kiv nq|
 s
3| Gi mgxKiY   Gi mgxKiY v 
t t
4| Gi gvÎv mgxKiY [ T-1 ] Gi mgxKiY [ LT-1 ]
5| Gi GKK †iwWqvb/ †m‡KÛ Gi GKK wgUvi/ †m‡KÛ
‡K›`ªgyLx ej (Centripetal Force): hLb †Kvb e¯‘ e„ËvKvi c‡_ Nyi‡Z _v‡K ZLb †h ej e¯‘i Dci H e„‡Ëi †K›`ª
Awfgy‡L wµqv K‡i e¯‘wU‡K e„ËvKvi c‡_ MwZkxj iv‡L Zv‡K †K›`ªgyLx ej e‡j| m f‡ii e¯‘ r e¨vmva© wewkó e„ËvKvic‡_
v2
v mg`ªæwZ‡Z Nyi‡Z _vK‡j Zvi †K›`ªgyLx ej  m |
r
†K›`ªwegyLx ej (Centrifugal Force): hLb †Kvb e¯‘ e„ËvKvi c‡_ Nyi‡Z _v‡K ZLb †h ej H e„‡Ëi †K‡›`ªi wecixZ
w`‡K cÖ‡qvM K‡i Zv‡K †K›`ªwegyLx ej e‡j| m f‡ii e¯‘ r e¨vmva© wewkó e„ËvKvic‡_ v mg`ªæwZ‡Z Nyi‡Z _vK‡j Zvi
v2
†K›`ªwegyLx ej  m |
r
v2
m fi wewkó GKwU e¯‘ r e¨mv‡a©i e„ËvKvi c‡_ v mg`ªæwZ‡Z Nyi‡Q| (1) ‡`LvI †h, j¤^ Z¡iY a    2 r ev (2)
r
v2
j¤^ Z¡i‡Yi ivwkgvjv wbb©q Ki| (3) cÖgvY Ki †h, †K›`ªgyLx ej F  m  m  2 r ev, (4) e„ËvKvi c‡_ mg`ªæwZ‡Z
r
N~b©vqgvb †Kvb e¯‘i Dci wµqvkxj †K›`ªgyLx e‡ji gvb I w`K wbY©©q |
aiv hvK, m f‡ii †Kvb e¯‘ r e¨vmv‡a©i e„ËvKvi c‡_ v mg`ªæwZ‡Z Ges  †KŠwbK †e‡M AveZ©biZ Av‡Q| awi AwZ ÿz`ª
mgq t eëav‡b e¯‘wU A n‡Z B we›`y‡Z A‡m| A we›`y‡Z e¯‘wUi †eM H we›`y‡Z ¯úk©K AC eivei| B we›`y‡Z e¯‘wUi †eM
H we›`y‡Z ¯úk©K BD eivei| BD †K †cQ‡b ewa©Z Ki‡j AC I BD Gi wgjb we›`y nq E|


GLb, OAEB PZzf©~‡R,
 AEB+  AOB = `yB mg‡KvY|
Avevi,  AEB+  BEC = `yB mg‡KvY|
  AOB =  BEC =  awi,
A we›`y‡Z e¯‘i †e‡Mi Dj¤^ Dcvsk, vy = 0
Ges AbyfywgK Dcvsk, vx = v
B we›`y‡Z e¯‘i †e‡Mi AC eivei †e‡Mi Dj¤^ Dcvsk, v y  vsin 
Ges AbyfywgK Dcvsk, v x  vcos
 t AwZ ÿz`ª mgq myZivs AwZ ÿz`ª|
sin    Ges cos  1
 B we›`y‡Z e¯‘i †e‡Mi †e‡Mi Dj¤^ Dcvsk, v y  v
Ges AbyfywgK Dcvsk, v x  v G‡Z †`Lv hv‡”Q, AbyfywgK eivei †e‡Mi Dcvs‡ki †Kvb cwieZ©b nq bv|
v  0
‡e‡Mi Dj¤^ Dcvs‡ki cwieZ©‡bi Kvi‡Y Z¡iY, a n‡j, a 
t
v

t
  
 v   
 t 
 v v
   r 
v
r
v2  2r 2
a     2r
r r
v2
 †K›`ªgyLx ej, F  ma  m  m 2 r (cÖgvwYZ)
r
cÖkœ: Awfj¤^ Z¡iY ev e¨vmva©gyLx Z¡iY ev †K›`ªgyLx Z¡iY:
Awfj¤^ Z¡iY ev e¨vmva©gyLx Z¡iY ev †K›`ªgyLx Z¡iY t

‡Kvb e¯‘ hLb e„ËvKvic‡_ Nyi‡Z _v‡K ZLb e„‡Ëi e¨vmva© eivei e„‡Ëi †K‡›`ªi w`‡K wµqvkxj Awf‡K›`ª e‡ji Rb¨ †h
Z¡i‡Yi m„wó nq Zv‡K e¨vmva©gyLx Z¡iY ev Awfj¤^ Z¡iY ev †K›`ªgyLx Z¡iY e‡j| Gi GKK wgUvi/†m‡KÛ2|
cÖkœ: ‡KŠwbK Z¡iY Kv‡K e‡j?
‡KŠwbK Z¡iYt hLb †Kvb e¯‘KYv Amg †KŠwbK †e‡M Ny‡i, ZLb e¯‘wUi †KŠwbK †eM cwieZ©‡bi nvi‡K †KŠwbK Z¡iY
e‡j A_ev, mg‡qi mv‡_ Amg †KŠwbK †eM cwieZ©‡bi nvi‡K †KŠwbK Z¡iY e‡j| G‡K  Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| Gi GKK
†iwWqvb/†m‡KÛ2|
g‡bKwi, eËvKvi c‡_ Nyb©vqgvb e¯‘KYvi Avw`‡KŠwbK †eM i Ges t mgq ci Gi †kl †KŠwbK †eM f Kv‡RB
 f  i
†KŠwbK Z¡iY  
t

cÖkœ: mg`ªæwZ‡Z Pjgvb e¯‘i Z¡ib _v‡K bv, wKš‘ e„ËvKvi c‡_ mg`ªwZ‡Z Pjgvb e¯‘i Z¡iY _v‡K †Kb? e¨vL¨v Ki|
mg`ªæwZ‡Z Pjgvb e¯‘i Z¡ib _v‡K bv, wKš‘ e„ËvKvi c‡_ mg`ªwZ‡Z Pjgvb e¯‘i Z¡iY _v‡K t
‡e‡Mi gvb n‡”Q `ªæwZ Ges †e‡Mi cwieZ©‡bi nvi n‡”Q Z¡iY| †Kvb e¯‘ hLb mij c‡_ mg `ªæwZ‡Z P‡j ZLb †e‡Mi
gv‡bi †Kvb cwieZ©b nq bv Avi mij c‡_ Pjvi Rb¨ w`‡Ki I †Kvb cwieZ©b
nq bv| d‡j e¯‘i †Kvb Z¡iY _v‡K bv|
wKš‘ e„ËvKvi c‡_ Nyievi mgq e¯‘i wbqZ w`‡Ki cwieZ©b nq, KviY
†e‡Mi AwfgyL me©`vB e„‡Ëi ¯úk©K eivii nq| Gfv‡e AbeiZ w`K cwiewZ©Z
n‡Z _v‡K e‡j e¯‘ mg`ªæwZ‡Z Pj‡jI †eM mgvb _v‡Kbv| †e‡Mi GB cwieZ©‡bi
d‡j Z¡i‡Yi m„wó nq| GB Z¡i‡Yi AwfgyL e„ËvKvi c‡_i †K›`ª eivei n‡q _v‡K|
G Rb¨ e„ËvKvi c‡_ mg`ªæwZ‡Z Pjgvb e¯‘i Z¡iY _v‡K|

3| wØgvwÎK MwZ (Motion In Two Dimention)
1| GKwU cÖv‡mi AbyfywgK cvjøv 96m Ges Avw`‡eM 66 ms-1| 1385 .632
wb‡ÿc †KvY KZ?  R
9.8
Avgiv Rvwb,
 R  141.39 m (Ans.)
v o2Sin 2 o 3| nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cigvbyi g‡W‡ji GKwU B‡jKUªb GKwU †cÖvU‡bi Pviw`‡K
R GLv‡b,
g AbyfywgK cvjøv, R = 96 m 5.2 ×10 -11 m e¨vmv‡a©i GKwU e„ËvKvi c‡_ 2.18 ×106 ms-1 †e‡M
R g Avw`‡eM, vo = 66ms-1 cÖ`wÿb K‡i| B‡jKUª‡bi fi 9.1 ×10-31 kg n‡j †K›`ªgyLx ej KZ?
ev , Sin2θ o  Avgiv Rvwb,
v 20 AwfKl©R Z¡iY, g = 9.8ms-2
96  9.8 wb‡ÿc †KvY,  = ? mv 2
ev, Sin2 o  F 
66 2 r
9.1 10 -31  (2.18106 )2
ev , 2θ o  Sin 1 (0.2159) F
5.2 10-11
ev, 2θ o  12.47  F  8. 316  108 N (Ans.)
 θ o  6.24 (Ans.) 4| 0.250kg f‡ii GKwU cv_i LÛ‡K 0.75m j¤^v GKwU myZvi GK
cÖv‡šÍ †eu‡a e„ËvKvi c‡_ cÖwZ wgwb‡U 90 evi Nyiv‡j myZvi Dci KZ Uvb
2| GKwU e¯‘‡K 40ms-1 †e‡M Ab~fywg‡Ki mv‡_ 60° ‡Kv‡Y wb‡ÿc co‡e|
Kiv nj| me©vwaK D”PZv Ges Abyf~wgK cvjøv wbY©q Ki| Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
Avgiv Rvwb, fi, m = 0.250 kg
F  m2 r
2
e¨vmva©, r = 0.75 m
(v o Sin θ o ) 2  2πn  mgq t = 1 min.
H   F m  r
2g  t  = 60s.
2 cvKmsL¨v, n = 90 cvK|
2  23.141690
H
40 Sin 60   GLv‡b,  F  0.25
 60 
  0.75 Uvb, F = ?
2  9.8 Avw`‡eM, v0 = 40ms-1
 F  16.65 N (Ans.)
2 wb‡ÿc †KvY 60º
 H 
40 Sin 60  
AwfKl©R Z¡iY,
5| 9.2 ms-1 †e‡M GKwU ÿz`ª e¯‘‡K Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K wb‡ÿc Kiv nj|
2  9.8 GwU KZ mgq c‡i f~-c„‡ô wd‡i Avm‡e?
g = 9.8ms-2
Avgiv Rvwb,
 H 
40  0.86602 2 me©vwaK D”PZv, H = ?
2 v oSin  o
2  9.8 AbyfywgK cvjøv, R = ? T
g GLv‡b,
 H 
34 .6408 2 2  9.2  Sin 90 Avw`‡eM, vo = 9.2 ms-1
2  9.8 T wb‡¶c †KvY, 0º
1199 .9850 9.8
 H  AwfKl©R Z¡iY,
2  9. 2  1
2  9 .8 T g = 9.8ms-2
 H  61.22 m (Ans .) 9.8 DÌvb cZ‡bi †gvU
Avevi, 18.4 mgq T =?
T
2 9. 8
v 0 Sin 2θ o
R  T  1.877s (Ans.)
g
40 2 Sin ( 2  60) 6| Abyfywg‡Ki mv‡_ 30°†KvY f~-c„ô †_‡K 50ms-1 †e‡M GKwU ey‡jU
R †Qvov nj| ey‡jUwU 50m `~‡i Aew¯’Z GKwU †Ìqvj‡K KZ D”PZvq
9.8
2 AvNvZ Ki‡e|
40 Sin ( 2  60 ) GLv‡b,
 R Avgiv Rvwb, Avw`‡eM, v = 50 ms-1
o
9.8 g
y  (tan 0 ) x  x2 wb‡¶c †KvY, º
1600 Sin 120 )
 R  2( v 0 cos  0 ) 2 AwfKl©R Z¡iY,
9.8 g = 9.8ms-2
1600  0.86602 AbyfywgK `~iZ¡, x=50m
 R g Dj¤^ `~iZ¡, y=?
9.8  y  (tan30 )x  (50)2
2(v0 cos30 )2

g 8| GKwU ej‡K f~wgi mv‡_ 30°†KvY K‡i Dc‡ii w`‡K wb‡ÿc Kiv n‡j
 y  (tan30)50 2
(50)2 GwU 20m `~‡i GKwU `vjv‡bi Qv‡` wM‡q coj| wb‡ÿc we›`y †_‡K Qv‡ì
2(v0 cos30 )
D”PZv 5m n‡j ejwU KZ †e‡M †Qvov n‡qwQj|
9.8
 y  0.577350269  50   (50) 2 Avgiv Rvwb,
)2
2(50 0.866025403 GLv‡b,
g
 y  28.86751346  6.533333345 y  (tan 0 ) x  2
x2 wb‡¶c †KvY, º
2( v 0 cos  0 ) AwfKl©R Z¡iY,
 y  22.33 m (Ans.)
g = 9.8ms-2
9.8 AbyfywgK `~iZ¡, x=20m
7| GKwU cÖv‡mi AbyfywgK cvjøv 79.53 m Ges wePiYKvj 5.3 s  5  tan30 20 (20)2 Dj¤^ `~iZ¡, y=5m
n‡j wb‡ÿc †KvY I wb‡ÿc †eM KZ? 2v cos2 30
2
0 Avw`‡eM, vo = ?
Avgiv Rvwb, 9.8  400
GLv‡b,  5  0.577350269  20 
v o2Sin 2 o Aby fywgK cvjøv, R = 79.53 m 2  v02  0.75
R
g wePiYKvj, T=5.3s 3920
 5  11.54 
v 2oSin 2 o wb‡¶c ‡eM, vo = ? v02 1.5
 79.53  wb‡¶c †KvY,  = ? 3920
9.8   6.54
2
 v Sin 2 o  779.394.. ... (1)
o v 02  1.5
2 v oSin  o 3920
Aevi, T   v 02   v 0  20ms 1 (Ans.)
g 6.54  1.5
2v Sin  o
 5.3  o 9| GKRb †jvK 48 ms-1 †e‡M GKwU ej Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K wb‡ÿc
9. 8
K‡i| ejwU KZ mgq k~‡Y¨ _vK‡e Ges m‡e©v”P KZ Dc‡i DV‡e?
 2v oSin  o  51.94 ... ... ... (2)
(1) bs mgxKiY‡K (2) bs mgxKiY Øviv fvM K‡i cvB, 2 v oSinθ o
T  †eM, v0 = 48 ms-1
v o2Sin 2 o 779.394 g wb‡¶c †KvY, =º

2v oSin  o 51.94 2  48  Sin 90 DÌvb cZ‡bi †gvU mgq,T =?
T D”PZv, H =?
v o2 2Sin  o Coso 779.394 9.8
 
2 v oSin  o 51.94 2  48  1
T
 v 0 Cos o  15 ... ... .. (3) 9. 8
 T  9.795 s. ( Ans.) 
(2) bs mgxKiY‡K (3) bs mgxKiY Øviv fvM K‡i cvB, Avevi,
2v oSin  o 51.94 v o2Sin 2  o
 H
v 0 Cos o 15 2g
3.463 482 (Sin 90) 2 
 tan  o  H
2  9.8
2
 H  117.5m (Ans.) 
 tan  o  1.732
 o  tan 1 1.732 10| GKwU MÖv‡gv‡dvb †iKW© cÖwZ wgwb‡U 45 evi Ny‡i| Gi †K›`ª †_‡K
  o  60(Ans.) 9cm `~‡i †Kvb we›`yi `ªæwZ KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
(3) bs mgxKi‡Y 0 Gi gvb ewm‡q cvB, GLv‡b,
v  r
v 0 Cos60  15 2n mgq, t = 1m =60s
1 v r cvKmsL¨v, n=45
 v 0   15 t
2 e¨vmva©,r =9cm=0.09m
2  3.14  45  0.09
v `ªæwZ, v =?
 v 0  30ms 1 (Ans.) 60
1
 v  0.42ms (Ans.)

 এযবযস্টটর ভনন কযনতন ফনরয ঳ম্পক঱ গবতয ঳ানথ বকন্তু বনউটননয ঳ূ ত্র অনু মায়ী ফনরয ঳ম্পক঱ গবতয ঩বযফত঱ননয ঳ানথ।
1 বনউটন = 7.2324 ঩াউন্ডার ঑ 1 ঩াউন্ডার= 13825.728 ডাইন।
 উৎ঩বত্ত অনু ঳ানয ফর দু ই প্রকায। মথা-১। যভৌবরক ফর ২) মাবিক ফর।
 বফনে যভৌবরক ফর ৪বট। মথাঃ (১) ভ঴াকল঱ ফর (২) দু ফ঱র বনউবিয় ফর (৩) তাবড়ৎ যিৌম্বক ফর (৪) ঳ফর বনউবিয় ফর।
30 40 42
 যভৌবরক ফরগুনরায আন঩বক্ষক তীব্রতায অনু ঩াত।মথাক্রনভ 1:10 :10 :10 [নমখানন ভ঴াকল঱ ফনরয তীব্রতা 1]
 ঳ারাভ ঑য়ানয়ন ফাগ঱ প্রভান কনযনেন দু ফ঱র ঑ তাবড়ৎ যিৌম্বক ফর একই ফনরয দু বট ববনড়ফরূ঩।
ভ঴াকল঱ ফরঃ ঳ফনিনয় দু ফ঱র। Gravitation নাভক এক প্রকায কণায ঩াযষ্পবযক বফবনভনয়য ভাধযনভ ভ঴াকল঱ ফর কাম঱কয।
 দু ফ঱র বনউবিয়ায ফরঃ Intermediate vector bosons নাভক কণায ঩াযস্পবযক বফবনভনয়য ভাধযনভ এ ফনরয ঳ৃ বি।
 Photon নাভক এক প্রকায কণায ঩াযস্পবযক বফবনভনয়য ভাধযনভ তাবড়ৎ যিৌম্বক ফর কাম঱কয ঴য়।
 ঳ফর বনউবিয়ায ফরঃ বনউবিয়ায ফর আকল঱ণ ধভ঱ী। স্বল্প ঩াল্লা বফব঱ি এফিং আধান বনযন঩ক্ষ । যভ঳ন কণায ঩াযস্পবযক বফবনভনয়য
ভাধযনভ ঳ফর বনউবিয়ায ফর ঳ৃ বি ঴য়।
 ২য় ঳ূ ত্র যথনক ১ভ ঳ূ ত্র ঩া঑য়া মায় অথ঱াৎ ১ভ ঳ূ ত্র ২য় ঳ূ নত্রয একবট রূ঩।
 ১ভ ঳ূ ত্র যথনক ঩া঑য়া মায়ঃ ফর ঑ জড়তা
 ২য় ঳ূ ত্র যথনক ঩া঑য়া মায়ঃ ফনরয অববভুখ, ফনরয ঩বযভা঩, ফনরয গুণগত রফব঱িয, ত্বযনণয ঳ানথ ফনর ঳ম্পক঱, ফনরয নীযন঩ক্ষ নীবত।
 বিবত জড়তায দৃ িান্তঃ
১। কান঩য উ঩য য঩াি কাড঱ ঑ তায উ঩য ভুদ্রা যযনখ যটাকা বদনর ভুদ্রা কান঩ ঩নড় মানফ।
২। ঴ঠ্াৎ গাবড় িরনত শুরু কযনর আনযা঴ী ব঩েনন য঴নর ঩নড়।
৩। কযাযানভয যফানড঱ একবট গুবটয উ঩য আয একবট গুবট যযনখ স্ট্রাইক িাযা আঘাত কযনর নীনিয গুবট িনর মায়।
৪। ধু বরমু ি য঩ালাক দবড় বদনয় আঘাত কযনর ভয়রা দূ য ঴নয় মায়।
৫। কানিয জানারায় ফু নরট যোড়নর একবট বেদ্র বকন্তু বির যোড়নর একাবধক বেদ্র ঴য়।
৬। যঘাড়া ঴ঠ্াৎ যদৌড়ানত শুরু কযনর আনযা঴ী ব঩েনন য঴নর ঩নড়।
 গবত জড়তায দৃ িান্তঃ
১। িরন্ত ফা঳ গঠ্াৎ যথনভ যগনর মাত্রী ঳াভনন য঴নর ঩নড়।
২। যদৌড় বদনয় রাপ বদনর।
৩। ধাফভান যঘাড়া যথনক উ঩নযয বদনক রাপ যদয়া।
৪। িরন্ত গাবড়য কাভযায় যকান আনযা঴ী য঳াজা উ঩নযয বদনক বকেু যোড়নর।
৫। ঳যর যদারনক একফায দু বরনয় বদনর অননক্ষণ দু রনত থানক।
 ঘাত ফনরয দৃ িান্তঃ
১। ফযাট িাযা ফর আঘাত কযা।
২। ঴াতুবড় বদনয় ব঩ন য঩াতা।
৩। স্ট্রাইকায িাযা গুবটনক আঘাত কযা।
৪। যেনন যেনন ঳িংঘল঱।
৫। ঩া বদনয় পুটফর বকক কযা।
৬। বফনফাযণ।
৭। কাভান ঴নত যগারা যোড়া।

RoZv (Inertia):
c`v_© †h Ae¯’vq Av‡Q †mB Ae¯’vq _vK‡Z PvIqvi †h cÖeYZv ev †mB Ae¯’v ivL‡Z PvIqvi †h ag© Zv‡K RoZv e‡j|
RoZv `yB cÖKvi: h_v (1) w¯’wZ RoZv (2) MwZ RoZv
(1) w¯’wZ RoZv (Inertia of rest) t w¯’i e¯‘ w¯’i _vK‡Z Pvq e¯‘i GB ¸b‡K e¯‘i w¯’wZ RoZv e‡j|
D`vniYt w¯’i Mvwo nVvr †Q‡o w`‡j hvwÎiv wcQb w`‡K †n‡j c‡o| KviY Mvwo Pvjy nIqvi ms‡M ms‡M hvwÎ‡ì
kix‡ii wb‡Pi Ask Mvwoi mv‡_ mshy³ _vKvq mvg‡bi w`‡K GwM‡q hvq| wKš‘ kix‡ii Dc‡ii Ask w¯’wZ RoZvi Rb¨
wcwQ‡q c‡o|
(2) MwZ RoZv (Inertia of motion) t MwZkxj e¯‘ MwZkxj _vK‡Z Pvq e¯‘i GB ¸b‡K e¯‘i MwZ RoZv e‡j|
D`vniYt PjšÍ Mvwo nVvr †eªK Ki‡j hvwÎiv mvg‡bi w`‡K Sz‡K c‡o| KviY Mvwo ‡eªK Kivi Kvi‡Y Mvwo †_‡g
hvIqvi mv‡_ mv‡_ hvwÎ‡ì kix‡ii wb‡Pi Ask Mvwoi mv‡_ mshy³ _vKvq ‡_‡g hvq wKš‘ kix‡ii Dc‡ii Ask MwZ
RoZvi Rb¨ mvg‡bi w`‡K GwM‡q hvq|
ej (Force):
hv w¯’i e¯‘i Dci wµqv K‡i e¯‘‡K MwZkxj K‡i ev Ki‡Z Pvq A_ev MwZkxj e¯‘i Dci wµqv K‡i MwZi cwieZ©b K‡i ev
Ki‡Z Pvq Zv‡K ej e‡j| ej‡K F Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| m f‡ii e¯‘i Z¡iY a n‡j ej F=ma n‡e| ej GKwU †f±i
ivwk|
‡gŠwjK ej (Fundamental Forces) t

‡h mKj ej ¯^vaxb A_©vr ‡h mKj ej Ab¨ †Kvb ej †_‡K Drcbœ nq bv Zv‡K eis Ab¨vb¨ ej GB mKj e‡ji †Kvb bv
†Kvb iƒ‡ci cÖKvk Zv‡ì‡K †gŠwjK ej e‡j| †gŠwjK ej Pvi cÖKvi, h_v: (1) gnvKl© ej (2) ZvwoZ †PŠ¤^K ej (3)
mej wbDwK¬q ej I (4) `~e©j wbDwK¬q ej
(1) gnvKl© ej t gnvwe‡k¦i †h †Kvb `ywU e¯‘i ga¨Kvi cvi¯úwiK AvKl©b ej‡K gnvKl© ej e‡j|
(2) ZvwoZ †PŠ¤^K ej t `ywU PvwR©Z KYv Zv‡ì Pv‡R©i Kvi‡Y G‡K Ac‡ii Dci †h AvKl©Y ev weKl©b ej cÖ‡qvM K‡i
Zv‡K ZvwoZ †PŠ¤^K ej e‡j|
(3) mej wbDwK¬q ej t cigvbyi wbDwK¬qv‡m wbDwK¬q Dcv`vb Z_v wbDwK¬qb¸‡jv‡K GK‡Î Ave× iv‡L †h kw³kvjx ej
Zv‡K mej wbDwK¬q ej e‡j|
(4) `~e©j wbDwK¬q ej t †h ¯^í cvjøvi I ¯^í gv‡bi ej wbDwK¬qv‡mi g‡a¨ †gŠwjK KYv¸wji g‡a¨ wµqv K‡i A‡bK
wbDwK¬qv‡m Aw¯’wZkxjZvi D™¢e NUvq Zv‡K `~e©j wbDwK¬q ej e‡j|

04| MwZm~Î (Laws Of Motion) 2
‡gŠwjK ej mg~n Av‡cwÿK wZeªZv cvjøv

1) gnvKl© ej 1 Amxg
2) ZvwoZ †PŠ¤^K ej 1039 Amxg
3) mej wbDwK¬q ej 1041 10-15 m
4) `~e©j wbDwK¬q ej 1030 10-16 m
fi‡eM (Momentum) t fi I †e‡Mi ¸bdj‡K fi‡eM e‡j| fi‡eM‡K P Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| m f‡ii †Kvb e¯‘i †eM
v n‡j fi‡eM P = mv n‡e| fi‡e‡Mi GKK kg-ms-1| Gi gvÎv [MLT-1]
wbDU‡bi MwZi 1g m~Î (Newton's 1st Law of Motion) t

eY©bvt evwn¨K ej cÖ‡qvM bv Ki‡j w¯’i e¯‘ wPiKvj w¯’i Ges MwZkxj e¯‘ mg‡e‡M mij c‡_ Pj‡Z _vK‡e|
e¨L¨vt evB‡i †_‡K ej cÖhy³ bv n‡j (1) w¯’i e¯‘ wPiKvj w¯’i _vK‡e Ges
(2) MwZkxj e¯‘ mg‡e‡M mij c‡_ Pj‡Z _vK‡e|
myZivs †`Lv hvq †h, MwZi cÖ_g m~‡Îi `ywU Ask| cÖ_g Ask †_‡K w¯’i e¯‘i w¯’wZkxj _vKvi cÖeYZv m¤ú‡K© ¯úó
aviYv cvIqv hvq| GB cÖeYZv‡K w¯’wZ RoZv e‡j| Avevi wØZxq As‡k MwZkxj e¯‘i MwZkxj _vKvi cÖeYZv jÿbxq |
GB cÖeYZv‡K MwZ RoZv e‡j| G Kvi‡Y wbDU‡bi MwZi 1g m~Î‡K RoZvi m~Î I ejv nq| G m~Î †_‡K e‡ji msÁv I
cvIqv hvq|
wbDU‡bi MwZi 2q m~Î (NewtonÕs 2nd Law of Motion)t

eY©bvt e¯‘i fi †eM cwieZ©‡bi nvi e¯‘i Dci cÖhy³ e‡ji mgvbycvwZK Ges ej †h w`‡K wµqv K‡i e¯‘i fi †e‡Mi
cwieZ©b I †mB w`‡K N‡U|
 
e¨L¨vt G m~‡Îi e¨vL¨v nj  F  ma cÖwZcv`b|
 
 F  ma cÖwZcv`b t
 
g‡b Kwi, †Kvb MwZkxj e¯‘KYvi fi‡eM P | F e‡ji wµqvq ÿz`ªvwZÿz`ª mgq eëavb dt AeKv‡k KYvi fi‡e‡Mi

 dP
cwieZ©b dP n‡j fi‡eM cwieZ©‡bi nvi n‡e| MwZi 2q m~Îvbymv‡i, fi‡eM cwieZ©‡bi nvi cÖhy³ e‡ji
 dt
dP 
mgvbycvwZK| A_©vr, F
dt
 
e¯‘KYvi fi m Ges †eM v n‡j fi‡eM P  mv ewm‡q cvB,

d ( m v) 
F
dt

dv 
m F
dt
 
  dv 
 ma  F  Z¡ iY a 
dt 

 ma  kF ... ... ... .... ... (1) GLv‡b k GKwU mgvbycvwZK aªæeK; hvi gvb GKK e‡ji
msÁv Øviv wba©viY Kiv hvq| ‡h ej GKK f‡ii Dci wµqv K‡i GKK Z¡iY m„wó K‡i Zv‡K GKK ej e‡j|
 
A_©vr F  1 , m=1 Ges a  1 nq Z‡e mgxKiY (1) n‡Z cvB|
 
1×1=k×1  k=1 mgxKi‡Y ewm‡q cvB, ma  F


    
A_©vr F  ma †Kvb e¯‘i Dci ¯^Zš¿ ej¸wj hw` nq h_vµ‡g F1 , F2 , F3 ,..Fn BZ¨vw` wµqviZ _vK‡j Avgiv cvB,
  
F1  F2  F3  ....  Fn  ma
      
  F  ma GLv‡b,  F n‡”Q jwä ej ev bxU ej †hLv‡b,  F  F1  F2  F3  ....  Fn (cÖgvwbZ)
e‡ji GKK wbDUb t †h ej 1kg f‡ii Dci wµqv K‡i 1ms -1 Z¡iY m„wó K‡i Zv‡K 1 wbDUb ej e‡j|
A_©vr 1 wbDUb = 1kg ×1ms -2 |
wØZxq m~Î †_‡K cÖ_g m~Î cÖwZcv`b t

 
wbDU‡bi MwZi 1g I 2q m~Î Zzjbv K‡i †`Lv hvq †h, 1g m~Î n‡”Q 2q m~‡Îi GKwU iƒc|  F  ma †_‡K †`Lv hvq
  
†h, e¯‘i Dci wbU ej k~b¨ n‡j A_©vr hLb  F  0 ZLb ma  0 ,wKš‘ m  0,  a  0 nq| myZivs hLb evB‡i †_‡K
ej cÖ‡qvM bv nq A_©vr wbU ej k~b¨ nq ZLb,

a0

dv
 0
dt
 
v Gi wWdv‡iwÝ‡qmvb k~b¨  v = aªæeK|
myZivs evB‡i †_‡K e¯‘i Dci ej wbU ej k~b¨ n‡j e¯‘i †eM AcwiewZ©Z _v‡K A_©vr e¯‘ †h Ae¯’vq wQj †mB Ae¯’vqB
_v‡K| A_©vr evwn¨K ej cÖ‡qv‡M e¯‘ Ae¯’vb cwieZ©b Ki‡Z eva¨ bv Ki‡j w¯’i e¯‘ wPiKvj w¯’i Ges MwZkxj e¯‘ wPiKvj
mg‡e‡M mij c‡_ Pj‡Z _vK‡e| GwUB wbDU‡bi MwZi cÖ_g m~Î|
NvZej (Impulsive Force) t

Lye Aí mgq †h ej cÖhy³ nq Zv‡K NvZ ej e‡j| nvZzwo Øviv Kv‡V †c‡iK †cvZv, e¨vU Øviv wµ‡KU e‡j AvNvr Kiv,
BZ¨vw` NvZ e‡ji D`vniY|
e‡ji NvZ (Impulse of Force) t


‡Kvb ej I e‡ji wµqv Kv‡ji ¸b dj‡K e‡ji NvZ e‡j| †Kvb ej F hw` †Kvb e¯‘i Dci t i mgq †_‡K t f mgq ch©šÍ
 tf 
wµqv K‡i, Zvn‡j e‡ji NvZ n‡e, J   Fdt
ti
 tf 
 J  F  dt [ F  aª æe ]
ti
  tf 
 J  Ft   F [t f - t i ]
ti
 
 J  Ft
e‡ji Nv‡Zi mv‡_ fi‡e‡Mi m¤úK© (Relation with Impulse of Force and Momentum ) t
  tf

cÖhy³ ej F n‡j e‡ji NvZ J   Fdt
ti
 
 dP
tf
  dP 
J dt  F  
ti
dt  dt 


 
 Pf
  Pf
 J   dP  P

 
Pi
pi
  
 J  Pf  Pi
 
 J  P A_©vr, e‡ji NvZ fi‡e‡Mi cwieZ©‡bi mgvb|
wbDU‡bi MwZi Z…Zxq m~Î (Newton's 3rd Law of Motion) t

eY©bv: cÖ‡Z¨K wµqviB GKwU mgvb I wecixZ cÖwZwµqv Av‡Q|
wbDU‡bi MwZi Z…Zxq m~Îvbymv‡i hw` GKwU e¯‘ A, Aci e¯‘ B Gi Dci ej cÖ‡qvM K‡i, Z‡e B e¯‘I A e¯‘i Dci mgvb
I wecixZ ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡e| awi A e¯‘ B e¯‘i Dci F1 ej cÖ‡qvM K‡i Ges B e¯‘ A e¯‘i Dci F2 ej cÖ‡qvM K‡i|
m~Îvbymv‡i, F1 = F2 , A_©vr ej Ø‡qi gvb mgvb wKš‘ wecixZgywL| G `ywU e‡ji †h †Kvb GKwU‡K wµqv Ges
Ab¨wU‡K cÖwZwµqv e‡j| Dc‡ii `„óv‡šÍÍ wµqv I cÖwZwµqv mgvb I wecixZ|
fi‡e‡Mi msiÿb m~Î (Law of Conservation of Momentum) t

GKvwaK e¯‘i g‡a¨ wµqv cÖwZwµqv ej Qvov Ab¨ †Kvb ej wµqv bv Ki‡j, H e¯‘ mg~‡ni †gvU fi‡e‡Mi mgwó aªæe _v‡K|

MvwbwZK fv‡e,  P  aª æeK
cÖwZcv`b: 1 I 2 `ywU e¯‘ we‡ePbv Kwi| awi †Kvb GK mgq e¯‘Øq

msN‡l© wjß nj| aiv hvK, GB msN‡l© F1 n‡”Q cÖ_g e¯‘i Dci wØZxq

e¯‘ KZ…K cÖhy³ ej Ges F2 n‡”Q wØZxq e¯‘i Dci cÖ_g e¯‘ KZ…K cÖhy³ ej| †Kvb GK mgq t †Z cÖ_g e¯‘i fi‡eM P1

Ges wØZxq e¯‘i fi‡eM P2 | Avgiv cÖwZwU e¯‘i †ÿ‡Î wbDU‡bi 2q m~Î cÖ‡qvM K‡i cvB,
 
 dP1  dP2
F1  Ges F2 
dt dt
 
wbDU‡bi MwZi Z…Zxq m~Î †_‡K cvB, F1   F2
 
dP1 dP2
 
dt  dt
dP dP
 1  2 0
dt dt
d  

dt
 
P1  P2  0

dP   
 0 [ P1  P2 n‡”Q eë¯’vi †gvU fi‡eM ev P]
dt
    
‡h‡nZz mg‡qi mv‡c‡ÿ †gvU fi‡eM P  P1  P2 , P Gi cwieZ©‡bi nvi k~b¨, ZvB †gvU fi‡eM P aªæe _v‡K, A_©vr
  
P  P1  P2 = aªæe
 
 Pi  Pf
   
 P1i  P2i  P1f  P2f myZivs †`Lv hv‡”Q †h, msN‡l©i Av‡M †Kvb eë¯’vi fi‡e‡Mi
†f±i mgwó Avi msN‡l©i c‡i fi‡e‡Mi †f±i mgwó me©`v mgvb _v‡K| GwUB fi‡e‡Mi msiÿb m~Î|


i‡K‡Ui MwZ (Motion of Rocket) t
awi i‡KUwU AwfK‡l©i AvIZvgy³ gnvk~‡b¨ MwZkxj| hLb i‡K‡Ui BwÄb KZ…K M¨vmwbM©Z nq
ZLb †mB M¨v‡mi GKwU fi‡eM _v‡K| ZLb fi‡eM msiwÿZ _v‡K e‡j i‡KU wecixZ w`‡K
MwZkxj nq| i‡KU ‡_‡K M¨vm hLb GKwU wbw`©ó nv‡i wbM©Z n‡Z _v‡K, ZLb M¨v‡mi MwZi
wecixZ w`‡K i‡KUwU GKwU w¯’i ej jvf K‡i| GB ej‡K av°v e‡j|
wnmve: g‡bKwi i‡KU ‡_‡K R¡vjvwb Z_v M¨vm v †e‡M wbM©Z n‡”Q| t mg‡q wbM©Z M¨v‡mi
fi m n‡j, wbM©Z M¨v‡mi fi‡eM n‡e,
P=(m)v
wbM©Z M¨v‡mi GB fi‡eM i‡KU¯’ R¡vjvwbi fi‡e‡Mi cwieZ©‡bi mgvb| fi‡e‡Mi msiÿb
m~Îvbymv‡i R¡vjvwbi fi‡e‡Mi GB cwieZ©b i‡KUwUi fi‡e‡Mi cwieZ©‡bi mgvb| Avgiv Rvwb,
‡Kvb e¯‘i fi‡e‡Mi cwieZ©‡bi nvi Zvi Dci cÖhy³ e‡ji Nv‡Zi mgvb| myZivs i‡K‡Ui Dci
cÖhy³ av°v F n‡j P = Ft
(m)v = Ft 
m  m
 ev , F    v GLv‡b n‡”Q R¡vjvwb eënv‡ii nvi|
 t  t
‡Kvb gyn‡~ Z© i‡K‡Ui fi M n‡j Ges H gyn~‡Z© Zvi Z¡iY a n‡j, F Gi gvb F= Ma ewm‡q cvB,
 m 
Ma   v
 t 
1  m 
 Z¡ iY, a   v
M  t 
e‡ji fvimvg¨ (Equilibrium of Force) t


e¯‘i Dci e‡ji jwä k~b¨ nIqv‡K A_©vr,  F  0 nIqv‡K e‡ji fvimvg¨ e‡j| fvimvg¨ Ae¯’vq e¯‘i Dci Z¡iY k~b¨
nq| fvimvg¨ Ae¯’vq e¯‘i †eM aªæe _v‡K| A_©vr †e‡Mi gv‡bi ev w`‡Ki †Kvb cwieZ©b nq bv| fvimvg¨ `yB cÖKvi| h_v-
(1) w¯’i fvimvg¨ (2) MwZq fvimvg¨
jvwgi Dccv`¨ (Lami's Theorem) t

†Kvb e¯‘i Dci wZbwU AmgvšÍivj ej wµqv K‡i fvimvg¨ Ae¯’vi m„wó Ki‡j cÖ‡Z¨KwU ej Aci `ywU e‡ji AšÍÍ©fy³
†Kv‡bi mvB‡bi mgvbycvwZK|
    
g‡bKwi, P, Q I R wZbwU ej O we›`y‡Z wµqv K‡i fvimvg¨ m„wó K‡i| Q I R Gi
   
AšÍ©Ífy³ †KvY , R I P Gi AšÍ©Ífy³ †KvY , P I Q Gi AšÍ©Ífy³ †KvY | 
P Q R
myZivs jvwgi Dccv`¨ Abymv‡i,   n‡e|
Sin  Sin  Sin 
Nl©Y (Friction) t
`ywU e¯‘ ci¯ú‡ii ms¯ú‡k© †_‡K hw` G‡Ki Dci w`‡q AciwU Pj‡Z †Póv Ki‡j e¯‘ Ø‡qi
¯úk© Z‡j GB MwZi weiæ‡× †h evavi DrcwË nq Zv‡K Nl©Y e‡j| Nl©Y mvaviYZ Pvi cÖKv‡ii n‡q _v‡Kt
(1) w¯’wZ Nl©Y (Static Friction),
(2) MZxq Nl©Y (Kinetic Friction),
(3) AveZ© Nl©Y (Rolling Friction),
(4) cÖevwn Nl©Y (Fluid Friction),


Nl©Y ej t
`ywU e¯‘ ci¯ú‡ii ms¯ú‡k© †_‡K hw` G‡Ki Dci w`‡q AciwU Pj‡Z †Póv Ki‡j e¯‘ Ø‡qi ¯úk© Z‡j GB MwZi weiæ‡×
†h e‡ji m„wó nq Zv‡K Nl©Y ej e‡j|
w¯’wZNl©Y ev mxgvwšÍK Nl©Y (Static Friction) t

cÖhy³ e‡ji m‡e©v”P †h gv‡bi Rb¨ GKwU w¯’wZkxj e¯‘ MwZi Dcµg nq, Zv‡K w¯’wZ Nl©Y ev mxgvwšÍK Nl©Y e‡j&|
w¯’wZ Nl©‡bi gvb k~b¨ †_‡K mxgvwšÍK gvb ch©šÍ n‡Z cv‡i|
w¯’wZNl©Y ej t
‡h Nl©b ej Øviv †Kvb e¯‘ cÖh³
y ej‡K cÖwZnZ K‡i w¯’i _vK‡Z cÖqvm cvq Zv‡K w¯’wZNl©b ej e‡j|
Nl©Y †KvY I w¯’wZ †Kv‡Yi g‡a¨ m¤úK© t
w¯’wZ Nl©Y ¸Yv¼ t w¯’wZ Nl©‡Yi mxgvwšÍK gvb Ges Awfj¤^ cÖwZwµqvi AbycvZ‡K w¯’wZ Nl©Y ¸Yv¼ e‡j| G‡K s Øviv
cÖKvk Kiv nq| w¯’wZ Nl©‡Yi mxgvwšÍK gvb fs Ges Awfj¤^ cÖwZwµqv R n‡j w¯’wZ Nl©Y ¸Yv¼ n‡e
fs
s  ... ... ... ... ... ... (2) fs I R Gi GKK GKB| Kv‡RB s Gi †Kvb GKK †bB|
R
Nl©Y †KvY (Angle of Friction) t

w¯’wZ Nl©‡Yi mxgvwšÍK gvb fs Ges Awfj¤^ cÖwZwµqv R †K mgš^q K‡i
†h jwä cvIqv hvq Zv‡K jä cÖwZwµqv S e‡j| GB jä cÖwZwµqv Awfj¤^
cÖwZwµqvi mv‡_ †h †KvY K‡i Zv‡K Nl©Y †KvY ev w¯’wZ Nl©Y †KvY
e‡j| Nl©Y †KvY‡K  Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| Wvbcv‡k¦©i wP‡Î 
Gi Ae¯’vb †`Lvb n‡q‡Q| wPÎvbymv‡i cvB,
R  S cos  ... ... ... ... ... ... (3)
f s  S sin  ... ... ... ... ... ... (4)
fs
(4) bs mgxKiY‡K (3) bs mgxKiY Øviv fvM K‡i cvB,  tan λ ... ... ... ... (5)
R
fs
Avevi, (2) bs mgxKiY  s  †K (5) bs Gi mv‡_ Zzjbv K‡i cvB,  s  tan  ... ... ... (6) A_©vr Nl©Y †Kv‡Yi
R
U¨vb‡R›U -Gi gvb w¯’wZ Nl©b ¸bv‡¼i mgvb| BnvB Nl©Y †KvY I w¯’wZ Nl©Y ¸Yv‡¼i g‡a¨ m¤úK©|


w¯’wZ †KvY ev wbðj †Kvb (Angle of Repose) t
‡Kvb AvYZ Zjw¯’Z e¯‘ Z‡ji †h AvbwZi Rb¨ MwZi Dcµg nq Zv‡K w¯’wZ †KvY ev wbðj †KvY e‡j| G‡K Øviv
cÖKvk Kiv nq| wPÎvbymv‡i, OY Z‡ji Dcwiw¯’Z e¯‘ Z‡ji  AvbwZi Rb¨ MwZi Dcµg nq| myZivs n‡e w¯’wZ †KvY|
GB Ae¯’vq W Lvov wb‡Pi w`‡K wµqv Ki‡e Ges Z‡ji Awfj¤^ cÖwZwµqv R-Gi wµqv †iLvi mv‡_  †Kv‡Y bZ _vK‡e|
wP‡Î cÖ`wk©Z †f±i eë¯’v Abymv‡i, R  W Cos
f s  W Sin 
fs
 tan   ... ... ... ... (7)
R
f
wKš‘ (2) bs mgxKiY n‡Z cvB,  s  s ...(2) Avevi (7) I (2) bs mgxKiY †_‡K cvB,
R
 s  tan  ... ... ... (8)
Avevi,  s  tan  ... ... ... ... (6) d‡j (6) I (8) †_‡K cvB,
tan   tan 
    AZGe, Nl©Y ‡KvY Ges wbðj †Kv‡Yi gvb mgvb| Z‡e Nl©Y †KvY me©‡ÿ‡Î
cÖ‡hvR¨; wKš‘ wbðj †KvY ïaygvÎ AvbZ Z‡ji Rb¨ cÖ‡hvR¨|
MwZq Nl©Y (Kinetic Friction) t

‡Kvb Z‡ji Dci w`‡q MwZkxj e¯‘ MwZi weiæ‡× †h evav Abyfe K‡i Zv‡K MwZq Nl©Y ¸bv¼ e‡j Ges †h ej MwZ‡Z
evavi m„wó K‡i, Zv‡K MwZq Nl©Y ej e‡j|
MwZq Nl©Y ¸bv¼ t

fk
MwZq Nl©Y ej Ges Awfj¤^ cÖwZwµqvi AbycvZ‡K MwZq Nl©Y¸bv¼ e‡j| G‡K Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq|  k 
R
GLv‡b, fk = MwZq Nl©Y ej I R Awfj¤^ cÖwZwµqv|

4| MwZm~Î (Laws Of Motion)
1| 10kg f‡ii GKwU e›`y‡Ki wUªMv‡i Pvc †Ìqv‡Z e›`y‡Ki bj

n‡Z 20g f‡ii GKwU ey‡jU 400ms-1 †e‡M †ei n‡q †Mj|  m  5 kg (Ans.)
e›`yKwUi cðvr †eM KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb, 4| 10N Gi GKwU ej 2kg f‡ii GKwU w¯’i e¯‘i Dci wµqv K‡i| hw`
m1v1 = m2v2
GLv‡b,
e›`y ‡Ki fi, m1 = 10 kg 4s ci e‡ji wµqv e›` n‡q hvq Z‡e cÖ_g †_‡K 8s G e¯‘wU KZ `~i
ev, 10v1  20 10 3 400 hv‡e?
ey‡j‡Ui fi,
20  10 3  400 m2 = 20×10-3kg ej _vKv Kvjxb 4 †m‡K‡Û e¯‘wU †h †kl †eM jvf K‡i
ev, v1  cieZ©x (8 4) = 4 †m‡KÛ †mB †kl †eM‡K Mo †eM wb‡q e¯‘wU
10 ey‡j‡Ui †eM, v2 = 400ms-1
Pj‡e|
 v  0.8ms1 (Ans.) e›`y‡Ki cðvr †eM, v1 =?
1 Avgiv Rvwb,
F=ma
2| 40kg I 60kg f‡ii `ywU e¯‘ h_vµ‡g 10ms-1 I 5ms-1 F GLv‡b,
†e‡M ci¯úi wecixZ w`K †_‡K Avmvi mgq G‡K Aci‡K av°v ev, a 
m Avw`‡eM, u = 0
w`j| av°vi ci e¯‘ Øq GK‡Î hy³ n‡q KZ †e‡M †Kvb w`‡K Pj‡e?
10 ej, F = 10 N
Avgiv Rvwb, ev, a 
GLv‡b, fi, m = 2 kg
m1u1+m2u2 = m1v1+m2v2 2
ev, 40×10+ 60×(-5) 1g e¯‘i fi, m1 = 40kg mgq, t1 = 4s
 a  5 ms -2
= 40v + 60 v 2q e¯‘i fi, m 2 = 60kg mgq, t2 = (84) s = 4s
ev, 400300 =100v 1g e¯‘i Avw`†eM, u1 = 10ms-1 ‡gvU `yiZ,¡ s = s1+s2 = ?
2q e¯‘i Avw`†eM, u2 =-5ms-1 1 2
ev, 100v =100 Avevi, s1  ut 1  at 1
hy³ e¯‘Ø‡qi †kl †eM, 2
100
ev, v   v1 = v2 = v = ? 1
100  s1  0   5  42
2
 v  1 ms 1 v abvZ¡K †nZz av°vi ci e¯‘ Øq GK‡Î hy³
-1  s1  40 m
n‡q 1ms †e‡M 1g e¯‘i Awfgy‡L Pj‡e|
Avevi, v  u  at1
3| GKwU e¯‘ w¯’i Ave¯’vq wQj| 15 wbDU‡bi GKwU ej Gi Dci 4  v  0  5 4
†m‡KÛ wµqv Kivi ci e‡ji wµqv eÜ n‡q hvq| e¯‘wU Gi ci 4
†m‡K‡Û 48m `~iZ¡ †Mj| e¯‘wUi fi KZ?
 v  20 ms -1
ej _vKv Kvjxb 4 †m‡K‡Û e¯‘wU †h †kl †eM jvf K‡i
Avevi, s 2  v t 2
†mB †kl †eM‡K Mo †eM wb‡q cieZ©x 4 †m‡K‡Û e¯‘wU 48m `~iZ¡
hvq|  s 2  20  4
Avgiv Rvwb,  s 2  80 m
s = v t2
 s = s1+s2 = (40+80)m =120m (Ans.)
s
ev, v 
t2 5| 100kg Ges 200kg f‡ii `wU e¯‘ ci¯úi wecixZ w`‡K
48 GLv‡b, h_vµ‡g 20ms-1 Ges 10ms-1 †e‡M hvIqvi c‡_ G‡K Aci‡K
ev, v  av°v w`j| av°vi ci e¯‘ `ywU GK‡Î hy³ †_‡K KZ †e‡M †Kvb
4 Avw`‡eM, u = 0
w`‡K Pj‡e? GLv‡b,
 v  12 ms -1 ej, F = 15 N 1g e¯‘i fi, m1 = 100kg
Avevi, mgq, t1 = 4s Avgiv Rvwb, 2q e¯‘i fi, m2 = 200kg
v = u + at1 mgq, t2 = 4s m1u1+m2u2 = m1v1+m2v2 1g e¯‘i ‡eM, u1 = 20 ms-1
ev, 12 = 0 + a (4) ‡kl‡eM = Mo‡eM = v  100×20+200×(-10)=100v+200v 2q e¯‘i ‡eM, u2 = -10 ms
-1
12 miY, s = 48m  100v+200v =2000 2000 GK‡Î hy³ †eM v1=v2=v=?

ev, a  fi, m = ?
4  300v =0
a = 3 ms-2  v = 0
Avevi, F = ma ‡h‡nZz †kl †eM k~b¨ d‡j e¯‘ `ywU GK‡Î hy³ n‡q †_‡g hv‡e|
F 15
ev, m  ev, m 
a 3

6| 4 kg f‡ii GKwU e¯‘‡K 10ms-2 Z¡i‡Y MwZkxj Ki‡Z KZ

 a  10 ms -2
ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z n‡e? c‡_i Nl©b ej 2.5N kg-1 |
GLv‡b, 1 2
Avgiv Rvwb, Avevi, s1  ut 1  at 1
F1 = ma fi, m = 4 kg 2
 F1 = 4×10 N Z¡
i Y, a = 10ms-2 1
Nl©Y ej, F © =2.5 N kg-1  s1  0   10  12
 F1 = 40 N 2
Avevi 4kg †Z Nl©Y ej F2= F ©× 4 N ej, F = ?  s1  5 m
F2= 2.5 × 4 N = 10 N
Avevi, F = F1+F2
 F = (40+10)N=50N (Ans.) Avevi, v  u  at 1
7| 70kg f‡ii ev·‡K 500N AbyfywgK e‡j ‡g‡Si Dci w`‡q  v  0  10  1
Uvbv n‡”Q| ev·wU hLb P‡j ZLb ev· I †g‡Si gaëZ©x Nl©Y mnM
 v  10 ms -1
0.5| ev‡·i Z¡iY wbY©q Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
Avevi, s 2  v t 2
F GLv‡b,
MZxq Nl©Y mnM,  k  k  s 2  10  1
R MZxq Nl©Y mnM  k  0.5
 Fk   k  R ev‡·i fi m = 70kg  s 2  10 m
 Fk  0.5  686 Awfj¤^ cÖwZwµqv.  s = s1+s2 = (5+10) m =15m (Ans.)
 Fk  343N R=mg=70×9.8N=686N
9| 36 kg f‡ii GKwU e¯‘i Dci KZ ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j 1 wgwb‡U
Avevi, F = P-Fk AbyfywgK ej P=500N
Gi †eM 15kmh-1 e„w× cv‡e? GLv‡b,
 F =(500 – 343)N ev‡·i Z¡iY a =?
 F =157 N fi, m =36 kg
Avevi, F = ma Avgiv Rvwb, mgq, t = 1m=60s
ej F=ma ‡eM e„w×,
 157 = 70 a
(v  u ) (v-u)=15kmh-1
157 1  F m 15  1000 ms-1
a ms t 
70 15  1000 3600
a  2.24 ms 2 (Ans.)  F  36 N ej,F=?
3600  60
8| 1N Gi GKwU ej 0.1kg f‡ii GKwU w¯’i e¯‘i Dci wµqv  F  2 .5 N ( Ans ).
K‡i| hw` 1s ci e‡ji wµqv e›` n‡q hvq Z‡e cÖ_g †_‡K 2s G
e¯‘wU KZ `~i hv‡e? 10| 36 kg f‡ii GKwU e¯‘i Dci KZ ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j wgwb‡U
ej _vKv Kvjxb 1 †m‡K‡Û e¯‘wU †h †kl †eM jvf K‡i Gi †eM N›Uvq 12km e„w× cv‡e?
cieZ©x (2 1) = 1 †m‡KÛ †mB †kl †eM‡K Mo †eM wb‡q e¯‘wU GLv‡b,
Pj‡e| GLv‡b, Avgiv Rvwb, fi, m =36 kg
Avgiv Rvwb, mgq, t = 1m=60s
Avw`‡eM, u = 0 ej F=ma
F=ma ‡eM e„w×,
F ej, F = 1 N  F m
(v  u )
(v-u)=12kmh-1
ev, a  fi, m = 0.1 kg t
m 12  1000 ms-1
12  1000 
1 mgq, t1 = 1s  F  36 N 3600
ev, a  mgq, t2 = (21) s = 1s
3600  60 ej,F=?
0.1  F  2 N ( Ans ).
‡gvU `yiZ,¡ s = s1+s2 = ?

1| GKwU PvKvi fi 5kg Ges PµMwZi e¨vmva© 25cm | Gi

RoZvi åvgK KZ? PvKvwU‡K 4 rad s-2 †KŠwbK Z¡iY m„wó Ki‡Z 5| GKwU Zvgvi †Mvj‡Ki fi 0.05 Kg| GwU‡K 2m `xN© GKwU myZvi
KZ gv‡bi UK© cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z n‡e? GK cÖv‡šÍ †e‡a cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û 5 evi Nyivb n‡”Q| †MvjKwUi †KŠwbK
Avgiv Rvwb, fi†eM KZ?
RoZvi åvgK GLv‡b,
I = MK 2 fi, M = 5kg Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
= 5×(0.25)2 PµMwZi e¨vmva©, K= 25cm RoZvi åvgK fi, M = 0.05 kg
= 0. 3125 kg m 2 =0.25m I = MK2
RoZvi åvgK, I = ? PµMwZi e¨vmva©, K= 2m
( Ans.) = 0.05×(2)2
RoZvi åvgK, I = ?
Avevi, ‡KŠwbK Z¡iY,  = 4 rad s-2 = 0.2 kg-m2
cvKmsL¨v, n = 5
UK©  UK©, ?  n
Avevi,   mgq, t = 1 Sec
0. 3125× 4 Nm t ‡KŠwbK fi†eM, L =?
=1.25Nm (Ans.) 2  314  5
  rad s-1
2| GKwU KYv 1.5m e¨vmv‡a©i e„ËvKvi c‡_ cÖwZ wgwb‡U 120 evi
1
= 31.4 rad s-1
AveZ©b K‡i| Gi mij îwLK †eM wbY©q Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b, Avevi, L = I
v= r e¨vmva©, r = 1.5m  L =0.2×31.4 = 6.28 Kg-m2 s-1 (Ans.)
2 n mgq, t = 1 min = 60 sec.
ev, v  r cvK msL¨v, n = 120 cvK 6| e„ËvKvi c‡_ 72Kmh-1 mg`ªywZ‡Z Pjgvb †Kvb †gvUi Mvoxi †K›`ªgyLx
t Z¡iY 1ms-2 n‡j e„ËvKvi c‡_i e¨vmva© KZ?
îwLK †eM, v =?
2  3.14  120
ev, v   1.5 GLv‡b,
60 Avgiv Rvwb,
v = 72 Kmh-1
 v  18.84 ms 1 ( Ans.) v2 72  1000 -1
a v  20ms
r 3600
3| e„ËvKvi c‡_ 3.14ms-1 mg`yªwZ‡Z AveZ©biZ GKwU KYv cÖwZ 20 2 a = 1ms-2
†m‡K‡Û 10 wU c~b© AveZ©b m¤úbœ K‡i| e„ËvKvi c‡_i e¨vmva© wbY©q 1 e¨vmva,© r = ?
r
Ki|  r  400m (Ans.)
Avgiv Rvwb,
v= r 7| 75m e¨vmv‡a©i e„ËvKvi c‡_ †Kvb gUi mvB‡Kj Av‡ivnx KZ †e‡M
GLv‡b,
2πn Nyi‡j Dj¤^ Z‡ji mv‡_ 30°†Kv‡Y AvbZ _vK‡e?
ev, v   r îwLK `yªwZ, v = 3.14ms-1
t mgq, t = 1 sec.
vt cvK msL¨v, n = 10 cvK Avgiv Rvwb,
ev, r 
2 n e¨vmva©, r =? v2
tan θ  GLv‡b,
3.14  1 rg
ev, r  e¨vmva©, r = 75m
2  3.14  10 2
 v  tan  rg g = 9.8 ms-2
 r  0.05m (Ans.) ‡KvY,  =30º
 v2  tan 30  75  9.8
-1  v2  tan 30  75  9.8 †eM, v =?
4| 13ms †e‡M GKwU Mvwo‡K wbivc‡` 30m e¨vmv‡a©ï GKwU
euvK AwZµg Ki‡Z n‡j euvKwU‡K KZ †Kv‡Y Xvjy Ki‡Z n‡e?  v2  424.35
Avgiv Rvwb,  v2  424.35
v2 GLv‡b,  v  424.35  20.6 ms -1 ( Ans)
θ  tan  1
rg †eM, v =13 ms-1
e¨vmva©, r = 30m
132
 θ  tan 1 g = 9.8 ms-2
30  9.8 ‡KvY,  =?
1
 θ  tan 0.57
 θ  29.89 (Ans)

5| ‡KŠwbK MwZm~Î (Laws Of Angular Motion) 2
8| 0.1kg f‡ii GKwU cv_i‡K 0.5m j¤^v myZvi mvnv‡h¨ e„ËvKvi 10| 200m e¨vmva© wewkó GKwU euvKv c‡_ 50.4 km.h-1 ‡e‡M Mvwo
c‡_ Nyivb n‡”Q| cv_iwU cÖwZwgwb‡U 30 evi c~Y© NyY©b m¤úbœ K‡i| Pvjv‡Z c_wU‡K KZ †Kv‡Y KvZ K‡i ivL‡Z n‡e? iv¯ÍvwUi cÖ¯’ 1m n‡j,
myZvi Uvb KZ? evB‡ii cvk¦© wfZ‡ii cvk¦© A‡cÿv KZ DuPz n‡Z n‡e? (g = 9.8 ms-2 )
Avgiv Rvwb,
F  m2 r GLv‡b, Avgiv Rvwb,
 2n 
2 fi, m = 0.1kg v2 GLv‡b,
 F  m  r e¨vmva©, r = 0.5m θ  tan  1
 t  cvKmsL¨v, n = 30
rg †eM, v = 50.4 kmh -1
2 mgq, t = 1 min 14 2 50.4  1000 -1
 2  3.14  30   θ  tan 1 v= ms
 F  0.1  0. 5 N = 60sec 200  9.8 3600
 60  myZvi Uvb ej, F = ? 1
 θ  tan 0.1  v = 14 ms -1
 F = 0.49298 N (Ans.) e¨vmva©, r = 200m
 θ  5.71 (Ans)
g = 9.8 ms-2
9| c„w_exi Pvwiw`‡K P‡›`ªi Kÿc‡_i e¨mva© cÖvq 3.85×105 km|
‡KvY,  =?
GKevi cÖ`wÿb Ki‡Z mgq jv‡M 27.3 w`b| Pv‡ì †KŠwbK `ªæwZ
wbY©q Ki| x=1m, h=?
GLv‡b,
Avgiv Rvwb,
e¨mva© r=3.85×105 km h
2n =3.85×108 m sin 5 . 71  
 1
t mgq t= 27.3 w`b
cvK msL¨v=1cvK
h
2  3.1416  1 0 . 0995   h  0 . 0994 m  0 . 1m ( Ans .)
 1
27.3  24  3600 †KŠwbK `ªæwZ =?
6 1
   2.66  10 rads (Ans.)

 প্রমু ি ফর ঑ ফনরয অববভুনখ প্রনয়াগ বফন্দুয ঳যনণয উ঩ািংন঱য গুণপর িাযা কানজয ঩বযভা঩ কযা ঴য়। কাজ , W = F. S ফা F×S cosθ
঱বি: যকান ফস্ত্ত্ত ফা ফযফিায কাজ কযায ঳াভথ঱যনক ঱বি ফনর।
 ক্ষভতা: যকান একবট উৎন঳য কাজ কযায ঴াযনক ক্ষভতা ফনর। ক্ষভতা, p =
 ঱বিয বনতযতায ঳ূ ত্র: ভ঴াবফনেয যভাট ঱বিয ঩বযভাণ বনবদ঱ি ঑ অ঩বযফত঱নীয়।
 ঳িংযক্ষণ঱ীর ফর: যম ফর িাযা ফস্ত্ত্তনক একবট বনবদ঱ি ঩থ ঘুবযনয় ঐ ঩নথ আননর কৃত কানজয ঩বযভাণ ঱ূ নয ঴য় ঐ ফরনক
঳িংযক্ষণ঱ীর ফর ফরা ঴য়। যমভন: অববকল঱ ফর, রফদু যবতক ফর ঑ আদ঱঱ বরিং এয বফকৃবত প্রবতনযাধ কাযী ফর ইতযাবদ।
 অ঳িংযক্ষণ঱ীর ফর: যম ফর িাযা কৃত কাজ ঱ূ নয না ঴য় এফিং ঳ম্পাবদত কাজ শুধু ভাত্র দু বট বফন্দুয অফিাননয উ঩য বনব঱য কনয
তানক অ঳িংযক্ষণ঱ীর ফর ফনর। যমভন ঘল঱ণ ফর, ঳াদ্রতা ফর ইতযাবদ।
কাজ- ঱বি উ঩঩াদয: যকান ফস্ত্ত্তয উ঩য প্রমু ি ফর িাযা কৃত কাজ ফস্ত্ত্তবটয গবত঱বিয ঩বযফত঱ননয ঳ভান।W = ∆k
১. কাজ, ঱বি ঑ ক্ষভতা এই বতনবট অবদক ফা যস্করায যাব঱।
২. কাজ ফা ঱বিয ঩যভ একক:  F. P. S ঩দ্ধবতনত  Ft-poundal  C. G. S঩দ্ধবতনত  erg  M. K. S ফা S.I ঩দ্ধবতনত  Jole
৩. এক অববকল঱ীয় একক কাজ = এক অববকল঱ীয় একক ফর × একক ঳যণ।
৪. কানজয যক্ষনত্র অববকল঱ীয় এককনক ঩যভ একনক রূ঩ান্তনযয ঳ভয় িাযা গুণ কযনত ঴য় এফিং ঩যভ এককনক অববকল঱ীয় একনক
রূ঩ান্তনযয ঳ভয় িাযা বাগ কযনত ঴য়।
৫. ক্ষভতায ঩যভ একক: আন্তজ঱াবতক ঩দ্ধবতনত ক্ষভতায একক Jol/sec ফা watt.
৬. ভাত্রা ঳ভীকযণ: কাজ: [ML2T-2] ঱বি: [ML2T-2] ক্ষভতা: [ML2T-3]
৭. ঳ূ ম঱ প্রবত বভবননট 25 যকাবট টন বয ঴াযায় এফিং ঳ূ নম঱য আয়ু 27 বফবরয়ন ফেয।
৮. একজন ভানু নলয গড় ক্ষভতা 0.143 H.P।
৯. ফর ঑ ঳যনণয ভধযফত঱ী যকাণ 900 ঴নর এফিং তানদয ভান আরদা আরাদা বানফ ঱ূ নয ঴নর কানজয ভান ঱ূ নয ঴য়।
১০. ফৃ ত্ত঩নথ আফত঱নযত ফস্ত্ত্ত ঱ূ নয কানজয উদা঴যণ।
0 <θ < 900 ঴নর ফনরয িাযা কৃতকাজ ধনাত্মক। 900 <θ< 1800 ঴নর ফনরয বফরুনদ্ধ কাজ ফুঝায় এফিং এই কাজ ঋণাত্মক।
১১. মাবিক দক্ষতা = মি িাযা কৃত কানজয ঴ায মনি ঳যফযা঴কৃত ঱বিয ঴ায


KvR (Work):
‡Kvb e¯‘i Dci ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j hw` e¯‘i miY N‡U Z‡e ej I e‡ji w`‡K mi‡Yi Dcvs‡ki ¸bdj‡K KvR e‡j|

KvR‡K W Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| g‡b Kwi, †Kvb KYvi Dci GKwU aªæe ej F Gi wµqvq KYvwUi

e‡ji Awfgy‡L mij‡iLv eivei miY S n‡j KYvwUi Dci ejØviv K…Z KvR W  FS n‡e|
KvR GKwU Aw`K ivwk| Kv‡Ri GKK Ryj|

aªæe ej hw` KYvwUi miY S Gi  †KvY Drcbœ K‡i, Zvn‡j GB miY Kv‡j K…Z KvR
W  (F cos )S
ev, W  F(S cos ) A_©vr, KvR = ej × e‡ji w`‡K mi‡Yi Dcvsk

‡f±i iƒ‡c wjL‡j, W  F.S
Ryj: GK wbDUb ej cÖ‡qv‡M e¯‘ hw` e‡ji w`‡K GK wgUvi m‡i hvq Z‡e †h KvR nq Zv‡K GK Ryj KvR e‡j|
e‡ji Øviv KvR (Work done by the force): hw` ej cÖ‡qv‡Mi d‡j e¯‘ e‡ji w`‡K m‡i hvq Z‡e ev e‡ji w`‡K mi‡Yi
Dcvsk _v‡K Z‡e †mB ej Ges e‡ji w`‡K mi‡Yi Dcvs‡ki ¸b dj‡K abvZ¡K KvR ev e‡ji Øviv KvR e‡j|
  
e¨vL¨v: W  F.S  FS cos  mgxKiY †_‡K †`Lv hvq †h, cos  abvZ¡K n‡j W abvZ¡K nq| ej F Ges miY S Gi
AšÍ©fy³ †KvY  Gi gvb 90º Gi Kg n‡j A_©vr 0    90 n‡j cos  abvZ¥K nq, ZLb e‡ji w`‡K mi‡Yi Dcvsk
_v‡K; d‡j e‡ji Øviv KvR ev abvZ¥K KvR nq|
D`vniY: GKwU e¯‘ Dci †_‡K gvwU‡Z †d‡j w`‡j e¯‘wU AwfKl© e‡ji cÖfv‡e gvwU‡Z co‡e| G‡ÿ‡Î cÖhy³ ej Z_v e¯‘i
 
IRb mg Ges S GKB w`‡K A_©vr wb‡Pi w`‡K nq, d‡j e¯‘i Dci AwfKl© ej Øviv KvR n‡q‡Q ev abvZ¥K KvR n‡q‡Q
eySvq|
e‡ji weiæ‡× KvR (Work done against the force): hw` ej cÖ‡qv‡Mi d‡j e¯‘ e‡ji wecixZ w`‡K m‡i hvq Z‡e ev
e‡ji wecixZ w`‡K mi‡Yi Dcvsk _v‡K Z‡e †mB ej Ges e‡ji wecixZ w`‡K mi‡Yi Dcvs‡ki ¸b dj‡K FbvZ¡K KvR
ev e‡ji weiæ‡× KvR e‡j|
  
e¨vL¨v: W  F.S  FS cos  mgxKiY †_‡K †`Lv hvq †h, cos  FbvZ¡K n‡j W FbvZ¡K nq| ej F Ges miY S Gi
AšÍ©fy³ †KvY  Gi gvb 90º Gi ‡ekx n‡j A_©vr 90 0    180 0 n‡j cos  FbvZ¥K nq, ZLb e‡ji wecixZ w`‡K
mi‡Yi Dcvsk _v‡K; d‡j e‡ji weiæ‡× KvR ev FbvZ¥K KvR nq|

D`vniY: GKwU e¯‘ gvwU †_‡K Dc‡i DVv‡bv nj| Zvn‡j e¯‘i Dci AwfKl© ej Z_v e¯‘i IRb mg Lvov wb‡Pi w`‡K

Ges S Lvov Dci w`‡K wµqv K‡i| G‡ÿ‡Î AwfKl© ej I miY wecixZ gyLx nIqvq AwfKl© e‡ji weiæ‡× KvR n‡q‡Q ev
FbvZ¥K KvR n‡q‡Q eySvq|
cwieZ©x ej Øviv K…Z Kv‡Ri ivwkgvjv (GKgvwÎK †ÿ‡Î):

aivhvK, †Kvb e¯‘i Dci X Aÿ eivei F ej wµqv Ki‡Q| Zvn‡j e¯‘i miY n‡e x Aÿ eivei| aivhvK, GB
ej aªæe bq Ges Gi gvb mi‡Yi Dci wbf©ikxj A_©vr F, x Gi Av‡cÿK ev F(x)| GLb ej ebvg †jLwPÎ wbgœiƒc n‡e,
†hLv‡b X A‡ÿi w`‡K miY x I Y A‡ÿi w`‡K ej F †`Lvb n‡q‡Q|

06| KvR, kw³ I ¶gZv (Work, Energy And Power) 2
aivhvK, †Kvb e¯‘i Dci F(x) ej cÖ‡qv‡Mi d‡j nq x1 †_‡K x2| GLb GB miY‡K x ˆ`‡N©ï ÿz`ª ÿy`ª As‡k fvM Kwi|
g‡b Kwi fvM msL¨v N (wPÎ-1)| e¯‘ x1 Ae¯’vb †_‡K x1+x Ae¯’v‡b A_©vr x ÿz`ª mi‡Yi Rb¨ ej cÖvq aªæeK we‡ePbv
Kiv hvq| g‡bKwi GB aªæe ej F1| Zvn‡j GB As‡k K…Z KvR,
W1=F1x
Avevi x1+x †_‡K x1+2x Ae¯’v‡b miv‡Z A_©vr x mi‡Yi Rb¨ aªæe ej F2 n‡j G‡ÿ‡Î K…Z KvR,
W2=F2x
Gfv‡e, cieZ©x x mi‡Yi Rb¨ aªæe ej F3 n‡j G‡ÿ‡Î K…Z Kv‡Ri cwigvb,
W3=F3x
GLb e¯‘‡K x1 Ae¯’vb †_‡K x2 Ae¯’v‡b miv‡Z †gvU K…Z KvR n‡e G ai‡bi N msL¨K ÿz`ª ÿz`ª Kv‡Ri mgwói mgvb|
†gvU KvR W n‡j,
W = W1+W2+W3+.........................+WN
= F1x + F2x + F3x +......................... +FNx
N
  F x
i
i 1
GLb Kv‡Ri mwVK gvb †c‡Z n‡j x1 †_‡K x2 ch©šÍ miY‡K AmsL¨ ÿy`ª ÿz`ª As‡k fvM Ki‡Z n‡e| (wPÎ-2) A_©vr hLb
x  0 Ges fvMmsL¨v N   n‡e ZLb K…Z Kv‡Ri cwigvb n‡e,
N
W  lim  F x
x  0 i
i 1
x2
 lim F( x )dx K¨vjKzjv‡mi fvlvq
x  0 
x1
Ges GB K…Z KvR n‡e ej ebvg miY †jLwPÎ Øviv X A‡ÿi mv‡_ Ave× †ÿ‡Îi †ÿÎd‡ji mgvb hv wPÎ-3 G Qvqv hy³
AÂj Øviv †`Lv‡bv n‡q‡Q| †h‡nZz GLv‡b ej I mi‡Yi AšÍ©fy³ ‡KvY 0º ZvB, †jLv hvq,
x2
W   Fdx cos 0
x1
x2  
  F . dx [µm ¸Y‡Yi wbqgvbymv‡i]
x1
GwUB GKgvwÎK †ÿ‡Î cwieZ©x ej Øviv K…Z Kv‡Ri ivwkgvjv|
w¯cÖs ej Øviv m¤úvw`Z KvR (Work done by the spring force)t

w¯cÖs ej Øviv m¤úvw`Z KvR GK gvwÎK Kv‡Ri GKwU cÖK…ó D`vniY| GKwU w¯cÖs‡K †U‡b cÖmvwiZ Ki‡j ev †P‡c
msKzwPZ Ki‡j w¯cÖs Gi Af¨šÍ‡i cÖwZµqv e‡ji m„wó nq| G cÖwZwµqv ej‡K w¯cÖs ej e‡j| w¯cÖs ej Fs, w¯cÖs Gi
cÖmviY ev ms‡KvPb x Gi mgvbycvwZK I wecixZgyLx A_©vr F  - x
s
 F  - k x GLv‡b k GKwU aªæeK| G‡K w¯cÖs aªæeK e‡j|
s


GLb w¯cÖs F  -k x ej Øviv K…Z KvR wn‡me Kiv hvK| aiv hvK, w¯cÖs e‡ji wµqvq GKwU e¯‘‡K x0 Ae¯’vb †_‡K x
s
Ae¯’v‡b Avbv nj| w¯cÖs e‡ji wµqvq e¯‘‡K dx cwigvb miv‡Z K…Z KvR,
dW  F dx
s
 dW   kx dx
AZGe e¯‘‡K x0 Ae¯’vb †_‡K x Ae¯’v‡b wb‡Z †gvU KvR
x
W    kx dx
x
0
x
x2 
 W  k  
 2 
x
0
1 1
 W  k  x 2  x 2  GUvB wb‡Y©q Kv‡Ri ivwkgvjv| hw`, x0= 0 nq Z‡e, W   kx 2 | w¯cÖs msKzwPZ ev cÖmvwiZ hvB
2  0  2
1
†nvK A_©vr x abvZ¡K ev FbvZ¡K hvB †nvK bv †Kb Gi eM© me©`v abvZ¡K| d‡j mgxKiY W   kx 2 †_‡K ejv hvq,
2
w¯cÖs ej Øviv KvR me©`v FbvZ¡K n‡e|
GKwU w¯cÖs –Gi ms‡KvPb ev cÖmvi‡Yi Rb¨ mwÂZ wefe kw³i ivwkgvjvt
g‡b Kwi, GK cÖv‡šÍ `„pfv‡e Ave× GKwU w¯cÖs Gi gy³ cÖv‡šÍ m f‡ii GKwU
e¯‘ AvUKvb Av‡Q| e¯‘wU GKwU Nl©Y wenxb Z‡ji Dci PjvPj Ki‡Z cv‡i|
Avgiv Rvwb, w¯cÖs‡K Uvb Uvb Ki‡Z w¯cÖs e‡ji weiæ‡× KvR Ki‡Z n‡e|
w¯cÖs e‡ji weiæ‡× K…Z GB KvRB w¯cÖs G wefe kw³ wnmv‡e weivR K‡i|
w¯cÖswU‡K hLb Zvi wkw_j Ae¯’v x=0 †_‡K x=x Ae¯’v‡b Uvb Uvb Kiv nq,
ZLb e¯‘wUi Dci cÖhy³ w¯cÖs Gi ej Fs=  kx| GLb e¯‘wU‡K x `~iZ¡
miv‡Z Zvi Dci Gi mgvb I wecixZgyLx F=ks ej cÖ‡qvM K‡i KvR Ki‡Z n‡e| GB ej Øviv K…Z KvRB n‡e e¯‘wUi
mwÂZ wefe kw³|
x
wefe kw³ U   Fdx
0
x
ev, U   kx dx
0
x
ev, U  k  x dx
0
x
 x2 
ev, U  k  
 2 0
1
 U  kx 2 BnvB wefe kw³i ivwkgvjv|
2
gnvKl© ej Øviv KvR (Work done by the gravitational force) t

g‡b Kwi, O we›`y‡Z GKwU e¯‘ Av‡Q| e¯‘i fi M| O we›`y n‡Z r `~‡i A we›`y‡Z Aew¯’Z m f‡ii e¯‘i Dci wµqvkxj
GMm
ej n‡e, F  GLv‡b,
r2


G -†K gnvKl© aªæeK e‡j| GB ej AO eivei wµqv Ki‡e| GLb AO Gi ms‡hvM ‡iLvi Dci A †_‡K dr ÿz`ª `~i‡Z¡ B
we›`yi Ae¯’vb we‡ePbv Kiv hvK| Wvb cv‡k¦©i wP‡Î AB = dr LyeB ÿz`ª e‡j AB -Gi Gi me©Î gnvKl© e‡ji gvb mgvb
we‡ePbv Kiv hvq| myZivs A we›`y †_‡K B we›`y‡Z m f‡ii e¯‘‡K Avb‡Z m¤úvw`Z Kv‡Ri cwigvb,
dW  Fdr
GMm
 dW  dr GLb e¯‘wU‡K ra Ae¯’vb †_‡K rb Ae¯’v‡b miv‡Z m¤úvw`Z
r2
r
b
†gvU KvR, W   dW
r
a
r
b GMm
W  dr
r r2
a
r
b
 W  GMm  r  2 dr
r
a
rb
 r 21 
 W  GMm  
  1  ra
1 1
 W  GMm   
 rb ra 
1 1
 W  GMm    BnvB wb‡Y©q Kv‡Ri ivwkgvjv|
 ra rb 
kw³ (Energy) t
‡Kvb e¯‘ ev eë¯’vi KvR Kivi mvg_©‡K kw³ e‡j| KvR I kw³i cwigvc, GKK I gvÎv GKB| kw³i GKK Ryj, kw³i
gvÎv [ML2T-2]| Ae¯’v †f‡` gnvwe‡k¦ kw³ wewfbœ iƒ‡c Ae¯’vb K‡i, †hgbt hvwš¿K kw³, Zvc kw³, kã kw³, we`ÿr kw³,
Pz¤^K kw³, Av‡jvK kw³, cvigvYyweK kw³ BZ¨vw`|
hvwš¿K kw³ (Mechanical Energy) t

‡Kvb e¯‘ ev eë¯’vi ‡fŠZ Ae¯’v‡bi (w¯’wZ ev MwZ) Rb¨ GUv KvR Kivi †h mvg_© AR©b K‡i, Zv‡K hvwš¿K kw³ e‡j|
hvwš¿K kw³ 2 cÖKvit 1| wefe kw³ (Potential Energy) 2| MwZ kw³ (Kinetic Energy)
wefe kw³ (Potential Energy) t

cvwicvwk©¦‡Ki mv‡c‡ÿ w¯’i _vKvi d‡j †Kvb e¯‘ ev eë¯’v KvR Kivi †h mvg_© AR©b K‡i ev
kw³ mÂq K‡i, Zv‡K wefe kw³ ev w¯’wZkw³ e‡j|
wefe kw³i cwigvc (Measurement of Potential Energy) t

†Kvb e¯‘‡K GK w¯’wZkxj Ae¯’v †_‡K Ab¨ w¯’wZkxj Ae¯’vq wb‡Z †h cwigvb KvR m¤úv`b
Ki‡Z nq Zv‡K H e¯‘i wefe kw³ e‡j| g‡b Kwi, m f‡ii e¯‘ f~ -c„ô n‡Z h D”PZvq
†Kvb we›`y B †Z Ae¯’vb Ki‡Q| Gi wefe U kw³ wbY©q Ki‡Z n‡e|


e¯‘wU‡K f~wg n‡Z h D”PZvq Zzj‡Z Gi Dci wµqviZ AwfKl© ej F= e¯‘i IRb = mg Gi weiæ‡× †h cwigvb
KvR Ki‡Z nq, ZvBB B we›`yi wefe kw³i cwigvb wb‡`©k Ki‡e| AZGe, U = ej × miY = mgh | GLv‡b fi m aªæe
ivwk Ges †Kvb wbw`©ó ¯’v‡b g aªæe  wbw`©ó ¯’v‡b, U  aª æeK  h  Uh A_©vr wefe kw³ D”PZvi mgvbycvwZK|
MwZkw³ (Kinetic Energy) t

cvwicvwk©¦‡Ki mv‡c‡ÿ MwZkxj _vKvi d‡j †Kvb e¯‘ ev eë¯’v KvR Kivi †h mvg_© AR©b K‡i, Zv‡K MwZ kw³ e‡j|
MwZkw³i cwigvc (Measurement of Kinetic Energy) t

g‡b Kwi m f‡ii †Kvb w¯’i e¯‘i Dci GKwU aªæe ej F wµqv Kivq e¯‘wU v †eM cÖvß nj| Gi MwZ kw³ K wbY©q Ki‡Z
n‡e| e¯‘wU‡K v †eM w`‡Z F e‡ji Øviv m¤úvw`Z Kv‡Ri cwigvbB Gi MwZkw³i cwigvb wb‡`©k Ki‡e| GLb, F e‡ji
wµqvq e¯‘wU‡K dx ÿz`ªvwZÿz`ª `~iZ¡ miv‡Z K…ZKvR,
dW  Fdx
 dW  ma dx  F  ma 
dv  dv 
 dW  m dx
dt  dt  a 
dx
 dW  m dv
dt
 dx 
 dW  mvdv  dt  v 
AZGe e¯‘wU‡K †eM v = 0 n‡Z v = v †eM w`‡Z †gvU K…Z KvR A_©vr MwZkw³
W
K   dW
0
v
 K   mvdv
0
v
 v2 
 K  m 
 2 
0
1
 K  mv 2 e¯‘i fi m GKUv aªæeK Kv‡RB
2
K  aª æeK  v 2
 K v 2 A_©vr, wbw`©ó f‡ii †Kvb e¯‘i MwZkw³ Gi †e‡Mi e‡M©i mgvbycvwZK|
MwZ kw³i mv‡_ fi‡e‡Mi m¤úK© (Relation with Kinetic Energy and Momentum) t
1
MwZkw³, K  mv 2
2
1 m
 K  mv 2  [ni I je‡K m Øviv ¸b]
2 m
1 m 2v2
K
2 m
p2
K  [mv = fi‡eM p] BnvB MwZkw³ I fi‡e‡Mi g‡a¨ m¤úK©h³
y mgxKiY|
2m


msiÿbkxj ej (Conservative force) t
†Kvb e‡ji Øviv GKwU e¯‘‡K c~Y© P‡µ cwiågb Kiv‡Z K…Z Kv‡Ri cwigvb k~b¨ n‡j, H ej‡K msiÿbkxj ej e‡j|
AwfKl© ej GKwU msiÿbkxj ej| GKwU e¯‘‡K Lvov Dci w`‡K wb‡ÿc Ki‡j GUv wKQy mgq ci f~-c„‡ô wd‡i Av‡m|
e¯‘wU Dc‡ii MwZi Rb¨ AwfKl© e‡ji weiæ‡× †h cwigvb KvR m¤úvw`Z nq, Zv cZb Kv‡j AwfKl© e‡ji Øviv K…ZKv‡Ri
mgvb nq| e¯‘i GB PµvKvi åg‡bi Rb¨ †gvU K…Z KvR k~b¨ nq|
AwfKl© ej GKwU msiÿbkxj ej t

Avgiv hw` GKwU e¯‘‡K AwfK‡l©i weiæ‡× Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K wb‡ÿc Kwi, Z‡e GwU cybivq Avgv‡ì nv‡Z wd‡i Avm‡e|
G ‡ÿ‡Î e¯‘wU nvZ †_‡K wbwÿß n‡q cybivq nv‡Z wd‡i Avmv GB c~Y© P‡µ KYvwUi
Dci AwfKl© e‡ji m¤úvw`Z Kv‡Ri cwigvb k~b¨| m f‡ii GKwU e¯‘‡K f‚c„‡ôi
A we›`y †_‡K h D”PZvq B we›`y‡Z DVv‡j AwfKl© e‡ji Rb¨ K…Z KvR FbvZ¥K nq|
e¯‘wU‡K †h c‡_B (Wvb cv‡k¦©i wPÎ) DVv‡bv †nvK bv †Kb mKj †ÿ‡ÎB GB Kv‡Ri
cwigvb nq mgh| AZGe AwfKl© ej Øviv m¤úbœ Kv‡Ri cwigvb †Kej we›`y `ywUi
Ae¯’v‡bi Dci wbf©ikxj-KYvwUi MwZc‡_i Dci bq| ZvB AwfKl© ej GKwU
msiÿbkxj ej| Z`ªæc Zwor ej, †PŠ¤^K ej, GKwU Av`k© w¯úªs- Gi ej cÖf…wZ
msiÿbkxj ej|
Amsiÿbkxj ej (Non-conservative force) t

†Kvb e‡ji Øviv GKwU e¯‘‡K c~Y© P‡µ cwiågb Kiv‡Z K…Z Kv‡Ri cwigvb k~b¨ bv n‡j, H ej‡K Amsiÿbkxj ej e‡j|
Nl©Y ej GKwU Amsiÿbkxj ej| mvB‡K¬vUªb h‡š¿ †h Z¡viK ej KvR K‡i, Zv Amsiÿbkxj ej|
Nl©Y ej GKwU Amsiÿbkxj ej t

g‡bKwi, GKwU e¯‘‡K †Kvb Agm„b Z‡ji Dci w`‡q ACB c‡_ A Ae¯’vb †_‡K B Ae¯’v‡b Ges c‡i BDA c‡_ B Ae¯’vb
†_‡K cybivq A Ae¯’v‡b Avbv nj| MwZ c‡_ GKwU ÿz`ª miY dx Ges G miY
Mo Nl©Y ej F Gi wecixZ w`‡K NU‡Q|
 ACB c‡_ Pjvi Rb¨ Nl©Y e‡ji weiæ‡× KvR   Fdx
 ACB c‡_ A n‡Z B we›`y‡Z †cŠQ‡Z e‡ji weiæ‡× KvR W1    Fdx
c
Gi ci hw` e¯‘wU‡K cyYivq BDA c‡_ A we›`y‡Z Avbv nq, Z‡e G †ÿ‡ÎI Nl©Y ej e¯‘i wecixZ w`‡K wµqv Ki‡e|
Kv‡RB K…Z Kv‡Ri cwigvb, W2    Fdx
d
 e¯‘wU A we›`y n‡Z B we›`y‡Z Ges B we›`y n‡Z A we›`y‡Z hvZvqv‡Zi Rb¨ Nl©Y e‡ji weiæ‡× †gvU KvR,
W  W1  W2    Fdx   Fdx  0 Kv‡RB Nl©Y ej GKwU Amsiÿbkxj ej|
c d


msiÿbkxj ej I Amsiÿbkxj e‡ji g‡a¨ cv_©K¨:
µwgK msiÿbkxj ej Amsiÿbkxj ej
†Kvb e‡ji Øviv GKwU e¯‘‡K c~Y© P‡µ cwiågb †Kvb e‡ji Øviv GKwU e¯‘‡K c~Y© P‡µ cwiågb
1 Kiv‡Z K…Z Kv‡Ri cwigvb k~b¨ n‡j, H ej‡K Kiv‡Z K…Z Kv‡Ri cwigvb k~b¨ bv n‡j, H ej‡K
msiÿbkxj ej e‡j| msiÿbkxj ej e‡j|
msiÿbkxj ej wµqviZ _vK‡j hvwš¿K kw³i Amsiÿbkxj ej wµqviZ _vK‡j hvwš¿K kw³i
2
msiÿb m~Î Lv‡U| msiÿb m~Î Lv‡U bv|
GB e‡ji Øviv K…Z KvR c‡_i cÖK…wZi Dci wbf©i GB e‡ji Øviv K…Z KvR c‡_i cÖK…wZi Dci wbf©i
3
K‡i bv| K‡i|
4 GB e‡ji Øviv K…Z KvR c~biæ×vi Kiv m¤¢e| GB e‡ji Øviv K…Z KvR c~biæ×vi Kiv m¤¢e bq|
5 GB ej Kvh©iZ _vK‡j kw³i AcPq N‡Ubv| GB ej Kvh©iZ _vK‡j kw³i AcPq N‡U|
KvRkw³ Dccv`¨ (Work-Energy theorem) t

MwZkxj e¯‘i Dci cÖhy³ ej Øviv K…Z KvR e¯‘i MwZkw³i cwieZ©‡bi mgvb|
aªæe e‡ji Rb¨ cÖwZcv`b: awi v0 †e‡M MwZkxj m f‡ii †Kvb e¯‘i Dci F aªæe ej wµqv K‡i| Gi d‡j †eM e¯‘wUi nq
v Ges H mg‡q e¯‘wUi e‡ji w`‡K x `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i|
myZivs ej Øviv K…ZKvR, W=Fx
GB ej cÖ‡qv‡Mi d‡j e¯‘i aªæe Z¡iY a n‡j, wbDU‡bi MwZi wØZxq m~Îvbyhvqx, F=ma
 W=max
wKš‘ MwZi mgxKiY †_‡K Avgiv Rvwb,
v 2  v 2  2ax
0
2
v  v2  2ax
0
v2  v2
0
 ax 
2
v v 
2 2
 
myZivs, W  m 0

 2 
 
1 1 1 1
 W  mv 2  mv02 wKš‘ mv02 n‡”Q e¯‘i Avw` MwZkw³ K0 Ges mv 2 n‡”Q e¯‘i †kl MwZkw³ K |
2 2 2 2
 W  K  K 0  K
A_©vrej Øviv K…Z KvR = e¯‘i MwZkw³ cwieZ©b|
cwieZ©bkxj e‡ji Rb¨ cÖwZcv`b: aiv hvK, †KvY KYvi Dci cwieZ©bkxj ej wµqv Ki‡Q| e‡ji gvb cwieZ©bkxj
n‡jI Gi w`K AcwieZ©bkxj| †m †ÿ‡Î KYvwUi mi‡Yi AwfgyL e‡ji w`‡KB n‡e| aiv hvK, KYvwU x- Aÿ eivei
x
MwZkxj| GLb KYvwU‡K x0 Ae¯’vb †_‡K x Ae¯’v‡b miv‡Z cÖhy³ ej Øviv K…Z Kv‡Ri cwigvY, W   Fdx
x0
dv dv dx dv dv
wKš‘ wbDU‡bi MwZi wØZxq †_‡K Avgiv Rvwb, F=ma Avevi, a   .  .v  v
dt dx dt dx dx


x x v v 2 v
dv v  1 1
 m¤úvw`Z KvR, W   madx   mv dx   mvdv m  vdv m    mv 2  mv02
x0 x0
dx v0 v0  2  v0 2 2
1 2 1
wKš‘ mv0 n‡”Q e¯‘i Avw` MwZkw³ K0 Ges mv 2 n‡”Q e¯‘i †kl MwZkw³ K |
2 2
 W  K  K 0  K
A_©vrcwieZ©bkxj ej Øviv K…Z KvR = e¯‘i MwZkw³i cwieZ©b|
MwZkw³ I wefe kw³i g‡a¨ cv_©K¨t

µwgK MwZkw³ wefe kw³
cvwicvwk©¦‡Ki mv‡c‡ÿ MwZkxj _vKvi d‡j †Kvb cvwicvwk©¦‡Ki mv‡c‡ÿ w¯’i _vKvi d‡j †Kvb e¯‘ ev
1 e¯‘ ev eë¯’v KvR Kivi †h mg_© AR©b K‡i, Zv‡K eë¯’v KvR Kivi †h mg_© AR©b K‡i ev kw³ mÂq
MwZ kw³ e‡j| K‡i, Zv‡K wefe kw³ e‡j| G‡K w¯’wZ kw³I e‡j|
1
2 m f‡ii e¯‘i †eMv n‡j Gi MwZ kw³  mv 2 m f‡ii e¯‘ h D”PZvq _vK‡j Gi wefe kw³ = mgh
2
e¯‘i Ae¯’v ev Ae¯’v‡bi cwieZ©b bv n‡j wefe kw³
3 e¯‘i †eM bv _vK‡j MwZkw³ _v‡K bv|
_v‡K bv|
4 MwZ kw³ †K K Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| wefe kw³ †K P Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq|
kw³i wbZ¨Zv m~Î (Conservation law of energy) t
kw³i m„wó ev webvk †bB, kw³ †Kej GK iƒc †_‡K Aci GK ev ev GKvwaK iƒ‡c cwiewZ©Z n‡Z cv‡i| gnvwe‡k¦i †gvU
kw³i cwigvb wbw`©ó I AcwieZ©bxq|
e¨vL¨vt kw³i aŸskI ‡bB m„wóI ‡bB, Av‡Q ïay cwieZ©b| †hgb wnUv‡i we`ÿr kw³ Zvc kw³‡Z, ev‡j¦ we`ÿr kw³
Av‡jvK I Zvc kw³‡Z d¨v‡b we`ÿr kw³ hvwš¿K kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ nq|
hvwš¿K kw³i wbZ¨Zv m~Î (Mechanical Conservation law of Energy) t
‡Kvb eë¯’vq †Kej msiÿbkxj ej wµqv Ki‡j eë¯’vi MwZ kw³ I wefe kw³i †hvMdj me©`v aªæe _v‡K| A_©vr,
MwZkw³ + wefe kw³ = aªæeK
cošÍ e¯‘i †ÿ‡Î hvwš¿K kw³i wbZ¨Zv m~Î (Conservation law of energy in case of falling body)t
g‡b Kwi, m f‡ii GKwU e¯‘KYv f~-c„‡ôi A Ae¯’vb n‡Z B Ae¯’v‡b Avbv nj| B we›`y‡Z e¯‘wU
w¯’i Ae¯’vq _v‡K e‡j Gi †Kvb MwZkw³ _v‡K bv| B we›`y‡Z MwZkw³ = 0
B we›`yi wefe kw³ = mgh
B we›`y‡Z †gvU kw³ EB = MwZkw³ + wefe kw³
 EB = 0 + mgh
EB = mgh
GLb aiv hvK, e¯‘wU B we›`y n‡Z Aev‡a cwZZ n‡jv Ges wKQy mgq ci x `yiZ¡ AwZµg K‡i C we›`y‡Z †cŠwQj
Ges v †eM cÖvß n‡jv| Zvn‡j cošÍ e¯‘i MwZi mgxKiY Abymv‡i cvB,
v2= o+2gx
v2= 2gx
1
C we›`y‡Z e¯‘i MwZkw³ K c  mv 2
2
1
 K c  m  2gx
2
 K c  mgx


f~-c„ô n‡Z C we›`yi D”PZv (h  x) ;
Kv‡RB C we›`y‡Z e¯‘i wefe kw³ U c  mg (h  x )
 U c  mgh  mgx
C we›`y‡Z †gvU kw³ EC = MwZkw³ + wefe kw³ = KC+UC
 Ec=mgx + mgh - mgx = mgh A_©vr, B we›`y‡Z †gvU kw³ EB = C we›`y‡Z †gvU kw³ EC
e¯‘wU f~-c„‡ô cwZZ n‡j GB kw³ kã, Zvc I Ab¨vb¨ kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ nq| Abyiƒc fv‡e †`Lv‡bv hvq †h, f‚wg ¯úk©
Kivi gyn~‡Z© A we›`y‡Z †gvU kw³ EA= mgh myZivs AwfK‡l©i cÖfv‡e gy³fv‡e cošÍ e¯‘i †ÿ‡Î me mgq wefe kw³ I
MwZ kw³i mgwó mgvb _v‡K|A_©vr cošÍ e¯‘i †ÿ‡Î kw³i wbZ¨Zv m~Î cÖgvwYZ nj|
mij ‡`vj‡Ki mvnv‡h¨ hvwš¿K kw³i wbZ¨Zvi m~‡Îi cÖgvY (Conservation law of energy in case of simple pendulum)t
aiv hvK, OA GKwU mij †`vj‡Ki mvg¨ve¯’vb| e‡ei fi m| GwU `yj‡Z `yj‡Z †Kvb GK mgq m‡e©v”P we›`y
C-‡Z †cuŠwQ‡j ÿwb‡Ki Rb¨ w¯’i n‡e| C we›`y, e‡ei mvg¨ve¯’vb A n‡Z AN D”PZvq Aew¯’Z|
C we›`y‡Z mg¯Í kw³ wefe kw³|
C we›`y‡Z wefe kw³ EP = mg ×AN
Ges C we›`y‡Z MwZ kw³ EK = 0
C we›`y‡Z ‡gvU kw³ EP +EK = mg ×AN + 0
C we›`y‡Z ‡gvU kw³ = mg ×AN
‡`vjKwU †Kvb GK mgq B we›`y‡Z †cŠQ‡e| B we›`y‡Z e‡ei wefe kw³ I
MwZkw³ DfqB _vK‡e|
B we›`y‡Z wefe kw³ EP = mg ×AM
1
B we›`y‡Z MwZ kw³ E K  m(u 2  2gh )
2
1
 E K  m(0 2  2gh )
2
1
 E K  m  2gh
2
 E K  mgh
 E K  mg  NM [GLv‡ b, h  NM ]
 EK  mg(AN AM)
B we›`y‡Z ‡gvU kw³ = EP +EK = mg ×AM+ mg (AN  AM)
= mg ×AM+ mg ×AN  mg × AM
= mg ×AN = C we›`y‡Z ‡gvU kw³, Gfv‡e †`Lvb hvq †h, e‡ei MwZ c‡_i me©Î †gvU kw³
aªæeK| AZGe, mij †`vj‡Ki †ÿ‡Î kw³i wbZ¨Zv m~Î cÖgvwYZ nj|
ÿgZv (Power) t
†Kvb e¨vw³ ev h‡š¿i KvR Kivi nvi‡K ÿgZv e‡j| ÿgZv‡K P Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| t mg‡q W KvR Ki‡j ÿgZv
W
P n‡e| ÿgZvi GKK IqvU| ÿZvi gvÎv [ML2 T 3 ]
t
IqvU (Watt) t
1 †m‡K‡Û 1 Ryj KvR Kivi ÿgZv‡K GK IqvU ÿgZv e‡j| IqvU †K W Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| IqvU = Ryj/ †m‡KÛ|


Ak¦ÿgZv (H.P) t
1 †m‡K‡Û 550 dzU cvDÛ KvR Kivi ÿgZ‡K 1 Ak¦ÿgZv e‡j| 1 Ak¦ÿgZv = 550 dzU-cvDÛ/†m‡KÛ| IqvU Gi mv‡_
Gi m¤úK© nj, 1 Ak¦ÿgZv = 746 IqvU|
1 H.P  550ft lb / s
 1 H.P  550  30.48  10 -2 m  0.4536Kg / s
 1 H.P  550  30.48  10 -2  0.4536 kg m / s
 1 H.P  550  30.48  10 -2  0.4536  g Ryj / † m‡ KÛ
 1 H.P  550  30.48  10 -2  0.4536  9.81 Watt
 1 Ak¦ÿgZv = 746 IqvU|
Kg©`ÿZv (Efficiency) t
‡Kvb hš¿ †_‡K cÖvß †gvU Kvh©Ki kw³ I h‡š¿ cÖ`Ë †gvU kw³i AbycvZ‡K H h‡›`ªi Kg©`ÿZv e‡j| Kg©`ÿZv‡K  Øviv
† gvU Kvh Ki kw³ † gvU Kvh Ki kw³
cÖKvk Kiv nq| Kg©`ÿZv,   kZKivq cÖKvk Ki‡j,    100 %
† gvU cÖ`Ë kw³ † gvU cÖ`Ë kw³
‡Kvb h‡š¿i Kvh©Ki ÿgZv 50% ej‡Z eywS †h, hw` H h‡š¿ 100 Ryj kw³ †Ìqv nq Z‡e hš¿wU †_‡K 50 Ryj kw³ Kvh©Ki
n‡e|

6| KvR ÿgZv I kw³ (Work, Energy And Power)
1| 100m Mfxi GKwU Kzqv †_‡K BwÄ‡bi mvnv‡h¨ cÖwZ wgwb‡U

1000kg cvwb DVv‡bv nq| hw` BwÄ‡bi ÿgZv 42% bó nq Z‡e 1
Gi Ak¦ ÿgZv wbY©q Ki| Avevi, MwZkw³ , Ε k  m  v 22
2
1
Avgiv Rvwb,  Ε k   40  302 J
2
mgh
P1  GLv‡b,  Εk 18000 J (Ans.)
t
MfxiZv, h = 100 m
1000 9.8 100 4| GKwU ivB‡d‡ji ¸wj wbw`©ó cyiæ‡Z¡i GKwU Z³v †f` Ki‡Z cv‡i| H
ev, P1  W mgq, t = 1min = 60 sec.
60 fi, m = 1000 kg iƒc 16 wU Z³v †f` Ki‡Z n‡j Gi †eM KZ ¸b Ki‡Z n‡e?
ev, P1  16333.33 W Kvh©Kix ¶gZv,
16333 .33 P1 = (10042)% = 58% GLv‡b,
ev, P1  H.P awi,fi m I †eM v1
746 cÖK…Z ¶gZv, P = ?
 P1  21.89 H.P 1
d‡j, 1 wU Z³v †f` Kivi kw³ E1  m v12
Avevi, P  58%  P1 2
16 wU Z³v †f` Kivi †eM v2
58
P  21.89 1
100 d‡j, 16 wU Z³v †f` Kivi kw³, E 2  m v 22
2
21.89  100 cÖkœg‡Z, E2 = 16E1
P  H.P
58 1 1
 P  37.74 H.P (Ans.)  m v 22  16  m v12
2 2
2 2
 v 2  16 v1
2| GKwU wbDUª‡bi fi 1.67×10-27 kg Ges GwU 4×10-4 ms-1
†e‡M MwZkxj| Gi MwZ kw³ wbY©q Ki|  v 22  ( 4v1 ) 2
GLv‡b,  v 2  4v1 A_©vr †eM Pvi ¸b Ki‡Z n‡e|
Avgiv Rvwb, fi,
1 m = 1.67×10-27 kg 5| GKwU gUi wgwb‡U 5.5×105 kg cvwb 100m Dc‡i DVv‡Z cv‡i|
MwZkw³, Ε mv 2
2 ‡eM, v = 4×10-4 ms-1 gUiwUi ÿgZv 70 % Kvh©Ki n‡j Gi ÿgZv KZ H.P wbY©q Ki|
1 MwZkw³, E = ?
 Ε 1.6710-27 (410-4 )2 Avgiv Rvwb,
2
mgh GLv‡b,
 Ε133 . 6 1036 J (Ans.) P1  MfxiZv, h = 100 m
t
mgq, t = 1min = 60 sec.
3| w¯’ive¯’v †_‡K 40kg fi wewkó †Kvb e¯‘ wbw`©ó e‡ji wµqvi 5.5105  9.8100
ev, P1  W fi, m = 5.5×105 kg
d‡j 2s ci 15ms-1 †eM AR©b K‡i| Gi Dci wK cwigvb ej 60 Kvh©Kix ¶gZv,
wµqv Ki‡Q Ges 4s ci Gi MwZ kw³ KZ n‡e? ev, P1  8983333.333W P1 = 70%
8983333.333 cÖK…Z ¶gZv, P = ?
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b, ev, P1  H.P
v1 = u + a t1 746
Avw`‡eM, u = 0 fi, m = 40kg
ev, 15 = 0 + a×2 ‡eM, v1 = 15ms-1 mgq, t1 = 2s,
 P1  12042.00 H.P
15 ej, F = ? mgq, t2 = 4s, n‡j Avevi, P  70%  P1
 a  7.5ms  2 MwZkw³, Ek=?
2 70
Avevi, P  12042.00
100
F = ma 12042.00  100
 F =40×7.5 N = 300 N (Ans.) P  H.P
Avevi, 70
v2 = u + at2  P  17202 . 86 H.P (Ans.)
ev, v2 = 0 +7.5×4
 v2 = 30ms-1

6| KvR ÿgZv I kw³ (Work, Energy And Power) 2
6| GKwU gUi 4.9 wgwb‡U 10000 wjUvi cvwb 6m Dc‡i DVv‡Z 9| GKRb †jvK I GKRb evjK GK‡Î †`Šov‡”Qb| evjKwUi fi †jv‡Ki
cv‡i| gUiwUi ÿgZv 80 % Kvh©Ki n‡j Gi ÿgZv KZ wbY©q Ki| f‡ii A‡a©K Ges †jvKwUi MwZkw³ evjKwUi MwZkw³i A‡a©K| †jvKwU
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b, hw` Zvi †eM 1ms-1 e„w× K‡ib Z‡e Zvi MwZkw³ evjKwUi MwZkw³i
mgh MfxiZv, h = 6 m
P1  mgq, t = 4.9min = 60×4.9s
mgvb nq| G‡ì Avw`‡eM wbY©q Ki|
t
1wjUvi cvwbi fi, =1 †KwR
10000 9.8 6 10000 wjUvi cvwbi fi,
ev,P1  W g‡b Kwi, evjKwUi Avw`†eM= v1
60 4.9 m =10000 †KwR ‡jv‡Ki Avw`†eM = v2
 P1  2000 W Kvh©Kix ¶gZv,
P1 = 80% ‡jv‡Ki fi = m
Avevi, P  80%  P1 m
cÖK…Z ¶gZv, P = ?  evj‡ Ki fi 
80 2
P  2000
100 1
cÖkœvbymv‡ i, † jvKwUi MwZkw³   evjKwUi MwZkw³
2000  100 2
P  W  1 1 1 m
80 ev, mv 22     v12
 P  2500 W (Ans.) 2 2 2 2
2
v
7| GKwU gUi N›Uvq 2.5×107 kg cvwb 50m Dc‡i DVv‡Z cv‡i| ev , v 22  1
4
gUiwUi ÿgZv 45 % Kvh©Ki n‡j Gi ÿgZv wbY©q Ki| v
Avgiv Rvwb, ev, v 2  1 ... ... ... ... (1)
GLv‡b, 2
mgh
P1  MfxiZv, h = 50 m 1 1 m
t Avevi cÖkœvbymv‡ i, m(v 2  1) 2    v12
7 mgq, t = 3600sec. 2 2 2
2.5  10  9 . 8  5 0
ev, P1  W fi, m =2.5×107 kg v12
3600
Kvh©Kix ¶gZv, ev, (v 2  1) 2 
ev, P1  3402777.77 W 2
P1 = 45% v1
Avevi, P  45%  P1 cÖK…Z ¶gZv, P = ? ev, v 2  1 
45 2
P  3402777.77 v v
100 ev, 1  1  1
3402777.77 100 2 2
P W ev, 0.5v1  1  0.707 v1
45
 P  7561728 . 38 W (Ans.) ev, 0.207v1  1
1
 v1   4.83 ms 1 (Ans.)
8| 30m D”PZv †_‡K GKwU e¯‘‡K webv evavq co‡Z w`‡j 0.207
†Kv_vq Dnvi MwZ kw³ wefe kw³i wØ¸b n‡e? v1 4.83
Ges, v 2    2.42 ms -1 (Ans.)
g‡b Kwi e¯‘wUi fi m, Ges f‚c„ô †_‡K h D”PZvq e¯‘wUi MwZkw³ 2 2
wefe kw³i wØ¸b nq| 
kZ©vbymv‡i, 10| GKwU KYvi Dci F  6 î  3 ĵ  2 k̂ N ej cÖ‡qv‡M KYvwUi

1 2
mv  2mgh r  2î  2ˆj  k̂ m miY nq| ej KZ…K m¤úvw`Z Kv‡Ri cwigvb
2 wbY©q Ki|
 v 2  4 gh
 0 2  2 g (30  h)  4 gh Avgiv Rvwb,

 30  h  2h W  F.r
 3h  30  W  (6î  3 ĵ  2k̂ ). ( 2î  2 ĵ  k̂ )
30  W  (6)(2)  (3)(2)  ( 2)(1)
h
10  W  12  6  2
 h  10 m  W  4 J (Ans.)
DËi: 10m D”PZvq MwZ kw³ wefe kw³i wØ¸b n‡e|

6| KvR ÿgZv I kw³ (Work, Energy And Power) 3
11| GKwU cvwbc~Y© Kzqvi MfxiZv 12m Ges e¨vm 1.8m | GKwU 13| 200 gm f‡ii GKwU e¯‘ 10m Dci †_‡K bx‡P c‡o hvq| f~c„ô
cv¤ú 24 wgwb‡U KzqvwU‡K cvwbk~Y¨ Ki‡Z cv‡i| cv¤úwUi Ak¦ÿgZv ¯úk© Kivi c~e© gyn‡~ Z© Gi MwZ kw³ wbY©q Ki|
KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb, Avgiv Rvwb,
GLv‡b,
fi m  r 2 l 1 fi,
E k  mv 2  mgh
 m  3.14  (0.9) 2  12  10 3 GLv‡b, 2 m = 0.2 kg
 m  30520.8 Kg 1. 8  0.2  9.8 10  19.6J (Ans.) h=10m
e¨vmva© r = = 0.9m MwZkw³, Ek = ?
Avevi, 2
mgh MfxiZv l = 12m
P cvwb DVv‡bvi Mo D”PZv
t
12 14| h wgUvi DuPy ¯’vb ‡_‡K GKwU e¯‘ co‡Q| †Kv_vq Zvi MwZ-kw³
30520.8  908  6 h= m = 6m
P Watt 2 w¯’wZ-kw³i A‡a©K n‡e?
24  60 mgq t = 24 wgt = 24× 60 †mt
30520.8  908  6 cv¤úwUi Ak¦¶gZv P = ?
P H.P
24  60  746 g‡b Kwi e¯‘wUi fi m, Ges f‚c„ô †_‡K x D”PZvq e¯‘wUi MwZ-kw³
 P  1.67 H.P (Ans.) w¯’wZ-kw³i A‡a©K n‡e?
kZ©vbymv‡i,
12| 6kg fi wewkó GKwU e¯‘ w¯’i Ae¯’vq wQj| 30N ej cÖ‡qvM 1
2  mv 2  mgx
Kivq 10s ci e¯‘wUi MwZkw³ KZ n‡e? 2
Avgiv Rvwb,  v 2  gx
F = ma GLv‡b,  0 2  2 g (h  x)  gx
 30=6×a mgq, t = 10s.
 a = 5ms-2  2( h  x )  x
fi, m = 6kg
Avevi,  2h  2 x  x  3x  2h
ej F =30N
v  u  at 2h
MwZkw³, Ek =? x 
 v  0  5  10 3
 v  50ms 1 DËi: 2h/3 D”PZvq MwZ kw³ wefe kw³i A‡a©K n‡e|
Avevi,
1 2
Ek  mv
2
1
K  6  502
2
 K  7500J(Ans.)

 ভ঴াকল঱ঃ ভ঴াবফনেয যম যকান দু বট ফস্ত্ত্তকণয ভধযকায আকল঱ন ফরনক ভ঴াকল঱ ফর ফনর।

 বনউটননয ভ঴াকল঱ ঳ূ ত্রঃ ভ঴াবফনেয প্রনতযকবট ফস্ত্ত্তকণা এনক অ঩যনক তানদয ঳িংনমাগ ঳যর যযখা ফযাযফ একবট ফনর আকল঱ণ কনয। এ
আকল঱ণ ফনরয ভান, ফস্ত্ত্ত ফা ফস্ত্ত্ত কণািনয়য বনযয গুণপনরয ঳ভানু ঩াবতক এফিং এনদয ভধযকায দূ যনত্বয ফনগ঱য ফযস্তানু ঩াবতক এ
গাবণবতকবানফ
ভ঴াকল঱ীয় প্রাফরযঃ ভ঴াকল঱ীয় যক্ষনত্র যকান বফন্দুনত একক বয ঳ম্পনড়ফ একবট ফস্ত্ত্ত িা঩ন কযনর, ফস্ত্ত্তবট যম আকল঱ণ ফর অনু বফ কনয
তানক ঐ যক্ষনত্রয দরুন ঐ বফন্দুয তীব্রতা ফা প্রাফরয ফনর।
-1
গাবণবতক বানফ,  এবট একবট বদক যাব঱। এয একক (S.I.) Nkg
 ভ঴াকল঱ীয় বফবফঃ ভ঴াকল঱ীয় যক্ষনত্রয যকান বফন্দুয বফবফ ফরনত একক বয ঳ম্পনড়ফ একবট ফস্ত্ত্তনক অ঳ীভ যথনক অথ঱াৎ যক্ষনত্রয ফাব঴য
যথনক ঐ বফন্দুনত আননত ভ঴াকনল঱য বফরুনদ্ধ যম ঩বযভাণ কাজ কযনত ঴য় তানক ফু ঝায়।
ভ঴াকল঱ীয় যক্ষত্রঃ ফৃ ঴ৎ বযবফব঱ি যকান ফস্ত্ত্তয ঑জন ফস্ত্ত্তয িাযবদনক যম অঞ্চনরয ভনধয এয আকল঱ণ ফর অনু বূত ঴য়, য঳
অঞ্চরনক ঐ ফস্ত্ত্তয ভ঴াকল঱ীয় যক্ষত্র ফনর।
 ভুবিনফগঃ ঳ফ঱বনভড়ফ যম যফনগ যকান ফস্ত্ত্ত বনবক্ষপ্ত ঴নর তা আয ঩ৃ বথফীনত বপনয আ঳নফ না য঳ যফগনক ভুবি যফগ ফনর। এয ঳ফ঱বনভড়ফ
-1 -1
ভান ঴নে 11.18kms ফা 6.98mils
যক঩রানযয ঳ূ ত্রঃ
প্রভ ঳ূ ত্র (কনক্ষয ঳ূ ত্র): প্রনতযকবট গ্রন঴ই ঳ূ ম঱নক প্রবতবনয়ত নাববনত (Focas) যযনখ উ঩ফৃ ত্তাকায ঩নথ প্রবতবনয়ত ঳ূ ম঱নক
প্রদবক্ষন কযনে।
বিতীয় ঳ূ ত্র (নক্ষত্রপনরয ঳ূ ত্র): যম যকান গ্র঴ এফিং ঳ূ নম঱য ঳ানথ ঳িংনমাগকাযী যযখা ঳ভান ঳ভনয় ঳ভান যক্ষত্রপর অবতক্রভ কনয।
তৃতীয় ঳ূ ত্র (঩ম঱ায়কানরয ঳ূ ত্র): প্রবতবট গ্রন঴য ঩ম঱ায়কানরয ফগ঱ ঳ূ ম঱ ঴নত ঐ গ্রন঴য গড় দূ যনত্বয ঘনপনরয ঳ভানু ঩াবতক।
 ১৯৫৭ ঳ানরয ৪ঠ্া অনক্টাফয য঳ৌববনয়ত ইউবনয়াননয বফজ্ঞানীযা ঳ফ঱ প্র ভ কৃবত্রভ উ঩গ্র঴ স্পু টবনক-১ যপ্রযনণয ভাধযনভ ভ঴া঱ূ নয
অববমাননয ঩থ প্রদ঱঱ন কনয।
একবট কৃবত্রভ উ঩গ্র঴নক ঩ৃ বথফীনক প্রায় 9.30 বক: বভ: ফা 7 ভাইর যফনগ বননক্ষ঩ কযনত ঩াযনরই তনফ তা ঩ৃবথফীনক ঩বযক্রভন কযনত থাকনফ।
 G এয ভান ঳ফ ঳ভয়ই ধ্রুফ থানক ফনর এনক বফেজনীন ভ঴াকল঱ীয় ধ্রুফক ফনর।
 অববকল঱ ফনরয প্রবানফ ভুিবানফ ঩ড়ন্ত ফস্ত্ত্তয যফগ ফৃ বদ্ধয ঴াযনক অববকল঱জ ত্বযণ ফনর। অববকল঱জ ত্বযণ ‘g’ যকান ধ্রুফ
঳িংখযা নয়। িাননবনদ এয ঩বযফত঱ন ঴য়। g এয ভান যভরুনত যফ঱ী (983.217cm/s2) এফিং বফলূ ফীয় অঞ্চনর কভ (978.039
cm/s2) বূ -঩ৃষ্ঠ যথনক উ঩নযয বদনক ফা বননিয বদনক g এয ভান কভ এফিংনকনদ্রতা ঱ূ নয (0)।
 ঩ৃ বথফীয গড় ফযা঳াধ঱, R = 6.37× 106m  ঩ৃ বথফীয গড় ঘনত্ব, ρ = 5.5 × 103 kgm-3
 ঩ৃ বথফীয বয, M = 5.975 × 1027gm
 ঳ূ নম঱য অববকল঱জ ত্বযনণয ভান ঩ৃবথফীয 27 গুণ এফিং িনদ্রতা g এয ভান ঩ৃবথফীয 1/6 বাগ।

gnvKl© (Gravitation)t
gnvwe‡k¦i cÖvZwU e¯‘ KYvB G‡K Aci‡K wb‡Ri w`‡K AvKl©b K‡i| GB AvKl©b e‡ji gvb ïay e¯‘Ø‡qi fi I G‡ì
ga¨Kvi `~i‡Z¡i Dci wbf©i K‡i G‡ì AvK…wZ, cÖK…wZ, AwfgyL I gva¨‡gi cÖK…wZi Dci wbf©i K‡i bv| gnvwe‡k¦i †h
†Kvb `ywU e¯‘i ga¨Kvi GB AvKl©Y ej‡K gnvKl© e‡j|
wbDU‡bi gnvKl© m~Î (Newton's Law of Gravitation)t

gnvwe‡k¦i cÖwZwU e¯‘KYv G‡K Aci‡K wb‡Ri w`‡K AvKl©Y K‡i; GB AvKl©Y e‡ji gvb e¯‘ KYvØ‡qi f‡ii ¸Yd‡ji
mgvbycvwZK Ges G‡ì gaëZ©x `~i‡Z¡i e‡M©i e¨v¯ÍvbycvwZK Ges GB ej e¯‘ KYvØ‡qi ms‡hvRK mij‡iLv eivei wµqv
K‡i|
e¨vL¨vt aivhvK, m1 I m2 f‡ii `ywU e¯‘ ci¯úi n‡Z d `~i‡Z¡ Aew¯’Z| G‡ì
ga¨Kvi AvKl©b ej F n‡j gnvKl© m~Îvbymv‡i,
F  m1m 2 hLb d aªæe _v‡K Ges
1
F hLb m1 I m2 aªæe _v‡K|
d2
mm
 Abycv‡Zi m~Îvbymv‡i, F  1 2
hLb m1, m2 I d cwiewZ©Z nq|
2
d
mm
ev, F  G 1 2
... ... ... (1) GLv‡b G GKwU mgvbycvwZK aªæeK| Gi gvb gnvwe‡k¦i me©Î
2
d
GKB †mB Rb¨ G‡K wek¦Rbxb ev me©Rbxb gnvKl©xq aªæeK e‡j|
gnvKl©xq aªæeK (Gravitational Constant)t

mm 1.1
FG 1 2
GB mgxKi‡Y m1= m2=1 GKK I d= 1 GKK n‡j F  G ev, G = F nq|
d2 12
msÁvt GKK f‡ii `ywU e¯‘ KYv GKK `~i‡Z¡ †_‡K ci¯úi‡K †h e‡j AvKl©b K‡i Zvi gvb‡K gnvKl©xq aªæeK e‡j| G
mm Fd 2
Gi GKK, F  G 1 2
G GB mgxKi‡Y Wvb cv‡k¦©i ivwk¸‡jvi GKK emv‡j G-Gi GKK cvIqv hvq|
d2 mm
1 2
Gm AvB c×wZ‡Z G Gi GKK n‡”Q Nm2 kg -2, Gm AvB c×wZ‡Z G Gi gvb me©m¤§Z gvb 6.673× 10-11 Nm2 kg -2,
G Gi gvb 6.673× 10-11 Nm2 kg -2 ej‡Z GB eywS ‡h, 1 kg e‡ii `ywU e¯‘ 1m `~‡i †_‡K ci¯úi‡K 6.673× 10-11 N
e‡j AvKl©Y K‡i|
2 2  2  L2
G Gi gvÎv: G  Fd  ej  `~ iZ¡  MLT = [M-1L3 T-2]
mm
1 2 fi 2 M2

07| gnvKl© (Gravitation) 2

K¨v‡fwÛ‡mi c×wZ‡Z G-Gi gvb wbY©q (Determination of Gravitational Constant by Cavendish Method)t
K¨v‡fwÛ‡mi h‡š¿ `ywU mgvb f‡ii †QvU †MvjK A I B GKwU nvjKv `Û R ‡K GKwU miæ Zvi F -Gi gva¨‡g GKwU `„p
Aej¤^b n‡Z Ggb fv‡e Szwj‡q †Ìqv nq †hb `ÛwU AbyfywgK _v‡K| j¨v¤ú
I †¯‹j eë¯’vq R `‡Ûi N~Y©b †KvY cwigv‡ci Rb¨ Szjb Zv‡ii mv‡_ GKwU
mgZj `c©b W hy³ _v‡K| cixÿvKv‡j`ywU mgvb f‡ii eo †MvjK C I D †K
†QvU †MvjK Ø‡qi ci¯úi wecixZw`‡K GKB `~i‡Z¡ Ggbfv‡e ¯’vcb Kiv nq,
†hb †MvjK PviwUi †K›`ª GKB Abyf~wgK Z‡j _v‡K| eo †MvjKØq ¯’vcb Kivi
mv‡_ mv‡_ †QvU †MvjKØq G‡ì cÖwZ AvKwl©Z nq| d‡j R `‡Ûi Dci GKwU Ø›Ø
wµqvkxj nq| GB Ø‡›Øi wµqvq R `Û Ny‡i hvh| d‡j Szjb Zv‡i cvK c‡o|
Zv‡ii w¯’wZ¯’vcKZv GB cvK Lyj‡Z cÖqvm cvq; A_©vr Szjb Zv‡i cÖZ¨qbx Ø‡›Øi
m„wó nq| R `‡Ûi mvg¨ve¯’vq GB Dfq Ø‡›Øi åvg‡Ki gvb mgvb nq| cixÿvq j¨v¤ú I †¯‹j eë¯’vq R `‡Ûi N~Y©b †KvY
 †g‡c †bIqv nq|
wnmve I MYbv t
g‡b Kwi, cÖwZwU eo †Mvj‡Ki fi = M Ges cÖwZ †QvU †Mvj‡Ki fi = m| `‡Ûi mvg¨ve¯’vq eo I †QvU †Mvj‡Ki
†K›`ªØ‡qi gaëZ©x `~iZ¡ = d n‡j, gnvKl© m~Îvbymv‡i cvB,
GMm
F ... ... ... (1)
d2
R `‡Ûi `yB cÖv‡šÍ GB cwigvb ej wµqv Kivq GKwU Ø‡›Øi m„wó nq| GB Ø‡›Øi bvg we‡ÿcx Ø›Ø| R `‡Ûi ˆ`N©¨ l n‡j
we‡ÿcx Ø‡›Øi åvgK = F  l
GMml
 ... ... ... (2)
d2
GB Ø‡›Øi wµqvq R `Û Ny‡i hvq| d‡j Szjb Zv‡i cvK c‡o| Zv‡ii w¯’wZ¯’vcKZv GB cvK Lyj‡Z cÖqvm cvq| myZivs,
Szjb GKwU cÖZ¨qbx Ø‡›Øi m„wó nq| R `‡Ûi we‡ÿc‡KvY n‡j,
cÖZ¨qbx Ø‡›Øi åvgK = ... ... ... ... (3) GLv‡b  n‡jv Szjb Zv‡ii cvK aªªæeK| R `‡Ûi mvg¨ve¯’vq,
we‡ÿcx Ø‡›Øi åvgK = cÖZ¨qbx Ø‡›Øi åvgK
GMml
 
d2
 d 2
G  ... ... ... (4)
Mml
GLv‡b, , d, M, m I l -Gi gvb Rvbv Av‡Q|  Gi gvb wbY©q Ki‡Z n‡e| GLb eo †MvjKØq‡K mwi‡q, R
`Û‡K eëZ© †`vj‡b †`vj †`qv nq Ges †`vjb Kvj T wbY©q Kiv nq| R `‡Ûi RoZvi åvgK I n‡j,
I
T  2

4 2 I
ev, T 2 

2
4 I
  GB  Gi gvb (4) bs mgxKi‡Y ewm‡q cvB,
2
T
4 I d 2
2
G ... ... ... (5) GB mgxKi‡Yi Wvb cv‡k¦i ivwk ¸wji gvb ewm‡q G Gi gvb cvIqv hvq|
2
MmlT
K¨v‡fwÛm Zvi cixÿvq †h gvb cÖvß nb Zv nj G = 6.673× 10-11 Nm2 kg -2 |


AwfKl©R Z¡iY (Acceleration Due to Gravity)t
AwfKl© e‡ji cÖfv‡e gy³ fv‡e cošÍ e¯‘i †eM e„w×i nvi‡K AwfKl©R Z¡iY e‡j| G Z¡iY me©`v Lvov wb‡Pi w`‡K wµqv
K‡i| G‡K g Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| Gi GKK ms -2 | Gi gvÎv [LT -2]
cÖkœt AwfKl©R Z¡iY‡K wKfv‡e c„w_exi fi, e¨vmva© Ges gnvKl© aªæe‡Ki mvn‡h¨ cÖKvk Kiv hvq †`LvI|
DËit f~-c„ô n‡Z h `~‡i m f‡ii †Kvb e¯‘i Dci AwfKl© e‡ji wµqv we‡ePbv Kiv hvK, c„w_exi fi M Ges e¨vmva© R
GMm
n‡j, e¯‘wUi Dci AwfKl© ej, F  Avevi, AwfKl©R Z¡iY g n‡j
(R  h ) 2
wbDU‡bi MwZ m~Îvbyhvqx Avgiv cvB, F = mg d‡j, mg  GMm 2
(R  h )
GM
g  ... ... ... (1)
(R  h ) 2
GUvB AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi Av`k© mgxKiY| G †_‡K †`Lv hvq †h, AwfKl©R Z¡iY mswkøó e¯‘i f‡ii Dci wbf©i K‡i bv|
GM
Avevi f~-c„‡ô h=0 AvZGe, g  ... ... ... (2) mgxKiY (2) n‡Z ejv hvq, g -Gi gvb c„w_exi e¨vmv‡a©i Dci
R2
wbf©i K‡i| f~-c„‡ôi †Kvb ¯’v‡b me©Rb M„nxZ gvb 9.8 ms-2| f~-c„‡ôi †Kvb ¯’v‡b g Gi gvb 9.8 ms-2 ej‡Z GB eywS †h,
H ¯’v‡b f~-c„‡ô gy³ fv‡e cošÍ e¯‘i †eM cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û 9.8ms-1 nv‡i e„w× cvq| mgxKiY (1) I (2) AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi
mv‡_ c„w_exi fi, e¨vmva© Ges gnvKl© aªæe‡Ki mv‡_ m¤úK©h³
y mgxKiY|
f~-c„ô †_‡K D”PZ¡i I wb¤§Z¡i †Kvb ¯’v‡b AwfKl©xq Z¡iY g Gi gv‡bi wKiƒc cwieZ©b nq MvwbwZK we‡køl‡bi mvnv‡h¨
†`LvI| f~-c„ô n‡Z h D”PZvq AwfKl©R Z¡iY :
GM
g‡b Kwi, c„w_exi fi M Ges e¨vmva© R n‡j f~-c„‡ô AwfKl©R Z¡iY, g  ... ... ... (1) Avevi f~-c„ô n‡Z h
R2
D”PZvq A_©vr c„w_exi †K›`ª n‡Z (R+h) Dc‡i AwfKl©R Z¡iY g  n‡j (9) bs mgxKiY Abymv‡i,
GM
g  ... ... ... (2)
(R  h ) 2
(2) bs mgxKiY‡K (1) bs mgxKiY Øviv fvM K‡i cvB,
g GM R2
 
g (R  h ) 2 GM
g R2
 
g (R  h ) 2
g 1
 
g  R  h 2
 R 
 
g  1
  2
g  h
1  R 
 
g  h  2
  1   GB mgxKiY‡K evB‡bvwgqvj ZË¡¡vbymv‡i we¯Í…wZ K‡i Ges h ÿz`ª e‡j Gi D”PNvZ AMÖvn¨ K‡i cvB,
g  R R
g 2h
1
g R


 2h 
 g   1   g ... ... ... (3) GUvB wb‡Y©q AwfKl©R Z¡iY|mgxKiY (3) n‡Z †`Lv hvq ‡h, g  g A_©vr f~-c„ô n‡Z
 R
hZB Dc‡i DVv hvq AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb ZZB Kg‡Z _v‡K|
f~-c„ô n‡Z h MfxiZvq AwfKl©R Z¡iYt f‚-‡K‡›`ª g Gi gvb k~b¨|

4
g‡b Kwi, c„w_exi e¨vmva© R Ges Gi Mo NbZ¡ | Zvn‡j c„w_exi fi M  R 3 n‡e|
3
4 
G   R 3 
GM 3
AZGe, f~-c„‡ô AwfKl©R Z¡iY g n‡j g  2   2 
R R
4
 g   GR ... ... ... (1)
3
h MfxiZvq c„w_exi e¨vmva© (R-h) Ges Gi Mo NbZ¡ | Zvn‡j (R-h) e¨vmva© ch©šÍ c„w_exi
4
fi M  (R  h )3  n‡e|  c„w_exi †K›`ª n‡Z (R-h) `~‡i AwfKl©R
3
4
G ( R  h ) 3 
GM
Z¡iY g   3
(R  h ) 2 (R  h ) 2
4
 g   G(R  h )... ... ... (2)
3
4
G(R  h )
g 3

g 4
GR
3
g R  h
 
g R
 h
 g  1  g ... ... ... (3)
 R
GUvB wb‡Y©q AwfKl©R Z¡iY| mgxKiY (3) n‡Z †`Lv hvq, g  g A_©vr f~-c„ô n‡Z hZB c„w_exi †K‡›`ªi w`‡K hvIqv hvq,
AwfKl©R Z¡i‡bi gvb ZZB Kg‡Z _v‡K| c„w_exi †K‡›`ª h = R;
 R
 g   1   g  0 ... ... ... (4) AZGe, g  0 c„w_exi †K‡›`ª (f‚-‡K‡›`ª) AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb k~b¨|
 R


c„w_exi AvwýK MwZi Rb¨ AwfKl©R Z¡i‡bi cwieZ©b (Variation of acceleration due to gravity due to rotational
motion of earth)t
c„w_exi AvwýK MwZi Rb¨ f~-c„‡ôi Dci¯’ †Kvb e¯‘KYv c„w_exi mgvb †KŠwbK †e‡M
c„w_exi Aÿ YY' -‡K †K›`ª K‡i e„ËvKvi c‡_ Nyi‡e| d‡j e¯‘ KYvwU GKwU Ac‡K›`ª
ej Fc Abyfe Ki‡e| wPÎ Abymv‡i, aiv hvK, m f‡ii †Kvb KYv P, c„w_exi mylg †KŠwYK
‡eM  mnKv‡i t e¨vmv‡a©i e„ËvKvi c‡_ Nyi‡Q| Zvn‡j Ac‡K›`ª ej Fc = mr n‡e|
Fc -Gi w`K wP‡Î †`Lvb n‡q‡Q| P KYvwU Aÿvs‡k Ae¯’vb Ki‡j, c„w_exi †K›`ª O n‡Z
OP eivei Fc -Gi Dcvsk Fc cos n‡e| e¯‘KYvi IRb mg -Gi wKQz Ask Fc cos -‡K
cÖkwgZ Ki‡e| myZivs, c„w_ex KZ…K e¯‘KYvi Dci wµqviZ wbU ej,
F= mg  Fc cos
Aÿvs‡k AwfKl©R Z¡iY gy n‡j, Dc‡ii mgxKi‡Y, F= mg ewm‡q cvB,
mg = mg mr cos
ev, g = g r cos
c„w_exi e¨vmva© R n‡j, r =Rcos n‡e| AZGe,
g = g  R cos2(1) 
GUvB, c„w_exi AvwýK MwZi Rb¨ AwfKl©R Z¡i‡bi cwieZ©b m~PK mgxKiY| welye AÂ‡j  =0 Ges cosd‡j,
welye AÂ‡j AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb, g = g R (2)
Avevi,†giæ AÂ‡j  =90º Ges cosd‡j,
†giæ AÂ‡j AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb, g = g (3)
AZGe, †giæ AÂ‡j AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb me©vwaK Ges welye †iLv AÂ‡j AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb me©v‡cÿv Kg|
AwfKl© †K›`ª (Gravitational Center) t GKwU e¯‘‡K †h fv‡eB ivLv †nvK bv †Kb e¯‘i wfZ‡i Aew¯’Z †h we›`yi ga¨w`‡q
†gvU IRb wµqv K‡i †mB we›`y‡K e¯‘i AwfKl© †K›`ª e‡j|
gnvKl©xq †ÿÎ (Gravitational Field) t †Kvb e¯‘i Av‡k cv‡k †h AÂje¨vcx Gi gnvKl© cÖfve eRvq _v‡K A_©vr
Ab¨‡Kvb e¯‘ ivLv n‡j †mwU AvKl©b ej jvf K‡i, Zv‡K H e¯‘i gnvKl©xq †ÿÎ e‡j|
gnvKl©xq †ÿÎ cÖvej¨ (Gravitation Field Strength or Gravitation Intensity)t gnvKl©xq †ÿ‡Îi †Kvb we›`y‡Z GKK
f‡ii GKwU e¯‘ ¯’vcb Ki‡j †mwU †h ej jvf K‡i Zv‡K H we›`yi gnvKl©xq †ÿÎ cÖvej¨ e‡j|
K…wÎg DcMÖn (Artificial Satellites) t gbyl¨ †cÖwiZ †h mKj gnvk~b¨hvb wbw`©ó Kÿc‡_ †_‡K c„w_ex‡K cwiågb K‡i,
Zv‡K K…wÎg DcMÖn e‡j|
i‡K‡Ui mvnv‡h¨ K…wÎg DcMÖn‡K wbw`©ó D”PZvq Zz‡j f~-c„‡ôi mgvšÍiv‡j wbw`©ó †e‡M Qy‡o †`qv nq| d‡j DcMÖnwU
c„w_ex‡K cÖ`wÿY Ki‡Z _v‡K|
f~-w¯’i DcMÖn (Geo-stationary Satellites)t ‡h mKj DcMÖ‡ni AveZ©b Kvj wbR A‡ÿi Pviw`‡K c„w_exi AveZ©b Kv‡ji
mgvb, Zv‡ì f~-w¯’i DcMÖn e‡j| Giƒc DcMÖ‡ni MwZ‡eM Ggb †`qv nq, †hb GUv 24 N›Uvq c„w_ex‡K GKevi cÖ`wÿb
K‡i| †mB Rb¨ f~-c„ô n‡Z GK Rb ch©‡eÿK DcMÖnwU‡K me mgq GKB RvqMvq †`‡L|


K…wÎg DcMÖ‡ni †eM, AveZ©b Kvj I f~-c„ô †_‡K `~iZ¡t
f~-c„ô n‡Z h D”PZvq m f‡ii GKwU K…wÎg DcMÖn v †e‡M e„ËvKvi c‡_ c„w_ex‡K cÖ`wÿYiZ Av‡Q| c„w_exi e¨vmva© R
n‡j, K…wÎg DcMÖ‡ni ‡K›`ª gyLx ej,
mv 2
Fc  ... ... ... ... ... (1)
(R  h )
c„w_exi fi M n‡j K…wÎg DcMÖ‡ni Dci wµqviZ AwfKl© ej,
GMm
F ... ... ... ... (2)
(R  h ) 2
MwZi mvg¨ve¯’vq, Fc  F n‡e| AZGe (1) I (2) bs mgxKiY eënvi K‡i cvB,
mv 2 GMm

(R  h ) (R  h ) 2
GM
v  ... ... ... ... ... (3) BnvB K…wÎg DcMÖ‡ni †eM wbY©‡qi mgxKiY|
Rh
AveZ©b Kvj ev ch©vqKvjt

‡h mg‡q †Kvb DcMÖn c„w_ex‡K GKevi cÖ`wÿY K‡i, Zv‡K Gi ch©vqKvj e‡j| K…wÎg DcMÖ‡ni ch©vq Kvj T n‡j, Gi
2(R  h )
îwLK †eM, v   (R  h ) , v  ... ... ... (4) GLb (3) I (4) bs mgxKiY †_‡K Avgiv cvB,
T
2(R  h ) GM

T Rh
T Rh
 
2 ( R  h ) GM
(R  h )3
 T  2 ... ... ... ... (5) BnvB ch©vq Kvj wbY©‡qi mgxKiY|
GM
K…wÎg DcMÖ‡ni D”PZv wbY©‡qi Rb¨ (5) bs mgxKiY‡K eM© K‡i cvB,
(R  h ) 3
T 2  4 2
GM
GMT 2
 (R  h )3 
4 2
1
2
 GMT  3
 R  h   2

 4 
1
 GMT 2  3
 h   2 
  R ... ... ... ... ... (6) BnvB D”PZvi mgxKiY|
 4 
K…wÎg DcMÖ‡ni eënvit

1| AvenvIqv m¤úwK©Z M‡elbv, wbixÿY I c~e©vfvm cÖ`vb|
2| †eZvi I †Uwjwfk‡bi gva¨‡g Z_¨ cÖ`vb|
3| †eZvi I †Uwjwfkb †hvMv‡hv‡Mi †ÿ‡Î ix‡j †ókb wn‡m‡e KvR Kiv|
4| AvšÍgnv‡`kxq †hvMv‡hvM iÿv|
5| cÖwZiÿv, cvnviv I mvgwiK Kv‡R eënvi BZ¨vw` Kv‡R eënvi Kiv nq|


K…wÎg DcMÖ‡n cÖ`wÿbiZ gnvk~b¨Pvix wb‡R‡K IRbnxb g‡b K‡ib †Kb?
DËit e¯‘i IRb ej‡Z Gi Dci c„w_exi AvKl©b‡K eySvq| †Kvb ¯’v‡bi AwfKl©R Z¡iY g Ges Gi fi m n‡j, H ¯’v‡b
e¯‘i Dci c„w_exi AvKl©b ej n‡e mg Ges GUvB e¯‘i IRb wb‡`©k K‡i| d‡j e¯‘i IRb g Gi wbf©i K‡i| myZivs e¯‘
IRbnxb n‡j g Gi gvb k~b¨ nq|
c„w_ex‡K cÖ`wÿbiZ gnvk~b¨hv‡bi hvÎxiv IRbnxbZv Abyfe K‡ib| Gi KviY wbw`©ó D”PZvq Ae¯’vbiZ gnvk~b¨hvb
c„w_exi †K‡›`ªi w`‡K wµqvkxj AwfKl©R Z¡iY g -Gi mggv‡bi wecixZgyLx Z¡iY cÖvß nq| GB Ae¯’vq gnvk~b¨hv‡bi
cvUvZ‡bi mv‡c‡ÿ gnvk~b¨Pvixi Z¡iY g g = 0 nq, d‡j wZwb gnvk~b¨hv‡bi cvUvZ‡b ‡Kvb ej cÖ‡qvM K‡ib bv Ges
†Kvb cÖwZwµqv ej A_©vr IRb Abyfe K‡ib bv|
gnvKl©xq wefe (Gravitational Potential) t

Amxg `~iZ¡ n‡Z GKK f‡ii †Kvb e¯‘‡K gnvKl©xq †ÿ‡Îi †Kvb we›`y‡Z Avb‡Z gnvKl© ej Øviv m¤úbœ Kv‡Ri cwigvb‡K
H we›`yi gnvKl©xq wefe e‡j| G‡K V Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| m f‡ii †Kvb e¯‘‡K Amxg `‚iZ¡ n‡Z gnvKl©xq †ÿ‡Îi †Kvb
W
we›`y‡Z Avb‡Z W KvR m¤úbœ n‡j H we›`yi gnvKl©xq wefe V  n‡e| KvR I fi DfqB †¯‹jvi ivwk myZivs gnvKl©
m
wefe †¯‹jvi ivwk|
we›`y f‡ii Rb¨ gnvl©xq †ÿ‡Î ‡Kvb we›`y‡Z gnvKl©xq wef‡ei ivwkgvjv wbY©q (Gravitational Potential due to Point Mass)t
g‡b Kwi, A we›`y‡Z GKwU we›`y fi M Aew¯’Z| M fi †_‡K gnvKl©xq
‡ÿ‡Îi g‡a¨ r `yi‡Z¡ B we›`y‡Z wefe wbY©q Ki‡Z n‡e| AB †hvM Kwi|
B we›`y‡Z GKK fi ¯’vcb Ki‡j Zvi Dci wµqvkxj gnvKl©xq ej,
M  1 GM
FG  2 , BA eivei| aiv hvK, B we›`yi wefe V| GLb
r2 r
hw` GB GKK f‡ii e¯‘wU M f‡ii e¯‘wUi mv‡_ AvKl©Y ej F Gi d‡j e‡ji Awfgy‡L ÿz`ªvwZÿz`ª `~iZ¡ dr m‡i C we›`y‡Z
Av‡m, Zvn‡j KvR n‡e Fdr cos 0º Ges wef‡ei cwieZ©b dV=Fdr cos 0º
dV=Fdr×1=Fdr GLb GB mgxKiY‡K r  ‡_‡K r = r GB mxgvi g‡a¨ mgvKjb K‡i B we›`y‡Z wefe V n‡j,
r
V   Fdr

r
GM
V dr

r2
r
dr
 V  GM 

r2
r
 V  GM  r  2dr

r
 1
 V  GM  
 r 
 1 1
 V  GM   
 r 
GM
V   GUvB wb‡Y©q wefe| GL‡b FbvZ¡K wPý wb‡`©k K‡i †h, gnvKl© wef‡ei gvb Amx‡g †ekx| Amxg n‡Z
r
†ÿ‡Îi w`‡K G¸‡Z _vK‡j wef‡ei gvb Kg‡Z _v‡K|


gyw³ †eM Kv‡K e‡j? gyw³ †e‡Mi ivwkgvjv cÖwZcv`b Ki t
gyw³ †eM (Escape Velocity) t me©v‡cÿv Kg †h †e‡M k~‡b¨ wbwÿß e¯‘ AwfK‡l©i cÖfve KvwU‡q gnvk~‡b¨ P‡j hvq, Zv‡K
gyw³ †eM ev wb¯ŒgY †eM e‡j| G‡K ve Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq|
gyw³ †e‡Mi ivwkgvjv (Magnitude of Escape Velocity) t c„w_exi fi M n‡j Gi †K›`ª n‡Z r `~‡i m f‡ii †Kvb e¯‘i
Dci wµqviZ AwfKl© ej, F  GMm2
GB e‡ji wµqvq m f‡ii e¯‘wU‡K dr ÿz`ª `~i‡Z¡ miv‡Z K…Z KvR,
r
dW  Fdr
GMm
 dW  2 dr c„w_exi e¨vmva© R n‡j f~-c„ô n‡Z m f‡ii e¯‘‡K gnvk~‡b¨ A_©vr, Amx‡g †cÖi‡Yi Rb¨ K…Z
r

†gvU KvR, W   dW
R

GMm
W dr
R
r2

 W  GMm  r 2 dr
R

 r 21 
 W  GMm  
 1  R

 1
 W  GMm  
 r R
 1 1
 W  GMm   
  R
GMm
W  ... ... ... ... (1)
R
e¯‘wU‡K gnvk~‡b¨ Mg‡bi Rb¨ GB cwigvb Kv‡Ri mgZzj¨ MwZkw³ AR©b Ki‡Z n‡e| AZGe, gyw³‡eM ve n‡j, Avgiv
1 GMm
cvB, mv e2 
2 R
2GM
 ve 
R
2GMR
cybivq, ve 
R2
 GM 
 ve  2gR ... ... ... ... (2) g  R 2  BnvB gyw³ †e‡Mi ivwkgvjv|
AwfKl© †K›`ª ev fvi‡K›`ª (Centre of Gravity) t

GKwU e¯‘‡K †h fv‡eB ivLv †nvK bv †Kb e¯‘i wfZ‡i Aew¯’Z †h we›`yi ga¨ w`‡q †gvU IRb wµqv K‡i †mB we›`y‡K e¯‘i
AwfKl© †K›`ª ev fvi‡K›`ª e‡j|

MÖ‡ni MwZ msµvšÍ †Kcjv‡ii m~‡Îi eY©bv (Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion) t
cÖ_g m~Ît
K‡ÿi m~Ît cÖwZ MÖnB m~h©‡K GKwU †dvKv‡m ( focus) †i‡L Dce„ËvKvi c‡_ Ny‡i|
wØZxq m~Ît
†ÿÎd‡ji m~Ît MÖn Ges m~‡h©i ms‡hvRK mij‡iLv mgvb mg‡q mgvb †ÿÎdj AwZµg K‡i|
Z…Zxq m~Ît AveZ©b Kv‡ji m~Ît m~‡h©i Pviw`‡K cÖwZwU MÖ‡ni AveZ©bKv‡ji eM© m~h©‡_‡K H MÖ‡ni Mo `~i‡Z¡i Nbd‡ji
mgvbycvwZK|
†Kcjv‡ii m~‡Îi e¨vL¨vt
cÖ_g m~‡Îi e¨vL¨vt

wP‡Î ABCD GKwU Dce„ËvKvi Kÿc_| F I F GB Dce„‡Ëi `ywU
†dvKvm| ‡Kcjv‡ii cÖ_g m~Îvbymv‡i m~h© GB †dvKvm `ywUi †h †Kvb GKwU‡Z
_vK‡e Ges Dce„ËvKvi c‡_ Nyi‡e|
wØZxq m~‡Îi e¨vL¨vt

g‡b Kwi wP‡Î F †dvKv‡m m~h© Aew¯’Z| †Kvb MÖn hw` GB Kÿc‡_i A
Ae¯’vb †_‡K B Ae¯’v‡b Avm‡Z t mgq †bq Ges C Ae¯’vb †_‡K D Ae¯’v‡b Avm‡ZI ‡mB GKB mgq t †bq Zvn‡j
wØZxq m~Î Abymv‡i AFB †ÿÎdj CFD ‡ÿÎdj mgvb n‡e|
Z…Zxq m~‡Îi e¨vL¨vt

MÖn¸‡jv Dce„ËvKvi c‡_ m~h©‡K cÖ`wÿb K‡i| myZivs wewfbœ mgq m~h©‡_‡K †h †Kvb MÖ‡ni `~iZ¡ wewfbœ nq| aiv hvK, †h
†Kvb MÖ‡ni m~h© †_‡K Mo `~iZ¡ R Ges H MÖ‡ni m~h©‡K GKevi cÖ`wÿb Ki‡Z T mgq jv‡M| †Kcjv‡ii Z…Zxq m~Îvbymv‡i,
T 2  R 3 n‡e| A_©vr m~h© †_‡K R1, R2, R2, ... Mo `~i‡Z¡ Aew¯’Z MÖ‡ni AveZ©b Kvj
T2 T2 T2
h_vµ‡g T1,T2,T3, ... n‡j, 1
 2
 3
... ... ... ...  aªæe n‡e|
3 3 3
R R R
1 2 3


7| gnvKl© (Gravitation)
1| c„w_exi e¨vmva© R = 6.4l×103 km I gnvKl©xq aªeK G

=6.67×10-11 Nm2kg-2 a‡i Gi Mo NbZ¡ wbY©q Ki| 9.8  (6.41  10 6 ) 2
Avgiv Rvwb, ev, M 
6.7  10 11
g 
GM GLv‡b,  M=6.0×1024 kg (Ans.)
R2 e¨vmva©, R = 6.41×103km
4 = 6.41×106m 5| c„w_ex‡K 6400Km e¨vmv‡a©i GKwU †MvjK ai‡j f~-c„ô n‡Z KZ
G π R3 ρ
3 gnvKl©xq aªeK, D”PZvq AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb f~-c„‡ôi AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gv‡bi 641 Ask
g  G =6.67×10-11 Nm2kg-2
R2 n‡e|
4 Mo NbZ¡,  = ?
 g  G π R ρ Avgiv Rvwb,
3 AwfKl©R Z¡iY, g = 9.8sms-2
R 2g
3g g  GLv‡b,
ρ  (R  h) 2
4 RG e¨vmva©, R = 6400Km
g R2g = 6400000 m
3  9.8  
 64 (R  h) 2 D”PZv, h = ?
4  3.14  6.4l106  6.67 1011
g
   5474 . 87kgm 3 (Ans.) 1 R2 AwfKl R Z¡ iY, g
  64
64 (R  h) 2
2| c„w_exi e¨vmva© 6.4l×106m I AwfKl©R Z¡iY 9.8ms-2 n‡j 1 R
c„w_exc„ô n‡Z †Kvb e¯‘i gyw³ †eM wbY©q Ki|  
GLv‡b,
8 Rh
Avgiv Rvwb,
 R  h  8R
v e  2gR e¨vmva©, R = 6.4l×106m
AwfKl©R Z¡i¡ Y,  h  7R
 ve  2  9.8 6.41106 ms-1 g = 9.8ms-2  h  7  6400000
-1 gyw³†eM, ve = ?  h  44800000 m  44800Km (Ans.)
 ve  11208. 75 ms (Ans.)
6| e„n¯úwZi fi I e¨vmva© h_vµ‡g 1.9× 1027kg Ges 7× 107m n‡j,
6
3| c„w_exi e¨vmva© 6.4×10 m I Gi c„‡ô AwfKl©R Z¡iY 9.8 Gi gyw³ †eM wbY©q Ki|
ms-2 | c„w_exc„ô n‡Z 6.4 ×105 m D”PZvq AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb Avgiv Rvwb,
wbY©q Ki|
v e  2gR
R 2g GLv‡b, 2GMR fi, M = 1.9× 1027kg
g   ve 
(R  h) 2 e¨vmva©, R = 6.4×106m R2 e¨vmva©, R = 7× 107m
AwfKl©R Z¡iY, 2GM gyw³‡eM, ve = ?
(6.4106 )2 9.8 g = 9.8 ms-2  ve 
ev, g 
(6.4106  6.4105 )2 D”PZv, h = 6.4 ×105 m R
AwfKl R Z¡ iY, g   2  6.673  10 -11  1.9  10 27
4.01408  1014  ve 
ev , g 
4.95616  1013 7  10 7
 g  8.099 ms -2 (Ans.)  v e  60187. 08 ms 1 (Ans.)
4| c„w_exc„‡ó g Gi gvb 9.8ms-2| c„w_exi e¨vmva© 7| c„w_ex‡K 6.4×106 m e¨vmv‡a©i Ges 5.5gm/cc Nb‡Z¡i †MvjK g‡b
R = 6.4l×103km I gnvKl©xq aªeK G = 6.7×10-11 Nm2kg-2 K‡i Gi c„‡ô AwfKl©R Z¡iY wbY©q Ki| G = 6.673×10-11 Nm2kg-2
n‡j c„w_exi fi wbY©q Ki| Avgiv Rvwb,
GLv‡b, GLv‡b,
Avgiv Rvwb, GM
AwfKl©R Z¡iY, g = 9.8 ms-2 g 2 e¨vmva©, R = 6.4×106 m
GM R gnvKl©xq aªeK,
g e¨vmva©, R = 6.41×103km
R 2 =6.41×106 m 4 G = 6.673×10-11 Nm2kg-2
gnvKl©xq aªeK,
G    R 3 
gR 2 3 c„w_exi NbZ¡ ,  = 5.5gm/cc
ev, M  G=6.7×10-11 Nm2kg-2 g 2 = 5.5×103kg/m3
G c„w_exi fi, M = ?
R
AwfKl©R Z¡iY, g =?

9| f‚-c„‡ô †Kvb †jv‡Ki IRb 684N n‡j wZwb Puv‡` wM‡q KZUzKz IRb
G  4R nviv‡eb? c„w_exi fi I e¨vmva© h_vµ‡g Puv‡ì fi I e¨vmv‡a©i 81 Ges 4
g ¸b| Avgiv Rvwb,
3
6.673 10 11 4  3.14  6.4 10 6 5.5 10 3 GM M
g gM  ........(1)
3 R 2M
2
 g  9.83 ms (Ans.) GM E
gE  ........(2)
R 2E
8| c„w_ex ‡_‡K 1600 km D”PZvq GKwU K…wÎg DcMÖn c„w_ex‡K g M M M R 2E
†K›`ª K‡i e„ËvKvi c‡_ cÖ`wÿb Ki‡Q| Gi †eM †ei Ki| ‡`qv   2 
gE RM ME
Av‡Q c„w_exi e¨vmva© 6.4×103 km, c„w_exi fi 6×1024 kg Ges
G = 6.67×10-11Nm2kg-2| gM M (4R) 2
GLv‡b,
ev,  2
gE R 81M
Avgiv Rvwb, e¨vmva©, R = 6.4×106 m
gnvKl©xq aªeK, g 16
GM  M  ...........(6)
v G = 6.67×10-11 Nm2kg-2 g E 81
Rh c„w_exi fi,
c„w_ex c„‡ô IRb WE = 684N Ges Puv‡` IRb WM n‡j,
-11 24 M=6.0×1024 kg
6.67  10  6.0  10 D”PZv h = 1600000m WM g M WM 16 16
v     WM  WE
6.4  10 6  1600000 DcMÖ‡ni †eM v =? WE gE WE 81 81
 v  7072.84ms 1 (Ans.) 16
 WM  684  N  135.11N
81
 Puv‡` IRb nviv‡e, = (684-135.11) N = 548.89N (Ans.)

 ঳যর যদারগবতয রফব঱িযঃ

i) ফস্ত্ত্তয গবত ঩ম঱ায় গবত ঴ইনফ; ii) ফস্ত্ত্তয গবত ঳যর রযবখক গবত ঴ইনফ;
iii) ফস্ত্ত্তয উ঩য ত্বযণ ঳ফ঱দা একবট বনবদ঱ি বফন্দু অববভুনখ বক্রয়া কযনফ, বনবদ঱ি বফন্দুনক উ঴ায ঳াভযফিান ফা ভধযাফিান ফরা ঴য়;
iv) ফস্ত্ত্তয উ঩য বক্রয়া঱ীর ত্বযণ ভধযািান ঴ইনত উ঴ানদয ঳যননয ঳ভানু ঩াবতক;
v) ফস্ত্ত্তয ত্বযণ ঳যননয বফ঩যীত ভুখী ঴ইনফ; vi) ই঴া একবট যদারন গবত ঴ইনফ।
 যদারনকয ফযফ঴াযঃ
i) অববকল঱জ ত্বযণ g এয ভান বনণ঱য়
ii) ঩া঴ানড়য উচ্চতা বনণ঱য় iii) ঳ভয় বনণ঱য় iv) ঳যর যদারনকয ঳া঴ানময g এয ভান বনণ঱য়
 য঳নকন্ড যদারকঃ যম যদারনকয যদারনকার 2 য঳নকন্ড উ঴ানক য঳নকন্ড যদারক ফনর।উ঴ায কম্পািংক cy/s।
একবট বনবদ঱ি িানন একবট য঳নকন্ড যদারনকয T঑ L বনবদ঱ি। ঳কর য঳নকন্ড যদারক অফ঱যই বফন঱ল ঳যর যদারক।
 ভনন যাখনত ঴নফ
1. যকৌবণক বফস্তায 40 এয যফ঱ী ঴নর ঳যর যদারক ঳ূ ত্র যভনন িনর না।
3. একবট যদারকনক ঩া঴ানড়য উ঩নয খবনয ভনধয অথফা িদ্রতা ঩ৃ নষ্ঠ বননয় যগনর এয ভান কভ ঴঑য়ায কাযনণ যদারনকার ফাড়নফ এফিং
যদারকবট ধীনয িরনফ।
4. একবট যদারকনক বূ -যকনদ্রতা বননয় যগনর এয g ভান ঱ূ নয ঴঑য়ায় যদারন কার অ঳ীভ ঴ইনফ।
5. ঳ভত্বযনণ উ঩নযয বদনক গবত঱ীর বরপনট যদারনকয যদারনকার হ্রা঳ ঩াইনফ এফিং ঳ভত্বযনণ নীনিয বদনক গবত঱ীর বরপনট যদারনকয
যদারনকার ফৃ বদ্ধ ঩াইনফ। অথ঱াৎ প্রভ যক্ষনত্র যদারকবট ধীনয িরনফ এফিং বিতীয় যক্ষনত্র উ঴া দ্রুত িরনফ।
6. যভরু অঞ্চনর g এয ভান যফ঱ী, তাই যদারক ঘবড় দ্রুত িনর এফিং বফলু ফীয় অঞ্চনর g কভ, তাই উ঴া ধীনয িনর। আফায, গ্রীষ্মকানর
যদারক ঘবড় ধীনয িরনফ এফিং ঱ীতকানর দ্রুত িরনফ।
7. যগারাকায ফফ ব঩ন্ডবট পাঁ঩া ঴নর, বননযট ঴নর ফা পাঁ঩া অিং঱ ঳ম্পূ ণ঱ তযর িাযা ঩ূ ণ঱ কযনর বায যকনদ্রতায যকান ঩বযফত঱ন ঴য় না
ফনর এয কাম঱কয রদঘ঱য অ঩বযফবত঱ত থানক মায পনর যদারনকানরয঑ যকান ঩বযফত঱ন ঴য় না।
8. ফফবটনক তযর িাযা অধ঱঩ূণ঱ কযনর বাযনকদ্রতা বকেু টা বননি যননভ মায় পনর L যফনড় মায় এফিং T যফনড় মায় এফিং যদারক ধীনয
িরনফ।
9. যদারনকয খবনয ববতয বননর ফা ঩া঴ানড় বননর, ঑খানন g কভ ফনর এয যদারনকার T ফাড়নফ পনর যদারক ধীনয িরনফ।
10. তা঩ভাত্রা ফৃ বদ্ধ য঩নর L ফৃ বদ্ধ ঩ানফ পনর T ফৃ বদ্ধ ঩ানফ এফিং যদারক আনস্ত িরনফ। তা঩ভাত্রা হ্রান঳ বফ঩যীত ঘটনা ঘটনফ।
11. িদ্রতা ঩ৃ নষ্ঠ বননর ফৃ বদ্ধ ঩ানফ এফিং যদারক ধীনয িরনফ।
12. ঳ভত্বযনণ উর্ধ্঱গাভী বরপনট g ফৃ বদ্ধ ঩ানফ ফনর T হ্রা঳ ঩ানফ এফিং ঳ভত্বযনণ বনম্নগাভী বরপনট g হ্রা঳ ঩ানফ ফনর T ফৃ বদ্ধ ঩ানফ পনর
যদারক মথাক্রনভ দ্রুত ঑ আনস্ত িরনফ।
ch©ve„Ë MwZ (Periodic Motion):

‡Kvb MwZkxj e¯‘KYvi MwZ hw` Ggb nq ‡h, GwU Gi MwZ c‡_ †Kvb wbw`©ó we›`y‡K wbw`©ó mgq cici GKB w`K †_‡K
AwZµg K‡i, Zvn‡j †mB MwZ‡K ch©ve„Ë MwZ e‡j| GB MwZc_ e„ËvKvi, Dce„ËvKvi, mij ‰iwLK I RwUj n‡Z cv‡i|
Nwoi KuvUvi MwZ, m~‡h©i Pviw`‡K c„w_exi MwZ BZ¨vw` ch©ve„Ë MwZi D`vniY|
ch©vqKvj (Time Period) :

ch©ve„Ë MwZm¤úbœ †Kvb KYv †h wbw`©ó mgq cici †Kvb wbw`©ó we›`y‡K wbw`©ó w`K †_‡K AwZµg K‡i †mB mgq‡K
ch©vqKvj e‡j|
¯ú›`b MwZ (Oscillation Motion):

ch©ve„Ë MwZm¤úbœ †Kvb e¯‘ hw` ch©vqKv‡ji A‡a©K mgq †Kvb wbw`©ó w`‡K Ges evwK A‡a©K mgq GKB c‡_ Zvi wecixZ
w`‡K P‡j Zv‡K Z‡e Gi MwZ‡K ¯ú›`b MwZ e‡j| mij †`vj‡Ki MwZ, K¤úbgvb myikjvKvi MwZ, MxUv‡ii Zv‡ii MwZ
BZ¨vw` ¯ú›`b MwZi D`vniY|
mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`b (Simple Harmonic Oscillation):

hw` †Kvb e¯‘i MwZ hw` Ggb nq †h, Gi Dci wµqviZ Z¡iY me©`v mvg¨ve¯’vb n‡Z KYvi mi‡Yi mgvbycvwZK I
wecixZgyLx nq, Z‡e e¯‘i H MwZ‡K mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`b e‡j| Aíwe¯Ív‡i mij †`vj‡Ki MwZ, K¤úbgvb myikjvKvi MwZ,
MxUv‡ii Zv‡ii MwZ BZ¨vw` mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`b MwZi D`vniY|
mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`‡bi êwkó (Charecteristics of Simple Harmonic Oscillation):

1| GwU GKwU ch©ve„Ë MwZ
2| GwU GKwU ¯ú›`b MwZ
3| GwU GKwU mij îwLK MwZ
4| †h †Kvb mgq Z¡i‡Yi gvb mvg¨ve¯’vb †_‡K mi‡Yi gv‡bi mgvbycvwZK I wecixZgywL|
5| Z¡iY me©`v GKwU wbw`©ó we›`y AwfgyLx|
K¤úv¼ (Frequency):
GKK mg‡q hZ¸‡jv c~Y© ¯ú›`b m¤úbœ nq Kv‡K K¤úv¼ e‡j| G‡K f ev n Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| Gi GKK Hz|
we¯Ívi (Amplitude):
mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`bkxj †Kvb KYv Gi mvg¨ve¯’vb †_‡K †h †Kvb GK w`‡K †h m‡e©v”P `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i Zv‡K Gi we¯Ívi
e‡j| we¯Ívi‡K a Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| Gi GKK wgUvi|
`kv (Phase):
mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`bkxj †Kvb KYvi `kv ej‡Z H KYvi †h †Kvb gyn‡~ Z© MwZi mvg¨K Ae¯’v A_©vr KYvwUi miY, †eM, Z¡iY,
ej BZ¨vw` eySvq|

08| mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`b (Simple Harmonic Oscillation) 2

mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`‡bi eëKjbxq mgxKiY (Differential Equation of Simple Harmonic Motion ):
Avgiv Rvwb mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`‡bi Z¡iY mi‡Yi mgvbycvwZK Ges wecixZgyLx| Kv‡RB mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`‡bi †ÿ‡Î ejI
mi‡Yi mgvbycvwZK Ges wecixZgyLx n‡e| †KvY KYvi Dci wµqvkxj ej F Ges miY x n‡j mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`‡bi †ÿ‡Î
F  x
 F   kx GLv‡b k GKwU aªæeK| GB k †K ejv nq ej aªæeK| Avevi wbDU‡bi MwZi wØZxq m~Î ‡_‡K
Avgiv Rvwb, e¯‘i fi m I Z¡iY a n‡j ej F=ma n‡e|
A_©vr, ma = F
 ma   kx  F  kx 
dv  dv 
 m   kx a  
dt  dt 
d  dx   dx 
 m     kx v  
dt  dt   dt 
2
d x
 m 2  kx
dt
2
d x k
 2  x
dt m
2
d x k
 2  x  0 ... ... ... (1)
dt m
k k
Avevi Avgiv Rvwb,   ev,   2 GB gvb mgxKiY (1) G ewm‡q cvB,
m m
2
d x
2
  2 x  0 BnvB mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`‡bi eëKjbxq mgxKiY| GLv‡b †K MwZi †KŠwbK K¤úv¼ e‡j|
dt
mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`‡bi eëKjbxq mgxKi‡Yi mgvavb (Solution of Differential Equation of SHM) :
mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`‡bi eëKjbxq mgxKiY
d2x
2
 2 x  0
dt
a‡i ‡bB, Gi GKwU mgvavb nj, x  A sin (t  ) GLb GwU †h, eëKjbxq mgxKi‡Yi GKwU mgvavb Zv Avgiv
wb‡b¥v³ Dcv‡q hvPvB Ki‡Z cvwi| mgxKiY x  A sin (t  ) †K mg‡qi mv‡c‡ÿ cici `yB evi eëKjb K‡i cvB,
dx d
 A sin( t  )
dt dt
dx
   A cos (t  )
dt
d2x
 2   2 A sin (t  )
dt
d2x
 2   2 x  A sin (t  )  x 
dt
d2x d2x
2
   2
x GB gvb 2
  2 x  0 mgxKi‡Y ewm‡q cvB,
dt dt
evgcÿ =   x   x  0
2 2
ev, evgcÿ = Wvbcÿ


myZivs ‡`Lv hvq eëKjbxq mgxKi‡Y x  A sin (t  ) emv‡j mgxKiYwU wm× nq| Kv‡RB GwU mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`‡bi
eëKjbxq mgxKi‡Yi GKwU mgvavb|
mij †`vjK (Simple Pendulum) :

GKwU fvix AvqZbnxb e¯‘KYv‡K IRbnxb, bgbxq I AcÖmviYkxj myZv w`‡q
Szwj‡q w`‡j GwU hw` webv evavq Gw`K Iw`K `yj‡Z cv‡i Z‡e Zv‡K mij
†`vjK e‡j| wKš‘ ev¯Í‡e G iKg †`vjK cvIqv m¤¢e bq| ZvB GKwU nvjKv
myZvi mvnv‡h¨ †Kvb `„p Aej¤^b †_‡K GKwU fvix e¯‘ Szwj‡q w`‡j e¯‘wU hw`
webv evavq Gw`K Iw`K `yj‡Z cv‡i Z‡e myZv mn GB e¨ve¯’v‡K mij †`vjK
e‡j| Wvb cv‡k©¦i wPÎwU mij †`vj‡Ki wPÎ|
ee (Bob) : ‡h fvix e¯‘‡K myZvi mvnv‡h¨ Szwj‡q mij †`vjK ˆZix Kiv nq Zv‡K ee e‡j| wP‡Î ee C
Syjb we›`y (Point of suspension): †h we›`y †_‡K myZvi mvnv‡h¨ ee‡K Szjvb nq ‡mB we›`y‡K Szjb we›`y e‡j| wP‡Î O
n‡”Q Szjb we›`y|
Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ : Szjbwe›`y †_‡K e‡ei fvi‡K›`ª ch©šÍ `~iZ¡‡K mij †`vj‡Ki Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ e‡j| wP‡Î Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ OC=L
| †`vj‡Ki myZvi ˆ`N©¨ l Ges e‡ei e¨vmva© r n‡j Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ L= l+r n‡e|
¯^í we¯Ív‡i ¯úw›`Z mij †`vj‡Ki MwZ mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`b MwZ :
g‡bKwi, AB GKwU mij †`vjK| B Gi fvi‡K›`ª| m Gi fi| †`vjKwU‡K †`vj w`‡j  †KŠwbK miY m„wó K‡i AC
Ae¯’v‡b Av‡m| GLb C we›`y‡Z Gi IRb mg Lvov wb‡Pi w`‡K wµqv K‡i| GB IRb‡K `ywU ci¯úi j¤^ Dcvs‡k fvM Kiv
hvq| GKwU myZvi ˆ`N©¨ eivei CD -Gi w`‡K mgcos Ges AciwU mgsin Gi mv‡_ j¤^fv‡e ¯úk©K eivei CE
Gi w`‡K wµqv K‡i| mgcos DcvskwU myZvi Uvb T Øviv wbw®Œq nq, myZivs GKgvÎ Kvh©Kix ej F n‡”Q mgsin Ges Gi
w`K mg¨ve¯’v‡bi w`‡K|
 F =  mgsin‡h‡nZz Kvh©Ki ej mi‡Yi wecixZ w`‡K ZvB FbvZ¥K wPý
eënvi Kiv n‡q‡Q| GKvh©Kix e‡ji Rb¨ Z¡iY a n‡j,
F = ma
 ma =  mgsin
 a =  gsin
 Gi gvb Lye Kg n‡j, A_©vr 4º Gi †ekx bv n‡j sin†iwWqvb‡jLv hvq|
 a =  g
Pvc  Pvc 
 a  g    
e¨vmva  e¨vmva  
Pvc BC
 a  g 
e¨vmva  AC
‡h‡nZz BC n‡”Q miY x Ges AC n‡”Q Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ L|
x
 a  g 
L
g g
a   x wKš‘ wbw`©ó ¯’v‡b wbw`©ó †`vj‡Ki Rb¨ GKwU aªæeK| G‡K  Øviv cÖKvk Ki‡j
L L
a  2 x ... ... ... (1) GwU mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`‡bi kZ©|
myZivs ¯^í we¯Ív‡i ¯úw›`Z mij †`vj‡Ki MwZ mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`b MwZ, †h †ÿ‡Î


g g
2  ev,  
L L
myZivs mij †`vj‡Ki †`vjbKvj ev ch©vqKvj
2 L
T   2 ... ... ... ... (2) Bnv mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`b MwZi mgxKiY| d‡j mgxKiY (1) I (2) †_‡K
 g
ejv hvq, ¯^í we¯Ív‡i ¯úw›`Z mij †`vj‡Ki MwZ mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`b MwZ (cÖgvwbZ)|
mij‡`vj‡Ki m~Î eY©bv (Laws of Simple Pendulum):
1g m~Î, mgKvj m~Î : †KŠwbK we¯Ívi 4º Gi †ekx bv n‡j Ges †`vj‡Ki Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ AcwiewZ©Z _vK‡j †Kvb wbw`©ó ¯’v‡b
GKwU mij †`vj‡Ki cÖwZwU †`vj‡bi Rb¨ mgvb mgq jvM‡e|
2q m~Î, ˆ`‡N©ï m~Î: †KŠwbK we¯Ívi 4º Gi †ekx bv n‡j †Kvb wbw`©ó ¯’v‡b GKwU mij †`vj‡Ki ‡`vjb Kvj Gi Kvh©Kix
ˆ`‡N©ï eM©g~‡ji mgvbycvwZK| †`vjbKvj T Ges Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ L n‡j
m~Îvbyhvqx, T  L n‡e, hLb AwfKl©R Z¡iY g = aªæeK|
3q m~Î, Z¡i‡Yi m~Î: †KŠwbK we¯Ívi 4º Gi †ekx bv n‡j Ges †`vj‡Ki Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ AcwiewZ©Z _vK‡j †Kvb ¯’v‡b GKwU
mij †`vj‡Ki ‡`vjb Kvj H ¯’v‡bi AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi eM©g‡~ ji e¨v¯ÍvbycvwZK| †`vjbKvj T Ges AwfKl©R Z¡iY g n‡j
1
m~Îvbyhvqx, T  n‡e, hLb Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ L = aªæeK|
g
4_© m~Î, f‡ii m~Î : †KŠwbK we¯Ívi 4º Gi †ekx bv n‡j Ges †`vj‡Ki Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ AcwiewZ©Z _vK‡j †Kvb wbw`©ó
¯’v‡b GKwU mij †`vj‡Ki ‡`vjb Kvj e‡ei fi, AvqZb, Dcv`vb BZ¨vwì Dci wbf©i K‡i bv| wewfbœ fi, AvqZb ev
Dcv`v‡bi e‡ei Rb¨ †`vjbKvj GKB n‡e|
LT2 ‡jL wP‡Îi cÖK…wZ †Kgb n‡e?
mij †`vj‡Ki 2q m~Î †_‡K Avgiv cvB,
T L
ev, T 2  L
 T 2  aªæeK  L
GKwU QK KvM‡R X A‡ÿi w`‡K L Ges Y A‡ÿi w`‡K T2 Gi Abylw½K gvb ¯’vcb K‡i GKwU †jLwPÎ AsKb Ki‡j
†jLwPÎwU g~jwe›`y Mvgx GKwU mij †iLv n‡e| BnvB LT2 ‡jL wP‡Îi cÖK…wZ|


mij †`vj‡Ki mvnv‡h¨ AwfKl©R Z¡iY ''g"Gi gvb wbY©‡qi c×wZ (Determination of acceleration due to gravity
"g" by simple Pendulum):
AwfKl©R Z¡iY (Acceleration due to gravity): AwfKl© e‡ji cÖfv‡e gy³fv‡e cošÍ e¯‘i †eM e„w×i nvi‡K AwfKl©R
Z¡iY e‡j| AwfKl©R Z¡iY‡K g Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| mij ‡`vj‡Ki †`vjbKv‡ji mgxKiY †_‡K Avgiv Rvwb,
L
T  2
g
L
 T 2  4 2
g
L
 g  4 2 2 ... ... ... ... (3)
T
GB mgxKiY †_‡K †Kvb ¯’v‡b L Kvh©Kix ˆ`‡N©ï mij †`vj‡Ki †`vjbKvj T
wbY©q K‡i H ¯’v‡bi AwfKl©R Z¡iY g wbY©q Kiv hvq|
mij †`vjK ˆZix : ÷v‡Ûi mvnv‡h¨ GKwU ûK †_‡K †Kvb k³ myZv Øviv GKwU ÿz`ª fvix †MvjK Szwj‡q mij †`vjK ˆZix
Kiv nq| GB †MvjK‡K ee e‡j|
Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ L wbY©q: ‡`vj‡Ki Szjb we›`y †_‡K e‡ei fvi‡K›`ª ch©šÍ `~iZ¡‡K mij †`vj‡Ki Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ L e‡j| cÖ_‡g
GKwU wgUvi †¯‹‡ji mvnv‡h¨ myZvi Szjb we›`y A_©vr ûK †_‡K e‡ei Dcwic„ô ch©šÍ `~iZ¡ l †g‡c †bIqv nq| Gici GKwU
aªyeK K¨vwjcv‡m©i mvnv‡h¨ e‡ei e¨vm wbY©q K‡i e¨vmva© r wbY©q Kiv nq| Zvn‡j †`vj‡Ki Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ L=l+r |
†`vjbKvj T wbY©q: mij †`vj‡Ki GKwU c~Y© †`vj‡bi Rb¨ †h mgq jv‡M Zv‡K †`vjb Kvj e‡j| †`vjKwU‡K mvg¨ve¯’v
†_‡K GKcv‡k Ggbfv‡e GKUz †U‡b †Q‡o †`qv nq hv‡Z GwU `yj‡Z _v‡K Ges †KŠwbK we¯Ívi 4º -Gi †ekx bv nq| GKwU
_vgv Nwoi mvnv‡h¨ 20 ev 25 wU †`vj‡bi mgq wbY©q K‡i H mgq‡K †`vjb msL¨v w`‡q fvM K‡i GKwU †`vj‡bi mgq
A_©vr †`vjbKvj T †ei Kiv nq|
L
Mo wbY©q: myZvi ˆ`N©¨ cwieZ©b K‡i †`vj‡Ki Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ L cwieZ©b Kiv nq Ges wewfbœ Kvh©Kix ˆ`‡N©ï Rb¨
T2
L L L
†`vjbKvj L wbY©q K‡i cÖwZ †ÿ‡Î 2
†ei K‡i Mo 2 wbY©q Kiv nq| GB 2 Gi Mo gvb (3) bs mgxKi‡Y ewm‡q g
T T T
Gi gvb wbY©q Kiv nq|
‡jLwPÎ †_‡K L I T2 wbY©q: GKwU QK KvM‡Ri X A‡ÿi w`‡K L -Gi wewfbœ gvb Ges
Y A‡ÿi w`‡K Avbylw½K T2 -Gi gvb ¯’vcb K‡i †jL A¼b Kiv nq| †jLwU g~jwe›`y Mvgx
GKwU mij †iLv nq| GB mij †iLvi Dci †h †Kvb GKwU we›`y P wb‡q P n‡Z X A‡ÿi
Dci PM Ges Y A‡ÿi PN j¤^ Uvbv nq| Zvn‡j †h †Kvb ˆ`N©¨ L=OM -Gi Rb¨
†`vjbKv‡ji eM© T2 = ON cvIqv hvq|
djvdj: †jL †_‡K cÖvß GB L I T2 -Gi gvb (3) bs mgxKi‡Y ewm‡q g -Gi gvb wn‡me Kiv nq|
L
g  4 2
T2
OM
 g  4 2
ON


mZK©Zv : 1| †`vj‡Ki †KŠwbK we¯Ívi hv‡Z 4º Gi †ekx bv nq †m w`‡K jÿ¨ ivLv nq|
2| L Gi gvb h_v m¤¢e †ekx †bIqv nq|
3| †`vjvi mgq †`vjK hv‡Z cvK bv Lvq †m w`‡K jÿ ivLv nq|
4| _vgv Nwo mwVK fv‡e †Lvjv I eÜ Kiv nq|
‡m‡KÛ †`vjK: †h †`vj‡Ki †`vjbKvj 2 †m‡KÛ A_©vr †h †`vj‡Ki GK cÖvšÍ †_‡K Aci cÖv‡šÍ †h‡Z GK †m‡KÛ mgq
jv‡M Zv‡K †m‡KÛ †`vjK e‡j| †m‡KÛ †`vjK 1 †m‡K‡Û GKwU Aa©‡`vjb m¤úbœ K‡i|
w¯cÖs RwbZ ¯ú›`b: GKwU w¯cÖs Gi †ÿ‡Î ch©vq Kv‡ji mv‡_ ej aªæeK I f‡ii g‡a¨ m¤úK© wbb©q:
‡Kvb w¯cÖs-Gi GK cÖvšÍ GKwU `„p Aej¤^‡bi mv‡_ mv‡_ hy³ K‡i G‡Z GKwU fi Szjv‡j w¯cÖswU Uvb Uvb Ae¯’vq _vK‡e|
AZtci fiwU‡K GKUz †U‡b †Q‡o w`‡j GUv mij Qw›`Z ¯úw›`Z n‡e| A_©vr, w¯cÖswU ch©vqµ‡g msKzwPZ I cÖmvwiZ n‡e
Ges fiwU Dc‡i wb‡P ¯úw›`Z n‡e| A_©vr, w¯cÖswU ch©vqµ‡g msKzwPZ I cÖmvwiZ n‡e Ges fiwU Dc‡i I wb‡P ¯úw›`Z
n‡e| wPÎ(K) bs wP‡Î w¯cÖswU ¯^vfvweK Ae¯’vq i‡q‡Q| hw` w¯cÖswUi mv‡_ m fi Szjv‡bv Ae¯’vq w¯cÖswU e cwigv‡Y
cÖmvwiZ n‡q mvg¨ve¯’vq _v‡K| [wPÎ (L)], Z‡e GB Ae¯’vq w¯cÖs -Gi Uvb
n‡e, To = mg ... ... ... (1)| w¯cÖswU hw` w¯’wZ¯’vcKZvi mxgv AwZµg bv K‡i, Z‡e û‡Ki m~Îvbymv‡i, To  e
 To= k e ... ... ... (2) GLv‡b, k n‡jv w¯cÖs Gi ej aªæeK ev w¯cÖs aªæeK| AZGe fi Szjv‡bv Ae¯’vq (1) I (2) n‡Z
Avgiv cvB, mg = k e ... ... ... ... ... (3)
GLb m fi‡K wb‡Pi w`‡K LvwbKUv †U‡b †Q‡o w`‡j GwU Dc‡i-wb‡P
`yj‡Z _v‡K| aiv hvK, †Kvb GK mgq mvg¨ve¯’vb n‡Z fiwUi miY x
[wPÎ (M)] Ges GB Ae¯’vq w¯cÖs-Gi Uvb, T  k(x  e) ... ... ... (4) ;
fiwUi Z¡iY a n‡j,  F  ma ... ... ... ...(5) mgxKiY eënvi K‡i cvB,
mg  T  ma ... ... ... ...(6)
(6) bs mgxKi‡Y mg I T Gi gvb ewm‡q cvB,
 k e  k(x  e)  ma
 ma   kx
k
a x
m
 k 2
 a   ω 2 x ... ... ... ... (7)  m  ω 
(7) bs mgxKiY mij Qw›`Z MwZi mgxKiY| AZGe m fiwU mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`‡b ¯úw›`Z nq| G†ÿ‡Î m f‡ii
k
†KŠwbK K¤úv¼, ω  Ges ch©vq Kvj T  2π  2π m ... ... ... ... (8)
m ω k
m e e
mg = k e ... ... ... (3)   eënvi K‡i cvB, T  2π
k g g
(8) bs mgxKiY ch©vq Kv‡ji mv‡_ ej aªæeK I f‡ii g‡a¨ m¤úK© |


GKwU mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`‡bi KYvi †ÿ‡Î hvwš¿K kw³i iwkgvjv cÖwZcv`b (Energy of Particle Executing Simple
Harmonic Motion):
aiv hvK, m f‡ii GKwU e¯‘KYv mij Qw›`Z MwZ‡Z ¯ú›`bkxj| MwZi we¯Ívi A Ges †KŠwbK K¤úv¼ | KYvi
miY hLb x ZLb Gi †eM, v   A 2  x 2 ... ... ... ... (1)
1 1 1 k
MwZ kw³ : x Ae¯’v‡b KYvi MwZkw³, K  mv 2  m 2 (A 2  x 2 )  m  (A 2  x 2 )
2 2 2 m
1
ev, K  k (A 2 x 2 ) ... ... ... ... (2)
2
w¯’wZkw³ ev wefe kw³ : ga¨ ¯’vb (x =0) †_‡K x mi‡Yi Rb¨ cÖZ¨qbx e‡ji weiæ‡× †h cwigvY KvR m¤úbœ n‡e Zv
e¯‘‡Z w¯’wZkw³ iƒ‡c mwÂZ _vK‡e| cÖZ¨qbx ej, F  kx; awi miY m„wóKvix ej F; hv F Gi mgvb I wecixZgyLx|
 F  kx ;
AwZ Aí dx mi‡Yi Rb¨ cÖZ¨qbx e‡ji weiæ‡× K…Z KvR  F dx;
x x x
x2  x
†gvU KvR = w¯’wZkw³  U   Fdx  kx dx  k  x dx  k  
o o o 2o
 x2  1 1
 k   0  kx 2 ev, U  kx 2 ... ... ... (3)
2  2 2
1 1 1
†gvU kw³, E  K  U  k (A 2  x 2 )  kx 2  kA 2
2 2 2
1
 E  kA 2 ... ... ... ... ... (4)
2
AZGe, wbw`©ó we¯Ív‡ii Rb¨ †gvU kw³ aªæe _v‡K| Dc‡iv³ mgxKiY †_‡K Av‡iv Rvbv hvq †h, EA 2
MwZkw³, w¯’wZkw³ I †gvUkw³i †iL wPÎ :

1
mgxKiY (2) Abyhvqx, K  k (A 2  x 2 )
2
KYvwU x  0 Ae¯’vb AwZµg Kv‡j m‡e©v”P MwZkw³ jvf K‡i|
1
K max  kA 2 ... ... ... ... (5)
2
Avevi, MwZkw³i me©wbgœ gvb x  A †Z cvIqv hvq|
K min  0 ... ... ... ... (6)
1
mgxKiY (3) Abyhvqx, U  kx 2 , x  A n‡j, A_©vr KYvi miY we¯Ív‡ii mgvb n‡j w¯’wZkw³ m‡e©v”P nq|
2
1
U max  kA 2 ... ... ... ... (7)
2
x  0, Ae¯’v‡b w¯’wZ kw³ me©wbgœ nq|
U min  0 ... ... ... ... (8)
mgxKiY (2) I (3) eënvi K‡i, x Gi †h †Kvb gv‡bi Rb¨ K I U wbY©q Kiv hvq|
Dc‡iv³ wPÎ n‡”Q mi‡Yi Av‡cÿK wn‡m‡e w¯’wZkw³, MwZkw³ Ges †gvU kw³|

8| mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`b (Simple Harmonic Oscillation)
1| mij Qw›`Z MwZ‡Z Pjgvb GKwU e¯‘i we¯Ívi 0.01m I K¤úv¼ g M M M R 2E

12Hz | e¯‘wUi 0.005m mi‡Y ‡eM KZ?   2 
gE RM ME
Avgiv Rvwb,
gM M (4R) 2
v  ω A2  x2 ev,  
g E R 2 81M
ev, v  2 f A2  x 2 GLv‡b, g 16
ev , v  2  3.14  12  (0.01)  (0.005) we¯Ívi, A = 0.01 m
2 2  M  ...........(6)
g E 81
K¤úv¼, f = 12 Hz
ev, v  75.36 0.0001 0.000025 GLb (3) bs mgxKi‡Y gvb ewm‡q cvB,
miY, x = 0.005 m
ev , v  75.36  0.000075 ‡eM, v = ? 2 16
 
ev , v  75.36  0.00866 TM 81
ev , v  75.36  0.00866 2 4
 
 v  0.6526 m s -1 (Ans.) TM 9
29
2| ‡Kvb w¯cÖs Gi cÖv‡šÍ GKwU e¯‘ Szjv‡j GwU 20cm cÖmvwiZ nq|  TM 
e¯‘wU‡K GKUz †U‡b †Q‡o w`‡j K¤úv¼ KZ n‡e? 4
Avgiv Rvwb,  T M  4 . 5 s (Ans.)
e
T  2π 4| GKwU mij †`vj‡Ki †`vjbKvj 25% evov‡Z Gi Kvh©Kix ˆ`‡N©ï
g
wKiƒc cwiKZ©b Ki‡Z n‡e?
0.2
ev , T  2  3 . 14  T1 L1
9.8 GLv‡b,  GLv‡b,
ev, T  6.28  0.142857s cÖmviY, e =20cm= 0.2m T2 L2 ‰`N©¨, L1 = L
 T  0.897142 s K¤úv¼, f = ? T L ‰`N©¨, L2 = ?
  ‡`vjbKvj, T1 =T
1 5T L2
Avevi, f  ‡`vjbKvj,
T 4
T2 =T+T/4=5T/4
1 4T L
f  Hz  
0.897142 5T L2
 f  1 . 11 Hz (Ans.) 16 L
 
25 L 2
3| GKwU †m‡KÛ †`vjK f~-c„‡ô mwVK mgq †`q| P›`ª c„‡ô wb‡q
25
†M‡j Gi †`vjbKvj KZ n‡e? c„w_exi e¨vmva© P‡›`ªi e¨vmv‡a©i 4 ¸b  L2  L
Ges c„w_exi fi P‡›`ªi f‡ii 81 ¸b| 16
Avgiv Rvwb,  L 2  1.5625L DËit ˆ`N©¨ 1.5625 ¸b Ki‡Z n‡e?
L GLv‡b,
TE  2 π .....( 1 ) 5| 1m ˆ`N©¨ wewkó GKwU mij †`vjK cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û 2 wU †`vjb m¤úbœ
gE f~-c„‡ô †`vjbKvj,TE = 2s
K‡i| AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi gvb wbY©q Ki|
P›`ªc„‡ô †`vjbKvj, TM = ?
L Avgiv Rvwb,
Ges, TM  2π ....(2) awi, P‡›`ªi e¨vmva©, RM = R GLv‡b,
gM c„w_exi e¨vmva©,RE = 4R L
T  2 ‰`N©¨, L =1wgUvi
T gM P‡›`ªi fi, MM = M g ‡`vjbKvj,
 E  ......( 3 ) c„w_exi fi, ME = 81M
TM gE L 1
 T 2  4 2 T s  0.5s
g 2
GM M AwfKl©R Z¡iY, g= ?
Avevi, g M  ........(4) L
R 2M  g  4 2 2
GM E T
Ges, g E  ........(5) 1
R 2E  g  4  9.87 
0.52

 g = 157.92 ms-2 (Ans.) TA LA


TB LB GLv‡b,
6| GKwU †m‡KÛ †`vj‡Ki ˆ`N©¨ wbY©q Ki| ‡`vj‡Ki ˆ`N©¨, LB=L awi
TA 4L ‡`vj‡Ki ˆ`N©¨, LA=4L
Avgiv Rvwb,  
2 L ‡`vjb Kvj, TB = 2 s
L T ‡`vjb Kvj, TA =?
T  2  A 2
g †`vjb Kvj, T =2 Sec
AwfKl©R Z¡iY, 2
L  TA  4s (Ans.)
 T 2  4 2 g = 9.8ms-2
g †`vj‡Ki ˆ`N©¨, L=?
gT 2 10| mij Qw›`Z MwZ‡Z Pjgvb GKwU KYvi m‡e©Ÿv”P †eM 0.02ms-1Ges
L 2 we¯Ívi 0.004m n‡j KYvwUi ch©vq Kvj KZ?
4
Vmax = A
9.8  2 2 V 0.02 GLv‡b,
L m    max  rad s 1
4  9.87 A 0.004 we¯Ívi, A = 0.004 m
 L  0.99 m (Ans.) = 5 rad s-1 m‡eŸ©v”P ‡eM, Vmax = 0.02ms-1
2 ch©vqKvj T =?
Avivi, ch©vqKvj, T 
7| ‡Kvb mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`b KYvi we¯Ívi 3cm Ges m‡ev©”P †eM 
6.24cms-1 n‡j, KYvwUi ch©vqKvj KZ? 2  3.14
Avgiv Rvwb, T s
5
Vmax = A GLv‡b,  T  1.256 s (Ans.)
Vmax 6.24  10 2 we¯Ívi,
   rad s 1
A 3  10  2 A = 3 cm = 3×10-2 m
m‡eŸ©v”P ‡eM, 11| 40cm `xN© GKwU mij †`vjK cÖwZ wgwb‡U 40 evi †`vj Lvq| hw`
= 2 .08 rad s-1
Vmax= 6.24cms-1 Gi ˆ`N©¨ 160cm nq Z‡e 60 evi `yj‡Z KZ mgq †b‡e?
2 Avgiv Rvwb,
Avivi, ch©vqKvj, T  = 6.24×10-2 ms-1
 ch©vqKvj,T = ? GLv‡b,
T1 L1 ‡`vj‡Ki ˆ`N©¨, L1= 40cm= 0.4m
2  3.14 
T s T2 L2 60 3
2.08 ‡`vjb Kvj, T1  s s
 T  3 s (Ans.) 3 0. 4 40 2
  ‡`vj‡Ki ˆ`N©¨, L2= 160cm= 1.6m
2T2 1.6
8| mij Qw›`Z MwZ m¤úbœ GKwU KYvi MwZi mgxKiY
3 ‡`vjb Kvj, T2 =?
Y=10sin (t + ), ch©vqKvj 30s Ges Avw` miY 0.05m n‡j   0.5 60 evi `yj‡Z mgq 60T2 =?
KYvwUi (i) †KŠwbK K¤úv¼; (ii) Avw``kv wbY©q Ki| 2T2
Avgiv Rvwb,  T2  3s
2  60T2  3  60s  180s  3 Minute (Ans.)
(i)  
T GLv‡b,
2  3.14 ch©vqKvj , T =30s 12| †Kvb ¯’v‡b GKwU †m‡KÛ †`vj‡Ki ˆ`N©¨ 1m| †h †`vjK H ¯’v‡b
 rad s 1 miY, Y = 0.05m
30 cÖwZ wgwb‡U 25 evi †`vj †`q Zvi ˆ`N©¨ †ei Ki|
(i) ‡KŠwbK K¤úv¼, =? Avgiv Rvwb,
   0 . 21 rad s 1
(ii) Y = 10sin (t + ) (ii) Avw` `kv  =? T1 L1 GLv‡b, †`vjb Kvj, T1 =2s

 0.05 =10× sin (×0 + ) T2 L2 ˆ`N©¨, L1=1m
0.05 2  25 1 60
 Sin   0.005   †`vjb Kvj, T2 = s
10 60 L2 25
   0.286 (Ans.) 25 1 ˆ`N©¨, L2=?
9| GKwU mij †`vjK A Gi ˆ`N©¨ Aci GKwU mij †`vjK B Gi  
36 L 2
ˆ`‡N©ï 4 ¸Y| †`vjK B Gi †`vjb Kvj 2s n‡j A Gi †`vjb Kvj
36
KZ?  L2   1.44 m (Ans.)
Avgiv Rvwb, 25

cøvRgv Ae¯’v (Plasma State):

AZ¨šÍÍ D”P ZvcgvÎvq c`v_©‡K DËß Ki‡j c`v‡_©i cigvbyi wbDwK¬qvm‡K wN‡i _vKv B‡jKUª‡bi GK ev GKvwaK B‡jKUªb
gy³ n‡q hvq| B‡jKUªb gy³ nIqvi d‡j c`v_©wU FbvZ¥K PvR© hy³ gy³ B‡jKUªb I abvZ¥K PvR©hy³ Avq‡bi mgwó nq|
†Kvb c`v‡_©i G ai‡bi mgvb msL¨K abvZ¥K Avqb I FbvZ¥K Avqbhy³ AwZ D”P AvqwbZ M¨vm‡K ejv nq cøvRgv
Ae¯’v|
AvšÍtAvbweK ej: (Intermolecular force): mKj c`v_©B ÿz`ª ÿz`ª KYv w`‡q MwVZ hv c`v‡_©i me ¸Y eRvq iv‡L| G me
ÿy`ª KYv‡K AYy e‡j| c`v_© MV‡bi mgq AYy¸‡jv ci¯ú‡ii cvkvcvwk _v‡K Ges Zv‡ì g‡a¨ AwZ ÿz`ª cwigv‡bi duvKv
¯’vb _v‡K| GB duvKv ¯’vb‡K AvšÍtAvbweK ej ¯’vb e‡j| AvšÍtAvbweK `~i‡Z¡i cwigvb 10-9 †_‡K 10-10m| AYy¸‡jv GB
cwigvb `~i‡Z¡ †_‡K ci¯úi‡K GKwU e‡j AvKl©Y K‡i| GB AvKl©Y ej‡K AvšÍtAvbweK ej e‡j|
w¯’wZ¯’vcKZv (Elasticity):
†h a‡g©i d‡j e‡ji wµqvq weK…Z e¯‘ cÖhy³ ej Acmvi‡b cye©ve¯’vq wd‡i Av‡m ev Avm‡Z Pvq, Zv‡K w¯’wZ¯’vcKZv e‡j
Ges H e¯‘‡K w¯’wZ¯’vcK e¯‘ e‡j|
c~Y© w¯’wZ¯’vcK e¯‘ (Absolute Elastic Body): evwn¨K ej AcmvwiZ n‡j hw` weK…Z e¯‘ wVK Av‡Mi AvKvi I AvqZb
wd‡i cvq Zvn‡j H e¯‘‡K c~Y© w¯’wZ¯’vcK e¯‘ e‡j|
w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgv (Elastic Limit): †h gv‡bi ej ch©šÍ †Kvb e¯‘ c~Y© w¯’wZ¯’vcK e¯‘i b¨vq AvPiY K‡i A_©vr me©v‡cÿv †ekx
†h ej cÖ‡qvM K‡i ej AcmviY Ki‡j e¯‘wU c~e©ve¯’vq wd‡i hvq Zv‡K e‡ji †mB m‡e©v”P mxgv‡K w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgv e‡j|
`„p e¯‘ (Rigid Body): evwn¨K e‡ji wµqvq hw` †Kvb e¯‘i weKvi bv nq Z‡e Zv‡K `„p e¯‘ e‡j|
cøvw÷K e¯‘ (Plastic Body): evwn¨K e‡ji wµqvq †Kvb e¯‘i weK…wZ NU‡j Ges cÖhy³ e‡ji AcmvwiZ n‡j hw` e¯‘i
weK…Z Ae¯’v eRvq _v‡K Z‡e Zv‡K cøvw÷K e¯‘ e‡j|
weK…wZ (Strain): evwn¨K e‡ji wµqvq †Kvb e¯‘i KvwqK cwieZ©b n‡j e¯‘wU weK…Z n‡q‡Q ejv nq| e¯‘i GKK gvÎvq
y~x
cwieZ©‡bi cwigvb‡K weK…wZ e‡j| †Kvb e¯‘i Avw` gvÎv x Ges weK…wZi ci gvÎv y n‡j Gi weK…wZ  n‡e,
x
weK…wZi †Kvb GKK ev gvÎv †bB KviY Giv `yBwU GKB cÖKvi ivwki AbycvZ|
cxob (Stress): evwn¨K e‡ji wµqvq †Kvb e¯‘i weK…wZ NU‡j Gi Af¨šÍ‡i GKUv cÖwZwµqvg~jK e‡ji D™¢e N‡U, hv
e¯‘Uv‡K c~e©ve¯Ívq wdwi‡q Avb‡Z cÖqvm cvq| e¯‘i GKK †ÿ‡Îi Dci wµqviZ GB cÖwZwµqv g~jK ej‡K cxob e‡j| A
F
†ÿÎd‡j F ej cÖhy³ n‡j cxob = n‡e| †ÿÎd‡ji w`K I e‡ji w`K GKB| ZvB ej I †ÿÎd‡ji fvMdj w`K
A
wbi‡cÿ nq| ZvB cxob †¯‹jvi ivwk|
e‡ ji gvÎv   MLT 2 
cxo‡ bi gvÎv       ML T 
1  2
 † ¶ Îd‡ ji gvÎv   L2


09| w¯’wZ¯’vcKZv (Elasticity) 2

e‡ ji GKK N
cxo‡ bi GKK   2  Nm 2 ev, Pa
† ¶ Îd‡ ji GKK m
cxo‡bi Zvrch© (Significance of Stress): †Kvb e¯‘i cxob 5×105 Nm-2 ej‡Z GB eywS †h, e¯‘i cÖwZ 1m2 †ÿÎd‡ji
Dci D™¢yZ cÖwZ‡ivaKvix e‡ji gvb 5×105 N |
w¯’wZ¯’vcK K¬vwšÍ (Elastic Fatigue): †Kvb Zv‡ii Dci µgvMZ cÖhy³ cxo‡bi n«vm e„w× Ki‡j e¯‘i w¯’wZ¯’vcKZv ag© n«vm
cvq| Gi d‡j ej Acmvi‡Yi mv‡_ mv‡_ e¯‘ Av‡Mi Ae¯’v wd‡i cvq bv wKQyUv †ìx nq| e¯‘i GB Ae¯’v‡K w¯’wZ¯’vcK
K¬vwšÍ e‡j| ZLb Amn fv‡ii †P‡q Kg fv‡i GgbwK w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgvi g‡a¨B e¯‘wU wQ‡o †h‡Z cv‡i|
Amnfvi: me©v‡cÿv Kg †h fv‡ii wµqvq †Kvb e¯‘ †f‡½ ev wQ‡o hvq, Zv‡K Amnfvi e‡j|
Amncxob: Amnfv‡ii wµqvq e¯‘‡Z †h cxob nq, Zv‡K Amncxob e‡j| A_©vr, Amncxob  Amnfvi
† ¶ Îdj
û‡Ki m~Î (Hooke's Law):
w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgvi g‡a¨ e¯‘i cxob Gi weK…wZi mgvbycvwZK|
A_©vr, cxob  weK…wZ|
ev, cxob = aªyeK × weK…wZ|
cxob
  aª æeK
weK … wZ
GB aªæe‡Ki gvb e¯‘i Dcv`vb Ges GK‡Ki c×wZi Dci wbf©i K‡i| GB aªæe msL¨v‡K e¯‘i Dcv`v‡bi w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼
ev w¯’wZ¯’vcK aªæeK e‡j|
w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸bv¼ (Elastic Constant) :

w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgvi g‡a¨ e¯‘i cxob I weK…wZi AbycvZ GKwU aªæe msL¨v| GB aªæe msL¨v‡K e¯‘i Dcv`v‡bi w¯’wZ¯’vcK
¸Yv¼e‡j|
Bqs Gi ¸bv¼ (Young's Modulus) :

w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgvi g‡a¨ e¯‘i ‰`N©¨ cxob I ‰`N©¨ weK…wZi AbycvZ GKwU aªæe msL¨v| GB aªæe msL¨v‡K e¯‘i Dcv`v‡bi
BqsGi ¸Yv¼e‡j| BqsGi ¸bv¼‡K Y Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq|
‰`N©¨ cxob
BqsGi ¸bv¼ Y = 
‰`N©¨ weK … wZ
Bqs Gi ¸Yv¼ GKwU †¯‹jvi ivwk| A cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì †ÿÎdj I L ‰`N©¨ wewkó GKwU Zvi †Kvb `„p Aej¤^b n‡Z Szwj‡q hw`
ZviwUi wb‡Pi cÖv‡šÍ F ej cÖ‡qvM Kiv nq Zvn‡j Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ l e„w× †c‡j,
F
l F FL
‰`N©¨ weK…wZ  Ges ‰`N©¨ cxob  myZivs Y  A  hw` ZviwUi wb‡P M fi Szjvb nq
L A l Al
L
Zvn‡j. F=Mg, GLv‡b g=AwfKl©R Z¡iY| Avevi ZviwUi e¨vmva© r n‡j †ÿÎdj A = r2| †m‡ÿ‡Î
MgL
Y hw` A =1GKK Ges l =L nq Z‡e mgxKiY Abymv‡i, F = Y nq|
r 2 l
myZivs GKK cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì †ÿÎdjwewkó †Kvb Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ eivei †h ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j ˆ`N©¨ weK…wZ GKK nq A_©vr ZviwUi
ˆ`N©¨ e„w× Avw` ‰`‡N©ï mgvb nq Zv‡K Bqs Gi ¸Yv¼ e‡j|
Gi GKK Nm-2 ev Pa| Gi gvÎv [ML-1T -2]


-2
BqsGi ¸Yv¼ 2×10 Nm ej‡Z GB eywS †h, 1m cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì †ÿÎdjwewkó B¯úv‡Zi `‡Ûi ˆ`N©¨ eivei 2×10 N ej
11 2 11
cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j Gi ˆ`N©¨ e„w× Avw` ˆ`‡N©ï mgvb nq|
fvwb©qvi c×wZ‡Z B¯úv‡Zi Zv‡ii BqsGi ¸Yv¼ wbY©q (Determination of Young's Modulus of Steel by Verneer Method )t
ZË¡t w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgvi g‡a¨ e¯‘i ‰`N©¨ cxob I ‰`N©¨ weK…wZi AbycvZ GKwU aªæe msL¨v| GB aªæe msL¨v‡K e¯‘i Dcv`v‡bi
BqsGi ¸Yv¼e‡j| BqsGi ¸bv¼‡K Y Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq|
BqsGi ¸bv¼ Y =
Bqs Gi ¸Yv¼ GKwU †¯‹jvi ivwk| A cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì †ÿÎdj I L ‰`N©¨ wewkó GKwU Zvi †Kvb `„p Aej¤^b n‡Z Szwj‡q hw`
ZviwUi wb‡Pi cÖv‡šÍ F ej cÖ‡qvM Kiv nq Zvn‡j Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ l e„w× †c‡j,
F
l F FL
‰`N©¨ weK…wZ  Ges ‰`N©¨ cxob  myZivs Y  A  hw` ZviwUi wb‡P M fi Szjvb nq
L A l Al
L
Zvn‡j. F=Mg, GLv‡b g = AwfKl©R Z¡iY| Avevi ZviwUi e¨vmva© r n‡j †ÿÎdj A = r2| †m‡ÿ‡Î
MgL
Y
r 2 l
DcwiD³ mgxKi‡Y Wvbw`‡Ki ivwk¸‡jv cixÿvi mvnv‡h¨ †ei K‡i Avgiv Bqs Gi ¸Yv¼ wbY©q Ki‡Z cvwi|
h‡š¿i eY©bv: †h c`v‡_©i BqsGi ¸Yv¼ wbY©q Ki‡Z n‡e †mB c`v‡_©i GKB e¨v‡mi `ywU Zvi AB I CD †K GKwU `„p
Aej¤^b ‡_‡K Szjvb nq| AB cixÿvaxb Zvi I CD mnvqK Zvi| CD Zv‡ii mv‡_ wgwjwgUv‡i `vMvw¼Z GKwU cÖavb
†¯‹j Ges AB Zv‡ii mv‡_ GKwU fvwb©qvi †¯‹j Ggbfv‡e AvUKvb _v‡K hv‡Z fvwb©qvi †¯‹jwU cÖavb †¯‹‡ji Mv †e‡q
euvavnxb fv‡e DVvbvgv Ki‡Z cv‡i| CD Zv‡ii †¯‹‡ji wb‡P GKwU ûK jvMv‡bv _v‡K| GB û‡Ki mv‡_ GKwU IRb Szwj‡q
CD ZviwU‡K UvbUvb K‡i ivLv nq|
‰`N©¨ wbY©q : GKwU wgUvi †¯‹‡ji mvnv‡h¨ cixÿvaxb Zvi A_©vr ABGi Szjb we›`y A †_‡K
fvwb©qvi ‡¯‹‡ji k~b¨ `vM O ch©šÍ ˆ`N©¨ AO †g‡c †bqv nq| GwU nj Zv‡ii Avw` ˆ`N©¨, L|
e¨vmva© wbY©q : ¯Œz M‡Ri mvnv‡h¨ AB Zv‡ii wewfbœ RvqMvq e¨vm †g‡c wb‡q Mo e¨vm d wbY©q Kiv
nq| GLb Mo e¨vm‡K `yB w`‡q fvM K‡i e¨vmva© r cvIqv hvq|
Amnfvi wbY©q: e¨vmva© wbY©‡qi ci cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì †ÿÎdj A=r2 †ei Kiv nq| GLb cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì
‡ÿÎdj‡K Zv‡ii Amn cxob w`‡q ¸b Ki‡j Amn fvi cvIqv hvq| AB Zv‡i Amn fv‡ii A‡a©K
ev ZviI Kg fi Pvcv‡j, w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgv AwZµg Ki‡e bv|
fvi I ˆ`N©¨ m¤cÖmviY wbY©q: GLb cÖavb †¯‹j I fvwY©qvi †¯‹‡ji cvV †`‡L †bqv nq| GwU n‡”Q
Avw` cvV| Gici AB Zv‡ii û‡K Avav kg IRb Szjvb nq| d‡j AB Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ e„w× nIqvq
fvwb©qvi †¯‹jwU wb‡P †b‡g hvq| GB Ae¯’vq cÖavb †¯‹j I fvwb©qvi †¯‹‡ji cvV †bIqv nq|
GB cvV I Avw` cv‡Vi cv_©K¨B nj Avav kg fv‡ii Rb¨ Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ cÖmviY| Giƒc fv‡e µgš^‡q
Avav kg K‡i fvi e„w× K‡i cÖwZ †ÿ‡Î cÖavb †¯‹j I fvwb©qvi †¯‹‡ji cvV †bIqv nq| cÖwZeviB
cÖvß cvV †_‡K Avw` cvV we‡qvM K‡i †gvU fv‡ii Rb¨ m¤cÖmviY wbY©q Kiv nq| Gici GKwU GKwU
K‡i Avav kg fvi bvwg‡q cÖ‡Z¨K evi cvV †bqv nq| G‡Z ˆ`N©¨ n«vm cvIqv hvq| Gi d‡j cÖ‡Z¨K
fv‡ii Rb¨ `ywU K‡i cvV cvIqv hv‡e| GKwU fvi e„w×i mgq AciwU fvi n«v‡mi mgq| GB `yB
cv‡Vi Mo ‡_‡K mswkøó fv‡ii Rb¨ ˆ`N©¨ m¤cÖmviY cvIqv hvq| Gfv‡e wewfbœ fvi Ges Zvi Rb¨ ˆ`N©¨ e„w× wbY©q Kiv
nq|

‡jL AsKb: X Aÿ eivei fvi M Ges Y Aÿ eivei ˆ`N©¨ eivei l wb‡q

†jLwPÎ A¼b Ki‡j g~jwe›`y Mvgx GKwU mij †iLv cvIqv hv‡e| GB †j‡Li
Dci †h †Kvb GKwU we›`y P †bIqv nq| P †_‡K OX Gi Dci PQ j¤^ Uvb‡j
OQ=M fv‡ii Rb¨ PQ=l ˆ`N©¨ e„w× cvIqv hv‡e|
MgL
djvdjt GLb Y  mgxKi‡Y , M, g, L, r I l Gi ewm‡q wnmve Ki‡j Y Gi gvb cvIqv hv‡e|
r 2l
mZK©Zv:
1| Zvi `ywU GKB c`v‡_©i Ges GKB ˆ`‡N©ï nIqv DwPZ|
2| cÖ_‡g wKQy IRb Pvwc‡q UviwU‡K UvbUvb K‡i wb‡Z nq|
3| wcQb ÎæwU cwinvi K‡i ¯ŒzMR‡K GKB w`‡K Nyivb nq|
4| Amn fv‡ii A‡a©K ev Zvi Kg fvi Pvcvb nq|
AvqZb ¸bv¼ (Bulk Modulus) t

w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgvi g‡a¨ e¯‘i AvqZb cxob I AvqZb weK…wZi AbycvZ GKwU aªæe msL¨v| GB aªæe msL¨v‡K e¯‘i Dcv`v‡bi
AvqZb ¸Yv¼e‡j| AvqZb ¸bv¼‡K B Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq|
F
AvqZb cxob FV pV  F 
AvqZb ¸bv¼, B  A   A  p 
AvqZb weK … wZ v Av v
V
msbg¨Zv (Compressibility) t w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgvi g‡a¨ e¯‘i AvqZb weK…wZ I AvqZb cxo‡bi AbycvZ‡K msbg¨Zv e‡j|
msbg¨Zv, AvqZb weK … wZ  1

1
AvqZb cxob AvqZb cxob B
AvqZb weK … wZ
`„pZvi ¸bv¼ ev KvwV‡bï ¸bv¼ (Modulus of rigidity)t
w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgvi g‡a¨ e¯‘i eëZ©b cxob I eëZ©b weK…wZi AbycvZ GKwU aªæe msL¨v| GB aªæe msL¨v‡K e¯‘i Dcv`v‡bi
`„pZvi ¸bv¼ ev KvwV‡bï ¸bv¼ e‡j| `„pZvi ¸bv¼ ev KvwV‡bï ¸bv¼ ‡K n Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq|
F
eëZ© b cxob F
`„pZvi ¸bv¼, n  A
eëZ© b weK … wZ  A
cqm‡bi AbycvZ (Poisson's Ratio):
w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgvi g‡a¨ e¯‘i cvk©¦ weK…wZ I ‰`N©¨ weK…wZi AvbycvZ GKwU aªæe msL¨v| GB aªæe msL¨v‡K e¯‘i Dcv`v‡bi
cqm‡bi AbycvZ e‡j| A_©vr cqm‡bi AbycvZ †K Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq|
A_©vr, cqm‡bi AbycvZ,  =
e¨vL¨v: e„ËvKvi cÖ¯’‡”Q` wewkó ‡Kvb Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ L I e¨vm D n‡j Ges evwn¨K e‡ji cÖfv‡e Gi
l d
ˆ`N©¨ e„w× l I e¨vm d cwigvb K‡g †M‡j, ˆ`N©¨ weK…wZ  Ges cvk¦© weK…wZ 
L D
d
dL
 cqm‡ bi AbycvZ,   D  e¨v‡mi cwie‡Z© e¨vmva© w`‡qI cqm‡bi AbycvZ‡K cÖKvk Kiv hvq|
l Dl
L
aivhvK, Zv‡ii Avw` ˆ`N©¨ L0 Ges e¨vmva© r| evwn¨K e‡ji cÖfv‡e Gi ˆ`N©¨ e„w× L Ges e¨vmva© n«vm r n‡j,


Δr
L r Δr L 0
ˆ`N©¨ weK…wZ  Ges cvk¦© weK…wZ   cqm‡ bi AbycvZ , σ   r   GLv‡b FbvZ¥K wPý Øviv
L0 r ΔL r ΔL
L0
eySvb n‡”Q †h, L abvZ¥K n‡j r FbvZ¥K n‡e Ges L FbvZ¥K n‡j r abvZ¥K n‡e| A_©vr ej cÖ‡qv‡M ˆ`N©¨ e„w×
†c‡j e¨vmva© n«vm cv‡e Avi ˆ`N©¨ n«vm †c‡j e¨vmva© e„w× cv‡e| weK…wZ GKB cÖKvi `ywU ivwki AbycvZ e‡j Gi †Kvb GKK
I gvÎv †bB| Avevi cqm‡bi AbycvZ I `yBwU GKB cÖKvi ivwki AbycvZ e‡j GiI †Kvb GKK I gvÎv †bB|
Zv‡ii m¤cÖmvi‡b K…ZKvR (Work done in stretching wire) ev mwÂZ wefe kw³ (Elastic Potential Energy) wbY©q ev,
†Kvb e¯‘i GKK AvqZ‡b mwÂZ w¯’wZ¯’vcK wefe kw³ cxob I weK…wZi ¸bd‡ji A‡a©K Gi cÖgvYt
g‡b Kwi, L ˆ`N©¨ I A cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì †ÿÎdj wewkó GKwU Zvi‡K †Kvb `„p Aej¤^b †_‡K Szwj‡q G‡Z F ej cÖ‡qvM Kivi
d‡j Gi ˆ`N©¨ dl cwigvb e„w× †cj| myZivs Zv‡i mwÂZ wefe kw³i cwieZ©b ev K…ZKvR n‡e = ej × ˆ`N©¨ e„w×
 K…Z KvR dW  Fdl
GB mgxKiY‡K l=0 †_‡K l=l GB mxgvi g‡a¨ mgvKjb K‡i mwÂZ †gvU wefe kw³ ev K…ZKvR cvB,
l
W   Fdl ... ... ... ... (1)
0
FL
Bqs Gi ¸bv¼ †_‡K Avgiv Rvwb †h, Y  †hLv‡b L Zv‡ii Avw` ˆ`N©¨ Ges A Zv‡ii cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì ‡ÿÎdj Ges l
Al
YAl
ˆ`N©¨ e„w×, F ej  F  (1) bs mgxKi‡Y F Gi gvb emv‡j,
L
l
YAl
W  dl
0
L
l
YA
L 0
W  l dl
l
YA  l 2 
W 
L  2  0
YA l 2
W  
L 2
1 YAl 2
W 
2 L
W
GKK AvqZ‡b mwÂZ wefe kw³ ev GKK AvqZ‡b K…Z KvR 
V
1 YAl 2 1
 
2 L V
2
1 YAl 1
  [ V  AL]
2 L AL
2
1 Yl

2 L2
1 Yl l
  
2 L L


1 F Yl l
 cxob × weK…wZ KviY
   cxob Ges = weK…wZ
2 A L L
1
GKK AvqZ‡b mwÂZ wefe kw³ ev GKK AvqZ‡b K…Z KvR   cxob × weK…wZ
2
A_©vr GKK AvqZ‡b mwÂZ wefe kw³ cxob I weK…wZi ¸bd‡ji A‡a©K (cÖgvwYZ)
B¯úvZ ivev‡ii †P‡q †ekx w¯’wZ¯’vcK (Steel is more elastic than Rubber):
GK UzKiv ivev‡ii wd‡Z Uvb‡j mn‡RB j¤^v nq| wKš‘ GKwU B¯úv‡Zi Zvi Uvb‡j Zv mn‡R j¤^v nq bv| GKB cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì
†ÿÎdj I ˆ`N©¨ wewkó `ywU wfbœ e¯‘i g‡a¨ †h e¯‘‡Z hZ †ekx cÖwZ‡iva e‡ji m„wó nq †mB e¯‘i w¯’wZ¯’vcKZv ZZ †ekx|
cÖwZ‡iva ej cÖhy³ e‡ji mgvb e‡j wbw`©ó weK…wZ m„wó Ki‡Z †h e¯‘‡Z hZ †ekx ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z nq Zv‡K ZZ †ekx
w¯’wZ¯’vcK ejv nq| GB wn‡m‡e †`Lv hvq †h, GKB ˆ`N©¨ I cÖ¯’‡”Q` wewkó ivevi I B¯úv‡Zi Zv‡i mgvb ˆ`N©¨ e„w×
Ki‡Z ivev‡ii Zzjbvq B¯úv‡Zi Zv‡i ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z nq A‡bK †ekx| G Rb¨ ivev‡ii Zzjbvq B¯úv‡Zi w¯’wZ¯’vcKZv
A‡bK †ekx|
awi, GKB ˆ`N©¨ L Ges GKB cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì †ÿÎdj A wewkó GKwU B¯úvZ I GKwU ivev‡ii Zv‡i mgcwigvb ej F
cÖ‡qvM Kivq Zv‡ì ˆ`N©¨ e„w× h_vµ‡g ls I lr nj|
FL
myZivs B¯úv‡Zi Bqs-Gi ¸Yv¼, Ys  ... ... ... ... (1)
Al s
FL
Ges ivev‡ii Bqs-Gi ¸Yv¼, Yr  ... ... ... ... (2)
Alr
Ys FL Al r
 
Yr Al s FL
Y l
 s  r wKš‘ l r  l s  Ys  Yr myZivs B¯úvZ ivevi A‡cÿv †ekx w¯’wZ¯’vcK|
Yr ls
w¯’wZ¯’vcK wefe kw³:

†Kvb e¯‘i weK…wZ NUv‡bvi Rb¨ e¯‘wUi Dci ewn¯’ ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z nq| ej cÖ‡qv‡M e¯‘ weK…Z n‡j H ej
Øviv KvR m¤úvw`Z nq| m¤úvw`Z G KvR e¯‘‡Z wefe kw³ iƒ‡c mwÂZ _v‡K| G kw³‡K w¯’wZ¯’vcK wefe
kw³ e‡j|

9| w¯’wZ ¯’vcKZv (Elasticity)
1| 1 eM© wgwjwgUvi cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì †ÿÎdj wewkó GKwU B¯úv‡Zi 4| GKwU Zv‡ii Bqs Gi ¸bv¼ 2.35×1011 Nm-2 Ges ZviwUi e¨vm
Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ kZKiv 2 fvM e„w× Ki‡Z KZ ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z n‡e? 2mm| ZviwUi ˆ`N©¨ 0.25% e„w× Ki‡Z n‡j KZ ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z n‡e?
B¯úv‡Zi Bqs Gi ¸bv¼ 2×1011 Nm-2 | Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
e¨vm, d = 2mm
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b, FL
2 Y e¨vmva©, r=1mm=0.001m
FL cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì †¶Îdj, A = 1 mm Al
Y cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì †¶Îdj
Al =1×10-6 m2
YA l A=r
YA l Avw` ˆ`N©¨, L = x (awi) F × (0.001)2 m2
F ‰`N©¨ e„w×, l  x  2
L =3.14×10-6 m2
L 11 6
100 2.35  10  3.14  10  0.25x Avw` ˆ`N©¨, L=x (awi)
2 1011 1106  2x Bqs Gi ¸bv¼, Y = 2×1011 Nm-2 F
F x  100 x  0.25
ej F = ? ‰`N©¨ e„w×, l  m
x 100  F  1844 . 75 N (Ans.) 100
 F  4 0 00 N (Ans.) Y  2.35  1011 Nm 2
ej, F  ?
2| 1×10-10 m2 cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì †ÿÎdjwewkó GKwU B¯úv‡Zi Zv‡i 5| GKwU Zv‡ii Bqs Gi gvbv¼ 2×1011 Nm-2 ZviwUi ˆ`N©¨ 15% e„w×
KZ ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j Gi ˆ`N©¨ wØ¸b n‡e [ Y=2×1011 Nm-2 ] Ki‡Z cÖh³
y cxob wbY©q Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b, GLv‡b,
FL awi Avw` ˆ`N©¨, L = x
FL cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì †¶Îdj, Y
Al
Y A = 1×10-10 m2 F Yl ˆ`N©ë„w×, l  x  15
Al Avw` ˆ`N©¨, L = x (awi)   100
YA l A L
F ‰`N©¨ e„w×, Y  2 1011 Nm 2
F 2  1011  x  15
L l  (2 x  x )  x   F
A x  100 cxob, ?
2 1011 11010  x Bqs Gi ¸bv¼,
F A
F Y = 2×1011 Nm-2   3  1010 Nm  2 (Ans)
x ej, F = ? A
 F  2 0 N (Ans.)
6| 200cm j¤^v Ges 1mm2 cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì †ÿÎdj wewkó GKwU B¯úv‡Zi
3| 6 m `xN© Ges 1mm2 cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì †ÿÎdj wewkó GKwU Zv‡ii Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ 1×10-3 m e„w× Ki‡Z cÖ‡qvRbxq Kv‡Ri cwigvb 0.05J |
cÖv‡šÍ 20kg Gi GKwU fi Szwj‡q †Ìqv nj| Zv‡ii Dcv`v‡bi Zv‡ii Dcv`v‡bi BqsGi ¸bv¼ wbY©q Ki|
Bqs Gi ¸bv¼ 2.35×1011 Nm-2 n‡j ZviwU KZUzKz e„w× cv‡e? Avgiv Rvwb,
FL GLv‡b, 1 YAl 2 GLv‡b,
Y Avw` ˆ`N©¨, L = 6 m W
Al 2 L Avw` ˆ`N©¨, L = 200cm=2m
cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì †¶Îdj,
FL 1 Y  10 6  (10 3 ) 2 cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì †¶Îdj,
l  A = 1mm2 = 1×10-6 m2  0.05   A = 1mm2 = 1×10-6 m2
YA Bqs Gi ¸bv¼, 2 2 KvR, W = 0.05 J
20  9.8  6 Y = 2.35×1011 Nm-2 0.05  2  2
l  Y Nm 2 ‰`N©¨ e„w×, l = 1×10-3m
ej, F = 20kg-Wt
2.35  1011  1 10 6 = 20 × 9.8 N
1  10 -12 Bqs Gi ¸bv¼, Y = ?
l  5  10 3 m (Ans.) ‰`N©¨ e„w×, l  ?  Y  2  1011 Nm -2 (Ans.)
7| 6m `xN© Ges 2mm2 cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì †ÿÎdj wewkó GKwU Zv‡i 10kg

Gi GKwU fi Szjvb Av‡Q| hLb fiwU mwi‡q †bIqv nq ZLb Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨
nq 5.9975 m| Zv‡ii Dcv`v‡bi BqsGi ¸bv¼ wbY©q Ki|
FL Avw` ˆ`N©¨, L = 5.9975 m
Y ‰`N©¨ e„w×,
Al
l = (6 5.9975)m
MgL = 0.0025m
Y
Al cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì †¶Îdj,
10  9.8  5.9975 A = 2mm2 = 2×10-6 m2
Y fi M = 10 kg
2  10 6  0.0025
11 -2 Bqs Gi ¸bv¼, Y = ?
 Y  1.18  10 Nm (Ans.)

9| w¯’wZ ¯’vcKZv (Elasticity) 2
8| 1m `xN© †Kvb Zv‡ii e¨vm 5×10-3m Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ eivei GKwU 9| 200cm j¤^v Ges 1mm2 cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì †ÿÎdj wewkó GKwU B¯úv‡Zi
ej cÖ‡qv‡M Gi ˆ`N©¨ 1×10-2m e„w× cvq| cqm‡bi AbycvZ 0.2 Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ 1×10-3 m e„w× Ki‡Z cÖ‡qvRbxq Kv‡Ri cwigvb wbY©q Ki|
n‡j Zv‡ii e¨vm -Gi n«vm wbY©q Ki| Zv‡ii Dcv`v‡bi BqsGi ¸bv¼ Y  2 1011 Nm-2 
Avw` ˆ`N©¨, L = 1m
dL 1 YAl 2 Avw` ˆ`N©¨, L = 200cm=2m
 e¨vm, D = 5×10-3m W cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì †¶Îdj,
Dl ‰`N©¨ e„w×, l = 1×10-2m 2 L A = 1mm2 = 1×10-6 m2
d 1 cqm‡bi AbycvZ,  = 0.2 2 1011 10-6  (10-3 )2 ‰`N©¨ e„w×, l = 1×10-3m
 0.2  e¨vm n«vm d=? W
5  10  1  10 2
3
22  Y  2  1011 Nm -2
 d  0.2  5  10 3  1  10 2 KvR, W = ?
W  0.05 J(Ans.)
 d  10 5 m(Ans.)

c„ôUvb (Surface Tension):

‡Kvb Zij c„‡ôi Dci hw` GKwU †iLv Kíbv Kiv nq Z‡e H †iLvi cÖwZ GKK ˆ`‡N©¨ †iLvi mv‡_ j¤^fv‡e Ges c„‡ôi
¯úk©Kiƒ‡c †iLvi Dfq cv‡k †h ej wµqv K‡i Zv‡K H Zi‡ji c„ôUvb e‡j| ‡Kvb Zi‡ji c„‡ôi
Dci l ˆ`‡N©ï †iLvi mv‡_ j¤^fv‡e Ges c„‡ôi ¯úk©Kiƒ‡c †iLvi Dfq cv‡k F ej wµqv K‡i
F
Z‡e H Zi‡ji c„ôUvb T  n‡e| Gi GKK Nm-1 | cvwbi c„ôUvb 72×10-3 Nm -1 ej‡Z
l
GB eywS †h, cvwb c„‡ô 1m j¤^v GKwU †iLv Kíbv Ki‡j H †iLvi mv‡_ j¤^fv‡e Ges c„‡ôi ¯úk©K
ej MLT 2
iƒ‡c †iLvi Dfq cv‡k 72×10 -3N ej wµqv K‡i| c„ôUv‡bi gvÎv n‡”Q
ˆ`N ¨
Gi gvÎv| A_©vr,
L

 MT 2 
c„ôkw³ (Surface Energy):
m‡gvò Ae¯’vq †Kvb Zi‡ji gy³Z‡ji GKK †ÿÎdj e„w×i Rb¨ m¤úbœ Kv‡Ri cwigvb Z_v GKK †ÿÎd‡j mwÂZ
wefekw³‡KB c„ôkw³ e‡j| †Kvb Zi‡ji gy³ Z‡ji †ÿÎdj A cwigvb e„w× Ki‡Z hw` W cwigvb KvR m¤úbœ nq
W
Zn‡j c„ôkw³ E  n‡e| Gi GKK Jm-2 ev Nm-1| myZivs †`Lv hv‡”Q c„ôkw³ Avi c„ôUv‡bi GKK GKB| c„ôkw³i
A
KvR ML2T 2
gvÎv n‡”Q
† ¶ Îdj
Gi gvÎv| A_©vr,
L2

 MT  2 
c„ôkw³ I c„ôUv‡bi g‡a¨ m¤úK© (Relation between Surface Energy and Surface Tension):
g‡b Kwi, ABCD GKwU Zv‡ii †d«g| Gi BC evûwU AB I DC evû eivei Aev‡a PjvPj
Ki‡Z cv‡i| ZviwU‡K mvevb cvwb‡Z Wywe‡q Zz‡j Avb‡j Gi gvSLv‡b GKwU cvZjv c`©v
AvU‡K _vK‡e| GB c`©v c„ôUv‡bi Rb¨ †d«‡gi cÖ‡Z¨K evû‡K wfZ‡ii w`‡K Uvb‡Z _v‡K
wKš‘ BC evû Qvov Aci evû¸‡jv AvUK‡bv _vKvq †m¸‡jv w¯’i _vK‡e| Gi d‡j c„ôUv‡bi
Rb¨ BC evûwU AD evûi w`‡K AMÖmi n‡e| myZivs BC evû‡K Gi wbR ¯’v‡b ivLvi Rb¨
wecwiZ w`‡K ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z n‡e| BC evûi ˆ`N©¨ l Ges Zi‡ji c„ôUvb T n‡j, BC
Zv‡ii Dci AD Gi w`‡K †gvU ej n‡e, F=l×T+l×T=2lT (KviY Dc‡i I wb‡P `ywU c„ô Av‡Q)| myZivs BC evû‡K Gi
Ae¯’v‡b w¯’i ivL‡Z n‡j Gi Dci c„ôUv‡bi wecixZgyLx F=2lT ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z n‡e| GLb BC Zvi‡K ÿz`ª `~iZ¡ b
mwi‡q BC  Ae¯’v‡b Avb‡Z m¤úvw`Z KvR n‡e,
W=Fb
ev, W=2lTb Gi d‡j c`©vi Dci Ges wbP Dfq c„‡ôi cÖwZwUi †ÿÎdj lb cwigvb K‡i e„w× cv‡e|
myZivs ABCD c`©vi †gvU †ÿÎdj e„w× cv‡e A=2lb|
W 2lTb
c„ôUv‡bi weiæ‡× cÖwZ GKK †ÿÎdj e„w×‡Z K…ZKvR ev, c„ôkw³, E    T GB kw³ c„‡ô mwÂZ n‡e|
A 2lb
myZivs, †Kvb Z‡ji c„ôkw³ Zvi c„ôUv‡bi mgvb|
c„ôUv‡bi AvbweK gZev` (Molecular Theory on Surface Tension):
c„ôUvb GKwU AvbweK NUbv e‡j G‡K AvbweK gZev` Øviv e¨vL¨v Kiv hvq| weÁvbx j¨vcøvm me©cÖ_g me©v‡cÿv wbf©i‡hvM¨
ZË¡ cÖ`vb K‡ib e‡j G‡K j¨vcøv‡mi AvbweK ZË¡ e‡j|
j¨vcjv‡mi aviYv g‡Z, Zij c`v‡_©i AYy mg~‡ni AvKl©Y e‡ji R‡b¨B c„ôUv‡bi D™¢e
nq| me©vwaK †h `~iZ¡ ch©šÍ `ywU AYyi ga¨Kvi cvi¯úwiK AvKl©Y ej A_©vr mshyw³
ej Abyf~Z nq Zv‡K AvYweK cvjøv e‡j| †Kvb GKwU AYy‡K †K›`ª K‡i AvYweK cvjøvi
mgvb e¨vmva© wb‡q †Kvb †MvjK Kíbv Ki‡j, H †MvjK‡K H AYyi cÖfve †MvjK e‡j|
‡KvY AYyi cÖfve †Mvj‡Ki g‡a¨ Ab¨ †h AYy _v‡K H AYy Zv‡ì AvKl©Y K‡i| Ges

10| cÖevnx c`v_© (Fluid Substance) 2

wb‡RI Zv‡ì Øviv AvK„ó nq| cÖfve †Mvj‡Ki evB‡ii †Kvb AYy cÖfve †Mvj‡Ki cÖfve ‡Mvj‡Ki ga¨w¯’Z AbywU Øviv AvK…ó
nq bv| g‡b Kwi, A, B I C GKwU Zi‡ji cÖfve †MvjK mn wZbwU AYy| A AbywU cÖfve †MvjKmn Zi‡ji wfZ‡i, B AYywU
Zi‡ji gy³ Z‡ji GKUz wb‡P Ges C AYywU wVK Zij Z‡j Aew¯’Z| A AYyi cÖfve †MvjK Zi‡j wbgw¾Z _vKvi d‡j
†Mvj‡Ki ga¨Kvi Ab¨vb¨ AYy Øviv Pvwiw`‡K mgfv‡e AvK…ó nIqvq H AYyi Dci mskw³ e‡ji jwä k~b¨ nq| B AYyi
cÖfve †MvjK Zi‡j AvswkK wbgw¾Z _vKvi d‡j cÖfve †Mvj‡Ki Dc‡ii Aa©vs‡k wb‡Pi Aa©vsk A‡cÿv Kg AYy _v‡K|
Gi d‡j B AYyi Dci wµqvkxj wb¤œgyLx msmw³ ej DaŸ©gyLx msmw³ ej A‡cÿv †ekx n‡e| Kv‡RB B AYyi jwä mskw³
ej wb¤œgyLx| C AYywU Zij c`v‡_©i gy³ Z‡j Aew¯’Z| Kv‡RB C AYyi Dc‡i Ab¨ †Kvb AYy bv _vKvq H AYywU wb‡Pi
w`‡K AvK…ó n‡e| A_©vr Gi Dci jwä ej wb¤œgyLx|
Zij c„ó PQ n‡Z cÖfve †Mvj‡Ki e¨vmv‡a©i mgvb `~i‡Z¡ RS Zj Kíbv Ki‡j G `yÕZ‡ji gv‡Si mKj AYyB mskw³ e‡ji
Rb¨ wb‡Pi w`‡K AvKl©Y Abyfe Ki‡e| Kv‡RB PQ Z‡ji Dci Aew¯’Z AYymgy‡ni Dci wb¤œgyLx ej me©vwaK nIqvq GwU
wb¤œgyLx ej Abyfe Ki‡e| d‡j ZjwU Zvi wbR¯^ †ÿÎdj Kgv‡Z Pvq Ges msKzwPZ n‡Z cÖqvm cvq| G cÖqvm †_‡KB
Zij c`v‡_©i ¯úk©K eivei GKwU Uvb ej m„wó nq| GB Uvb ejB Zi‡ji c„ôUvb ev Zj Uvb|
¯úk© ‡KvY (Angle of Cotact) :
KwVb I Zi‡ji ¯úk© we›`y †_‡K eµ Zij Z‡j Aw¼Z ¯úk©K KwVb c`v‡_©i
mv‡_ Zi‡ji wfZ‡i †h †KvY Drcbœ K‡i Zv‡K D³ KwVb I Zi‡ji ¯úk© †KvY
e‡j| wP‡Î  n‡”Q ¯úk© †Kvb| †h me Zij c`v_© KwVb c`v_©‡K wfRvq Zv‡ì
†ejvq ‡ejvq ¯úk© †Kvb m~ÿ‡KvY nq| KvP I cvwbi †ejvq ¯úk© †Kv‡Yi gvb
cÖvq 8º nq| †h me Zij c`v_© KwVb c`v_ †K wfRvq bv Zv‡ì †ejvq ¯úk©
‡KvY ¯’yj †Kvb nq| KvP I weï× cvi‡ì †ejvq ¯úk© †Kv‡Yi gvb cÖvq 139º nq|
ˆKwkK bj I ‰KwkKZv (Capillary tube and Capillarity) :
AwZ m~ÿè I mylg wQ`ªwewkó bj‡K ˆKwkK bj e‡j| †Kvb ˆKwkK KvP b‡ji GK cÖvšÍ Zi‡ji g‡a¨ Lvov K‡i
XyKv‡j b‡ji wfZi wKQy Zij Zi‡ji gy³ Zj †_‡K Dc‡i D‡V hvq A_©vr Zi‡ji DaŸ‡ivnY A_©vr Awa‡ÿc nq ev wb‡P
†b‡g Av‡m A_©vr Zi‡ji Aebgb A_©vr Ae‡ÿc nq | ˆKwkK b‡j Zi‡ji G iKg Awa‡ÿc ev Ae‡ÿc‡K Zi‡ji
ˆKwkKZv e‡j| Zi‡ji c„ôUv‡bi Rb¨ G iKg n‡q _v‡K|
Zij c`v‡_©i c„ôUvb wbY©‡qi ZË¡ (Theory of meserment of Surface tension):
GKwU ˆKwkK bj‡K cvwb ev H RvZxq †Kvb Zi‡ji wfZi Wyev‡j †`Lv hvq †h b‡ji g‡a¨ Zij LwbKUv Dc‡i D‡V Ges
Gi Zj AeZj AvKvi aviY K‡i|
g‡b Kwi, Zij I KwV‡bi ¯úk©‡KvY = | Zij Zj †hLv‡b b‡ji
g‡a¨ bj‡K ¯úk© K‡i‡Q †mLv‡b b‡ji e¨vmva© =r|
Zij Zj †_‡K b‡ji wfZ‡ii Zi‡ji wb¤œ cÖvšÍ ch©šÍ D”PZv = h|
Zi‡ji NbZ¡ =Ges Zi‡ji c„ô Uvb =T|
b‡ji wfZ‡ii †Ìqvj Ges Zi‡ji ¯úk© we›`y n‡Z eµ Zij
Z‡j ¯úk©K Uvb‡j H ¯úk©K eivei c„ôUvb T wfZ‡ii w`‡K wµqv Ki‡e|
‰KwkK b‡ji wfZ‡ii e¨mva© r n‡j cwiwa n‡e 2r A_©vr b‡ji wfZ‡ii
¯úk© †iLvi ˆ`N©¨ n‡e 2r| d‡j c„ôUv‡bi Rb¨ b‡ji †Ìqvj ¯úk©K
eivei wfZ‡ii w`‡K 2rT ej Abyfe Ki‡e| †ÌqvjI Zi‡ji Dci Gi
wecix‡Z evB‡ii w`‡K mgvb ej 2rT cÖ‡qvM Ki‡e| GB ej 2rT †K `ywU j¤^ Dcvs‡k wefvwRZ Ki‡j Lvov Dc‡ii
w`‡K 2rTcos Ges Gi mv‡_ j¤^fv‡e AbyfywgK eivei 2rTsin evB‡ii w`‡K Dc‡ii wPÎ Abyhvqx wµqv Ki‡e| b‡ji
e¨v‡mi wecixZ w`‡K wµqv Kivq 2rTsin e‡ji Dcvsk ¸wj ci¯úi‡K bvKP K‡i †`q| AZGe Zi‡ji Dci †gvU
DaŸ©gyLx ej n‡e 2rTcos|


‡h‡nZz GB DaŸ©gyLx e‡ji cÖfv‡e Zij ¯Í¤¢ ˆKwkK b‡ji g‡a¨ Dc‡i DV‡Z _v‡K myZivs hLb Zij ¯Í‡¤¢i IRb
GB DaŸ©gyLx e‡ji mgvb nq ZLb mvg¨ve¯’v m„wó nq A_©vr b‡ji g‡a¨ Zij ¯Í¤¢ w¯’i n‡q hvq| b‡ji eµ As‡ki AvqZb v
n‡j Zij ¯Í‡¤¢i †gvU AvqZb = r2h + v
Ges GB Zi‡ji IRb = (r2h + v)g
AZGe mvg¨ve¯’vq,
2rTcos(r2h + v)g
(r 2 h  v) g
T  ... ... ... (1)
2r cos 
GLb, v= ABCD wmwjÛv‡ii AvqZb  AEB Aa©‡Mvj‡Ki AvqZb
1 4
 v  r 2 . r  . r 3
2 3
2
 v  r 3  r 3
3
1 3
 v  r
3
(1) bs mgxKi‡Y v Gi gvb ewm‡q cvB,
1
(r 2 h  r 3 ) g
T 3
2r cos 
r
r 2 (h  ) g
T  3
2r cos
r
r (h  ) g
3 r
T  GLb ˆKwkK bj hw` miæ nq A_©vr r Gi gvb LyeB Kg nq, Zvn‡j h Gi Zzjbvq †K
2 cos 3
rhg
D‡cÿv Kiv hvq| †m‡ÿ‡Î, T  , weï× cvwb I cwi®‹vi Kv‡Pi ga¨Kvi ¯úk©‡KvY cÖvq 0º nIqvq cvwbi Rb¨
2 cos 
rhg
cos   1 aiv nq| †m †ÿ‡Î c„ôUvb T  ... ... ... (2)
2
myZivs r, h, I g Gi gvb Dc‡iv³ mgxKi‡Y ewm‡q c„ôUvb T wbY©q Kiv hvq| hw` Zi‡ji c„ôUvb Rvbv _v‡K Zvn‡j
2T
‰KwkK b‡j †h D”PZv ch©šÍ cvwb DV‡Z cv‡i Zvi mgxKiY, h  ... ... ... (3)
rg
‰KwkK bj c×wZ‡Z Zij c`v‡_©i c„ôUvb wbY©q (Determination of Surface Tension of liquid by capillary Tube Method) :
‰KwkK bj c×wZ‡Z Zij c`v‡_©i c„ôUvb wbY©‡qi mvaviY m~Î nj 
 r
rg  h  
 3
T
2 cos 
GLv‡b, T = c„ôUvb
r = ˆKwkK b‡ji e¨vmva©
 =Zij c`v‡_i NbZ¡
 = ¯úk© †KvY
h = ˆKwkK b‡ji wfZi Zij c`v‡_©i D”PZv,
g = AwfKl©R Z¡iY
‡h me Zij KvP wfRvq Ges †h me Zij c`v‡_©i †ejvq ¯úk© †Kvb cÖvq k~b¨ Zv‡ì c„ôUvb wbY©‡q ˆKwkK bj


eënvi Kiv nq| cvwb I Kv‡Pi †ÿ‡Î ¯úk© †KvY cÖvq k~b¨| myZivs cos= cos0º = 1|
mvaviYZ h>>r myZivs h Gi Zzjbvq Avgiv r/3 †K D‡cÿv Ki‡Z cvwi|
rhg
T  ... ... ... (1) cixÿvq GB mgxKiY n‡Z c„ôUvb wbY©q Kiv nq|
2
Kvh©c×wZ: GKwU weKv‡i cvwb wb‡q ÷¨vÛ I avi‡Ki mvnv‡h¨ `yÕwZbwU Kv‡Pi ˆKwkK bj
we‡kl eë¯’vq hy³ Kiv nq, †hb ˆKwkK bj ¸‡jvi wKQy Ask weKv‡ii cvwb‡Z wbgw¾Z
nq Ges bj¸‡jv wPÎvbyhvqx Lvovfv‡e Ae¯’vb K‡i| GKwU muyP‡K avi‡Ki mv‡_ Ggb fv‡e
hy³ Kiv nq †hb my‡Pui AMÖfvM cvwbi Zj ¯úk© K‡i| Gici GKwU åvg¨gvb `~iweÿb h‡›`ªi
mvnv‡h¨ ˆKwkK b‡j cvwb¯Í‡¤¢i wb¤œ Z‡j †dvKvm Kiv nq Ges `~iweÿb h‡›`ªi Dj¤^ †¯‹‡ji
cvV †bIqv nq| Gfv‡e cÖwZwU ˆKwkK b‡j DwÌZ cvwb¯Í‡¤¢i wb¤œ Z‡ji cvV †bIqv nq|
Gici weKviwU mwi‡q my‡u Pi AMÖfv‡Mi cvV †bIqv nq| Gici cvwb¯Í‡¤¢i D”P Z‡ji cvV n‡Z
m~u‡Pi AMÖfv‡Mi cvV we‡qvM K‡i cvwb ¯Í‡¤¢i D”PZv h wbY©q Kiv nq| Gi ci cvwb¯Í‡¤¢i D”PZvi ¯’v‡b avivj dvBj w`‡q
bj †K‡U †djv nq| AZtci `~iweÿb h‡›`ªi mvnv‡h¨ b‡ji e¨vm †g‡cwb‡q Zv n‡Z e¨vmva© r cwigvc Kiv nq|
cixÿvMv‡ii cvwbi ZvcgvÎvq -Gi gvb †R‡b wb‡q (1) bs mgxKi‡Y ewm‡q cvwbi c„ôUvb T wbY©q Kiv nq| Gfv‡e
cÖwZwU ˆKwkK b‡ji Rb¨ c„ôUvb wbY©q K‡i Mo c„ôUvb wbY©q Kiv nq|
mZK©Zv (Caution) :
1| mylg wQ`ªhy³ ˆKwkK bj ‡bIqv DwPZ|
2| cixÿvaxb Zi‡j †hb †Kvb cÖKvi †Zj ev Pwe© RvZxq c`v_© bv _v‡K †mw`‡K jÿ¨ ivLv DwPZ|
3| ˆKwkK bj¸‡jv‡K Zi‡j Lvov fv‡e Wyevb DwPZ|
c„ôUv‡bi Dci ZvcgvÎvi cÖfve (Effect of Temperature on Surface Tension):
ZvcgvÎv e„w×‡Z Zi‡ji NbZ¡ n«vm cvq A_©vr AYymgy‡ni ga¨Kvi `~iZ¡ e„w× cvq| d‡j Zi‡ji mskw³ ej n«vm cvq|
myZivs ZvcgvÎv e„w×‡Z Zi‡ji c„ôUvb n«vm cvq| hw` 0ºC ZvcgvÎv I ºC ZvcgvÎvq Zi‡ji c„ôUvb h_vµ‡g T0 I T
nq Z‡e, T  T0 (1   ) GLv‡b  GKUv aªæeK, G‡K c„ôUv‡bi DòZv ¸Yv¼ e‡j|
c„óUv‡bi msKU ZvcgvÎv (Critical Temperature): †h ZvcgvÎvq †Kvb GKwU Zi‡ji c„ôUvb k~b¨ nq Zv‡K H Zi‡ji
c„óUv‡bi msKU ZvcgvÎv e‡j|
mv›`ªZv (Viscosity): ‡h a‡g©i ìæb cÖevwni wewfbœ ¯Í‡ii Av‡cwÿK MwZ‡Z evavi m„wó nq Zv‡K H cÖevwni mv›`ªZv e‡j|
Nl©Y †hgb `ywU KwVb c`v‡_©i Av‡cwÿK MwZ‡K evav †`q, mv›`ªZv †Zgwb cÖevwni `ywU ¯Í‡ii Av‡cwÿK MwZ‡Z evav †`q
Ges MwZ e¨vnZ Ki‡Z †Póv K‡i| mv›`ªZv‡K ZvB AšÍt¯’ Nl©YI ejv nq|
mv›`ªZv ¸bv¼ (Coefficient of Viscosity) : g‡b Kwi, AB GKwU w¯’i KwVb Zj| Gi Dci w`‡q GKwU cÖevnx
MwZkxj| cÖevnxi AwZ wbKUeZ©x `ywU ¯Íi CD I EF Kíbv Kwi|
AB n‡Z CD Gi `~iZ¡ = x
AB n‡Z EF Gi `~iZ¡ = (x+dx)
CD ¯Í‡ii †eM= v
EF ¯Í‡ii †eM= v+dv
dv
cÖwZ GKK `~i‡Z¡ †e‡Mi cwieZ©‡bi nvi ev †eM Aeµg =
dx
awi, mv›`ª ej F| mv›`ª ej msµvšÍ wbDU‡bi m~Î wb¤§iƒc t
(1) mv›`ª ej Zij ¯Í‡ii †ÿd‡ji mgvbycvwZK|
dv
A_©vr, F  A hLb, aªæe|
dx
(2) mv›`ª ej †eM Aeµ‡gi mgvbycvwZK|


dv
A_©vr, F  hLb, A aªæe|
dx
m~ÎØq GKwÎZ K‡i cvB,
dv
FA
dx
dv
 F  A ... ... ... (1) GLv‡b,  GKwU aªæe msL¨v| GB aªæe msL¨v‡K mv›`ªZv¼ ev mv›`ªZv ¸bv¼ ev mv›`ªZv mnM
dx
(Coefficient Of Viscocity) e‡j|
F dv dv
(1) bs mgxKiY n‡Z cvB,   ... ... ... (2) hw` A=1 GKK Ges †eM Aeµg  1 GKK nq Z‡e (2) bs
A dx dx
mgxKiY n‡Z cvB, F    mv›`ªZv ¸bv‡¼i msÁv wb¤œiƒc,
GKK †eM Aeµg eRvq _vKv Ae¯’vq AwZ wbKUeZ©x `ywU Zij ev M¨vm ¯Í‡ii g‡a¨ cÖwZ GKK †ÿÎd‡j †h cwigvb
mv›`ªej ¯úk©K eivei wµqv K‡i, Zv‡K H cwievnxi mv›`ªZv ¸bv¼ e‡j|
F dx  ej  `~ iZ¡   MLT 2  L 
 Gi gvÎv t       2
A dv  † ¶ Îdj  † eM   L  L / T 
  ML T1 1

F dx ej  `~ iZ¡ N m
 Gi GKK t      2  Nm 2 s ev, Pa s
A dv † ¶ Îdj  † eM m  ms 1
Zvrch© (Significance): cvwbi mv›`ªZv mnM 10 -3 Nm -2 s ej‡Z GB eywS †h, 1 m2 †ÿÎdj wewkó cvwbi `ywU ¯Íi ci¯úi
1m `~i‡Z¡ Aew¯’Z n‡j G‡ì wfZi 1ms -1 Av‡cwÿK †eM eRvq ivL‡Z 10 -3 N e‡ji cÖ‡qvRb nq|
mv›`ªZvi Dci ZvcgvÎvi cÖfve (Effect of Temperature on Viscosity):
ZvcgvÎv evo‡j Zi‡ji mv›`ªZv K‡g| †`Lv‡M‡Q †h, 10º C ZvcgvÎvq cvwbi mv›`ªZv mn‡Mi †h gvb cvIqv hvq, 80º C
ZvcgvÎvq †m gvb nq GK Z…Zxqvsk| ZvcgvÎvi Dci mv›`ªZvi wbf©ikxjZv wb¤œiƒct
B
log   A  GLv‡b, nj Zi‡ji mv›`ªZv mnM, T Zi‡ji †Kjwfb ZvcgvÎv Ges A I B nj aªæeK|
T
wKš‘ ZvcgvÎv evo‡j M¨v‡mi mv›`ªZv ev‡o| M¨v‡mi mv›`ªZv mnM Zvi †Kjwfb ZvcgvÎvi eM©g~‡ji mgvbycvwZK|
A_©vr,   T
mv›`ªZvi Dci Pv‡ci cÖfve (Effect of Pressure on Viscosity):
Pvc e„w× †c‡j Zij c`v‡_©i mv›`ªZv e„w× cvq| M¨v‡mi mv›`ªZv Pv‡ci Dci wbf©jkxj bq|
‡÷vK&m Gi m~Î (Stoke's Law) :
AwaK mgmZ¡ I Ams‡KvPbxq †Kvb cÖevnxi ga¨w`‡q cošÍ GKwU ÿz`ª †Mvj‡Ki Dci g›`b ej, cÖevnxi cÖvšÍ‡eM v Gi
mgvbycvwZK, mv›`ªZv ¸bv¼ -Gi mgvbycvwZK Ges †Mvj‡Ki e¨vmva© r Gi mgvbycvwZK|
e¨vL¨v t †Kvb e¯‘ Zij ev M¨v‡mi ga¨ w`‡q AwfKl© e‡ji cÖfv‡e wb‡P co‡Z _vK‡j e¯‘wU Zvi ms¯ú‡k© _vKv Zij ev
M¨v‡mi ¯Íi‡K wb‡Ri mv‡_ †U‡b wb‡q P‡j| d‡j M¨v‡mi wewfbœ ¯Í‡ii g‡a¨ Av‡cwÿK †eM m„wó nq| wKš‘ gva¨‡gi mv›`ªZv
H Av‡cwÿK MwZ‡K g›`xf~Z Kivi †Póv K‡i d‡j e¯‘i Dci g›`b wµqv K‡i| cošÍ e¯‘i †eM hZB e„w× cvq mv›`ªZv
RwbZ wecixZgyLx ej Z_v g›`b ej I ZZ e„w× cvq| ¯^í mg‡qi g‡a¨ evav `vbKvix ej MwZ m„wóKvix e‡ji mgvb nq
d‡j e¯‘ mg‡e‡M co‡Z _v‡K| GB mg‡eM †K cÖvwšÍK †eM e‡j| r e¨vmv‡a©i †Kvb ÿz`ªKvi †MvjK  mv›`ªZv ¸bv‡¼i
†Kvb Zij ev M¨vmxq c`v‡_©i ga¨w`‡q v cÖvwšÍK †e‡M co‡Z _vK‡j †÷vK&m Gi m~Îvbymv‡i, mv›`ªZvi Rb¨ evav`vb Kvix
ej ev g›`b ej, F  r v
 F  k r v GLv‡b k mgvbycvwZK aªæeK| †÷vKm& MvwbwZK we‡køl‡bi mvnv‡h¨ cÖgvb K‡ib †h, k = 6
 F  6 r v

‡÷vK&m Gi m~Î cÖwZcv`b t

awi, r e¨vmv‡a©i †Kvb ÿz`ª †MvjK mv›`ªZv ¸bv‡¼i †Kvb cÖevnx (Zij ev M¨vm) Gi ga¨ w`‡q v cÖvwšÍK †e‡M co‡Z
_vK‡j mv›`ªZvi Rb¨ GKwU evav`vbKvix ej MwZi wecix‡Z wµqv Ki‡e| hyw³ hy³ fv‡e ejv hvq †h, g›`b ej F
wb¤œwjwLZ ivwk¸‡jvi Dci wbf©ikxjt
F  e¯‘i e¨vmva©, r
F  gva¨‡gi mv›`ªZv¼ ,
F  cÖvšÍ‡eM, v
g‡bKwi, F  kr x y v z ... ... ... (1) GLv‡b k GKwU gvÎv wenxb aªæeK Ges x, y I z AÁvZ m~PK| GLb GB mgxKi‡Yi
Dfq cv‡k¦©i gvÎv mgvb n‡e| AZGe
F   r x   y  v z 
 MLT  2   L  ML1T 1  LT 1 
x y z
 MLT 2  Lx M y L yT  y Lz T  z
 MLT 2  Lx  y  z M y T  y  z
M, L I T -Gi Rb¨ Dfq cv‡k¦©i m~PK mgvb a‡i cvB,
y =1 ... ... ... ... (2)
x y+ z = 1 ... ... (3)
y z= 2 ... ... ... (4)
(4) bs mgxKi‡Y y Gi gvb ewm‡q cvB,
1z= 2
 z =1
(3) bs mgxKi‡Y yI z Gi gvb ewm‡q cvB,
x1 +1=1
 x =1
(1) bs mgxKi‡Y x, y I z Gi gvb ewm‡q cvB,
F  kr 1 1v1
 F  kr v
 F  6r v GB mgxKiYwU †÷vKm& me©cÖ_g cÖwZcv`b K‡ib ZvB Gi bvg nq †÷vKm& Gi mgxKiY|
cÖvšÍ-‡eM ev AšÍ-†e‡Mi ivwk gvjv:

†Kvb e¯‘ Zij ev M¨v‡mi ga¨ w`‡q AwfKl© e‡ji cÖfv‡e wb‡P co‡Z _vK‡j e¯‘wU Zvi ms¯ú‡k© _vKv Zij ev M¨v‡mi
¯Íi‡K wb‡Ri mv‡_ †U‡b wb‡q P‡j| d‡j M¨v‡mi wewfbœ ¯Í‡ii g‡a¨ Av‡cwÿK †eM m„wó nq| wKš‘ gva¨‡gi mv›`ªZv H
Av‡cwÿK MwZ‡K g›`xf~Z Kivi †Póv K‡i d‡j e¯‘i Dci g›`b wµqv K‡i| cošÍ e¯‘i †eM hZB e„w× cvq mv›`ªZv RwbZ
wecixZgyLx ej Z_v g›`b ej I ZZ e„w× cvq| ¯^í mg‡qi g‡a¨ evav `vbKvix ej MwZ m„wóKvix e‡ji mgvb nq d‡j e¯‘
mg‡e‡M co‡Z _v‡K| GB mg‡eM †K AšÍ-‡eM ev cÖvwšÍK †eM e‡j|
awi, AšÍ-‡eM v | v Gi Rb¨ ivwkgvjv cÖwZcv`b Ki‡Z PvB|
g‡bKwi, wb¤œgyLx ej Z_v †Mvj‡Ki IRb W
DaŸ©gyLx ej Z_v cøeZv U Ges
DaŸ©gyLx evav`vbKvix ej Z_v mv›`ª-cðvrUvb F|
Avw`‡Z wb¤œgyLx ej W DaŸ©gyLx ej (U+F) Gi †P‡q eo| d‡j †MvjKwUi wb¤œgyLx Z¡iY _v‡K|
‡MvjKwUi †eM e„w×i mv‡_ mv›`ª-cðvrUvb I e„w× cvq| d‡j (U+F) GK mgq W Gi mgvb nq|
ZLb †MvjKwUi bxU Z¡iY k~b¨ nq| †MvjKwU ZLb aªæe ev mg‡e‡M wb‡P cwZZ nq| G aªæe ‡eM‡K ejv nq AšÍ‡eM v|


GLb hw` cÖevnxi NbZ¡ f I †Mvj‡Ki NbZ¡ s nq Zvn‡j,
4 4
‡Mvj‡Ki IRb, W  r 3  s g Ges U  r 3  f g
3 3
cÖevnxi mv›`ªZv mnM  n‡j, F = 6rv
‡÷vK&‡mi m~Îvbymv‡i †MvjKwU AšÍ‡eM cÖvß n‡j,
F+U=W
4 4
 6rv  r 3  f g  r 3  s g
3 3
4 4
 6rv  r 3  s g  r 3  f g
3 3
4 3
 6rv  r g (  s   f )
3
2
2r (  s   f ) g
v  BnvB AšÍ †e‡Mi ivwkgvjv|
9
‡÷vK&‡mi m~‡Îi mvnv‡h¨ Zi‡ji mv›`ªZv mnM wbY©q (Determinition of Co-efficient of Viscosity by Stoke's law):
‡h Zi‡ji mv›`ªZv mnM  wbY©q Ki‡Z n‡e Zv GKwU eo AvKv‡ii gvc †Pv‡O †bqv nq| GLb r
e¨vmv‡a©i †QvU †MvjK (†hgb ejweqvwis) GB Zi‡j Lyeax‡i †Q‡o †`qv nq| †MvjKwU GK mgq
AšÍ-‡eM cÖvß n‡q wb‡P bvg‡Z _v‡K|
A `vM †_‡K B `vM ch©šÍ c_ †h‡Z †MvjKwUi †h mgq jv‡M Zv _vgv Nwoi mvnv‡h¨ wbY©q
Kiv nq| awi GB mgq t| g‡b ivL‡Z n‡e A †hb Zi‡ji †ek wfZ‡i nq hv‡Z †MvjKwU A Ae¯’v‡b
‡cŠQvi c~‡e©B AšÍ-†eM cÖvß nq|
AB
G‡ÿ‡Î, v  , GLb hw` cÖevnxi NbZ¡ f I †Mvj‡Ki NbZ¡ s nq Zvn‡j Avgiv cvB,
t
2
AB 2r (  s   f ) g
 GLv‡b, g AwfKl©R Z¡iY|
t 9
GLb ¯Œ M‡Ri mvnv‡h¨ †Mvj‡Ki e¨vmva© r Gi gvb †ei K‡if Ges s Gi gvb †R‡b
2r 2 (  s   f ) gt
wb‡q  Gi gvb wb‡¤§v³ mgxKiY   G ewm‡q  Gi gvb mn‡RB wbY©q Kiv hvq|
9 AB
mskw³ ej (Cohesive Force) :
GKB c`v‡_©i wewfbœ AYyi g‡a¨ cvi¯úwiK AvKl©Y ej‡K mskw³ ej ejv nq|
AvmÄb-ej (Adhesive Force):
wewfbœ c`v‡_©i AYyi wfZi cvi¯úwiK AvKl©Y ej‡K AvmÄb ej e‡j|

10| cÖevwn c`v_© (Fluid)
1| GKwU Zv‡ii IRb bMb¨ a‡i G‡K 25°C ZvcgvÎvi cvwbi

DcwiZj †_‡K 0.05m j¤^v GKwU AbyfywgK Zvi‡K me©vwaK  W  8.95  10 5 J (Ans.)
7.30×103 N e‡j †U‡b DVvb hvq| cvwbi c„óUvb wbY©q Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, 5| 0.8× 10-3 m e¨vmv‡a©i GKwU ˆKwkK KvPbj cvi‡` Wyev‡j b‡ji
GLv‡b,
F g‡a¨ cvi‡ì Aebgb 6.753× 10-3 m nq| Kv‡Pi mv‡_ cvi‡ì ¯úk©
T ej, F = 7.30×10 3N
2L Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨, L=0.05m †KvY KZ? cvi‡ì c„ôUvb 4.7× 10-1 Nm-1 Ges NbZ¡ 13.6× 103 kg
7.30  10 -3 cvwbi c„ôUvb, T=? m-3 | GLv‡b, e¨vmva© r = 0.8× 10-3 m
T
2  0.05 Avgiv Rvwb, cvi‡ì Aebgb, h =  6.753× 10-3 m
 T  0.073 Nm -1 (Ans.) hgr cvi‡ì c„ôUvb, T = 4.7× 10-1 Nm-1
T cvi‡ì NbZ,¡ 13.6× 103 kgm-3
2 cos 
2| 0.2mm e¨v‡mi GKwU b‡j cvwbi Av‡ivnb wbY©q Ki| cvwbi cvi‡ì
3 ¯úk© †KvY,3 = KZ? 3
c„ôUvb =72 ×10-3 Nm -1I cvwbi NbZ¡ 103 kgm -3|
 6.75310 13.6 10  9.8 0.8 10
 4.7 101 
Avgiv Rvwb, 2cos
rhρg GLv‡b,  6.75310 13.6 103  9.8  0.8 103
3
T b‡ji e¨vm, d = 0.2 mm  cos 
2 b‡ji e¨vmva©, 2  4.7 101
2T r = 0.1 mm  cos   0.765991353
ev, h 
rρg = 0.1×10 -3 m    cos 1 (0.765991353)
2  72  10 -3 cvwbi c„ôUvb, T=72×10 -3 Nm -1
ev, h     140 (Ans.)
0.1  10 -3  10 3  9.8 cvwbi NbZ¡ kgm -3
 h  0.1469 m (Ans.) cvwbi D”PZv, h = ?
6| 2× 10-4 m e¨vmv‡a©i GKwU †jvnvi ej Zvwc©b †Z‡ji wfZi w`‡q 4×
10-2 ms-1 cÖvšÍ ‡e‡M co‡Q| hw` †jvnv I Zvwc©b ‡Z‡ji NbZ¡ h_vµ‡g
3| 200mm e¨vmv‡a©i GKwU avZe †MvjK GKwU Zi‡ji ga¨w`‡q
7.8×103 kgm-3 Ges GLv‡b, e¨vmva© r = 2× 10-4 m
2.1×10-2ms-1 cÖvšÍ †e‡M co‡Q| Zi‡ji mv›`ªZvsK 0.003 kg 3 -3
0.87×10 kgm nq, Z‡e Zvwc©b cÖvšÍ †eM, v = 4× 10-2 ms-1
m-1s-1| Zi‡ji mv›`ª ej wbY©q Ki|
GLv‡b, †Z‡ji mv›`ªZvsK wbY©q Ki| ‡jvnvi NbZ¡ , s7.8×103 kgm-3
Avgiv Rvwb,
e¨vmva©, r =200 mm=0.2m Avgiv Rvwb, ‡Z‡ji NbZ¡ , f0.87×103 kgm-3
F = 6rv †eM, v=2×10-2ms-1
 F = 6×3.14×0.2×0.003× 2.1×10-2 N mv›`ªZvsK. =0.003 kg m-1s-1 2 r 2 ( s   f )g mv›`ªZvsK=? 

F = 2.37×10-4 N (Ans.) mv›`ªej, F  ? 9v
2(2  10 4 ) 2 (7.8  103  0.87  10 3 )  9.8

4| 2mm e¨v‡mi GKwU cvwbi †MvjK‡K †f‡O `k jÿ mgAvqZb
9  4  10 2
ÿz`ª †duvUv ‰Zix Ki‡j wK cwigvb KvR m¤úbœ n‡e| [cvwbi c„ôUvb    0.0151 kg m -1s 1 (Ans.)
=72× 10 -3 Nm-1]
Avgiv Rvwb. 7| GKwU b‡ji e¨vmva© 0.1mm | G‡K 60 ×10-3 Nm -1 c„ôUvb Ges
KvR W= ‡ÿÎd‡ji cwieZ©b × c„ôUvb 800 kgm -3 Nb‡Z¡i GKwU †Z‡j Wyev‡j ‰KwkK b‡j KZ D”PZvq †Zj
 KvRW  A  T DV‡e| ¯úk© †KvY 20°| GLv‡b,
GLv‡b,
 W  4( Nr 2 - R 2 )T eo †dvUvi e¨vm D = 2mm rhρg b‡ji e¨vmva©, r = 0.1mm
T
GLb, eo †dvUvi e¨vmva©, R= 1mm 2cos = 0.1×10 -3 m
-3
= 1×10 -3m T2cos  c„ ôUvb, T=60×10 Nm -1
4 4 †QvU †dvUvi e¨vmva©, r =? h
10  r 3  R 3
6
rρg NbZ¡ kgm -3
3 3 cvwbi c„ôUvb, T=72×10 -3 Nm -1 ¯úk© †KvY,  =20º|
m¤úvw`Z KvR, W=? 60  10 -3  2  cos 20 0
 
 10 2 r  R 3
3
‡dvUvi msL¨v, N=106 h
0.1 10 -3  800  9.8
cvwbi D”PZv, h = ?
R 60  10 -3  2  0.93969262
r h
100 0.1 10 -3  800  9.8
10 3  h  0.1438m (Ans.)
r m  10 5 m
100
 W  4  3.14{10 6  (10 5 ) 2 - (10 -3 ) 2 }  72  10 -3 J

 তা঩ভাত্রায ঩রু যস্কর : ঩ুরু ঱ূ নয তা঩ভাত্রানক ঱ূ নয ধনয রতবয তা঩ভাত্রায যস্করনক তা঩ভাত্রায ঩যভ যস্কর ফনর।
঩যভ যস্কনরয ঩াঠ্ = য঳বিনগ্রনড ঩াঠ্ + ২৭৩
 ঳নভাষ্ণ ঩বযফত঱ন : বিয তা঩ভাত্রায় িান঩য ঳ানথ একবট বনবদ঱ি বনযয যকান ফস্ত্ত্তয আয়তননয ঩বযফত঱ননক
঳ভতা঩ীয় ফা ঳নভাষ্ণ ঩বযফত঱ন ফনর। এনক্ষনত্র গযা঳ ফনয়নরয ঳ূ ত্র যভনন িনর অথ঱াৎ PV= ধ্রুফক।
 রুদ্ধতা঩ীয় ঩বযফত঱ন : ফাব঴য ঴নত যকান তা঩ গ্র঴ন ফা ফজ঱ন না কনয যকান ফস্ত্ত্তয যবৌত অফিায ঩বযফত঱ননক
বিয িান঩ গযান঳য আন঩বক্ষক তা঩
রুদ্ধতা঩ীয় ঩বযফত঱ন ফনর। অথ঱াৎ Pvγ= ধ্রুফক, যমখানন, γ =
বিয আয়তনন গযান঳য আন঩বক্ষক তা঩
 আন঩বক্ষক আদ্র঱তা : যকান বনবদ঱ি তা঩ভাত্রায় একবট বনবদ঱ি আয়তননয ফায়ু নত যম ঩বযভাণ জরীয় ফাষ্প থানক ঐ
তা঩ভাত্রায় ঐ আয়তননয ফায়ু নক ঳ম্পৃ ি কযনত যম ঩বযভাণ জরীয় ফানষ্পয প্রনয়াজন ঴য় তানদয
ব঱ব঱যানে জরীয় ফানষ্পয িা঩
অনু ঩াতনক আন঩বক্ষক আদ্র঱তা ফনর। আন঩বক্ষক আদ্র঱তা= × 100%
ফায়ু য তা঩ভাত্রায় ঳ম্পৃি জরীয় ফানষ্পয িা঩
 ব঱ব঱যািংকঃ যম তা঩ভাত্রায় ফায়ু ভন্ডনরয যকান বনবদ঱ি আয়তননয ফায়ু এয ভনধয অফবিত জরীয় ফাষ্প িাযা ঳ম্পৃ ি
঴য়, য঳ তা঩ভাত্রানক ব঱ব঱যািংক ফনর।
 ক্রাবন্ত তা঩ভাত্রাঃ ঳নফ঱াচ্চ যম তা঩ভাত্রায় যকান গযা঳নক শুধু িা঩ প্রনয়াগ কনয তযনর ঩বযণত কযা মায় তানক ক্রান্তি
তা঩ভাত্র ফনর।
ক্রাবন্ত আয়তনঃ ক্রান্তি তা঩ভাত্রা ঑ ক্রান্তি িান঩ এক গ্রাভ বনযয যকান গযান঳য আয়তননক ঐ গযান঳য ক্রান্তি আয়তন
ফনর।
 আদ঱঱ গযা঳ঃ যম঳কর গযা঳ ঳কর তা঩ভাত্রায় ফনয়র ঑ িার঳঱ এয ঳ূ নত্র যভনন িনর তানদযনক আদ঱঱ গযা঳ ফনর।
যকান গযা঳ই আদ঱঱ গযা঳ নয়।
 রত্রধ বফন্দুঃ যম তা঩ভাত্রায় বফশুদ্ধ ফযপ, ঩াবন ঑ ঳ম্পৃ ি জরীয় ফাষ্প তা঩গত ঳঴অফিানন থানক তানক ঩াবনয রত্রধ
বফন্দু ফনর। ঩াবনয রত্রধবফন্দু 0.160C ফা 273.16k (4.58mm ঩াযদ)।
 স্বাবাবফক িান঩ ঑ কক্ষ তা঩ভাত্রায় গযান঳য অনু গুনরায ভনধয ঳িংঘনল঱য ঳িংখযা প্রবত য঳নকনন্ড প্রায় 109
 তা঩ প্রনয়ানগ গযান঳য প্র঳াযণ তযনরয যিনয় অননক যফ঱ী এফিং একই তা঩ভাত্রা ফৃ বদ্ধনত ঳কর গযান঳য প্র঳াযণ
একই ঴য়।
-23 -1
 PV= KT ঳ভীকযণ K যক যফাল্টজভযান ধ্রুফক ফনর। এই ধ্রুফনকয ভান 1.38×10 JK |
ক্রাবন্ত তা঩ভাত্রা ক্রাবন্ত িা঩ ক্রাবন্ত আয়তন
0
Co2 এয ক্রাবন্ত তা঩ভাত্রা 31.1 C Co2 এয ক্রাবন্ত িা঩ 73 atm Co2 এয ক্রাবন্ত আয়তন 2.17 ঘন য঳.বভ.
O2 এয ক্রাবন্ত তা঩ভাত্রা 1190C O2 এয ক্রাবন্ত িা঩ 50 atm O2 এয ক্রাবন্ত আয়তন 2.320 ঘন য঳.বভ.
H2 এয ক্রাবন্ত তা঩ভাত্রা -2400C H2 এয ক্রাবন্ত িা঩ 13 atm H2 এয ক্রাবন্ত আয়তন 32.2 ঘন য঳.বভ.

e‡qj -Gi m~Î ev, w¯’i DòZvq Pvc I AvqZ‡bi g‡a¨ m¤úK© (Boyle's Law or, Relation between Pressure and
Volume at constant temperature):
w¯’i DòZvq GKwU wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi AvqZb Gi Pv‡ci e¨v¯ÍvbycvwZK|
e¨vL¨v: aivhvK, T †Kjwfb ZvcgvÎvq P Pv‡c GKwU wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi AvqZb V; Zvn‡j e‡qj Gi eY©bv
1
Abymv‡i, V
P
1
V  K
P
 PV  K ... ... ... ... (1) GLv‡b, K GKwU mgvbycvwZK aªæeK| hw` w¯’i ZvcgvÎvq P1, P2, P3, ........, Pn Pv‡c
GKwU wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi AvqZb h_vµ‡g V1, V2, V3, ..............,Vn nq, Z‡e mgxKiY (1) Abymv‡i Avgiv wjL‡Z cvwi,
P1V1=P2V2=P3V3=.........= PnVn = K ... ... ... ... (2) BnvB e‡qj- Gi m~‡Îi MvwYwZK e¨vL¨v|
Pvj©m -Gi m~Î (Charle's Law):
1
m~‡Îi eY©bv: w¯’i Pv‡c cÖwZ wWwMÖ DòZv cwieZ©‡b GKwU wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi AvqZb, Gi k~b¨ wWwMÖ AvqZ‡bi ev,
273
0.00366 Ask cwiewZ©Z nq|
e¨vL¨v: aiv hvK, w¯’i Pv‡c 0ºC DòZvq GKwU wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi AvqZb Vo; Zvn‡j cÖwZ 1ºC DòZv e„w×‡Z M¨v‡mi
1 1
AvqZb Ask e„w× cvq| hw` DòZv 1ºC nv‡i K‡g hvq, Z‡e M¨v‡mi AvqZb Ask K‡g hv‡e|
273 273
V
1ºC DòZvq M¨v‡mi AvqZb  Vo  o
273
2Vo
2ºC DòZvq M¨v‡mi AvqZb  Vo  Abyiƒcfv‡e,
273
θV
ºC DòZvq M¨v‡mi AvqZb  Vo  o
273
θV
 Vθ  Vo  o
273
 θ 
 Vθ  Vo 1  
 273 
 273  θ 
 Vθ  Vo   GLb ZvcgvÎvi AvšÍ©RvwZK GK‡K 273    ºC = T
 273 
T Vθ
Ges 273ºC =To K wjL‡j Dc‡iv³ mgxKiY `vovq, Vθ  Vo  ev, 
T ev mvaviY fv‡e VT A_©vr w¯’i Pv‡c
To Vo To
GKwU wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi AvqZb -Gi cig ZvcgvÎvi mgvbycvwZK|
cig k~b¨ ZvcgvÎv (Absolute Zero temperature):
†h ZvcgÎvq ZvwË¡K fv‡e M¨v‡mi AvqZb k~b¨ nq, hvi wb‡P †Kvb ZvcgvÎv _vKv m¤¢e bq, KviY Zvn‡j M¨v‡mi AvqZb
FbvZ¥K n‡Z nq, hv Am¤¢e, †mB Kíbv †hvM¨ ZvcgvÎv‡K cig k~b¨ ZvcgvÎv e‡j|
aiv hvK, w¯’i Pv‡c 0ºC DòZvq GKwU wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi AvqZb Vo; Zvn‡j cÖwZ 1ºC DòZv n«v‡m M¨v‡mi AvqZb
1 θ Vo
Ask K‡g hv‡e| d‡j  C ZvcgvÎvq H M¨v‡mi AvqZb V n‡j Pvj©‡mi m~Î †_‡K cvIqv hvq, Vθ  Vo 
273 273

11| Zvc I M¨vm (Heat and Gas) 2

 273 
wKš‘  hw`  273C nq Z‡e H ZvcgvÎvq M¨v‡mi AvqZb nq V-273  Vo 1  0 myZivs †`Lv hvq,
 273 
 273C ZvcgvÎvq †Kvb M¨v‡mi AvqZb k~b¨| ZvcgvÎv Av‡iv Kwg‡q hw`  274C Kiv nq Z‡e Dc‡iv³ m~Îvbymv‡i
 274  V
M¨v‡mi AvqZb n‡e V- 274  Vo 1  o A_©vr AvqZb FbvZ¥K nq| wKš‘ FbvZ¥K AvqZb A_©nxb, GwU Am¤¢e I

 273  273
Aev¯Íe, Zv n‡Z cv‡i bv| Kv‡RB †Kvb ZvcgvÎvB  274C _vK‡Z cv‡i bv| myZivs me©wb¤œ Kíbv‡hvM¨ †h ZvcgvÎv Zv
nj  273C Gi wb‡P †Kvb ZvcgvÎv _Kv m¤¢e bq| GRb¨ GB  273C ZvcgvÎv‡K me©wb¤œ ZvcgvÎv ev cigk~b¨
ZvcgvÎv e‡j|
‡i‡bvi m~Î ev, Pvc Gi m~Î (Law of Pressure):

1
m~‡Îi eY©bv: w¯’i AvqZ‡b cÖwZ wWwMÖ DòZv cwieZ©‡b GKwU wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi Pvc, Gi k~b¨ wWwMÖi Pv‡ci ev,
273
0.00366 Ask cwiewZ©Z nq|
e¨vL¨v: aiv hvK, w¯’i AvqZ‡b 0ºC DòZvq GKwU wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi Pvc Po; Gi Zvn‡j cÖwZ 1ºC DòZv e„w×‡Z M¨v‡mi
1 1
Pvc Ask e„w× cv‡e| hw` DòZv 1ºC nv‡i K‡g hvq, Z‡e M¨v‡mi Pvc Ask K‡g hv‡e|
273 273
P
1ºC DòZvq M¨v‡mi Pvc  Po  o
273
2Po
2ºC DòZvq M¨v‡mi Pvc  Po  Abyiƒcfv‡e,
273
θ Po
ºC DòZvq M¨v‡mi Pvc  Po 
273
θ Po
 Pθ  Po 
273
 θ 
 Pθ  Po 1  
 273 
 273  θ 
 Pθ  Po   GLb ZvcgvÎvi AvšÍ©RvwZK GK‡K 273  θ  ºC = T
 273 
T P T
Ges 273ºC =To K wjL‡j Dc‡iv³ mgxKiY `vovq, Pθ  Po  ev, θ  ev mvaviY fv‡e PT A_©vr w¯’i
To Po To
AvqZ‡b GKwU wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi Pvc -Gi cig ZvcgvÎvi mgvbycvwZK|
Av`k© M¨vm (Ideal Gas): †h me M¨vm MwZ Z‡Ë¡i ‡gŠwjK ¯^xKvh©mg~n, e‡qj, Pvj©m I Pv‡ci m~Î cy‡ivcywi †g‡b P‡j Ges
†gqv‡ii cÖKí Abyhvqx evqyk~b¨ ¯’v‡b cÖmvi‡Yi ìæb ZvcgvÎvi †Kvb n«vm N‡Ubv; Zv‡ì‡K Av`k© M¨vm e‡j|
ZvcgvÎvi cig †¯‹j (Absolute scale of temperature):

cig k~b¨ ZvcgvÎv‡K k~b¨ a‡i ZvcgvÎvi †h †¯‹j cÖYqb Kiv n‡q‡Q, Zv‡K ZvcgvÎvi cig †¯‹j e‡j| weÁvbx jW©
†Kjwfb me©cÖ_g GB †¯‹j cÖYqb K‡ib e‡j †K ZvcgvÎvi †Kjwfb †¯‹j I e‡j| ZvcgvÎvi GB †¯‹j AvšÍR
© vwZK fv‡e
¯^xK…Z| GB †¯‹j Abymv‡i ZvcgvÎvi GK‡K wWwMÖ †Kjwfb ejv (K) nq|
‡mjwmqvm †¯‹‡j †Kvb ZvcgvÎv ºC n‡j †Kjwfb †¯‹‡j n‡eT = ()  |

cÖgvY ZvcgvÎv ev ¯^vfvweK ZvcgvÎv (Standard temperature):

‡h ZvcgvÎvq ¯^vfvweK Pv‡c cvwb R‡g eid nq, A_ev eid M‡j cvwb‡Z cwibZ nq Zv‡K cÖgvY ZvcgvÎv ev ¯^vfvweK
ZvcgvÎv e‡j| cÖgvY ZvcgvÎv nj 0ºC ev, 273.16 K, Z‡e eënvwiK †ÿ‡Î 273 K we‡ePbv Kiv nq|
cÖgvY Pvc ev ¯^vfvweK Pvc (Standard Pressure) :
mgy`ª mgZ‡ji 45º Aÿvs‡k 273 K DòZvq 1 eM©wgUvi †ÿ‡Îi Dci `Ûvqgvb 0.76 wgUvi weï× cvi`¯Í‡¤¢i IRb‡K cÖgvY
Pvc ev ¯^vfvweK Pvc e‡j| ¯^ vfvweK Pvc, P  0.76 m Hg Pvc|
 P = 0.76 ×13.6×103×9.8 Nm-2
P = 1.013×105 Nm-2 = 1.013×105 Pa|
PV=RT ev, PV= nRT Gi cÖgvb ev, Av`k© M¨v‡mi mvaviY mgxKiY cwZcv`b:
mvaviY fv‡e †h mKj M¨vm e‡qj I Pvj©m-Gi m~Î †g‡b P‡j Zv‡ì‡K Av`k© M¨vm e‡j| g‡b Kwi P Pv‡c T ZvcgvÎvq
GKwU wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi AvqZb V, Zvn‡j Avgiv cvB,
1
V [ e‡q‡ji m~Î ]
P
VT [Pvj©m-Gi m~Î]
T
m~ÎØq GKÎ K‡i cvB, V
P
PV  KT ... ... ... ... ... (3) GLv‡b K GKwU mgvbycvwZK aªæeK| 1 MÖvg AYy ev, 1 †gvj mKj
M¨v‡mi Rb¨ K Gi gvb AcwiewZ©Z _v‡K| ZvB weÁvbxiv G‡K mve©Rbxb M¨vm aªæeK R Øviv cÖKvk K‡ib| myZivs 1 †gvj
M¨v‡mi Rb¨ PV  RT ... ... ... ... (4) GLb 1 †gvj M¨v‡mi cwie‡Z© m f‡ii M¨vm we‡ePbv Kwi, hvi AvqZb V Ges
V
AvbweK fi M ; Zvn‡j (4) bs mgxKi‡Y V Gi cwie‡Z© M eënvi K‡i cvB,
m
V
P M  RT
m
m
 PV  RT
M
 m 
 PV  nRT ... ... ... ... (5)   M  n  M¨v‡ mi † gvj msL¨v 
(5) bs mgxKiY Av`k© M¨v‡mi mvaviY mgxKiY|
ZvcgvÎv I Pv‡ci mv‡_ M¨v‡mi Nb‡Z¡i m¤úK©: w¯’i ZvcgvÎvq †Kvb M¨v‡mi NbZ¡ Gi Pv‡ci mgvbycvwZK I w¯’i Pv‡c
†Kvb M¨v‡mi NbZ¡ Gi cigZvcgvÎvi e¨v¯ÍvbycvwZK:
m fiwewkó †Kvb M¨v‡mi p1 Pv‡c Ges T1K ZvcgvÎvq hw` AvqZb V1 Ges NbZ¡  nq, Ges H M¨v‡mi p2 Pv‡c Ges
T2K ZvcgvÎvq AvqZb V2 Ges NbZ¡  nq Z‡e,
1  m / V1 ev, V1  m / 1
Ges  2  m /V2 ev, V2  m /  2
p1V1 p2V2
Avgiv Rvwb,  GB mgxKi‡Y V1 Ges V2 Gi ewm‡q cvB,
T1 T2
p1m p2 m

T1 1 T2  2


p1 p
  2
1T1  2T2
T  T
 1 1  2 2  aª æeK ... ... ... (1)
p1 p2
T
A_©vr,  aª æeK GB m¤úK© Pvc I ZvcgvÎvi mv‡_ Nb‡Z¡i cwieZ©b wb‡`©k K‡i|
p
hw` ZvcgvÎv w¯’i _v‡K A_©vr T1  T2 nq Z‡e (1) bs mgxKiY †_‡K cvIqv hvq,
1  2
  aª æeK
p1 p2

  aª æeK    p  aª æeK    p myZivs w¯’i ZvcgvÎvq †Kvb M¨v‡mi NbZ¡ Gi Pv‡ci mgvbycvwZK|
p
Avevi hw` Pvc w¯’i _v‡K, A_©vr p1  p2 nq Z‡e, (1) bs mgxKiY †_‡K cvB,
1T1   2T2  aª æeK
1
  myZivs w¯’i Pv‡c †Kvb M¨v‡mi NbZ¡ Gi cigZvcgvÎvi e¨v¯ÍvbycvwZK|
T
M¨v‡mi MwZZ‡Ë¡¡i †gŠwjK ¯^xKvh© mg~n (Fundamental Assumption of kinetic theory of Gas) :
(1) cÖwZwU M¨vm mgvb f‡ii AmsL¨ KYvi mgš^‡q MwVZ| KYv¸‡jv‡K M¨v‡mi AYy e‡j| M¨vwmq Aby¸‡jv me©`v MwZkxj
_v‡K Ges Giv wbDU‡bi MwZm~Î †g‡b P‡j|
(2) GKB M¨v‡mi AYy¸‡jv m`„k; wKš‘ wewfbœ M¨v‡mi Abymgyn ci¯úi †_‡K wfbœ|
(3) AYy¸‡jvi ci¯ú‡ii cÖwZ Ges cv‡Îi †Ìqv‡ji cÖwZ †Kvb AvKl©b ev weKl©b †bB| G‡ì kw³ m¤úyY©UvB MwZkw³|
(4) cv‡Îi AvqZ‡bi Zzjbvq M¨vwmq AYy¸‡jvi AvqZb AwZ bMY¨|
(5) M¨vwmq AYy¸‡jvi cvi¯úwiK av°v m¤úyY© ZvrÿwbK| A_©vr, msN‡l©i d‡j mg‡qi AcPq nq bv|
(6) M¨vwmq Aby¸‡jv ci¯ú‡ii mv‡_ av°v Lvq| cici `ywU av°vi gaëZ©x `~iZ¡ AYy¸‡jv mg‡e‡M mij c‡_ P‡j|
1 2E
MwZZË¡ †_‡K Pv‡ci iwkgvjv A_©vr PV  mnc 2 Ges P  Gi cÖgvY (Expression of pressure form kinetic
3 3V
theory of gas) :
g‡b Kwi, mgvb ‰`N¨© cÖ¯’ I D”PZv l wewkó cy‡ivcywi w¯’wZ¯’vcK †Kvb Nb‡K n msL¨K Av`k© M¨v‡mi AYy i‡q‡Q| cÖwZwU
AYyi fi m Ges G‡ì Mo eM©‡e‡Mi eM©g~j c| GKwU AYyi K_v we‡ePbv Kiv hvK| AYywUi MwZ‡eM c1| hw` X, Y I Z
Aÿ eivei c1 Gi Dcvsk h_vµ‡g u, v I w nq, Z‡e Avgiv cvB, c12  u 2  v 2  w 2 ... ... (6) AZGe, AYywU
X Aÿ eivei u †e‡M Pj‡e Ges †Kvb GK mgq Nb‡Ki A †Ìqv‡j [wPÎ bs -1] av°v w`‡e|
l
w¯’wZ ¯’vcKZvi Kvi‡Y AYywU u †e‡MB wecixZ w`‡K wd‡i Avm‡e Ges †m‡KÛ ci Nb‡Ki B ‡Ìqv‡j av°v w`‡e|
u
l
Zvn‡j ‡m‡K‡Û fi‡e‡Mi cwieZ©b `vovq, mum(u) = 2mu| myZivs AYywUi fi‡e‡Mi cwieZ©‡bi nvi
u
2mu 2mu 2
 , GKB fv‡e †`Lv‡bv hvq †h, Y I Z Aÿ eivei AYywUi fi‡eM cwieZ©‡bi nvi h_vµ‡g
l/u l
2mv 2 2mw 2
Ges | AYywUi †gvU fi‡e‡Mi cwieZ©‡bi
l l
2mu 2 2mv 2 2mw 2
nvi   
l l l
2m 2

l

u  v2  w 2 


2m 2
 c1 [mgxKiY (6) Abymv‡i]
l
hw` 2q, 3q, 4_©,............., n Zg AYyi MwZ‡eM h_vµ‡g, c2, c3, c4, ............cn nq, Z‡e GKB fv‡e †`Lvb hvq †h,
2m 2 2m 2 2m 2 2m 2
AYy¸‡jvi fi‡e‡Mi cwieZ©‡bi nvi h_vµ‡g c2 , c3 , c 4 .............. , cn
l l l l
2m 2 2m 2 2 m 2 2 m 2 2m 2
 AYy¸‡jvi †gvU fi‡e‡Mi cwieZ©‡bi nvi, F  c  c2  c3  c4  ..............  cn |
l 1 l l l l
2m 2

l

c1  c22  c32  c42  ..............  cn2 
2mn  c12  c22  c32  c42  ..............  cn2 
  
l  n 

2mn 2 c 2  c 22  c32  c42  ..............  c n2 
 cGLv‡ b, c  1 
l  n 
c-‡K AYyy¸‡jvi Mo eM©‡e‡Mi eM©g~j e‡j| GLb M¨vwmq AYy¸‡jvi Dci wµqviZ †gvU ej F,
† gvU ej
M¨v‡mi Pvc P n‡j msÁvbymv‡i, P 
† gvU † ¶ Îdj
F
P
6l 2
2mnc 2
P
6l 3
mnc 2
wKš‘ l3 = Nb‡Ki AvqZb= M¨v‡mi AvqZb = V awi, P 
3V
1
ev, PV  mnc 2 (cÖgvwYZ|)
3
2 1 1M 2 1 2
ev, PV   Mc 2  fi M  mn ev, P  c  c
3 2 3V 3
2E  1 
 P   E  Mc 2  (cÖgvwYZ)
3V  2 
2
V GKK n‡j P  E A_©vr M¨v‡mi Pvc Gi GKK AvqZ‡bi MwZkw³i `yB -Z„Zxqvsk|
3
Avevi, GK †gvj M¨v‡mi Rb¨, PV  RT wKš‘ GKwU M¨vm AYyi Rb¨, PV  KT
2E 2E
  RT   KT [GLv‡b, K †evëRg¨vb aªæeK]
3 3
3 3
 E  RT  E  KT
2 2
 ET  M¨v‡mi Mo MwZkw³ M¨v‡mi cig ZvcgvÎvi mgvbycvwZK|
Mo eM© ‡eM I g~j Mo eM© ‡eMt †Kvb M¨v‡mi mKj AYyi †e‡Mi e‡M©i Mo‡K Mo eM©‡eM e‡j| ‡Kvb M¨v‡mi n msL¨K
c12  c22  c32  c42  ..............  c n2
AYyi cÖwZwUi †eM h_vµ‡g, c1, c2, c3, .........cn n‡j AYy¸‡jvi Mo eM© †eM c 2 
n
Avevi †Kvb M¨v‡mi mnj AYyi †e‡Mi e‡M©i Mogv‡bi eM©g~j‡K g~j Mo eM© ‡eM e‡j|‡Kvb M¨v‡mi n msL¨K
c12  c22  c32  c42  ..............  c n2
AYyi cÖwZwUi †eM h_vµ‡g, c1, c2, c3, .........cn n‡j, c 2 
n


Mogy³ c_ ev Mo wbe©va `~iZ¡ (Mean free path):
cici `ywU msN‡l©i gaëZ©x `~iZ¡ †K Mogy³ c_ ev Mo wbe©va `~iZ¡ e‡j| wP‡Î A we›`y †_‡K
GKwU AYy B †Z wM‡q Ab¨ AYyi mv‡_ av°v Lv‡”Q Ges BC c‡_ hv‡”Q| C we›`y‡Z Avevi Avi
GKwU AYyi mv‡_ av°v †L‡q CD c‡_ hv‡”Q| AB, BC, CD, DE BZ¨vw` cÖ‡Z¨KwU `~iZ¡B gy³
c_| †ewki fvM †ÿ‡ÎB †h †Kvb `ywU gy³ c_ mgvb nq bv| ZvB, †Kvb AYyi K‡qKwU msN‡l©i
gaëZ©x `~i‡Z¡i Mo wb‡j †h `yiZ¡ cvIqv hvq Zv‡K H AYyi Mogy³ c_ ev Mo wbe©va `~iZ¡ e‡j|
l
hw` N av°vq AYy †gvU l `yiZ¡ AwZµg K‡i Z‡e Mo gy³ c_, λ  |
N
Mogy³ c‡_i (Mo wbe©va `~iZ¡) ivwkgvjv (Equation of mean free path) : Mo gy³ c_ M¨v‡mi Nb‡Z¡i e¨v¯ÍvbycvwZK:
g‡b Kwi, †Kvb M¨v‡mi cÖwZ GKK AvqZ‡b AYyi msL¨v n Ges cÖwZwU AYyi e¨vm | Avgiv †h AYywUi Mo gy³ c_ wbY©q
Ki‡Z PvB wnmv‡ei myweavi Rb¨ †KejgvÎ †mB AYywU‡K MwZkxj a‡i evwK AYy¸wj‡K w¯’i we‡ePbv KiwQ|
wPÎvbyhvqx Avgiv C AYywUi Mo gy³ c_ wbY©q Ki‡Z PvB| C AYywU l `~iZ¡ AwZµg Kivi ci
Ab¨ †h mKj AYyi †K›`ª C AYywUi †K›`ª †_‡K  `~‡i [wP‡Î A I B AYyØq] A_ev,  A‡cÿv
Kg `~i‡Z¡ _vK‡e Zv‡ì mv‡_ av°v Lv‡e| A_©vr  e¨vmva© I l ˆ`‡N¨©i GKwU wmwjÛv‡ii g‡a¨
‡h mKj AYyi †K›`ª _vK‡e Zv‡ì mv‡_ av°v Lv‡e| GB wmwjÛv‡ii AvqZb l| GLb GKK
AvqZ‡b AYyi msL¨v n I l AvqZ‡b Abyi msL¨v n‡e nl | A_©vr l `~iZ¡ AwZµg Kivi
mgq C AYywU nl msL¨K evi av°v Lv‡e| †h‡nZz †h †Kvb AYyi cici `ywU msN‡l©i gaëZ©x `~iZ¡¸‡jvi Mo wb‡j †h
AwZµvšÍ `~ iZ¡ l 1
`~iZ¡ cvIqv hvq Zv‡K Mo gy³ c_ e‡j| AZGe Mo gy³ c_,    2
   2 ... ... ... (7)
av°v msL¨v nπσ l πσ n
BnvB K¬wmqv‡mi g‡Z Mo gy³ c‡_i ivwkgvjv| GLb aiv hvK, GKwU AYyi fi m| †h‡nZz GKK AvqZ‡b AYyi msL¨v n|
Kv‡RB GKK AvqZ‡b AYyi fi = mn = M¨v‡mi = , (7) bs mgxKi‡Yi ni I je‡K m w`‡q ¸Y K‡i cvB,
1 m m m 1
λ 2
 2  2  λ KviY m, I  aªæe| myZivs Mo gy³ c_ M¨v‡mi Nb‡Z¡i e¨v¯ÍvbycvwZK| wKš‘
nπσ  m πσ mn πσ ρ ρ
M¨v‡mi NbZ¡, M¨v‡mi Pv‡ci mgvbycvwZK Ges cig ZvcgvÎvi e¨v¯ÍvbycvwZK| Kv‡RB Mo gy³ c_ M¨v‡mi Pv‡ci
e¨v¯ÍvbycvwZK Ges cig ZvcgvÎvi mgvbycvwZK| G Kvi‡Y Mo gy³ c_ M¨v‡mi NbZ¡, Pvc I cig ZvcgvÎvi Dci wbf©i
K‡i|
Mo gy³ c‡_i Ab¨vb¨ ivwkgvjv:

K¬wmqv‡mi c×wZ‡Z Mo gy³ c_ MYbv wbf©yj bq| KviY, †h AYyi Mo gy³ c_ wbY©q Kiv n‡q‡Q †mwU Qwow Ab¨
AYy¸wj‡K w¯’i aiv n‡q‡Q| wKš‘ cÖK…Zc‡ÿ mKj AYyB MwZkxj| ‡evj&Rgvb mKj Mo †eM mgvb a‡i Mo gy³ c‡_i †h
3
ivwkgvjv wbY©q K‡ib Zv nj,   ... ... ... (8) c‡i g¨v·I‡qj Zuvi †eM e›U‡bi m~‡Îi mvnv‡h¨ Mo gy³ c‡_i
4πσ 2 n
1
†h ivwkgvjv wbY©q K‡ib Zv nj,   ... ... ... (9)
2 πσ 2 n

m¤ú„³ ev®ú t ‡Kvb Ae× ¯’v‡b Zij msjMœ ev®ú‡K H ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³ ev®ú e‡j|
Am¤ú„³ ev®ú t hw` ‡Kvb Ae× ¯’v‡b wKQy ev®ú _v‡K wKš‘ †Kvb Zij bv _v‡K Z‡e H ev®ú‡K Am¤ú„³ ev®ú e‡j|
m¤ú„³ ev®ú I Am¤ú„³ ev‡®úi g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ :
µwgK m¤ú„³ ev®ú Am¤ú„³ ev®ú
‡Kvb Ae× ¯’v‡b Zij msjMœ ev®ú‡K H hw` ‡Kvb Ae× ¯’v‡b wKQy ev®ú _v‡K wKš‘ †Kvb Zij bv
1|
ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³ ev®ú e‡j| _v‡K Z‡e H ev®ú‡K Am¤ú„³ ev®ú e‡j|
2| m¤ú„³ ev®ú e‡q‡ji m~Î †g‡b P‡j bv| Am¤ú„³ ev®ú e‡q‡ji m~Î †g‡b P‡j|
3| m¤ú„³ ev®ú Pvj©m-Gi m~Î †g‡b P‡j bv| Am¤ú„³ ev®ú Pvj©m-Gi m~Î †g‡b P‡j|
ZvcgvÎv e„w× K‡i m¤ú„³ ev®ú‡K Am¤ú„³ ZvcgvÎv Kwg‡q Am¤ú„³ ev®ú‡K m¤ú„³ ev‡®ú
4|
ev‡®ú iƒcvšÍwiZ Kiv hvq| iƒcvšÍwiZ Kiv hvq|
wkwkivsK (Dew point) :

‡h ZvcgvÎvq ‡Kvb wbw`©ó AvqZ‡bi evqy Gi g‡a¨ Aew¯’Z Rjxq ev®ú Øviv m¤ú„³ nq, A_©vr †h ZvcgvÎvq wkwki m„wó nq
ev A`„k¨ nq Zv‡K †mB ZvcgvÎv‡K wkwkivsK e‡j| †Kvb ¯’v‡b evqyi wkwkivsK 16ºC ej‡Z GB eywS ‡h, D³ ¯’v‡b 16ºC
DòZvq Gi g‡a¨ Aew¯’Z Rjxq ev®ú Øviv evqy m¤ú„³ nq, A_©vr 16ºC DòZvq wkwki Rg‡Z ev A`„k¨ n‡Z ïiæ K‡i|
cig Av`ªªZ© v (Absolute Humidity):

‡Kvb ¯’v‡b GKK AvqZ‡bi evqy‡Z †h cwigvb Rjxq ev®ú _v‡K Zv‡K H ¯’v‡bi cig Av`ªªZ
© v e‡j| †Kvb ¯’v‡bi cig
Av`ªªZ
© v 5×10 Kgm ej‡Z GB eywS †h, H ¯’v‡bi 1m evqy‡Z 5×10 Kg Rjxq ev®ú Av‡Q|
-3 -3 3 -3
Av‡cwÿK Av`ªªZ© v (Relative Humidity):

wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎvq wbw`©ó AvqZ‡bi evqy‡Z †h cwigvb Rjxq ev®ú Av‡Q Ges H ZvcgvÎvq D³ AvqZ‡bi evqy‡K
Rjxqev®ú Øviv m¤ú„³ Ki‡Z AviI †h cwigvb Rjxq ev‡®úi cÖ‡qvRb Zv‡ì AbycvZ‡K D³ ¯’v‡bi Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv
e‡j| G‡K R Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq Ges kZKivq cÖKvk Kiv nq| msÁvbymv‡i, Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv
wKš‘ wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎvq †Kvb ¯’v‡bi Rjxq ev‡®úi Pvc H ¯’v‡bi Rjxq ev‡®úi f‡ii mgvbycvwZK
 
wKš‘ †Kvb ZvcgvÎvq †Kvb ¯’v‡b Rjxq ev‡®úi Pvc H ¯’v‡b wkwkivs‡K m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev‡®úi Pv‡ci mgvb|
 
wkwkivs‡K m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev‡®úi Pvc‡K f, evqyi ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev‡®úi Pvc‡K F w`‡q cÖKvk Ki‡j,
f f
R n‡e| Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv‡K mvaviYZ kZKiv wn‡m‡e cÖKvk Kiv nq, R  100 %
F F
Zvrch© : evqyi Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv 60% ej‡Z GB eywS †h, evqyi ZvcgvÎvq GKwU wbw`©ó AvqZ‡bi evqy‡K m¤ú„³ Ki‡Z †h
cwigvb Rjxq ev®ú cÖ‡qvRb, Zvi kZKiv 60 fvM Rjxq ev®ú evZv‡m Av‡Q|

nvB‡MÖvwgUvi (Hygrometer) :
‡h h‡š¿i mvnv‡h¨ †Kv ¯’v‡bi Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv wbY©q Kiv nq Zv‡K nvB‡MÖvwgUvi ev Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv gvcK hš¿ e‡j|
Av`ª I ï®‹ evj¦ nvB‡MÖvwgUv‡ii mvnv‡h¨ Av‡cwÿK Av`ªZv wbY©q (Determination of Relative
Humidity by Wet and Dry Bulb Hygrometer) :
h‡š¿i eY©bv : GB h‡š¿i cÖavb Ask n‡jv GKB iKg `yBwU cvi` _v‡g©vwgUvi T1 I T2|
_v‡g©vwgUviØq‡K GKwU Kv‡Vi ‡d«‡g Dj¤^ fv‡e cvkvcvwk ¯’vcb Kiv nq| T1
_v‡g©vwgUv‡ii evj¦‡K ï®‹ ivLv nq| GwU evqyi DòZv wb‡`©k K‡i| T2 _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii ev‡j¦i mv‡_ gmwjb ev wj‡j‡bi cj‡Z
Rov‡bv _v‡K Ges GB cj‡Z GKwU cv‡Î ivLv cvwbi g‡a¨ Wyevb _v‡K| cvwb gmwjb ev wj‡jb †e‡q Dc‡i D‡V T2 Ges
_v‡g©vwgUv‡ii evj¦‡K me mgq wfRv iv‡L|
Kvh©cÖYvjx t ‡h ¯’v‡bi Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv wbY©q Ki‡Z n‡e †mB ¯’v‡b Av‡cwÿK Av`ªZv gvcK
hš¿‡K †bIqv nq Ges _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii cvV †iKW© Kiv nq| hw` ï®‹ I Av`ª evj¦ _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii cvV
h_vµ‡g 1ºC I 2ºC mswkøó ¯’v‡bi wkwkivsK ºC nq, Z‡e †Mømv‡ii m~Îvbymv‡i cvB,
1  =G(1  2)
 = 1 G(1  2) ... ... ... (8)
GL‡b G †K †MøBmvi Drcv`K e‡j| GLb 1ºC A_©vr evqyi ZvcgvÎvq †MøBmv‡ii ZvwjKv n‡Z G
Gi gvb †R‡b wb‡q (8) bs mgxKi‡Yi evqyi wkwkivsK ºC wbY©q Kiv nq| Gici †i‡bvi
m¤ú„³ Rjxqev®ú Pvc ZvwjKv n‡Z wkwkivs‡K A_©vr ºC G m¤ú„³ Rjxqev®ú Pvc f Ges
f
evqyi ZvcgvÎvq A_©vr 1ºC G m¤ú„³ Rjxqev®ú Pvc F †R‡b wb‡q, R  100%
F
mgxKi‡Y f I F Gi gvb ewm‡q Av‡cwÿK Av`ªZv R wbY©q Kiv nq|
mZvK©Zv (Caution) : GB cixÿvq wb¤§iƒc mZK©Zv Aej¤^b Kiv nq:
1| my‡e`x _v‡g©vwgUvi eënvi Kiv nq|
2| _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii cvi` w¯’i n‡j cvV wb‡Z nq|
3| cj‡Zi wb¤§ cÖvšÍ hv‡Z me©`v cvwb‡Z wbgw¾Z _v‡K †mw`‡K jÿ ivL‡Z nq|
GKB ZvcgvÎvq XvKv A‡cÿv PÆMÖv‡g †ekx A¯^w¯ÍKi †eva nq t

PÆMÖvg mgy‡`ªi wbK‡U Aew¯’Z e‡j †mLv‡b Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv †ewk| XvKv mg~`ª‡_‡K A‡bK`~‡i nIqvq ¯^vfvweK fv‡e
†mLvbKvi Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv Kg| Avgiv Rvwb, evqygÛ‡ji Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv †e‡o †M‡j ev®úvq‡bi nvi K‡g hvq| d‡j
XvKvq kixi †_‡K wbM©Z Nvg `ªæZ ïKv‡e I kixi †_‡K †ekx myßZvc MÖnb Ki‡e; d‡j †`n kxZj nq I ¯^w¯Í jv‡M|
PÆMÖv‡g kixi †_‡K wbM©Z Nvg Kg ïKv‡e I ev®úvq‡bi Rb¨ Kg myßZv‡ci cÖ‡qvRb n‡e| d‡j XvKv A‡cÿv PÆMÖv‡g †ekx
A¯^w¯ÍKi †eva n‡e| A_©vr †hLv‡b Av‡cwÿK Av`ªZv †ekx †mLv‡b †ekx A¯^w¯Í †eva n‡e|
el©vKvj A‡cÿv kxZ Kv‡j wfRv Kvco ZvovZvwo ïKvq :

kxZKv‡ji ZvcgvÎv el©vKvj A‡cÿv Kg nIqv m‡Z¡I ev®úvqb `ªæZ nq e‡j ZvovZvwo Kvco ïKvq| ev®úvqb wbf©i K‡i
Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZvi Dci| el©vKv‡j Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv †ekx _v‡K| kxZKv‡j evZv‡m Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv Kg _v‡K e‡j wfRv
Kvco †_‡K ev®úvqb `ªæZ nq, d‡j Kvco ZvovZvwo ïKvq|


`yc‡y ii Av‡MB wkwki wZ‡ivwnZ nq :
m~‡h©v`‡qi ci mgq evovi mv‡_ mv‡_ evqy DËß n‡Z _v‡K| d‡j evqy Am¤ú„³ n‡q c‡o| Am¤ú„³ evqy wkwki‡K ï‡l
†bq| G Kvi‡Y `ycy‡ii Av‡MB wkwki wZ‡ivwnZ nq|
kxZKv‡j †Vv‡U wMømvwib jvMv‡bv nq :
kZKv‡j evqygÛ‡j Rjxq ev‡®úi cwigvb AZ¨šÍ Kg _v‡K| d‡j evqy †h †Kvb ¯’vb †_‡K Rjxq ev®ú msMÖn K‡i| †`‡ni
Avbve„Z As‡ki A‡cÿvK…Z †Kvgj ¯’vb ¸‡jv †_‡K evqygÛj Rjxq ev®ú †U‡b †bq| Gi d‡j Avgv‡ì †VuvU ‡d‡U †h‡Z
Pvq| †Vv‡U wMømvwib jvMv‡j cvwbi ev®úvq‡b evav m„wó K‡i d‡j †VuvU dv‡U bv|

11| Zvc I M¨vm (Heat and Gas)
1| ‡Kvb M¨vm AYyi e¨vm 3×10-10 m Ges cÖwZ NbwgUv‡i AYyi

msL¨v 6×1020 n‡j AYyi Mo gy³ c_ wbY©q Ki| 5| ‡Kvb GKw`‡bi wkwkivsK 7.4°C Ges Kÿ ZvcgvÎv 18.6°C|
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b, Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv wbY©q Ki| [7°C, 8°C, 18°C I 19°C ZvcgvÎvq
1 e¨vm, σ  3  10 -10
m m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev®ú Pvc h_vµ‡g 7.5 ×10-3 m, 8.2 ×10-3 m, 15.6
λ ×10-3 m Ges 16.5 ×10-3 m cvi`|]
π n σ2 cÖwZ NbwgUv‡i Abyi msL¨v,
1 n = 6×10 20 /m3 7°C ‡_‡K 8°C A_©vr
λ 1°C ZvcgvÎv evo‡j ev®ú Pvc ev‡o = (8.27.5)10-3 m cvi`|
3.14  6  1020  (3  10-10 ) 2 Mo gy³c_, ?
 0.4°CÓ Ó Ó Ó Ó = 0.7×10-3 ×0.4 m cvi`|
 λ  5.8910 3 m (Ans.)
0.28×10-3 m cvi`| 
 7.4°C ZvcgvÎvq A_©vr
2| ‡Kvb M¨vm AYyi e¨vm 3×10-10 cm Ges cÖwZ NbwgUv‡i AYyi
wkwkivs‡K m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev®ú Pvc f = (7.5+0.28)10-3 m cvi`|
msL¨v 6×1020 n‡j AYyi Mo gy³ c_ wbY©q Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, = 7.78×10-3m cvi`|
GLv‡b,
Avevi, 18°C ‡_‡K 19°C A_©vr
1 e¨vm,  =3×1010cm
λ 1°C ZvcgvÎv evo‡j ev®ú Pvc ev‡o = (16.5 -15.6)10-3 m
π n σ2 =3×10 12 m cvi`|
1 cÖwZ NbwgUv‡i Abyi msL¨v,  0.6°CÓ Ó Ó Ó Ó = 0.9×10-3×0.6 m cvi`|
λ
3.14 6 10  (310 -12) 2
20
n = 6×1020 /m3 0.54×10-3 m cvi`| 
 λ  58 .976 m (Ans.) Mo gy³c_ ?  18.6°C ZvcgvÎvq A_©vr
evqyi ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev®ú Pvc F = (15.6+0.54)10-3m cvi`
3| †Kvb GKw`‡bi wkwkiv¼ 10°C I Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv 67.30% | = 16.14 ×10-3 m cvi`|
H w`‡bi evqyi m¤ú„³ ev®ú Pvc KZ? [10°C ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³ f
Rjxq ev®ú Pvc 13.64×10-3 mHg]  Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv R   100% 
Avgiv Rvwb, F
GLv‡b,
f wkwkiv‡¼ ev®úPvc,
7.78  10 -3
R  100% R  100%
F f = 13.64×10-3 mHg  16.14  10 -3 
evqyi ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³ ev®úPvc,  R  48.2 % (Ans.)
13.64103
 67.3%  100 % F = ?
F Av‡cw¶K Av`ªZv, R = 67.30%
3 6| 0°C ZvcgvÎvq ‡Kvb M¨v‡mi Pvc 3×105 Pa n‡j 60°C ZvcgvÎvq
13.6410 Gi Pvc KZ?
F 100
67.3 Avgiv Rvwb,
 F  20.27 103 mHg (Ans.) P1V1 P2 V2 GLv‡b,

T1 T2 Pvc, P1 = 3×105 Pa
4| 0.64m cvi` ¯Í¤¢ Pv‡c Ges 39°C ZvcgvÎvq †Kvb M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv, T1 =0ºC=(0+273)=
PVT
AvqZb 5.7 ×10-4 m3 | cÖgvY Pvc I ZvcgvÎvq M¨v‡mi AvqZb  P2  1 1 2 273K
KZ? V2 T1 AvqZb, V1 = V2 = V= ?
Avgiv Rvwb, ZvcgvÎv, T2
GLv‡b, 3  105  V  333
P1V1 P2 V2  P2  =60ºC=(60+273)= 333K
 Pvc, P1 = 0.64 m Hg V  273 Pvc, P2=?
T1 T2 ZvcgvÎv, T1  P2  3.66  105 Pa (Ans.)
PVT =39ºC=(39+273)= 312K
 V2  1 1 2 AvqZb, V1 = 5.7 ×10-4 m3 7| ‡Kvb GKw`b wm³ I ï®‹ evj&e Av`©ªZvgvcK h‡š¿i ï®‹ evj&e Gi cvV
T1P2
Pvc, P2 =0.76 m Hg 30°C Ges wm³ evj&e Gi cvV 28°C| Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv wbY©q Ki|
0.64 5.7 10 4 273 ZvcgvÎv, T2 = 273K 30°C G †MøBmv‡ii Drcv`K 1.65 Ges 26°C, 28°C Ges 30°C
 V2 
312 0.76 AvqZb, V2 =? ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³ Rjxqev®ú Pvc h_vµ‡g 25.25×10-3m, 28.45×10-
3
V2  4.2 10 4 m3 (Ans.) m Ges 31.85×10-3m cvi` Pvc |
ï®‹ evj&e Gi cvV 1= 30°C A_©vr evqyi ZvcgvÎv = 30°C
wm³ evj&e Gi cvV 2 = 28°C
†MøBmv‡ii Drcv`K G = 1.65

awi wkwkivsK =  9| hw` R = 8.31 JK-1mol-1 nq Z‡e 72cm cvi` Pv‡c Ges 27°C
Avgiv Rvwb, ZvcgvÎvq 20g Aw·‡R‡bi AvqZb wbY©q Ki|
1  G (1-2) GLv‡b,
M¨vm ayªeK, R=8.31 JK-1mol-1 Pvc,
ev, 1 G (1-2) P = 72cmHg
ev,   1.65 () Avgiv Rvwb, = 0.72 mHg
PV  nRT = 0.72×13.6×103×9.8 Pa
ev,    = 95961.6 Pa
RT
  °C ev, V  n ZvcgvÎv, T = 27 ºC
evqyi ZvcgvÎv 30°C G m¤ú„³ Rjxqev®ú Pvc F = 31.85×10- P = (27+273)K=300K
3 20 8.31  300 20
m cvi` ev, V   ‡ gvjmsL¨v, n 
32 95961.6 32
26°C ‡_‡K 28°C A_©vr  V  16.236963 10 3 m 3 (Ans.) AvqZb, V = ?
2°C ZvcgvÎv evo‡j ev®ú Pvc ev‡o = (28.4525.25)10-3 m
cvi`| 10| ¯^vfvweK ZvcgvÎv I Pv‡c bvB‡UÖv‡R‡bi NbZ¡ 1.25Kg- m-3 n‡j
-3
ev,1°C = 3.2  10 100°C ZvcgvÎvq bvB‡Uªv‡Rb AYyi Mo eM©‡e‡Mi eM©g~j wbY©q Ki|
Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó m cvi`|
2 Avgiv Rvwb,
-3
ev, 0.7°C Ó Ó Ó Ó ÕÕ = 3.2  10  0.7 m cvi`| 
GLv‡b,
2 1T1
 2  ZvcgvÎv, T1 = 0ºC =273 K
×10-3 m cvi`|  T2
NbZ¡,  = 1.25Kg-m-3
 °C ZvcgvÎvq A_©vr 1.25  273
 2  ZvcgvÎv T2 = 100ºC=373 K
wkwkivs‡K m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev®ú Pvc f = (25.25 + )10-3 m 373
3 P =1.013×105Nm-2
cvi`|  2 = 0.914879356 kg m C= ?
Avevi,
= 26.37× 10-3 m cvi`|
f 3P 3  1.013  10 5
 Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv, R   100%  C   576.34 ms 1 (Ans.)
ρ2 0.91487935 6
F
26.37  10 -3 11| 27°C ZvcgvÎvq cÖwZ †gvj wnwjqvg M¨v‡mi MwZkw³ wbY©q Ki|
ev, R   100%
31.85  10 -3 (R= 8.31 JK-1 mol-1)
 R  82.79 % (Ans.) Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
3 ZvcgvÎv T1 = 27ºC
8| ‡Kvb n«‡ì Zj‡`k †_‡K cvwbi DcwiZ‡j Avmvq GKwU evqy E  RT =(273+27) K=300 K
2
ey`&ey&`& AvqZ‡b cuvP¸b nq| evqygÛ‡ji Pvc 105 Nm-2 n‡j n«‡ì R= 8.31 JK-1 mol-1
3 cÖwZ †gv‡j MwZkw³ E= ?
MfxiZv KZ?  E   8.31  300J
Avgiv Rvwb, 2
P1V1 = P2V2  E = 3739.5 J
GLv‡b awi,
ev, ( P2 + hg)V = P2×5V n«‡ì Zj‡`‡k eyèy‡ì AvqZb, V1 = V
12| ‡Kvb n«‡ì Zj‡`k †_‡K cvwbi DcwiZ‡j Avmvq GKwU evqy ey`&e‡y& ì&
ev, P2 + hg = 5P2 n«‡ì c„‡ô eyèy‡ì AvqZb, V2 = 5 V e¨vm wZb ¸b nq| e¨v‡ivwgUv‡i cvi` ¯Í‡¤¢i D”PZv 75cm n‡j n«‡ì
ev, hg = 5P2  P2 cvwbi NbZ¡, 103 kg m-3 MfxiZv KZ? GLv‡b awi,
ev, hg = 4P2 AwfKl©R Z¡iY, g = 9.8 ms-2 Avgiv Rvwb, n«‡ì Zj‡`‡k eyèy‡ì e¨vm = 2x
n«‡ì Zj‡`‡k Pvc, = P1  n«‡ì Zj‡`‡k eyèy‡ì e¨vmva©= x
4P2 P1V1 = P2V2
ev, h  n«‡ì c„‡ô evqygÛ‡ji Pvc, P2 = 105 Pa n«‡ì Zj‡`‡k eyèy‡ì AvqZb, V1  4 x 3  V
3
ρg ev, ( P2 + hg)V = P2×27V n«‡ì c„‡ô eyèy‡ì e¨vm = 6x
n«‡ì MfxiZv, h = ?
4  10 5 P1 = P2 + h MfxiZvq cvwbi Pvc ev, P2 + hg = 27P2 n«‡ì c„‡ô eyèy‡ì e¨vmva©=3x
ev, h  3 n«‡ì c„‡ô eyèy‡ì AvqZb, V2  43 π(3x) 3
 P1 = P2 + hg ev, hg = 27P2  P2
10  9.8 V2  27  43 πx 3  27V
ev, hg = 26P2
 h  40.81 m (Ans.) cvwbi NbZ¡, 103 kg m3
26P2
ev, h  AwfKl©R Z¡iY, g = 9.8 ms-2
ρg n«‡ì Zj‡`‡k Pvc, = P1
n«‡ì c„‡ô evqygÛ‡ji Pvc,
26  99930.6 P2 =0 .75×13596×9.8 Pa
ev, h  3 = 99930.6Pa
10  9.8 n«‡ì MfxiZv, h = ?
h  265.122 m (Ans.) P1 = P2 + h MfxiZvq cvwbi Pvc
 P1 = P2 + hg

13| ¯^vfvweK ZvcgvÎv I Pv‡c †Kvb Ave× M¨v‡mi NbZ¡ ï®‹ evj&e Gi cvV 1= 20°C A_©vr evqyi ZvcgvÎv = 20°C
0.0892Kg m-3 n‡j M¨v‡mi AYyi Mo eM©‡e‡Mi eM©g~j wbY©q Ki| wm³ evj&e Gi cvV 2 = 12°C
Avgiv Rvwb, †MøBmv‡ii Drcv`K G = 1.79
3P GLv‡b, awi wkwkivsK = 
C
ρ ZvcgvÎv, T = 0ºC =273 K Avgiv Rvwb,
NbZ¡,  = 0.0892Kg m-3 1  G (1-2)
3  1.013  105
C P =1.013×105Nm-2 ev, 1 G (1-2)
0.0892 Mo eM©‡e‡Mi eM©g~j C =? ev,  20 -1.79 (20-12)
3 1.013 105 ev, 20 14. 32
C
0.0892   5.68°C
 C  1845.79 ms  1 (Ans.) evqyi ZvcgvÎv 20°C G m¤ú„³ Rjxqev®ú Pvc, F = 17.6 mmHg
wkwkivsK 5.68 °C G m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev®ú Pvc, f = 6.856 mmHg
14| ‡Kvb M¨vm AYy¸‡jvi Mo gy³ c_ 6×10-8 m I AYyi e¨vm f
 Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv, R   100% 
2.5×10-10 m, cÖwZ NbwgUv‡i AYyi msL¨ wbY©q Ki| F
Avgiv Rvwb, 6.856
1 GLv‡b, ev, R   100%
λ 17.6
πnσ 2
e¨vm, σ  2.5 10 -10 m  R  38.95 % (Ans.)
1 Mo gy³c_, 6×10-8 m &DËi : wkwkivsK =5.68°C I Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv = 38.95 %
n cÖwZ NbwgUv‡i Abyi msL¨v, n= ?
π λσ 2
1 17| w¯’i Pv‡c KZ ZvcgvÎvq †Kvb M¨vm AYyi Mo eM©‡e‡Mi eM©g~j
n ¯^vfvweK Pvc I ZvcgvÎvi Mo eM©‡e‡Mi eM©g‡~ ji wØ¸Y n‡e?
3.14  6 10  (2.5  10-10 ) 2
-8
 n  8 . 49  10 25
/m 3 (Ans.) 3RT1
Avgiv Rvwb, C1  .........(1)
M
GLv‡b,
15| ‡Kvb GKw`‡bi wkwkivsK 7.6°C Ges Kÿ ZvcgvÎv 16°C| 3RT2
I C2  ....(2) cÖv_wgK ZvcgvÎv ,
Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv wbY©q Ki| [7°C, 8°C I 16°C ZvcgvÎvq
M T1 = 273K
m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev®ú Pvc h_vµ‡g 7.5 ×10-3 m, 8 ×10-3 m Ges
C2 T2 2C1 T2 †kl ZvcgvÎv, T2 =?
13.5 ×10-3 m cvi`|]
    C2 = 2C1
7°C ‡_‡K 8°C A_©vr C1 T1 C1 T1
1°C ZvcgvÎv evo‡j ev®ú Pvc ev‡o = (87.5)10-3 m cvi`| T2 T
 0.6°CÓ Ó Ó Ó Ó = 0.5×10-3 ×0.6 m cvi`| 4 4 2
T1 273
0.3×10-3 m cvi`| 
 7.6°C ZvcgvÎvq A_©vr T2  4  273K  1092 K ( Ans.)
wkwkivs‡K m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev®ú Pvc f = (7.5+0.3)10-3 m cvi`|
= 7.8×10-3m cvi`| 18| ‡Kvb M¨vm AYyi e¨vmva© 3.9×10-10 m Ges cÖwZ Nb †mw›UwgUv‡i
16°C ZvcgvÎvq A_©vr AYyi msL¨v 2.69×1019 n‡j AYyi Mo gy³ c_ wbY©q Ki|
evqyi ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev®ú Pvc F = 13.5 ×10-3 m Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
cvi`| 1 e¨vm, σ  2  3.9  10 -10 m
λ
f π n σ2  σ  2  3.9  10-10  100 cm
 Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv R   100% 
F λ
1  σ  7.8  10-8 cm
3.14  2.69  1019  (7.8  10-8 ) 2 cÖwZ Nb †mw›UwgUv‡i Abyi msL¨v,
7.8 10 -3 6 n = 2.69×1019/cm3
  R  100%  λ  1.9410 cm
13.5 10 -3 Mo gy³c_, ?
 R  57.78 % (Ans.)
 λ  1.9510 8 m (Ans.)
16| GKwU ï®‹ I Av`ª evj&e nvB‡MÖvwgUv‡i h‡š¿i ï®‹ I Av`ª ev‡j¦i 19| ¯^vfvweK ZvcgvÎv I Pv‡c bvB‡UÖv‡R‡bi NbZ¡ 1.25Kg- m-3 n‡j
ZvcgvÎv h_vµ‡g 20°C I 12°C n‡j wkwkivsK I Av‡cwÿK Gi Mo eM©‡e‡Mi eM©g~j wbY©q Ki|
GLv‡b,
Avgiv Rvwb,
Av`ª©Zv wbY©q Ki| (20°C G †MøBmv‡ii Drcv`K 1.79 Ges 20°C ZvcgvÎv, T = 0ºC =273 K
Ges 5.68°C ZvcgvÎvq Rjxq ev‡®úi m‡e©v”P Pvc h_vµ‡g 17.6 3P 3  1.013  10 5 NbZ¡,  = 1.25Kg-m-3
C 
mmHg Ges 6.856 mmHg ) ρ 1.25 P =1.013×105Nm-2
C  493 . 07 ms 1 (Ans.) C=?

 তা঩ এফিং তা঩ভাত্রায ভনধয তুরনাঃ

১) তা঩ এক প্রকায ঱বি, বকন্তু তা঩ভাত্রা ফস্ত্ত্তয একবট তা঩ীয় অফিা।
২) তা঩ ফস্ত্ত্তবিত ঳ফ অণুয যভাট গবত঱বিয ঳ভানু ঩াবতক এফিং তা঩ভাত্রা ফস্ত্ত্তবিত একবট অণুয গড় গবত঱বিয ঳ভাণু঩াবতক।
৩) দু ইবট ফস্ত্ত্ত একই তা঩ভাত্রায় থাবকনর঑ উ঴ানদয তান঩য ঩বযভাণ বফববন্ন ঴ইনত ঩ানয।
৪) একবট ফস্ত্ত্ত ঴ইনত অনয ফস্ত্ত্তনত তান঩য প্রফা঴ উ঴ানদয তা঩ভাত্রায উ঩য বনব঱য কনয, তান঩য ঩বযভানণয উ঩য বনব঱য কনয না।
0 0 0 0
৫) তান঩য একক কযারবয, B.T.U ঑ বকনরা-কযারবয বকস্ত্ত্ত তা঩ভাত্রায একক- C, F, K ঑ R।
 তা঩ভাত্রায বফববন্ন যস্করঃ
0 0
১) য঳বিনগ্রড যস্করঃ ই঴ায বনম্নবিযািংক 0 C এফিং উর্ধ্঱বিযািংক 100 C
0 0
২) পানযন঴াইট যস্করঃ ই঴ায বনম্নবিযািংক 32 F এফিং উর্ধ্঱বিযািংক 212 F।
0 0
৩) যযাভায যস্করঃ ই঴ায বনম্ন ঑ উর্ধ্঱ বিযািংক মথাক্রযভ 0 R ঑ 80 R।
৪) যকরববন যস্করঃ তা঩ভাত্রায যম যস্কর ফস্ত্ত্তয যবৌত গুণাফরীয উ঩য বনব঱য঱ীর নয় তা঴ানক তা঩ভাত্রায যকরববন ফা ঩যভ যস্কর
0 0
ফনর। ই঴ায বনম্ন বিযািংক 237 K, উর্ধ্঱ বিযািংক 373 K
0 0
 ভানফনদন঴য স্বাবাবফক তা঩ভাত্রা 98.4 F ফা 36.89 C
0 0 0 0 0 0
 ঩াবনয ফু টনািংক 100 C ফা 373 K এফিং ব঴ভািংক 0 C ফা 273 K, ঩যভ ঱ূ নয তা঩ভাত্রা -273 C ফা 0 K.
2 -2
 তা঩ এক প্রকায ঱বি। তাই উ঴ায ভাত্রা ঳ভীকযণ [ML T ]| বকন্তু তা঩ভাত্রায যকান ভাত্রা ঳ভীকযণ যনই। তনফ উ঴াযা
উবয়ই অবদক যাব঱।
 ঩াযদ থানভ঱াবভটানযয ঳ু বফধাঃ
঩াযদ তা঩ ঳ু ঩বযফা঴ী, উজ্জ্বর-অস্বে, তা঩ধাযণ ক্ষভতা খুফ কভ এফিং কভ উিায়ী।
0 0
঩াযনদয ফু টনািংক 357 C এফিং ব঴ভািংক -39 C, তাই উচ্চ তা঩ভাত্রা ঩বযভান঩ ঩াযদ থানভ঱াবভটায ফযফহৃত ঴য়।
 অযারনকা঴র থানভ঱াবভটানযয ঳ু বফধাঃ
0 0
অযারনকা঴নরয ব঴ভািংক -130 C এফিং ফু টনািংক 78 C, তাই ই঴া বনম্ন তা঩ভাত্রা ঩বযভান঩ ফযফহৃত ঴য়।
 থাবভ঱িযঃ তা঩ভাত্রা ঩বযভান঩য জনয অধ঱঩বযফা঴ক িাযা রতযী ঳ু নফদী যযাধনক থাবভ঱িয ফনর।
যজনন যাখা বার

 তযর থানভ঱াবভটানয তা঩ভাত্রা ঩বযফত঱ননয ঳ানথ তযনরয আয়তননয ঩বযফত঱ন ঘনট। ঩াযদ থানভ঱াবভটায, অযারনকা঴র
থানভ঱াবভটায ইতযাবদ তযর থানভ঱াবভটায।
 গযা঳ থানভ঱াবভটানয বিয আয়তনন বনবদ঱ি ঩বরুাণ গযান঳য িা঩ তা঩ভাত্রায ঳ানথ ঩বযফবত঱ত ঴য়, এই ধভ঱নক ফযফ঴ায কনয গযা঳
থানভ঱াবভটায ফযফ঴ায কযা ঴য়।
 যযাধ থানভ঱াবভটানয ‘‘তা঩ভাত্রা ফৃ বদ্ধয ঳ানথ অবধকািং঱ ধাতফ ঩দানথ঱য যযাধ ফৃ বদ্ধ ঩ায়’’ এই ধভ঱নক কানজ রাগাননা ঴য়।
প্লাবটনাভ থানভ঱াবভটায এই থানভ঱াবভটানযয উদা঴যণ।

ZvcgvÎv (Temperature):
e¯‘i Zvcxq Ae¯’v‡K e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv e‡j| ZvcgvÎv ej‡Z e¯‘ KZUzKz Mig ev VvÛv Zv eySvq| ZvcgvÎv‡K  ev T Øviv
cÖKvk Kiv nq| ZvcgvÎvi GKK ºC, K, ºF BZ¨vw`|
Zvc (Heat): Zvc GK cÖKvi kw³| hv cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j e¯‘ Mig nq Ges wbM©Z Ki‡j e¯‘ VvÛv nq Zv‡K Zvc e‡j| Zvc‡K
Q ev H Øviv Kiv nq| Zv‡ci GKK Ryj ev K¨vjwi| 1 K¨vjwi = 4.2 Ryj|
c`v‡_©i DòZvwgwZ ag© I DòZvwgwZK c`v_© (Thermometric Property and Thermometric Substance ):
c`v‡_©i KZK¸‡jv ag© ZvcgvÎv cwieZ©‡bi mv‡_ mv‡_ cwiewZ©Z nq| †hgbt ZvcgvÎv e„w×‡Z Zi‡ji AvqZb ev‡o,
M¨v‡mi Pvc e„w× cvq, cwievnxi †iva e„w× cvq BZ¨vw`| c`v‡_©i †h me ag© ZvcgvÎvi mv‡_ wbqwgZ cwiewZ©Z nq †mB me
ag©‡K DòZvwgwZ ag© e‡j| †h mKj c`v‡_©i g‡a¨ DòZvwgwZ ag© we`¨gvb Zv‡ì‡K DòZvwgwZK c`v_© e‡j| c`v‡_©i
DòZvwgwZ ag© Kv‡R jvwM‡q _v‡g©vwgUvi wbg©vb Kiv nq|
ˆÎa we›`y (Triple Point): GKwU wbw`©ó Pv‡c †h ZvcgvÎvq †Kvb c`v_© KwVb, Zij I evqexq GB wZb iƒ‡c mvg¨ve¯’vq
_v‡K Zv‡K H c`v‡_©i ˆÎa we›`y e‡j|
cvwbi ˆÎa we›`y (Triple Point of water): ‡h wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎvq I Pv‡c cvwb KwVb (eid), Zij (cvwb) I evqexq
(Rjxqev®ú) GB wZb Ae¯’vq _vK‡Z cv‡i Zv‡K cvwbi ˆÎawe›`y e‡j| cvwbi ˆÎa we›`yi ZvcgvÎv 0ºC ev, 273.16K Ges
GB we›`y‡Z wbw`©ó Pvc 4.58 mmHg| GLv‡b K nj †Kjwfb, Avi †Kjwfb nj Gm AvB c×wZ‡Z ZvcgvÎvi GKK|
1
‡Kjwfb (Kelvin) : cvwbi ‰Îa we›`y ZvcgvÎvi †K 1K ev GK †Kjwfb e‡j| †Kjwfb ZvcgvÎvi Dci wfwË K‡i
273.16
cigk~b¨ ZvcgvÎv n‡”Q 0 K, eid we›`y 273.16K Ges ÷xg we›`y 373.16K|
ZvcgvÎvi cig †¯‹j ev, ZvcgvÎvi AvšÍ©RvwZK †¯‹j (Absolute scale of Temperature or, International Scale of
Temperature): cigk~b¨ ZvcgvÎv A_©vr  273ºC ZvcgvÎv‡K 0 (k~b¨) a‡i Ges †gŠwjK eëavb‡K 100 fvM K‡i
ZvcgvÎvi †h †¯‹j Kíbv Kiv nq Zv‡K ZvcgvÎvi cig †¯‹j ev ZvcgvÎvi AvšÍ©RvwZK †¯‹j e‡j| ZvcgvÎvi cig †¯‹j
Abyhvqx ˆÎa we›`yi ZvcgvÎv 273K I cvwbi ùzUbv¼ 373K|
wb¤œ w¯’i we›`y (Lower fixed point): †h ZvcgvÎvq cÖgvb Pv‡c weï× eid cvwbi mv‡_ mvg¨ve¯’vq _vK‡Z cv‡i A_©vr †h
ZvcgvÎvq weï× eid Mj‡Z ïiæ K‡i Zv‡K wb¤œ w¯’i we›`y ev eid we›`y (Ice Point) e‡j|
DaŸ© ©w¯’i we›`y (Upper fixed point): †h ZvcgvÎvq cÖgvb Pv‡c weï× cvwb Rjxq ev‡®úi mv‡_ mvg¨ve¯’vq _vK‡Z cv‡i
A_©vr †h ZvcgvÎvq weï× cvwb Rjxq ev‡®ú cwiYZ n‡Z ïiæ K‡i Zv‡K DaŸ© w¯’i we›`y ev ÷xg (Steam Point) we›`y e‡j|
‡gŠwjK eëavb (Fundamental Interval): DaŸ© w¯’i we›`y I wb¤œ w¯’i we›`yi gaëZ©x ZvcgvÎvi e¨veavb‡K †gŠwjK
eëavb e‡j| GB eëavb‡K myweav RbK KZK¸wj mgvbfv‡M wef³ K‡i GK GKwU fvM‡K DòZv ÁvcK msL¨v Øviv
wPwýZ K‡i ZvcgvÎvi †¯‹j wba©viY Kiv nq|
_v‡gv©wgUvi (Thermometer) : †h h‡š¿i mvnv‡h¨ †Kvb e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv ev DòZv cwigvc Kiv nq Zv‡K _v‡g©vwgUvi e‡j|
_v‡g©vwgUvi A‡bK cÖKv‡ii n‡q _v‡K, Gi g‡a¨ cÖavbZt †mjwmqvm, †Kjwfb, dv‡ibnvBU D‡jøL‡hvM¨|

12| ZvcgvÎv (Temperature) 2

cvi` _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii MVb (Construction of Mercury Thermometer ):
†h _v‡g©vwgUv‡i cvi‡ì AvqZb cÖmviY Kv‡R jvwM‡q ZvcgvÎv gvcv nq Zv‡K cvi` _v‡g©vwgUvi e‡j| ÓZvcgvÎv e„w× ‡c‡j
cvi‡ì AvqZb e„w× cvq Ges ZvcgvÎv n«vm ‡c‡j AvqZb n«vm cvqÓ G bxwZi Dci cvi` _v‡g©vwgUvi cÖwZwôZ|
MVb : GwU miæ wQ`ªwewkó Ges mgvb e¨v‡mi GKwU k³ KvP bj we‡kl| b‡ji GK cÖv‡šÍ GKwU †Pv½vK…wZ KzÛ _v‡K Ges
Aci cÖvšÍ eÜ _v‡K| KzÛ I b‡ji wKQy Ask weï× cvi‡` c~Y© _v‡K| b‡ji Mv‡q †¯‹j `vMvw¼Z _v‡K| †h e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv
gvc‡Z n‡e Zv‡K Kz‡Ûi ms¯ú‡k© Avb‡j cvi` AvqZ‡b †e‡o †h `vM ch©šÍ †cŠQvq Zv-B e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv|
cÖ¯‘Z cÖYvjx : cÖ_‡g m~ÿè I mymg wQ`ªwewkó GKwU KvP bj †bIqv nq| b‡ji GKcÖv‡šÍ GKwU evj¦ B Ges Aci cÖv‡šÍ A
†Lvjv _v‡K| bjwU‡K GKwU ÷¨v‡Ûi mvnv‡h¨ Lvov fv‡e ¯’vcb K‡i †Lvjv gy‡L GKwU dv‡bj F emv‡bv nq| dv‡b‡j wKQy
ï®‹ I weï× ci` Xvjv nq| b‡ji wQ`ª Lye m~ÿè nIqvq cvi` b‡ji wfZi cÖ‡ek Ki‡Z cv‡i bv| GKwU w¯úwiU j¨v¤ú ev
eyb‡mb evwZ w`‡q evj¦wU‡K Aí Zvc cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j evj¦ I b‡ji wfZ‡ii evqyi AvqZb e„w× cvq Ges wKQy evqy cvi‡ì
ga¨w`‡q eyèy` AvKv‡i †ei n‡q hvq| Ÿvj¦wU‡K VvÛv Ki‡j evj¦ I b‡ji Aewkó evqyi AvqZb K‡g
hvq Ges evqyi Pv‡c wKQy cvi` b‡ji wfZi cÖ‡ek K‡i| Gfv‡e ch©vqµ‡g Mig I VvÛv K‡i bj
I evj¦ m¤ú~Y© fwZ© Kiv nq| Gi ci dv‡bj‡K mwi‡q wb‡q cvi` bv †dvUv ch©šÍ evj¦wU‡K Mig Kiv
nq| dzUšÍ Ae¯’vq cvi‡ì AvqZb e„w× cvIqvq DwÌZ cvi` ev®ú b‡ji wfZ‡ii evqy‡K †ei K‡i
†`q| Zxeª I miæ AwMœwkLvi mvnv‡h¨ bj Mwj‡q eÜ K‡i †Ìqv nq| evj¦ VvÛv n‡q KÿZvcgvÎvq
G‡j cvi` m¤ú~Y© evj¦ I b‡ji wKQy Ask c~Y© K‡i iv‡L Ges b‡ji evKx Ask evqyk~b¨ Ae¯’vq _v‡K|
`vMv¼b : ZvcgvÎv cwigv‡ci Rb¨ _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii b‡j GKwU `vMKvUv †¯‹‡ji cÖ‡qvRb nq| †¯‹j
ˆZwii Rb¨ `ywU wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎv‡K w¯’i aiv nq| G‡ì‡K _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii w¯’iv¼ e‡j| cvi`
_v‡g©vwgUv‡i ei‡di Mjbv¼‡K wb¤œw¯’iv¼ Ges cvwbi ùzUbv¼‡K Ea©w¯’iv¼ aiv nq|
wb¤œ w¯’iv¼ wbY©q : GKwU dv‡b‡j wKQy weï× MjšÍ eid UzKiv wb‡q Zvi g‡a¨ _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii evj¦ cÖ‡ek
Kiv‡bv nq| G‡Z ev‡j¦i cvi` m¼zwPZ nq, d‡j ˆKwkK b‡j cvi‡ì D”PZv Kg‡Z _v‡K| b‡j
cvi‡ì D”PZv GKwU wbw`©ó ¯’v‡b G‡m w¯’i n‡j Kv‡Pi Mv‡q `vM †K‡U H ¯’vb‡K wPwýZ Kiv nq| cvi` kx‡l©i GB
Ae¯’vbB wb¤œw¯’iv¼ wb‡`©k K‡i|
DaŸ©©w¯’iv¼ wbY©q : cvi` _v‡g©wgUv‡ii DaŸ©w¯’iv¼ wbY©‡qi Rb¨ Rb¨ wnc‡mvwgUvi bvgK hš¿ eënvi Kiv nq| Gici
_v‡g©vwgUvi‡K wnc‡mvwgUv‡ii Zvgvi cv‡Î Ggbfv‡e ivLv nq hv‡Z Gi evj¦ cv‡Î iwÿZ cvwb ¯úk© bv K‡i| cvwb fwZ©
cvÎ‡K eyb‡mb evwZ ev w¯úwiU j¨v‡¤úi mvnv‡h¨ Zvc †Ìqv nq d‡j wKQyÿ‡Yi g‡a¨ cvwb dzU‡Z _v‡K Ges Drcbœ Rjxq
ev®ú _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii evj¦‡K DËß K‡i| b‡ji Af¨šÍi¯’ cvi` cÖmvwiZ nq Ges GK mgq ev‡®úi ZvcgvÎvi mgvb nq, ZLb
cvi` b‡ji g‡a¨ GK ¯’v‡b w¯’i nq| G Ae¯’vq cvi`kx‡l©i D³ Ae¯’v‡b b‡ji Mv‡q GKwU `vM KvUv nq| GUvB
_v‡g©vwgUv‡ii DaŸ© w¯’iv¼| DaŸ© I wb¤œ DaŸ©w¯’iv‡¼i gaëZ©x ¯’vb‡K 100 I 180 fv‡M fvM K‡i h_vµ‡g †mjwmqvm I
dv‡ibnvBU _v‡g©vwgUvi wnmv‡e eënvi Kiv hvq|
_v‡g©vwgUv‡i cvi` eënv‡ii myweav (Advantage to use Mercury in a Thermometer) t

1| GwU GKwU D¾¡j PKP‡K c`v_©, ZvB mn‡R Kv‡Pi b‡ji wfZi †`Lv hvq|
2| cvi` KvP b‡ji Mv‡q †j‡M _v‡K bv|
3| cvi` -39ºC ZvcgvÎvq R‡g Ges 357ºC ZvcgvÎvq dz‡U| myZivs ZvcgvÎvi `xN© cwim‡i GwU Zij Ae¯’vq _v‡K|
d‡j †gvUvgywU - 30ºC †_‡K 350ºC ch©šÍ ZvcgvÎv gvcv hvq|
4| cvi` weï× Ae¯’vq cvIqv hvq|
5| cvi` Zvc mycwievnx c`v_© e‡j AwZ`ªæZ †Kvb e¯‘ †_‡K Zvc †kvlb K‡i cÖmvwiZ nq|
6| cvi‡ì cÖmviY mylg ZvB ZvcgvÎv e„w×i Rb¨ Gi AvqZb cÖmviY me©Î mgvb nq|

_vwg©÷i (Thermistor): _vwg©÷i GKwU Aa©cwievnx c`v‡_©i ˆZix eë¯’v hv w`‡q

ZvcgvÎv cwigvc Kiv hvq| GB ZvcgvwÎK ¸b nj ê`ÿwZK †iva| DòZv e„w×i
mv‡_ mv‡_ _vwg©÷‡ii ê`ÿwZK †iva myPKxq nv‡i n«vm cvq| GB _v‡g©vwgUvi Ab¨vb¨
†iva _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii Zzjbvq A‡bK †ekx my‡e`x nq| GB _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii mvnv‡h¨70ºC
†_‡K 300º C ch©šÍ ZvcgvÎv cwigvc Kiv hvq| ZvcgvÎv cwigvc Kivi Rb¨ _vwg©ói‡K
µgv¼b K‡i wb‡Z nq|
Zvc-hyMj (_v‡g©vKvcj) I mx‡eK wµqv (Thermocouple & Seebeck-effect): `ywU wfbœ avZzi Zv‡ii `yB cÖvšÍ †Rvov
jvwM‡q Gi g‡a¨ GKwU M¨vjfv‡bvwgUvi AšÍf©y³ K‡i hw` eZ©bx ˆZix Kiv hvq
Ges Zvi `ywUi ms‡hvM ¯’j `ywU‡Z (Junctions) ZvcgvÎvi eëavb m„wó Kiv hvq,
Zvn‡j H eZ©bx‡Z Zwor cÖevwnZ n‡e, GB Zwor cÖevn‡K Zvc Zwor cÖevn e‡j|
1821 wLª÷v‡ã mx‡eK me© cÖ_g NUbvwU cÖ_g cÖZ¨ÿ K‡ib| ZvB G NUbv‡K mx‡eK
wµqv (Seebeck-effect) e‡j| `ywU wfbœ Zvi Øviv m„ó G eë¯’v‡K ejv nq Zvc-hyMj
(Thermocouple) Ges eZ©bx‡Z †h Zwo”PvjK kw³i D™¢e nq Zv‡K Zvcxq
Zwo”PvjK kw³ (Thermo electromotive force) ejv nq|
wbi‡cÿ ZvcgvÎv (Neutral Temperature): Zvc-hyM‡ji kxZj ms‡hvM‡K 0ºC ZvcgvÎvq †i‡L Dò ms‡hvM‡K †h,
ZvcgvÎvq ivL‡j eZ©bx‡Z Zvcxq Zwo”PvjK kw³i gvb me©vwaK nq †mB ZvcgvÎv‡K wbi‡cÿ ZvcgvÎv e‡j| Zvgv I
†jvnv hyM‡ji Rb¨ G ZvcgvÎv 275º C|
Drµg ZvcgvÎv (Inversion Temperature): Zvc-hyM‡ji kxZj ms‡hvM‡K 0ºC ZvcgvÎvq †i‡L Dò ms‡hvM‡K †h
ZvcgvÎvq ivL‡j Zvc Zwo”PvjK kw³i gvb k~b¨ nq Zv‡K H hyM‡ji Drµg ZvcgvÎv e‡j| Zvgv I †jvnv hyM‡ji Rb¨ G
ZvcgvÎv 550º C|
cÖgvY ZvcgvÎv ev ¯^vfvweK ZvcgvÎv (Standard temperature):

‡h ZvcgvÎvq ¯^vfvweK Pv‡c cvwb R‡g eid nq, A_ev eid M‡j cvwb‡Z cwibZ nq Zv‡K ¯^vfvweK ZvcgvÎv e‡j|
¯^vfvweK ZvcgvÎv nj 0ºC ev, 273.16 K, Z‡e eënvwiK †ÿ‡Î 273 K we‡ePbv Kiv nq|
Zvc Zwor _v‡gv©wgUvi ev Zvc hyMj ev _v‡g©vKvc‡ji mvnv‡h¨ ZvcgvÎv wbY©q (Determination of Temperature By the
help of Thermocouple): g~jbxwZ: _v‡g©vKvcj‡K _v‡g©vwgUvi wn‡m‡e eënvi Kiv hvq| Zvcxq Zwo”PvjK kw³
_v‡g©vKvc‡ji ms‡hvMØ‡qi ZvcgvÎvi cv_©‡Kï Dci wbf©i K‡i| hw` _v‡g©vKvc‡ji GKwU ms‡hvM‡K ei‡di ms¯ú‡k© 0º
C ZvcgvÎvq ivLv nq Ges Aci ms‡hvM‡K †Kvb D”PZi ZvcgvÎv ºC G ivLv nq Zvn‡j eZ©bx‡Z †h Zwo”PvjK kw³i
D™¢e nq Zv wb‡¤œv³ mgxKiY †_‡K cvIqv hvq| Zvcxq Zwo”PvjK kw³ E n‡j,
E=+ ... ... ... (1) GLv‡b, I `ywU aªæeK hv‡ì
gvb _v‡g©vKvc‡ji cÖK…wZi Dci wbf©i K‡i| E,I Gi gvb †R‡b Gi gvb
wbY©q Kiv nq|
eZ©bx ms‡hvM : wPÎvbyhvqx c‡UbwkIwgUv‡ii A I B we›`yi mv‡_ GKwU A¨vwgUvi
A, e¨vUix Ba, Pvwe K Ges cwieZ©bkxj †iva Rh †kªYx mgev‡q hy³ Kiv nq|
e¨vUix Ba Gi abvZ¥K cÖvšÍ A we›`yi mv‡_ hy³ _v‡K| GLb Zvgv I †jvnvi Zvi
w`‡q ‰Zix _v‡g©vKvc‡ji Dò ms‡hvM ¯’‡ji mv‡_ †h Zvgvi Zvi _v‡K, †mB


Zv‡ii gy³ cÖvšÍ‡K A -‡Z Ges kxZj ms‡hvM ¯’‡ji mv‡_ hy³ Zvgvi Zv‡ii gy³ cÖvšÍ‡K M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡ii G -Gi
ga¨w`‡q RwK‡Z hy³ Kiv nq|
cixÿv: Pvwe K eÜ K‡i c‡UbwkIwgUv‡i AB Zv‡i Zwor cÖevn Pvjbv Kiv nq| Gi ci cwieZ©bkxj †iv‡ai gvb Ggb
fv‡e mgwš^Z Kiv nq hv‡Z RwKwU‡K A we›`y‡Z ¯úk© Kiv‡j M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡ii KuvUv †h we‡ÿc ‡`q B we›`y‡Z ¯úk© Kiv‡j
Zvi wecixZ w`‡K we‡ÿc †`q| aiv hvK, RwKwU‡K C we›`y‡Z ¯úk© Kiv‡j M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡ii †Kvb we‡ÿc nq bv A_©vr C
we›`yB fvimvg¨ we›`y| GLb A I C Gi ga¨Kvi Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ l cwigvc Kiv nq Ges A¨vwgUvi †_‡K we`ÿr cÖev‡ni gvb I
wbY©q Kiv nq|
wnmve (Calculation) : Zvcxq Zwo”PvjK kw³ E n‡j

E= l ˆ`‡N©ï As‡ki Zv‡ii wefe cv_©K¨
=I× l ˆ`‡N©ï As‡ki Zv‡ii ‡iva
c‡UbwkIwgUv‡ii cÖwZ GKK ˆ`‡N©ï †iva  n‡j l ˆ`‡N©ï Zv‡ii †iva n‡e  l |
R
E=I l Avevi c‡UbwkIwgUv‡ii m¤ú~Y© Zv‡ii A_©vr L ˆ`‡N©ï Zv‡ii †iva R n‡j   
L
IlR
E  GB mgxKi‡Yi Wvb w`‡Ki me ivwk Rvbv _vKvq m„ó Zvcxq Zwo”PvjK kw³i gvb wbY©q Kiv hv‡e| Gevi (1)
L
bs mgxKi‡Y E,I Gi gvb ewm‡q Gi gvb wbY©q Kiv nq| 
cvB‡ivwgUvi (Pyrometer) : †h h‡š¿i mvnv‡h¨ D”P ZvcgvÎv cwigvc Kiv nq Zv‡K cvB‡ivwgUvi e‡j| cvB‡ivwgUvi
mvaviYZt `yB ai‡bi n‡q _v‡Kt h_v  (1) c~Yw© ewKiY cvB‡ivwgUvi (Total radiation pyrometer ) (2) Av‡jvK
cvB‡ivwgUvi (Optical pyrometer)
c~Y© wewKiY cvB‡ivwgUvi (Total radiation pyrometer) t c~Y© wewKiY cvB‡ivwgUv‡ii mvnv‡h¨ †Kvb e¯‘ n‡Z wewKwiZ
Zvckw³ cwigvc K‡i w÷dv‡bi m~Î cÖ‡qvM K‡i ZvcgvÎv wbY©q Kiv nq| †dix (Fery) cÖ_g cÖ_g GB ai‡bi cvB‡ivwgUi
ˆZix K‡i ZvcgvÎv cwigvc K‡ib e‡j G‡K †dixi cvB‡ivwgUvi I ejv nq|
h‡š¿i MVbt GB h‡š¿ GKwU AeZj `c©Y M i‡q‡Q hv Zvgvi
cvZ w`‡q ˆZix| cv‡Zi Dci Zj wb‡Kj avZzi cÖ‡jc †Ìqv| `c©‡bi
gvSLv‡b GKwU wQ`ª Av‡Q hvi wcQ‡b Awf‡bÎ E hy³ _v‡K| M-Gi m¤§y‡L
GKwU †QvU wQ`ª D i‡q‡Q hvi wcQ‡bB GKwU avZe djK S _v‡K| `c©Y
AwfgyLx dj‡Ki c„‡ô Kv‡jv cÖ‡jc †`qv _v‡K| wQ`ª D `ywU Aa©e„ËvKvi `c©Y
Øviv MwVZ| S-Gi wcQb c„†ô _v‡g©vKvcj T hy³ _v‡K| _v‡g©vKvc‡j Drcbœ
Zwo”PvjK ej cwigv‡ci Rb¨ GwU wgwj‡fvë wgUv‡ii mv‡_ hy³ _v‡K|
djKwUi Dci e¯‘i wewKwiZ iwk¥ hv‡Z mivmwi AvcwZZ bv n‡Z cv‡i †mRb¨
djKwU GKwU ev‡· Ave× ivLv nq| GKwU ¯Œzi mvnv‡h¨ m¤úyY© eë¯’vwU mvg‡b
wcQ‡b miv‡bv hvq|
Kvh©bxwZ t †h e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv wbY©q Kiv nq †mwU n‡Z AvMZ iwk¥ AeZj `c©‡bi mvnv‡h¨ cÖwZwe¤^ wQ`ª D-Gi
ga¨w`‡q S-Gi Dci AvcwZZ nq| Awf‡bÎ E-G †PvL †i‡L ZvKv‡j mwVK †dvKvwms n‡j wQ`ª D e„ËvKvi †`Lv‡e| mwVK
†dvKvm bv n‡j D `yB Aa©vs‡k m‡i hvq| `c©b mvg‡b wcQ‡b mwi‡q †dvKvwms Kiv nq|
ZvcgvÎv wbY©q t wgwj‡fvë wgUv‡ii cvV V, Dr‡mi ZvcgvÎv T Ges djK S -Gi ZvcgvÎv T0 n‡j, w÷dv‡bi m~Î
Abymv‡i, V   (T 4  T 4 ), GLv‡b,  w÷dvb aªæeK|
0
myZivs, V I T0 cwigvc K‡i GB cvB‡ivwgUv‡ii mvnv‡h¨ ARvbv ZvcgvÎv wbY©q Kiv hvq|


Av‡jvK cvB‡ivwgUvi (Optical pyrometer) : G cvB‡ivwgUv‡ii mvnv‡h¨ †h e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv wbY©q Ki‡Z n‡e †mB e¯‘i
cÖwZwe‡¤î D¾¡jZvi mv‡_ ê`ÿwZK evwZi wdjv‡g›U F-Gi mv‡_ D¾¡jZvi Zzjbv Kiv nq| O G h‡š¿i Awfjÿ¨ †jÝ
I E Awf‡bÎ| wdjv‡g›U F-Gi ga¨w`‡q wewfbœ Zwor cÖevn
cvwV‡q wdjv‡g›U‡K wewfbœ ZvcgvÎvq DËß Kiv nq| Zwor
cÖevn cwieZ©b Kivi Rb¨ GKwU wiI÷¨vU (Rh) Ges cÖevn gvÎv
cwigv‡ci Rb¨ GKwU A¨vwgUvi A _v‡K| ¯Œ S Gi mvnv‡h¨
Awfjÿ¨ O Gi Ae¯’vb Ggb fv‡e wbqwš¿Z Ki‡Z n‡e hv‡Z e¯‘
‡_‡K weKxY© iwk¥ F wdjv‡g‡›Ui Dci †K›`ªxf~Z nq Ges †mLv‡b
Dr†mi GKwU cÖwZwe¤^ m„wó nq| wdjv‡g‡›Ui g‡a¨ Zwor cÖevn Pvwj‡q
R jvj Kv‡Pi gva¨‡g Awf‡bÎ EGi ga¨w`‡q wdjv‡g›U‡K jÿ¨ Kiv
nq| Zwor cÖevngvÎv †ekx n‡j wdjv‡g›U cÖwZwe‡¤î †P‡q D¾¡j n‡e| Avi hw` Zwor cÖev‡ni cwigvb Kg nq Zvn‡j
cÖwZwe‡¤î Zzjbvq wdjv‡g›U Kv‡jv †`Lv‡e| wiI÷¨v‡Ui mvnv‡h¨ cÖevngvÎv wbqš¿b K‡i wdjv‡g›U A`„k¨ Ki‡Z nq| G
Ae¯’vq wdjv‡g‡›Ui ZvcgvÎv Dr‡mi ZvcgvÎvi mgvb n‡e| G Ae¯’vq A¨vwgUvi †_‡K cÖevngvÎvi cvV †bIqv nq|
wdjv‡g‡›Ui ga¨w`‡q cÖevwnZ ZworcÖevn gvÎvi gvb hw` I nq, Zvn‡j wdjv‡g‡›Ui ZvcgvÎv Z_v Dr‡mi ZvcgvÎv TK
wb‡¤§i mgxKiY n‡Z Rvbv hvq| I = a+bT+cT2 GLv‡b a, b I c wZbwU aªæeK| hš¿wU‡K wZbwU Rvbv ZvcgvÎvq µgvw¼Z
K‡i a, b I c Gi gvb wbY©q Ki‡Z nq| A¨vwgUvi‡K µgvw¼Z K‡iI mivmwi Dr‡mi ZvcgvÎv wbY©q Kiv hvq|
G h‡š¿i mvnv‡h¨ 600º C †_‡Z 1500º C ch©šÍ ZvcgvÎv gvcv hvq| N~b©vqgvb e„ËKjv (Rotating sector) eënvi K‡i G
cvB‡ivwgUv‡ii mvnv‡h¨ AviI D”P ZvcgvÎv cwigvc Kiv hvq|
ZvcgvÎvi wewfbœ †¯‹‡ji g‡a¨ m¤úK© (Relation among different scales of temperature) t
‡mjwmqvm, dv‡ibnvBU I †Kjwfb †¯‹‡ji cvi¯úwiK m¤úK© wbY©‡qi Rb¨ GKwU cvi` _v‡g©vwgUvi AB
‡bB hvi eid we›`y I ÷xg we›`y h_vµ‡g A I B `v‡Mi mv‡_ wg‡j hvq| aiv hvK, †Kvb ZvcgvÎvq
AB _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii cvi`kxl© hLb M Ae¯’v‡b Av‡m ZLb †mjwmqvm, dv‡ibnvBU I †Kjwfb †¯‹‡j
ZvcgvÎv h_vµ‡g C, F I K|
 Avgiv wjL‡Z cvwi,
MA C0 F  32 K  273
  
BA 100  0 212  32 373  273
C F  32 K  273
  
100 180 100
C F  32 K  273
   BnvB ‡mjwmqvm, dv‡ibnvBU I †Kjwfb †¯‹‡ji cv¯úwiK m¤ú‡K©i ivwkgvjv|
5 9 5
GK w¯’i we›`yi cwi‡cÖwÿ‡Z _v‡g©vwgwZi g~j mgxKiY cÖwZcv`b t aivhvK, †h †Kvb GKwU _v‡g©vwgUv‡i ZvcwgwZK ag© X1
ZvcgvÎv T1 Gi mgvbycvwZK| MvwbwZKfv‡e, T1  X1  T1  aX1 GLv‡b a GKwU aªæeK|
AZGe, GKB _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii `ywU ZvcgvÎvi ZvcwgwZK ag© Zzjbv K‡i cvB,
T1 X1
 ... ... ... ... (1) GLv‡b, T1 ZvcgvÎvq ZvcwgwZK ag© X1 I T2 ZvcgvÎvq ZvcwgwZK ag© X2
T2 X 2
cvwbi ‰Îawe›`y‡Z A_©vr 273.16K ZvcgvÎvq ZvcwgwZK ag© Xtr Ges ‡h †Kvb ZvcgvÎv T †Z ZvcwgwZK ag© X n‡j (1)
T X X
bs mgxKiY Abymv‡i cvB,  T   273.16 K
273.16 X tr X tr
l
(K) cvi` _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii †ÿ‡Î X Gi ¯’‡j cvi` ¯Í‡¤¢i ˆ`N©¨ l n‡j, T   273.16 K
l tr


V
(L) w¯’i Pvc M¨vm _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii †ÿ‡Î X Gi ¯’‡j ZvcwgwZK ag© AvqZb V n‡j, T   273.16 K
Vtr
P
(M) w¯’i AvqZb M¨vm _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii †ÿ‡Î X Gi ¯’‡j ZvcwgwZK ag© PvcP n‡j, T   273.16 K
Ptr
R
(N) ‡iva _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii †ÿ‡Î X Gi ¯’‡j ZvcwgwZK ag© ‡iva R n‡j, T   273.16 K
R tr
E
(O) Zvc Zwor _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii †ÿ‡Î X Gi ¯’‡j ZvcwgwZK ag© Zwo”PvjK ej E n‡j, T   273.16 K
E tr
`yB w¯’i we›`yi cwi‡cÖwÿ‡Z _v‡g©vwgwZi g~j mgxKiY cÖwZcv`b :
†h ZvcgvÎvq cÖgvb Pv‡c weï× eid cvwbi mv‡_ mvg¨ve¯’vq _vK‡Z cv‡i A_©vr †h ZvcgvÎvq weï× eid Mj‡Z ïiæ K‡i
Zv‡K wb¤œ w¯’i we›`y (Lower fixed point) ev eid we›`y (Ice Point) ev wngv¼ (Freezing Point) e‡j| †h ZvcgvÎvq
cÖgvb Pv‡c weï× cvwb Rjxq ev‡®úi mv‡_ mvg¨ve¯’vq _vK‡Z cv‡i A_©vr †h ZvcgvÎvq weï× cvwb Rjxq ev‡®ú cwiYZ
n‡Z ïiæ K‡i Zv‡K DaŸ© w¯’i we›`y (Upper fixed point) ev ÷xg (Steam Point) we›`y ev ùzUbv¼ (Boiling Point) e‡j|
DaŸ© w¯’i we›`y I wb¤œ wb¤œ w¯’i we›`yi gaëZ©x ZvcgvÎvi e¨veavb‡K †gŠwjK eëavb (Fundamental Interval) e‡j| G
eëavb‡K KZK¸‡jv mgvb fv‡M fvM K‡i GK GKwU †¯‹j MVb Kiv nq| cÖwZwU fvM 1º ZvcgvÎv wb‡`©k K‡i| aiv hvK,
eid we›`y I ÷xg we›`y‡Z †Kvb GKwU ZvcwgwZK c`v‡_©i a‡g©i gvb h_vµ‡g Xice I Xsteam| Ab¨ †h †Kvb () ZvcgvÎvq
H a‡g©i gvb X| †gŠwjK eëav‡bi fvM msL¨v =n ; X Gi cwieZ©b ZvcgvÎvi cwieZ©‡bi mgvbycvwZK|
n fvM Z_v nº ZvcgvÎv e„w×‡Z X Gi e„w× X steam  X ice  n  X steam  X ice  kn ... ... ... (1)
Avevi,  fvM Z_v º ZvcgvÎv e„w×‡Z X Gi e„w× X   X ice    X   X ice  k ... ... ... (2)
 X   X ice X   X ice
(1) I (2) n‡Z     n `yB w¯’i we›`yi cwi‡cwÿ‡Z GwUB _v‡g©vwgwZi g~j mgxKiY|
n X steam  X ice X steam  X ice

12| ZvcgvÎv (Tmperature)
1| GKwU aªæe AvqZb _v‡g©vwgUv‡i T †Kjwfb ZvcgvÎvq Pvc cvIqv  160

†Mj 6.5×104 Pa| cvwbi ˆÎa we›`y‡Z Pvc 5×103Pa n‡j T Gi x
4
gvb wbY©q Ki|
 x  40 C  40 F (Ans.)
Avgiv Rvwb,
5| GKwU ÎæwUc~b© _v‡g©vwgUv‡i wb¤§w¯’i we›`y 4°C Ges DaŸ© w¯’i we›`y
P GLv‡b,
T  T  273.16 K 98°C| _v‡g©vwgUviwU 51°C cvV w`‡j dv‡ibnvBU †¯‹‡j ZvcgvÎv KZ
Ptr cvwbi ‰Îa we›`y‡Z Pvc,
n‡e?
Ptr = 5×103Pa
6.510 4 g‡bKwi, cÖK…Z ZvcgvÎv = F
ev, T   273.16K wb‡b©q DòZvq Pvc, 4
5 10 3
PT = 6.5×10 Pa F  32 cÖvß ZvcgvÎv  wb¤ §
cÖkœg‡Z, 
T  3551.08 K (Ans.) wb‡b©q ZvcgvÎv, T = ? 212  32 DaŸ©  wb¤ §
F  32 51  4
 
2| GKwU †iva _v‡g©vwgUvi eid I wóg we›`y‡Z h_vµ‡g 4.5I 212  32 98  4
9.5 †iva cÖ`k©b K‡i| GwU GKwU Zi‡j ¯’vcb Ki‡j 6.1 †iva F  32 47
cÖ`k©b K‡i| ZijwUi ZvcgvÎv wbY©q Ki|  
180 94
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLv‡b, 47  180
Rθ  R0  F  32 
θ  100 C  eid we›`y‡Z †iva, R0 = 4.5 94
R 100  R 0 wóg we›`y‡Z †iva, R100 =9.5  F  90  32
6.1  4.5 Zi‡j †iva R = 6.1  F  122F (Ans.)
θ  100 C
9.5  4.5 ZijwUi ZvcgvÎv ?
1.6 6| GKwU ÎæwUc~b© _v‡g©vwgUv‡i mvaviY evqyPv‡c MwjZ ei‡d 2°CGes ï®‹
θ  100 C  θ  32C (Ans.) ev‡®ú 96°C cvV †`q| _v‡g©vwgUviwU 49°C cvV w`‡j dv‡ibnvBU I
5
†Kjwfb †¯‹‡j KZ cvV cvIqv hv‡e?
3| GKwU ÎæwUc~b© _v‡g©vwgUvi mvaviY evq~Pv‡c MwjZ ei‡d 4°C g‡bKwi, cÖK…Z ZvcgvÎv h_vµ‡g = F I K
Ges ï®‹ ev‡®ú 98°C cvV †`q| _v‡g©vwgUviwU 42°C cvV w`‡j F  32 cÖvß ZvcgvÎv  wb¤ œ K  273
cÖkœg‡Z,  
cÖK…Z ZvcgvÎv KZ? 212  32 Da   wb¤ œ 373  273
g‡bKwi, cÖK…Z ZvcgvÎv = C F  32 49  2 K  273
C0 cÖvß ZvcgvÎv  wb¤ œ   
cÖkœg‡Z,  212  32 96  2 373  273
100  0 DaŸ©  wb¤ œ
F  32 47 K  273
C 42  4 100  38   
 ev, C  C 180 94 100
100 98  4 94 F  32 1 K  273
C= 40.42 °C ( Ans.)   
180 2 100
180
4| †Kvb ZvcgvÎvq †mjwmqvm I dv‡ibnvBU †¯‹‡j GKB cvIqv  F  32 
hvq? 2
Avgiv Rvwb,  F  32  90
GLv‡b,  F  90  32  122F
C F  32
 C= F = x awi, Avevi,
5 9
1 K  273
x x  32 
  2 100
5 9
 K  273  50
 9 x  5x  160
 K  50  273
 9x  5x  160
 K  323K
 4x  160

cÖ_g c‡Îi As‡Ki mgvavb 2
7| †Kvb& ZvcgvÎvq †mw›U‡MÖW I dv‡ibnvBU †¯‹‡j cv‡Vi cv_©K¨  dv‡ibnvBU †¯‹‡j, x  10  27.5  10  17.5F
10°nq? wØZxq †ÿ‡Î, †mjwmqvm †¯‹‡j cvV, C= x
awi, †mjwmqvm †¯‹‡j cvV, C= x Ges dv‡ibnvBU †¯‹‡j cvV = x  10
 dv‡ibnvBU †¯‹‡j cvV = x  10  x  10 ev, x  10 x x  10  32
Avgiv Rvwb,  
5 9
C F  32  9 x  5x  210
 1g †ÿ‡Î, †mjwmqvm †¯‹‡j cvV, C= x
5 9  9 x  5x  110
Ges dv‡ibnvBU †¯‹‡j cvV, F = x  10  4x  210
x x  10  32  210
  x
5 9 4
 9 x  5x  110  x  52.5 C
 9 x  5x  110  dv‡ibnvBU †¯‹‡j, x  10  52.5  10  62.5F
 4x  110 DËit -27.5°C I -17.5°F Ges -52.5°C I -62.5°F
 110
x
4
 x  27.5 C

Zvc MwZwe`¨vi 1g m~Î (First Law of Thermodynamics):

Ry‡ji g‡Z ÒhLbB †Kvb Kv‡Ri d‡j Zvc Drcbœ nq ev Zv‡ci d‡j KvR mvwaZ nq ZLb KvR I Zvc ci¯ú‡ii
mgvbycvwZKÓ|
e¨vL¨v: g‡b Kwi, W cwigvb Kv‡Ri d‡j Q cwigvb Zvc Drcbœ nj| G‡ÿ‡Î m~Î g‡Z,
W∞Q
W = J Q GLv‡b J GKwU aªæe msL¨v| GB aªæe msL¨v‡K Zv‡ci hvwš¿K mgZv ev Ryj aªyeK e‡j|
weÁvbx K¬wmqv‡mi g‡Z  hLbB †Kvb e¯‘ ev ms¯’vq Zvc mieivn Kiv nq ZLbB GB Zv‡ci wKQy Ask e¯‘ ev
ms¯’vi AšÍw© bwnZ kw³ e„w×‡Z e¨vq nq evKx Ask evwn¨K KvR m¤úv`‡b LiP nq| MwY‡Zi fvlvq
dQ = dU + dW GLv‡b dQ = †gvU cÖ`Ë Zvc dU = AšÍw© bwnZ kw³i cwieZ©b I dW = evwn¨K
m¤úvw`Z KvR|
weÁvbx †nj¥R Gi g‡Z  Ò kw³ Awebk¦i Ó | kw³ m„wó ev webvk Kiv hvq bv| †Kej GK kw³ Ab¨ GK ev
GKvwaK kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ Kiv hvq| hLbB GK kw³ A`„k¨ n‡e ZLbB Aci kw³i Avwef©ve NU‡e| ZvB GB we‡k¦i †gvU
kw³i cwigvb AcwieZ©bxq|
Dc‡iv³ msMv n‡Z †h, kw³i e¨q Qvov KvR Kiv m¤¢e bq| Ggb †Kvb hš¿ Avwe®‹vi Kiv m¤¢e bq hv kw³ Qvov
Pj‡Z cv‡i|
Zv‡ci hvwš¿K mgZv (Mechanical equivalent of heat) : Ry‡ji Zvc MwZwe`¨vi 1g m~Î n‡Z Avgiv †h mgxKiY cvB Zv
nj W = JQ D³ mgxKi‡Y Q = 1 K¨vjwi n‡j W = J nq | A_©vr 1 K¨vjwi Zvc m¤úyb©iƒ‡c Kv‡R iƒcvšÍwiZ n‡j hZUzKz
KvR nq Zv‡K Zv‡ci hvwš¿K mgZv e‡j| hvwš¿K mgZv‡K J Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| J Gi gvb 4.2 Ryj/ K¨vjwi| J = 4.2
Ryj/ K¨jwi ej‡Z GB eywS †h, 1 K¨vjwi Zvc Kv‡R iƒcvšÍwiZ n‡j 4.2 Ryj KvR m¤úvw`Z nq|
ZvcMZxq cÖwµqv (Thermodynamic Process ): Pvc P, ZvcgvÎv T I AvqZb V ivwk¸‡jv‡K Zvc MZxq ¯’vbvsK ev Zvc
MZxq Pj ivwk e‡j| Zvc MZxq ¯’vbvs‡Ki mvnv‡h¨ †KvY eë¯’vi Ae¯’v cÖKvk Ki‡j, †m Ae¯’v‡K Zvc MZxq Ae¯’v e‡j|
†h cwieZ©‡bi Kvi‡Y Zvc MZxq ¯’vbvs‡Ki gvb cwiewZ©Z nq †m cwieZ©b‡K ZvcMZxq cÖwµqv e‡j|
ZvcMZxq ¯’vbvsK (Thermodynamic co-ordinates): ZvcMZxq Av‡jvPbvi Rb¨ †Kvb eë¯’vi Ae¯’v Pvc P , AvqZb V
I cig ZvcgvÎv T Gi mvnv‡h¨ cÖKvk Kiv nq| GB ivwk ¸wj‡K ZvcMZxq ¯’vbvsK e‡j|
ZvcMZxq Ae¯’v (Thermodynamic State): ZvcMZxq Av‡jvPbvi Rb¨ †Kvb eë¯’vi Ae¯’v Pvc P , AvqZb V I cig
ZvcgvÎv T Gi mvnv‡h¨ cÖKvk Kiv nq| GB ivwk ¸wj‡K ZvcMZxq ¯’vbvsK ev Zvc MZxq Pj ivwk e‡j| ZvcMZxq
¯’vbvs‡Ki mvnv‡h¨ †KvY eë¯’vi Ae¯’v cÖKvk Ki‡j †m Ae¯’v‡K ZvcMZxq Ae¯’v e‡j|
ZvcMZxq mvg¨ve¯’v (Thermodynamic Equilibrium): ‡Kvb wew”Qbœ eë¯’vi P‚ovšÍ AwePj Ae¯’v‡K ZvcMZxq mvg¨ve¯’v
e‡j| mvg¨ve¯’vq eë¯’vi mKj we›`y‡Z ZvcMZxq ¯’vbv¼ A_©vr Pvc P , AvqZb V I cig ZvcgvÎv T Gi gvb mgvb|
ZvcMZxq wm‡÷g ev eë¯’v (Thermodynamic system): ZvcMZxq wm‡÷g ej‡Z Zj ev †eóbx Øviv mxgve× †Kvb wbw`©ó
cwigvb e¯‘‡K eySvq| †hgb GKwU wc÷b hy³ wmwjÛv‡i A_ev GKwU †ejy‡b Ave× M¨vm|

13| Zvc MwZwe`¨vi 1g m~Î (First Law Of Thermodynamics) 2

AšÍ¯’ kw³ (Internal Energy): †Kvb eë¯’vi Af¨šÍixb kw³B AšÍ¯’ kw³| eë¯‘vi GB kw³ Ab¨vb¨ kw³‡Z iæcvšÍwiZ
n‡Z cv‡i| GB kw³ c`v‡_©i Af¨šÍixb MV‡bi Dci wbf©i K‡i| AšÍ¯’ kw³ AYy¸‡jvi wefe kw³ I MwZkw³i ‡hvMdj|
Zvc cÖ‡qvM ev Zvc Acmvib Øviv AšÍ¯’ kw³i cwieZ©b NUv‡bv hvq| Avevi e¯‘i Dci KvR K‡i ev e¯‘i Øviv
KvR m¤úvw`Z n‡j AšÍ¯’ kw³i cwieZ©b nq| AšÍ¯’ kw³i cwieZ©b ïaygvÎ eë¯’vi cÖv_wgK I PzovšÍ Ae¯’vi Dci wbf©i
K‡i| M¨vm‡K msbwgZ Ki‡j AšÍ¯’ kw³i e„w× cvq Avevi M¨vm‡K cªmvwiZ Ki‡j AšÍ¯’ kw³ n«vm cvq|
iæ× Zvc cÖwµqvq M¨vm‡K msbwgZ Ki‡j Gi ZvcgvÎv e„w× cvq - Gi KviY:
iæ× Zvc cwieZ©‡b M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv KLbB w¯’i _v‡K bv| A_v©r iæ×Zvc cÖwµqvq M¨vm †Kvb Zvc MÖnb ev eR©b K‡i bv|
wKš‘ M¨vm Zvc MÖnb eR©b bv Ki‡jI M¨v‡mi AšÍt¯’ kw³ w¯’i _v‡K bv| hLb M¨vm‡K msbwgZ Kiv nq ZLb M¨v‡mi KvR
m¤úv`b Kiv nq| G‡Z M¨v‡mi kw³ e„w× cvq A_©vr M¨v‡mi AšÍt¯’ kw³i e„w× N‡U| KviY G †ÿ‡Î M¨vm Zvc eR©b Ki‡Z
cv‡i bv| G Rb¨ Gi ZvcgvÎv e„w× cvq|
M¨v‡mi Av‡cwÿK Zvc I †gvjvi ZvcaviY ÿgZvi (†gvjvi Av‡cwÿK Zvc) g‡a¨ m¤úK© (Relation between specific
heat of gas and molar thermal capacity of gas):
1 †gvj M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv 1K evov‡Z ‡h cwigvb Zv‡ci cÖ‡qvRb Zv‡K †gvjvi Zvc aviY ÿgZv ev †gvjvi Av‡cwÿK Zvc
e‡j| †Kvb M¨v‡mi n msL¨K †gv‡ji ZvcgvÎv T cwigvb evov‡Z hw` Q Zv‡ci cÖ‡qvRb nq Z‡e
Q
1 †gvj M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv 1K evov‡Z Zvc jvM‡e
nT
‡gvjvi Zvc aviY ÿgZv C   Q
nT
1 ‡KwR M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv 1K evov‡Z ‡h cwigvb Zv‡ci cÖ‡qvRb Zv‡K M¨v‡mi Av‡cwÿK Zvc e‡j| †Kvb M¨v‡mi m ‡KwR
M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv T cwigvb evov‡Z hw` Q Zv‡ci cÖ‡qvRb nq Z‡e
Q
1 kg M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv 1K evov‡Z Zvc jvM‡e
mT
 M¨v‡mi Av‡cwÿK Zvc   Q
mT
m e¯‘ i fi ΔQ
GLv‡ b † gvj msL¨v n   C 
M AvbweK fi m
ΔT
M
ΔQ
ev, C  M
mΔT
ev, C  M  M¨v‡ mi Av‡ cw¶ K Zvc
A_©vr †gvjvi Zvc aviY ÿgZv = AvbweK fi × M¨v‡mi Av‡cwÿK Zvc
M¨v‡mi Av‡cwÿK Zvc: 1 ‡KwR M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv 1K evov‡Z ‡h cwigvb Zv‡ci cÖ‡qvRb Zv‡K M¨v‡mi Av‡cwÿK Zvc
e‡j|
w¯’i Pv‡c M¨v‡mi Av‡cwÿK Zvc (Specific heat of Gas at constant Pressure):
Pvc w¯’i †i‡L 1 ‡KwR f‡ii M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv 1K e„w× Ki‡Z hZUzKz Zvc cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z nq Zv‡K w¯’i Pv‡c M¨v‡mi
Av‡cwÿK Zvc e‡j|


w¯’i AvqZ‡b M¨v‡mi Av‡cwÿc Zvc (Specific heat of Gas at constant Volume):
AvqZb w¯’i †i‡L 1 ‡KwR f‡ii M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv 1K e„w× Ki‡Z ‡h cwigvb Zv‡ci cÖ‡qvRb nq Zv‡K w¯’i AvqZ‡bi
M¨v‡mi Av‡cwÿK Zvc e‡j|
w¯’i Pv‡c M¨v‡mi †gvjvi Av‡cwÿK Zvc ev †gvjvi Zvc aviY ÿgZv (Molar specific heat of Gas at constant
Pressure):
Pvc w¯’i †i‡L 1 †gvj M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv 1K e„w× Ki‡Z hZUzKz Zvc cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z nq Zv‡K w¯’i Pv‡c M¨v‡mi †gvjvi
Av‡cwÿK Zvc ev †gvjvi Zvc aviY ÿgZv e‡j| G‡K Cp Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq|
w¯’i AvqZ‡b M¨v‡mi †gvjvi Av‡cwÿc Zvc ev †gvjvi Zvc aviY ÿgZv (Molar specific heat of Gas at constant
Volume):
AvqZb w¯’i †i‡L 1 ‡gvj M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv 1K e„w× Ki‡Z ‡h cwigvb Zv‡ci cÖ‡qvRb nq Zv‡K w¯’i AvqZ‡bi M¨v‡mi
‡gvjvi Av‡cwÿK Zvc ev †gvjvi Zvc aviY ÿgZv e‡j| G‡K Cv Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq|
GKwU Av`k© M¨v‡mi Rb¨ Cp I Cv Gi g‡a¨ m¤úK© (Relation between Cp and Cv ) ev , Cp  Cv = R Gi cÖgvY:
g‡b Kwi wc÷b hy³ GKwU wmwjÛv‡ii g‡a¨ P Pv‡c, T ZvcgvÎvq, V AvqZ‡b 1 †gvj Av`k© M¨vm Av‡Q| (wPÎ wb‡¤§)
Gevi M¨v‡m wKQy Zvc cÖ`vb Kiv nj| G Zvc M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv I Pvc e„w× Ki‡e Ges AvqZb I e„w× †c‡Z PvB‡e| d‡j
wc÷bwU Dc‡ii w`‡K DV‡Z †Póv Ki‡e| wc÷b‡K c~‡e©i Ae¯’v‡b ivL‡Z n‡j A_©vr AvqZb w¯’i ivLvi Rb¨ wc÷‡bi
Dci wKQy IRb Pvcv‡Z n‡e| g‡b Kwi dQ Zvc cÖ‡qvM Kiv nj Ges wc÷‡b dP IRb Pvwc‡q M¨v‡mi AvqZb V
AcwiewZ©Z ivLv nj|
dQ Zvc MÖnb K‡i M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv hw` dT cwigvb e„w× cvq|
Zvn‡j, dQ = 1. Cv dT [ M„nxZ Zvc = fi × Avt Zvc × DòZv e„w× ]
ev, dQ = Cv dT... ... ... ... ... (1)
Avevi Zvc MwZwe`¨vi 1g m~Î
dQ dUdW
Cv dT =dU dWewn¯’t Kv‡Ri cwigvb I (1) bs mgxKiY n‡Z dQ Gi gvbewm‡q]
 dU =Cv dT ... ... ... ... ... 
Gevi wc÷‡bi Dci †_‡K cÖv_wgK IRb †i‡L AwZwi³ dP IRb Zz‡j wb‡j wc÷b Dc‡ii w`‡K DV‡Z _vK‡e A_©vr
AvqZb e„w× cv‡e| [wPÎ - M]| AvqZb e„w×i Rb¨ M¨v‡mi wKQy KvR Ki‡Z n‡”Q| M¨v‡mi AšÍt¯’ kw³ e¨v‡q G KvR Ki‡Z
nq e‡j AšÍt¯’ kw³ n«vm cvq d‡j ZvcgvÎv I n«vm cvq| w¯’i Pv‡c M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv dT e„w×i Rb¨ M¨vm †h cwigvb KvR
Ki‡Q Zvi mgZzj¨ Zvc cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z n‡e| A_©vr G‡ÿ‡Î †h AwZwi³ Zvc mieivn Ki‡Z n‡e Zvi cwigvb PdV| GLv‡b
M¨v‡mi AvqZb e„w×i cwigvb dV Ges cÖ`Ë w¯’i Pvc P| G‡ÿ‡Î mieivnK…Z Zvc dQ


dQ = 1. Cp dT
 dQ = Cp dT... ... ... ... ... (3)
Avevi Zvc MwZwe`¨vi 1g m~ÎwU nj
dQ = dU + dW
 dQ = dU + PdV [ dW = PdV ]
 Cpd Cv dT + PdV [3 bs n‡Z dQ Ges 2 bs n‡ZdU Gi gvb ewm‡q|]
ev, Cpd Cv dT = PdV
ev, Cp Cv d = PdV ... ... ... ... ... ... (4)
Avevi, †gvjvi M¨vm aªæeK R n‡j, 1 †gvj M¨v‡mi Rb¨ Avgiv Rvwb,
PV = RT ... ... ... ... ... ... ... (5)
(5) bs mgxKiY‡K T Gi mv‡c‡ÿ eëKjb K‡i cvB,
d
PV   d RT 
dT dT
dV dT
ev, P R [P I R aªæe]
dT dT
dV
ev, P R
dT
PdV = RdT ... ... ... ... ... ... ... (6)
(4) bs mgxKi‡Y (6) bs mgxKi‡Yi gvb ewm‡q cvB,
Cp Cv d = RdT
Cp Cv = R ... ... ... ... ... ... ... (7) BnvB CpI Cv g‡a¨ m¤úK©|
CpI Cv I AYycvZ‡K  Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| A_©vr   C P †h‡nZz Cp Cv = R Avevi R abvZ¡K msL¨v
CV
 CpCv , Avevi CpCv e‡j  Gi gvb me mgq 1 Gi †ekx|
iæ× Zvcxq cwieZ©‡b M¨v‡mi Pvc I AvqZ‡bi g‡a¨ m¤úK© (Relation between Pressure and volume in an adiabatic
Process) A_©vr PV = aªæeK Gi cÖgvb I ZvcgvÎv I AvqZ‡bi g‡a¨ m¤úK© TV γ 1  aª æeK |
g‡b Kwi, 1 †gvj M¨vm‡K dQ cwigvb Zvc †Ìqvi d‡j Gi AvqZb I DòZvi cwieZ©b h_vµ‡g dV I dT nq| Zvc
MwZwe`¨vi 1g m~Î †_‡K cvB,
dQ = dU +dW
dQ = dU + PdV ... ... ... ... ... ... (1) [ dW = PdV ]
wKš‘ Avgiv Rvwb, 1 †gvj M¨v‡mi AšÍt¯’ kw³i e„w× dU nj w¯’i AvqZ‡b †gvjvi Av‡cwÿK Zvc Cv Ges ZvcgvÎv e„w× dT
Gi ¸Y d‡ji mgvb, A_©vr dU = Cv dT ... ... ... ... ... ... ... (2)
(1) bs mgxKi‡Y dU = Cv dT ewm‡q cvB, 
dQ = Cv dT + PdV ... ... ... ... ... ... (3)
wKš‘ iæ× Zvcxq cÖwµqvq dQ = 0, (3) bs mgxKi‡Y dQ = 0 ewm‡q cvB,
Cv dT + PdV = 0 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... (4)
1 ‡gvj Av`k© M¨v‡mi Rb¨ Avgiv Rvwb,
PV = RT ... ... ... ... ... ... ... (5)
GB mgxKiY‡K AšÍiKjb K‡i cvB,
PdV +VdP = RdT
PdV  VdP
ev, dT  Gi GB gvb (4) bs mgxKi‡Y ewm‡q cvB,
R


 PdV  VdP 
Cv    PdV  0
 R 
ev, CvPdV + CvVdP + RPdV = 0
ev, CvPdV + CvVdP + (Cp Cv)PdV = 0
ev, CvPdV + CvVdP + CpPdV CvPdV = 0
ev, CvVdP + CpPdV = 0
Cp
ev, VdP  PdV  0 [ Dfq cÿ‡K Cv Øviv fvM K‡i|]
Cv
ev, VdP + PdV = 0  CP
CV  
dP dV
ev ,  γ  0 [ Dfq cÿ‡K PV Øviv fvM K‡i| ]
P V
Gevi Dfq cÿ‡K mgvKjb K‡i cvB,
LogeP + LogeV = aªæeK
ev, LogeP +LogeV= LogeK
ev, LogePV = LogeK
ev, PV   K
 PV   aª æeK (cÖgvwYZ|) ... ... ... ... ... ... (6)
Avgiv Rvwb, PV = RT
RT
P ... ... ... ... ... ... (7)
V
Avevi Avgiv Rvwb, PVaªæeK ... ... ... ... ... (6)
RT 
 V  aª æeK [(7) bs n‡Z gvb ewm‡q|]
V
 RTV  1  aª æeK
TV γ 1  aª æeK ( cÖgvwYZ ) [R me©Rbxb M¨vm aªæeK]
BnvB M¨v‡mi iæ× Zvc cwieZ©‡b AvqZb I ZvcgvÎvi g‡a¨ m¤úK©|
Cp I Cv Gi gvb wbY©q (Calculation of Cp and Cv):

T cwigvb DòZv e„w×i Rb¨ GKwU Av`k© M¨v‡mi AšÍt¯’ kw³i e„w× U n‡j, U = Cv T GLv‡b Cv w¯’i
AvqZ‡b M¨v‡mi †gvjvi Av‡cwÿK Zvc| GKwU GK civgvYyK M¨v‡mi AšÍt¯’ kw³ ïaygvÎ Gi AcmviY MwZ kw³i Kvi‡Y
nq| M¨v‡mi MwZZË¡ n‡Z Avgiv Rvwb,
3
AšÍt¯’ kw³ U  RT
2
dT DòZv e„w×i Rb¨ AšÍt¯’ kw³ dU cwigvb e„w× Ki‡j,
3
dU  RdT
2
3
 Cv dT  R dT  dU  Cv dT 
2
3
 Cv  R
2
3
 Cv   8.31 J mol 1 K 1 [ R = 8.31 J mol-1 K-1]
2


1 1
 C v  12.5 J mol K
Avevi, Cp  Cv = R
 Cp = R +Cv
 Cp = (8.31 +12.5) J mol-1 K-1
 Cp =20.81 J mol-1 K-1

Gi ¸iæZ¡ (Zvrch©):
CpI Cv I AYycvZ‡K  Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| A_©vr   C P , †ÿÎ we‡k‡l  ¸iæZ¡c~Y© f~wgKv cvjb K‡i| M¨v‡m k‡ãi
CV
†eM wbY©‡q  Gi ¸iæZ¡ i‡q‡Q| iæ× Zvc cwieZ©‡b -Gi cÖ‡qvRbxZv Av‡Q| Zv Qvov M¨v‡mi †hvR¨Zv m¤úwK©Z Z_¨ 
†_‡K cvIqv hvq| GK cvigvYyweK M¨v‡mi Rb¨ =1.33 Ges wØcvigvYyweK M¨v‡mi Rb¨ =1.41I wZb cvigvYyweK
M¨v‡mi Rb¨ =1.66|  -Gi M¨v‡mi cigvbyi msL¨vi Dci wbf©ikxj e‡j †Kvb M¨v‡mi AYy‡Z KqwU cigvYy Av‡Q Zv -
Gi gvb wbY©q K‡i Rvbv hvq| †h‡nZz Cp Cv = R Avevi R abvZ¡K msL¨v  CpCv , Avevi CpCv e‡j  Gi gvb
me mgq 1 Gi †ekx|
iƒ×Zvc †jL m‡gvò †jL A‡cÿv Lvov (An adiabatic Carve is Steeper than Isothermal Curve) :
iæ×Zvc cwieZ©‡bi †ÿ‡Î, Avgiv Rvwb,
PV = aªæeK, GB mgxKiY †K eëKjb K‡i cvB,
PV  1dV  V  dP  0
PV  1dV
 dP  
V
 dP  PV  1
  
 dV  Q V
 dP  P
   ... ... ... (1)
 dV  Q V
cybivq, m‡gvò cwieZ©‡b, PV = aªæeK, GB mgxKiY †K eëKjb K‡i cvB,
PdV + VdP = 0
 dP  P
    ... ... ... (2)
 dV T V
 dP  P  dP 
    
mgxKiY (1) ‡K (2) Øviv fAM K‡i cvB,  dV  Q  dV  Q
 V  
 dP  P  dP 
    
 dV T V  dV T
Zvcxq † iLvi Xvj
AZGe,   ev, iæ× Zvcxq‡iLvi Xvj = m‡gvò †iLvi Xvj × 
m‡ gvò † iLvi Xvj
wKš‘ Gi gvb 1 A‡cÿv †ekx| myZivs, mgxKiY (3) †_‡K ejv hvq †h, iæ×Zvc †j‡Li Xvj ev bwZ (Slope) m‡gvò
†j‡Li Xvj ev bwZi | †h †jL wP‡Îi Xvj hZ †ekx †m †jLwPÎ ZZ †ekx Lvov| myZivs iƒ×Zvc †jL m‡gvò †jL A‡cÿv
Lvov|


m‡gvò cÖwµqv (Isothermal Process):
Pvc cwieZ©b Kivi d‡j hLb †Kvb M¨v‡mi AvqZ‡bi cwieZ©b nq, wKš‘ ZvcgvÎvi †Kvb cwieZ©b nq bv, †m cwieZ©b‡K
m‡gvò cwieZ©b e‡j| †h cÖwµqvq G cwieZ©b msNwUZ nq Zv‡K m‡gvò cÖwµqv e‡j|
iæ×Zvcxq cÖwµqv (Adiabatic Process):

‡h cwieZ©‡b M¨v‡mi Pvc I AvqZ‡bi cwieZ©b nq wKš‘ cÖwµqvaxb M¨vm Zvc MÖnY ev eR©b Ki‡Z cv‡i bv, †m cwieZ©b‡K
iæ× Zvcxq cwieZ©b e‡j Ges †h cÖwµqvq G cwieZ©b msNwUZ nq Zv‡K iæ×Zvcxq cÖwµqv e‡j|
m‡gvò I iæ×Zvc cÖwµqvi g‡a¨ cv_©K¨t

µwgK m‡gvò cÖwµqv iæ×Zvc cÖwµqv
w¯’i ZvcgvÎvq †h cÖwµqv m¤úvw`Z nq Zv‡K ‡h cÖwµqv m¤úv`b Kv‡j cwi‡e‡ki mv‡_ Zv‡ci
1|
m‡gvò cÖwµqv e‡j| Av`vb cÖ`vb nqbv Zv‡K iæ×Zvc cÖwµqv e‡j|
2| m‡gvò cÖwµqvq ZvcgvÎv w¯’i _v‡K| iæ×Zvc cÖwµqvq ZvcgvÎv cwiewZ©Z nq|
3| GUv axi cÖwµqv GUv `ªæZ cÖwµqv|
4| m‡gvò cÖwµqvq PV = aªæeK nq| iæ×Zvc cÖwµqvq PV = aªæeK nq|
5| m‡gvò †jL Kg Lvov| iæ×Zvc †jL AwaK Lvov|
m‡gvò cÖwµqvq †Kvb wm‡÷g KZ…K K…Z KvR wm‡÷‡g mieivnK…Z Zvc kw³i mgvbt
aiv hvK, Avgv‡ì wm‡÷g n‡”Q GKwU M¨vmfwZ© wmwjÛvi hvi mv‡_ GKwU bobÿg wc÷b
jvMv‡bv Av‡Q| wmwjÛvi †Ìqv‡ji ga¨ w`‡q kw³ wm‡÷‡g cÖ‡ek Ki‡Z wK¤^v wm‡÷g
†_‡K †ewi‡q †h‡Z cv‡i|
hw` wm‡÷‡g Lye ax‡i ax‡i kw³ mieivn Kiv hvq Zvn‡j M¨v‡m Pvc I AvqZ‡bi cwieZ©b
n‡e hwÌ Gi ZvcgvÎvi †Kvb cwieZ©b n‡e bv| Giƒc cwieZ©b‡K m‡gvò cwieZ©b e‡j|
Gi d‡j M¨v‡mi †h cÖmviY nq m‡gvò cÖmviY e‡j|
m‡gvò cÖwµqvq pV îwLK wP‡Î †`Lvb n‡q‡Q| GB îwLK wPÎ‡K m‡gv‡iL e‡j|
m‡gvò cÖwµqvq DòZv w¯’i _v‡K e‡j wm‡÷‡gi AšÍt¯’ kw³i †Kvb cwieZ©b nq bv| A_©vr dU = 0 |
myZivs, Zvc MwZwe`¨vi cÖ_g m~Î †_‡K cvB, dQ = 0 + dW  dQ  dW A_©vr m‡gvò cÖwµqvq †Kvb wm‡÷g KZ…K K…Z
KvR wm‡÷‡g mieivnK…Z Zvc kw³i mgvb| m‡gvò cÖwµqvq p1V1  p2V2 n‡e|

13| ZvcMwZwe`¨vi 1g m~Î (13. First Law Of Thermodynamics)
1| wcóbhy³ GKwU wmwjÛv‡i wKQy M¨vm Ave× Av‡Q|

M¨‡mi Pvc 400Pa-G w¯’i †i‡L wm‡ó‡g ax‡i ax‡i 3| 1 evqygÛjxq Pv‡c †Kvb M¨vm‡K iæ×Zvcxq cÖwµqvq
800J Zvckw³ mieivn Kivq 1200J KvR m¤úvw`Z AvqZb wØ¸b Ki‡j H M¨v‡mi P~ovšÍ Pvc KZ n‡e?[ 
nq| M¨v‡mi AvqZb cwieZ©b Ges AšÍt¯’ kw³i  ]
cwieZ©b wbY©q Ki| Avgiv Rvwb,
GLv‡b,
Avgiv Rvwb,
Pvc, P = 400Pa P1V1γ = P2 V2γ
Q = U +W Zvc, Q = 800J  GLv‡b,
ev, U =Q W KvR,W = 1200 J V  evqygÛ‡ji Pvc,
ev, P2  P1  1  P1 =1.013×105 Pa
U = ?
ev, U =800J 1200 J AvqZb cwieZ©b, V =?  V2  AvqZb, V1 = V (awi)
1.41
 U =400 J V  5 AvqZb, V2 = 2V
ev, P2  1.013  10  
  2V  Pvc, P2 =?
 
AšÍ¯’t kw³i cwieZ©b FbvZ¥K nIqvi A_© wm‡÷‡gi ev, P2  1.013  105  0.51.41
AšÍ¯’t kw³ n«vm cv‡e|  P2 = 38120.37 Pa (Ans.)
Avevi,
W = PV
W 4| ¯^vfvweK ZvcgvÎv I Pv‡c †Kvb M¨vm‡K m‡gvò
 V 
P cÖwµqvq wØ¸b AvqZ‡b cÖmvwiZ Ki‡j H M¨v‡mi P~ovšÍ
 V 
1200 3
m
Pvc KZ n‡e?
400 Avgiv Rvwb,
 V  3m 3 (Ans.) P1V1 P2 V2 GLv‡b,

T1 T2 Pvc, P1 = 0.76 m Hg
2| 27°C ZvcgvÎvi †Kvb wbw`©ó cwigvb M¨vm nVvr PVT ZvcgvÎv, T1 =0ºC= (0+273)
cÖmvwiZ n‡q wØ¸b AvKvi jvf K‡i| P~ovšÍ ZvcgvÎv  P2  1 1 2 = 273K = T2
T1V2
AvqZb, V1 = V (awi)
KZ? [ =1.4] 0.76  V  273 AvqZb, V2 = 2V
 P2 
Avgiv Rvwb, 273 2V Pvc, P2 =?
T1V1γ 1  T2 V2γ1 GLv‡b,  P2  0.38mHg (Ans.)
ZvcgvÎv, T1 = 27 ºC
T2 V1γ 1 = (27+273)K = 300K
  AvqZb, V1 = V (awi) 5| ¯^vfvweK Pv‡c 100 m3 AvqZ‡bi GKwU M¨v‡m
T1 V2γ 1
γ 1
AvqZb, V2 = 2V 5×103 J Zvc w`‡j M¨v‡mi AvqZb 100.2 m3 nq| H
ZvcgvÎv, T2 = ?
T V 
 2   1   =1.4
M¨v‡mi K…Z Kv‡Ri gvb wbY©q Ki|
T1  V2  Avgiv Rvwb,
1.4 1
GLv‡b,
T  V  K…ZKvR W = PV Pvc, P = 1.013×105 Nm-2
 2  
300  2V   W = PV2V1) Avw` AvqZb, V1 = 100 m3
3
‡kl AvqZb, V2 = 100.2 m
 T2  300  0.5 0.4 K  W =1.013×105(100.2 100)J
cÖhy³ Zvc, Q = 5×103 J
 T2  227.36 K  (227.36 - 273)C  - 45.64C (Ans.)  W =1.013×105 × 0.2 J K…ZKvR W =?
5
 W =1.013×10 × 0.2 J
 W = 20260 J (Ans.)

13| ZvcMwZwe`¨vi 1g m~Î (13. First Law Of Thermodynamics) 2
7| 27°C ZvcgvÎvi †Kvb wØcvigvbweK M¨v‡mi Pvc nVvr
6| GKwU wmwjÛv‡ii g‡a¨ ivLv wKQy cwigvb M¨vm wØ¸b Kiv nj, Pvc cwieZ©‡bi ci ZvcgvÎvi cwieZ©b KZ
cwi‡e‡ki Dci 200 J KvR m¤úv`‡bi mgq cwi‡ek n‡e?
†_‡K 500 J Zvckw³ †kvlY K‡i| M¨v‡mi AšÍ¯’t Avgiv Rvwb,
GLv‡b,
kw³i cwieZ©b KZ n‡e? 1-γ
γ
1-γ
γ ZvcgvÎv, T1 = 27 ºC
T1P1 T P
Avgiv Rvwb, 2 2
= (27+273)K = 300K
GLv‡b,
1- γ
Pvc, P1 = P (awi)
Q = U +W T P  γ
 Pvc, P2 = 2P
‡kvwlZ Zvc, Q =500 J  2   1 
 U = Q W T1  P2  ZvcgvÎv gvÎvi cwieZ©b ,
K…ZKvR, W =200 J
 U =   1-1.4 T  T2  T1  ?
AšÍ¯’t kw³i cwieZ©b, U= ? T  P  1.4
 U = J (Ans.)  2   1  wØcvigvbweK M¨v‡mi  
T1  2P2 
AšÍ¯’t kw³i cwieZ©b abvZ¥K nIqvi A_© wm‡÷‡gi 0.2857
T 1
AšÍ¯’t kw³ e„w× cv‡e|  2  
300  2 
 T2  300  0.5 0.2857 K
 T2  365.70 K
T  T2  T1  (365.70  300) K  65.70 K  65.70C ( Ans.)

Zvc wewKiY (Heat Radiation):

ZvcgvÎvi Kvi‡Y †Kvb e¯‘ ‡_‡K wbtm„Z wewKiY‡K ejv nq Zvc wewKiY (Thermal Radiation)| e¯‘ Zvc ïay wewKiYB
K‡i bv, †kvlY I K‡i| †Kvb e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv AwePjfv‡e e„w× Kiv n‡j wb¤œwjwLZ NUbv ¸wj N‡U 
(1) ZvcgvÎv hZ e„w× cv‡e wbtm„Z Zvc wewKi‡Yi cwigvb I ZZ evo‡Z _vK‡e|
(2) ZvcgvÎv hZ †ekx e„w× cv‡e eY©vjxi D¾j Ask †_‡K wb:m„Z wewKi‡Yi Zi½‰`N©¨ I ZZ †ekx n«vm cv‡e|
(3) DËß e¯‘ †_‡K wb:m„Z wewKiY e¯‘wU †Kvb c`v_© w`‡q ˆZix Ges Gi AvK…wZ I c„‡ôi cÖK…wZi Dci I wbf©ikxj|
D`vniY ¯îƒc ejv hvq, 2,000K ZvcgvÎvq cwjk Kiv †PÞv UvO‡÷‡bi c„ô †_‡K wbM©Z wewKi‡Yi nvi 23.5×104Wm-2 |
gwje‡Wbv‡gi Rb¨ GB nvi 19.2×104Wm-2| cÖwZ†ÿ‡Î c„ôwU Agm„Y n‡j wb:mi‡Yi nvi e„w× cvq|
weKxY© Zvc (Radiant Heat ):

wewKiY c×wZ‡Z †h Zvc GK e¯‘ †_‡K Ab¨ e¯‘‡Z ev GK¯’vb †_‡K Ab¨ ¯’v‡b mÂvwjZ nq, Zv‡K weKxY© Zvc (Radiant
Heat ) ejv nq|
weKxY© Zv‡ci êwkó¨ (Characteristics of Radiant Heat) :

weKxY© Zvc kw³i g‡a¨ wb¤œwjwLZ êwkó cwijwÿZ nq|
(1) weKxY© Zvc k~Y¨ ¯’v‡bi ga¨w`‡q Pjv Pj Ki‡Z cv‡i|
(2) Av‡jvK kw³i gZ weKxY© Zvc I mij‡iLvq P‡j|
(3) Av‡jK iwk¥i gZ weKxY© Zvc cÖwZdjb I cÖwZmi‡Yi m~Î †g‡b P‡j|
(4) weKxY© Zvc Av‡ji †e‡M P‡j|
(5) Av‡jvK iwk¥i gZ weKxY© ZvcI wecixZeM©xq m~Î (Inverse square law) †g‡b P‡j| A_©vr †Kvb Zvc Drm †_‡K
weKxY© Zv‡ci cÖvej¨ Drm †_‡K e¯‘i `~i‡Z¡i e‡M©i e¨v¯ÍvbycvwZK| R1 `~i‡Z¡ cÖvej¨ I1 I R2 `~i‡Z¡ cÖvej¨ I2 n‡j
I 1 R22

I 2 R12
(6) Av‡jvK iwk¥i gZ weKxY© Zvc kw³i I e¨wZPvi (Interference) AceZ©b (Diffraction) I †cvjvivqb
(Polarization) nq|
Av`k© K…ò e¯‘ (Perfect Black Body):

hLb †Kvb weKxY© Zvc †Kvb e¯‘i Dci AvcwZZ nq ZLb Gi wKQy Ask e¯‘i c„‡ô cÖwZdwjZ nq, wKQy Ask †kvwlZ nq,
Ges evKx Ask e¯‘i wfZi w`‡q evB‡i P‡j hvq | hw` weKxY© Zv‡ci r fMœvsk cÖwZdwjZ nq, a fMœvsk †kvwlZ nq Ges t
fMœvsk evB‡i P‡j hvq Z‡e, r+a+t=1. hLb r = 0, t = 0, ZLb a = 1, A_©vr mg¯Í wewKiYB †kvwlZ nq| Gi †_‡K c~Y©
wewKiK ev Av`k© K…òe¯‘i msÁv cvIqv hvq|
Av`k© K„ò e¯‘i msÁv (Definition of Perfect Black Body):

hw` †Kvb e¯‘i AvcwZZ weKxY© Zv‡ci †Kvb Ask cÖwZdwjZ ev mÂvwjZ bv K‡i meUzKzB †kvlY K‡i, Zvn‡j †m e¯‘‡K
Av`k© K…òe¯‘ ejv nq| Zi½ ˆ`‡N©i Av‡jv‡K ejv hvq, †h e¯‘ mKj Zi½ ˆ`‡N©ï weKxY© Zvc †kvlb K‡i, Zv‡K Av`k©
K…òe¯‘ e‡j| K…òe¯‘ DËg †kvlK I DËg wewKiK|

14| Zvc wewKiY (Heat Radiation) 2

Av`k© K…ò e¯‘i D`vniY (Example of Perfect Black Body):
Av`k© K…òe¯‘ wn‡m‡e †h me e¯‘‡K we‡ePbv Kiv nq, Zv‡ì †KvbwUBAv`k© K…òe¯‘ bq|
G‡ì †kvlYÿgZv 100% Gi KvQvKvwQ e‡j G‡ì K…òe¯‘ e‡j we‡ePbv Kiv hvq| †hgb
Kv‡jv cøvwUbvg 98% AvcwZZ wewKiY †kvlY Ki‡Z cv‡i| weÁvbx †dix GKwU K…òe¯‘i
cwiKíbv K‡ib| wb‡P Zv eY©bv Kiv nj| GwU GKwU `yÕqvj wewkó duvcv †MvjK| †fZ‡ii
†`qv‡j fylv Kvwj gvLv‡bv _v‡K Ges evB‡ii w`KUv wb‡Kj cvwjk Kiv _v‡K| `yÕ†`qv‡ji
gaëZ©x ¯’vb evqyk~b¨ Kiv nq hv‡Z cwienb I cwiPjb c×wZ‡Z Zvc bó bv nq| GB
†Mvj‡Ki GKwU m~ÿè wQ`ª nj A | wQ‡`ªi wecixZ w`‡K GKwU wXwe C _v‡K †hb AvMZ weKxY© Zvc mivmwi cÖwZdwjZ n‡q
evB‡i †h‡Z bv cv‡i| A wQ`ª w`‡q wewKiY †Mvj‡Ki g‡a¨ cÖ‡ek K‡i| H wewKiY cv‡Îi †Ìqvj n‡Z evi evi cÖwZdwjZ
n‡q †kvwlZ nq| hLb GB †MvjK‡K GKwU wbw`©ó DòZvq DËß Kiv nq ZLb GwU GKwU Av`k© K…òe¯‘i gZ AvPiY K‡i
Ges A wQ`ªc‡_ †h wewKiY †ewi‡q Av‡m Zv‡K K…ò wewKiY ev c~Y© wewKiY ejv nq|
wewKiY ÿgZv: wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎvi †Kvb e¯‘i GKK †ÿÎdj n‡Z cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û weKxY© Zv‡ci cwigvb I GKB
ZvcgvÎvq K…òe¯‘i GKK †ÿÎdj n‡Z cÖwZ ‡m‡K‡Û weKxY© Zv‡ci cwigvb, G `yÕGi AbycvZ‡K wewKiY ÿgZv e‡j|
Av‡cwÿK wewKiY ÿgZv: †Kvb e¯‘i wewKiY ÿgZv Ges GKwU K…ò e¯‘i wewKiY ÿgZvi AbycvZ‡K H e¯‘i Av‡cwÿK
wewKiY ÿgZv e‡j|
‡kvlY ÿgZvt †Kvb wbw`©ó mg‡q ‡Kvb e¯‘ weKxY© Zv‡ci †h cwigvb †kvlY K‡i Ges H mg‡q e¯‘i Dci †h cwigvb weKxY©
Zvc AvcwZZ nq, Zv‡ì AbycvZ‡K †kvlb ÿgZv e‡j|
w÷dv‡bi m~Î (Steafan's Law): weÁvbx w÷dvb K…òKvqv †_‡K weKxY© Zv‡ci †ÿ‡Î GKwU m~Î †`b| Zuvi m~ÎwU njÑ
‡Kvb K…òKvqv e¯‘i GKK †ÿÎdj †_‡K cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û weKxY© Zv‡ci cwigvb Gi cig ZvcgvÎvi PZz_© Nv‡Zi
mgvbycvwZK|
e¨vL¨v: ‡Kvb K…òKvqv e¯‘i cÖwZ GKK †ÿÎdj †_‡K cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û weKxY© Zv‡ci cwigvb E Ges e¯‘i cig ZvcgvÎv ev
†Kjwf‡b cÖKvwkZ ZvcgvÎv T n‡j w÷dv‡bi m~Îvbyhvqx,
E ∞ T4
ev, E = T4, GLv‡b  w÷dvb aªæeK| Gi gvb, =5.7×10-8 Wm-2K-4| e¯‘ Av`k© K…òKvqv bv n‡j E Gi gvb n‡e, E =
eT4 | GLv‡b e nj e¯‘wUi Av‡cwÿK wewKiY ÿgZv| e gvb 0 ‡_‡K 1 Gi g‡a¨| Av`k© K…òKvqvi †ÿ‡Î, e=1 |
e¯‘wUi A †ÿÎdj †_‡K cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û weKxY© Zv‡ci cwigvb n‡e, E = A eT4| e¯‘wU †_‡K t mg‡q weKxY© Zv‡ci cwigvb
n‡e, E = A eT4t | T ZvcgvÎvi K…òKvqvwU hw` T0 ZvcgvÎvi e¯‘ Øviv cwi‡ewóZ _v‡K Z‡e cÖwZ GKK †ÿÎdj †_‡K
cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û weKxY© Zvckw³i cwigvb n‡e E = T4T04) | K…òKvqv bv n‡j E Gi gvb n‡e, E = eT4T04)
wbDU‡bi kxZjxKiY m~Î (Newton's Law of cooling):

‡Kvb e¯‘ wewKi‡Yi Rb¨ †h nv‡i Zvc nvivq Zv e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv I cvwicvwk¦©K ZvcgvÎvi cv_©‡Kï
mgvbycvwZK| ZvcgvÎvi cv_©K¨ hLb Kg n‡e ZLb G m~Î cÖ‡hvR¨ n‡e|
e¨vL¨v:
‡Kvb e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv , Gi cvwicvwk¦©‡Ki ZvcgvÎv n‡j Zvc eR©‡bi nvi,
dQ
  (θ  θ0 )
dt


dQ
ev,   K(θ  θ0 ) ... ... ... ... ... (1)
dt
GLv‡b K nj GKwU mgvbycvwZK aªæeK| Gi gvb e¯‘i †ÿÎdj I cÖK…wZi Dci wbf©i K‡i| hw` e¯‘i fi m, Av‡cwÿK
Zvc s Ges dt mg‡q e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv hw` d n«vm cvq, Z‡e e¯‘ KZ…K ewR©Z Zvc, dQ=msd
dQ dθ
e¯‘ KZ…K ewR©Z Zv‡ci nvi ,  ms
dt dt
dθ
(1) bs mgxKi‡Y D³ gvb ewm‡q cvB,  ms  K(θ  θ0 )
dt
dθ K
ev,   (θ  θ0 )
dt ms
dθ K
ev,   (θ  θ0 )
dt ms
dθ K
ev,   K (θ  θ0 ) [K    aª æeK ]
dt ms
dθ
 (θ  θ0 )
dt
A_©vr, †Kvb e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv n«v‡mi nvi, Z_v kxZjxKi‡Yi nvi Gi wbR¯^ ZvcgvÎv Ges cwicv‡k©¦i ZvcgvÎvi cv_©‡Kï
mgvbycvwZK| G Rb¨ GB m~Î‡K wbDU‡bi kxZjxKiY m~Î e‡j|
w÷dv‡bi m~Î †_‡K wbDU‡bi kxZjxKiY m~Î (Newton's law of cooling from Steafan's law) cÖwZcv`b:
w÷dv‡bi m~Îvbyhvqx, T ZvcgvÎvi †Kvb e¯‘‡K hw` To ZvcgvÎvi †Kvb e¯‘ Øviv cwi‡ewóZ _v‡K, Zvn‡j K…òKvqvwU †h
nv‡i Zvc nvivq Zv nj, E  Ae (T 4  T04 ) GLb ( T 4  T04 ) †K Drcv`‡K we‡kølY Ki‡j cvIqv hvq,
E  Ae (T 2  T02 )(T 2  T02 )
 E  Ae (T  To )(T  To )(T 2  T02 )
 E  Ae (T  To )(T 3  TT02  T 2T0  T03 ) ... ... ... ... (2)
wKš‘ w÷dv‡bi m~Î mKj ZvcgvÎvq cÖ‡hvR¨ n‡jI wbDU‡bi kxZjxKiY m~Î ZLb cÖ‡hvR¨ n‡e n‡e hLb (T-To) Gi gvb
mvgvb¨ nq| A_©vr, (T  To )  0 , A_©vr T I To Gi gvb cÖvq mgvb nq| †m †ÿ‡Î To = T ai‡j, (2) bs mgxKiY `vovq,
 E  Ae (T  To )(T 3  TT 2  T 2T  T 3 )
 E  Ae (T  To )(4T 3 )
 E  Ae 4T 3 (T  To )
 E  K (T  To ), †hLv‡b Ae 4T 3  K (GKwU aªæeK)|
 E  (T  To ) A_©vr, ZvcgvÎvi cv_©K¨ Kg n‡j e¯‘i ewR©Z Zv‡ci nvi ev kxZjxKi‡Yi nvi ev
kxZjxKi‡Yi nvi e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv I cvwicvwk©¦‡Ki ZvcgvÎvi cv_©‡Kï mgvbycvwZK| GwUB wbDU‡bi kxZjxKiY m~Î|
AZGe w÷dv‡bi m~Î †_‡K wbDU‡bi kxZjxKiY m~Î cÖwZcvw`Z|


wf‡q‡bi miY m~Î:
Rvg©vb weÁvbx wf‡qb 1896 wLªóv‡ã K…òe¯‘ wewKi‡Yi †ÿ‡Î ZvcMwZwe`¨vi m~Î cÖ‡qvM K‡i Zvcxq wevKi‡Yi wewfbœ Zi½
ˆ`‡N©ï g‡a¨ kw³i e›Ub m¤^‡Ü m~Î cÖYqY K‡ib| m~ÎwU wb¤œiƒc:
K…òe¯‘ n‡Z wewKwiZ me©vwaK Zvckw³i Rb¨ Zi½‰`N©¨ K…òe¯‘i cig ZvcgvÎvi e¨v¯ÍvbycvwZK| hw` K…òe¯‘i me©vwaK
kw³i Rb¨ Zvi Zi½‰`N©¨ mGes cig ZvcgvÎv T K nq Z‡e wf‡q‡bi m~Îvbymv‡i,
1
m 
T
1
 m  b  [GLv‡b, b = fxb aªæeK]
T
 m  T  b
GLv‡b, aªæeK b =2.898×10-3 mK
 m  T  2.898  10 3 G mgxKiY †K wf‡q‡bi miY m~Î ejv nq|
wkZjxKiY c×wZ‡Z Zij c`v‡_©i Av‡cwÿK Zvc wbY©‡qi c×wZ eY©bv (Determination of Specific heat of liquid by
cooling method):
Kvh©cÖYvjxt GKwU ï®‹ I cwi®‹vi K¨vjwiwgUvi wb‡q fi wbb©q Kiv nq| K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii
cÖvq A‡a©K Kÿ ZvcgvÎvi †P‡q 25ºC †_‡K 30ºC †ekx ZvcgvÎvi Zij c`v_© Øviv
c~b© Kiv nq| Gici K¨vjwiwgUvi‡K Acwievnx c`v‡_©i Dci ¯’vcb K‡i Zij
c`v_©wU‡K ºC †_‡K ºC ZvcgvÎvq bv bvgv ch©šÍ A‡cÿv Kiv nq| Zij c`v_©wUi
ZvcgvÎv ºC †_‡K ºC ch©šÍ †b‡g Avm‡Z †h mgq jv‡M Zv ÷c Iqv‡Pi mvnv‡h©¨
wbb©q Kiv nq| Gi ci Zijmn K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii fi wbY©q Kiv nq| 2q I 1g f‡ii
cv_©K¨ †_‡K Zij c`v‡_©i fi cvIqv hvq|
Gici mgAvqZb Mig cvwb wb‡q Gi ZvcgvÎv I ºC †_‡K ºC G †b‡g Avm‡Z †h mgq jv‡M Zv cwigvc Kiv nq|
Gi fi wbb©q K‡i Lvwj K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii fi we‡qvM K‡i cvwbi fi †ei Kiv nq|
wnmve I Mbbv:
g‡bKwi, K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii fi = m1 Kg
Zij c`v‡_©i fi = m Kg
cvwbi fi = m2Kg
K¨jwiwgUv‡ii Dcv`v‡bi Av‡cwÿK Zvc = S1 JKg-1K-1
Zij c`v‡_©i wb‡b©q Av‡cwÿK Zvc = S JKg-1K-1
cvwbi Av‡cwÿK Zvc = S2 JKg-1K-1
ºC †_‡K ºC ZvcgvÎvq †b‡g kxZj n‡Z Zij c`v‡_©i mgq jv‡M = t1 Sec
ºC †_‡K ºC ZvcgvÎvq †b‡g kxZj n‡Z cvwbi mgq jv‡M = t2 Sec
ms (1   2 )  m1s1 (1   2 ) 1
Zij c`v_© I K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii Zvc eR©‡bi nvi  JS
t1
(ms  m1s1 )(1   2 ) 1
 JS
t1
m s (   )  m1s1 (1   2 ) 1
Ges cvwb I K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii Zvc eR©‡bi nvi  2 2 1 2 JS
t2
(m s  m1s1 )(1   2 ) 1
 2 2 JS
t2


kxZjxKiY Ae¯’v GKBiƒc _vKvq Zvc eR©‡bi GB nvi mgvb, A_©vr
(ms  m1s1 )(1   2 ) (m2 s2  m1s1 )(1   2 )

t1 t2
(ms  m1s1 ) (m2 s 2  m1s1 )
ev, 
t1 t2
( m s  m s )t
ev, ms  m1s1  2 2 1 1 1
t2
(m s  m s )t
ev, ms  2 2 1 1 1  m1s1
t2
1  (m2 s 2  m1s1 )t1 
s    m1s1  Jkg 1 K 1
m t2 
mZK©Zv (Caution):
(1) †h AvqZ‡bi Zij wVK †mB GKB AvqZ‡bi cvwb Aek¨B wb‡Z n‡e|
(2) mwVK ZvcgvÎv cÖvwßi mv‡_ mv‡_ ÷c IqvP Pvjy I eÜ Kiv DwPr|
(3) my‡e`x wbw³ Øviv mwVK fv‡e IRb Kiv DwPr|
(4) my‡e`x _v‡g©vwgUvi Øviv ZvcgvÎv †bIqv DwPr|
MÖxb nvDR I Gi cÖ‡qvRbxqZv (Green House and its necessity):

kxZ cÖavb †`‡k MvQcvjv msiÿ‡bi Rb¨ KvP w`‡q wbwg©Z Ni‡K MÖxb nvDm e‡j| GwU G cÖKvi Zvc duv`
(Heat trap)| MÖxb nvD‡m GKwU wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎv eRvq †i‡L kvK mwâ Drcv`b Kiv nq| G Qvov MÖxb nvDm eëüZ nq
`y®úªvc¨ Dw™¢`, jZv¸j¥ BZ¨vw` msiÿ‡bi Kv‡R| kxZ cÖavb †`‡k Db¥y³ Dw™¢` I jZv¸j¥ m~h© †_‡K weKxb© Zvc MÖnb K‡i
DËß n‡jI evqy cÖevn ev cwiPjb evqy‡mªvZ Øviv VvÛv nq| MÖxb nvD‡m evqyi ZvcgvÎv me©Î cÖvq GKB mgvb _v‡K e‡j Gi
g‡a¨ evqy cÖevn _v‡K bv| KviY, Kv‡Pi N‡ii evB‡i †_‡K evqy cÖ‡ek †hgb Ki‡Z cv‡i bv, †Zgwb †ei n‡ZI cv‡i bv|
myZivs Gi †fZi ivLv Dw™¢` I jZv¸j¥ Ges wfZiKvi evqygÛj m~‡h©i Zv‡c Mig n‡jI Zv Avi VvÛv nq bv| KviY m~h©
†_‡K Avmv ÿz`ª Zi½‰`‡N©ï Zvc wewKiY Kv‡Pi N‡i cÖ‡ek Ki‡Z cv‡i, wKš‘ Kv‡Pi N‡i Gi cÖK…wZ cwiewZ©Z n‡q `xN©
Zi½‰`N©¨ wewkó nq e‡j Kv‡Pi †Ìqvj †f` K‡i †h‡Z cv‡i bv| d‡j MÖxb nvD‡mi wfZiKvi mewKQy Mig _v‡K|
fx‡bi miY m~Î ØvivI Gi e¨vL¨v Kiv hvq| fx‡bi m~Î †_‡K Avgiv Rvwb †h, K„ò e¯‘ †_‡K weKxY© Zvc kw³i
Rb¨ Zi½‰`N¨© K„òe¯‘i cig ZvcgvÎvi e¨v¯ÍvbycvwZK| weKxY© me©vwaK kw³i Rb¨ Zv‡ci Zi½‰`N¨© m Ges cig
ZvcgvÎv T n‡j fx‡bi m~Îvbymv‡i m  1 | Kv‡Pi N‡ii †ejvq, m~h© †_‡K Avmv wewKi‡Y ZvcgvÎv T †ekx _v‡K d‡j m
T
ÿz`ª _v‡K| GB Zi½ ¸‡jvi †f`b ÿgZv (Penetrating power) †ekx nIqvq Giv Abvqv‡m KvP †f` K‡i MÖxb nvD‡mi
wfZi †h‡Z cv‡i| H Zv‡c DËß n‡q †fZ‡ii MvQcvjv BZ¨vw` †h Zvc wewKiY K‡i Zvi T K‡g hvq d‡j m ‡e‡o hvq|
GB `xN© Zi½‰`‡N¨©i Zv‡ci †f`b ÿgZv Kg nIqvq Giv KvP †f` K‡i evB‡i †h‡Z cv‡i bv| d‡j Ni Mig _v‡K Ges
†fZ‡ii Dw™¢` I evqygÛj‡K GKwU wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎvq _v‡K|
MÖxb nvDm wµqv (Green House effect) mn‡RB fx‡bi miY m~Î Øviv e¨vL¨v Kiv hvq| MÖxb nvIm wµqv ej‡Z
AwZwi³ Kve©b WvBA·vBW wbtmi‡Yi d‡j c„w_exi `xN©‡gqv`x DòKiY ev, DËß nIqv‡K eySvq| Kve©b WvBA·vB‡Wi ag©
nj ¯^í ev ÿz`ª Zi½‰`‡N©ï wewKiY Gi wfZi w`‡q †h‡Z cv‡i bv| m~h© AZ¨šÍ DËß Ae¯’vq Zvc wewKiY K‡i| d‡j T
†ekx nIqvq GB wewKi‡Y m ÿz`ª nq| GB ÿz`ª Zi½‰`‡N©ï wewKiY mn‡R evqygÛ‡ji Kve©b WvBA·vB‡Wi wfZiw`‡q
c„w_ex‡Z Av‡m| c„w_ex GB wewKiY †kvlY K‡i DËß nq| c„w_ex hLb c~bivq Zvc wewKiY K‡i ZLb Zvi ZvcgvÎv, T
m~‡h©i ZvcgvÎv †_‡K A‡bK Kg _vKvq GB wewKi‡Y m `xN© nq| GB `xN© Zi½‰`‡N©ï wewKiY c„w_exi Kve©b
WvBA·vB‡Wi duv`‡K †cwi‡q †h‡Z cv‡i bv, G‡Z c„w_ex‡Z Zvc AvUKv c‡o, d‡j MÖxb nvDm wµqv msNwUZ n‡q
`xN©‡gqv`x DòKiY N‡U|


Av`k© K…ò e¯‘ DËg †kvlK I DËg wewKiK Gi e¨vL¨v t
‡Kvb e¯‘i Dci AvcwZZ wewKiY hw` e¯‘ KZ…K m¤úyY© †kvwlZ nq, Z‡e H e¯‘‡K K…ò e¯‘ ev K…òKvqv e‡j| K…òKvqv
wewKiY wbtm„Z K‡i, Zv‡K K…òKvqv wewKiY e‡j| K…òKvqvi GKwU we‡kl êwkó¨ n‡jv Gi Dci AvcwZZ wewKiY
K…òKvqv KZ…K †hgb m¤ú~Y© †kvwlZ nq, †Zgwb kxZj cwi‡e‡k K…òKvqv Zvi †kvwlZ wewKiY m¤ú~Yi© ƒ‡c wewKwiZ K‡i|
ZvB Av`k© K…ò e¯‘ DËg †kvlK I DËg wewKiK|
ivbœvi cvÎ wn‡m‡e bZzb PKP‡K cv‡Îi †P‡q cyiv‡bv KvwjgvLv cvÎ †ekx Dc‡hvMx :
Kvwj gvLv cvÎ †ekxi fvM Zvc †kvlb K‡i DËß nq| wKš‘ bZzb PKP‡K cvÎ †ekx Zvc †kvlb Ki‡Z cv‡i bv;
†ekxi fvM Zvc PKP‡K Zj †_‡K cÖwZdwjZ n‡q hvq| KvwjgvLv cv‡Îi Zvc †kvlb ÿgZv †ekx e‡j ivbœvi Kv‡R †ekx
Dc‡hvMx|
Mi‡gi w`‡b mv`v †cvkvK I kx‡Zi w`‡b Kv‡jv †cvkvK AvivgcÖ`: mv`v is Zvcxq wewKi‡Yi DËg cÖwZdjK| mv`v
†cvkvK m~‡h©i Zvc‡K cÖwZdwjZ K‡i wdwi‡q †`q, ZvB mv`v †cvkvK mn‡R DËß nq bv| Avi Kv‡jv is DËg †kvlK|
d‡j Kv‡jv †cvkvK m~‡h©i Zvc †kvlb K‡i DËß n‡Z cv‡i| ZvB Mi‡gi w`‡b mv`v †cvkvK Ges kx‡Zi w`‡b Kv‡jv
†cvkvK AvivgcÖ`|
giæ AÂ‡j w`‡b cÖPÛ Mig I iv‡Zi †ejv Zxeª kxZ Abyf~Z nq :
giæ AÂ‡ji evqy ï®‹ _v‡K| ï®‹ evqy Zvc ¯^”Q| w`‡bi †ejv m~‡h©i Zvc mn‡RB f~-c„‡ô †cuŠQvq I f~-c„ô AZ¨šÍ
DËß nq| d‡j giæ AÂ‡j w`‡b cÖPÛ Mig †eva nq|
Avevi iv‡Zi †ejv f~-c„ô Zvc wewKiY K‡i| ï®‹ evqyi ga¨w`‡q mn‡RB Zvc evqygÛj †f` K‡i P‡j hvq| d‡j
f~-c„ô kxZj n‡q hvq| ZvB iv‡Zi †ejv giæ AÂ‡j Zxeª kxZ Abyf~Z nq|
‡gNgy³ ivZ A‡cÿv †gNv”Qbœ iv‡Z †ekx Mig Abyf~Z nq:
w`‡bi †ejv f~-c„ô m~h©Zvc †kvlb K‡i DËß nq Ges iv‡Zi †ejv Zvc wewKiY K‡i kxZj nq| †gNgy³ iv‡Z
f~-c„ô mn‡RB Zvc wewKiY K‡i kxZj n‡q hvq| wKš‘ Rjxq ev®ú Zvc Am”Q e‡j f~-c„‡ôi Zvc †g‡Ni ga¨ w`‡q
mÂvwjZ n‡Z cv‡i bv| d‡j †gNv”Qbœ iv‡Z †ekx Mig †eva nq|

14| Zvc wewKiY (Heat Radiation)
1| 250gm f‡ii GKwU Zvgvi K¨vjwiwgUv‡i ivLv 5gm cvwb

60°C n‡Z 40°C ZvcgvÎvq kxZj n‡Z 80 †m‡KÛ mgq jv‡M| K¨jwiwgUvi I Zi‡ji ZvcgvÎv cv_©K¨, °C = 2°C
GKB K¨vjwiwgUv‡i mgvb AvqZ‡bi 6gm f‡ii †Kvb Zij c`v_© Zi‡ji fi, m= 0.2kg
60°C n‡Z 40°C ZvcgvÎvq kxZj n‡Z mgq jv‡M 70 †m‡KÛ| Zi‡ji mgq, t1 = 300 Sec
Zij c`v_©wUi Av‡cwÿK Zvc wbY©q Ki| [Zvgvi Av‡cwÿK Zvc Zi‡ji Avt Zvc, s =?
380Jkg-1K-1 cvwbi Av.Zvc 4200Jkg-1K-1] Avgiv Rvwb,
GLv‡b, K¨jwiwgUvi I Zij KZ…K Zvc n«v‡mi nvi =
K¨vjwiwgUv‡i fi, m1 = 250gm = 0.25 Kg K¨jwiwgUvi I cvwb KZ…K Zvc n«v‡mi nvi
cvwbi fi, m2 = 5gm = 0.005 kg m 1 s1 (θ1  θ 2 )  ms(θ1  θ 2 ) m 1 s1 (θ1  θ 2 )  m 2 s 2 (θ1  θ 2 )

Zvgvi Av‡cwÿK Zvc, s1 = 380 Jkg-1K-1 t1 t2
cvwbi Avt Zvc, s2 = 4200 Jkg-1K-1 m 1 s 1  ms m 1s1  m 2s 2
cvwbi mgq, t2 = 80 Sec  
K¨jwiwgUvi I cvwbi ZvcgvÎv cv_©K¨, = °C = t1 t2
K¨jwiwgUvi I Zi‡ji ZvcgvÎv cv_©K¨,°C = 20°C 42  0.2  s 42  0.3  4200
 
Zi‡ji fi, m = 6gm = 0.006kg 300 600
Zi‡ji mgq, t1 = 70 Sec 42  0.2  s 42  1260
 
Zi‡ji Avt Zvc, s = ? 1 2
Avgiv Rvwb, 1302
K¨jwiwgUvi I Zij KZ…K Zvc n«v‡mi nvi =
 42  0.2s 
2
K¨jwiwgUvi I cvwb KZ…K Zvc n«v‡mi nvi  0.2s  651  42
m 1 s1 (θ1  θ 2 )  ms(θ1  θ 2 ) m 1 s1 (θ1  θ 2 )  m 2s 2 (θ1  θ 2 ) 609
 s
t1 t2 0.2
 s  3045 Jkg 1K 1 (Ans.)
m 1 s1  ms m 1s1  m 2 s 2
 
t1 t2 3| GKwU K…ò Kvqvi †ÿÎdj 4×10-9 m2| GwU 1500K ZvcgvÎvq wK
0.25  380  0.006  s 0.25  380  0.005  4200 nv‡i kw³ wewKiY Ki‡e? [  5.7×10-8 Wm-2K-4 ]
 
70 80 Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b
95  0.006  s 95  21 E †¶Îdj, A= 4×10-9 m2
   AT 4
70 80 ZvcgvÎv, T = 1500K
t   5.7×10-8 Wm-2K- 4
116  70
 95  0.006s  E wewKwiZ kw³i nvi, E/t = ?
80  4 109  5.7 108 15004
t
 0.006s  101.5  95
E
6. 5   1.15425  10 -3 W (Ans.)
s t
0.006
 s  1083.33Jkg 1K 1 (Ans.) 4| 400K ZvcgvÎvq GKwU e¯‘ 300K ZvcgvÎvq GKwU K…ò e¯‘ Øviv
cwi‡ewóZ| e¯‘Ø‡qi gaëZ©x ¯’vb evqy k~b¨| cÖ_g e¯‘wUi cÖwZ GKK
2| mgAvqZ‡bi cvwb I GKwU Zij c`v‡_©i fi h_vµ‡g 0.3kg †ÿÎdj †_‡K Zvc wewKi‡Yi nvi wbY©q Ki|
Ges 0.2kg| Zv‡ì GKB K¨vjwiwgUv‡i ci ci †i‡L 50°C †_‡K Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b
30°C-G kxZj Ki‡Z h_vµ‡g 600s Ges 300s mgq jv‡M| E †¶Îdj, A= 1 m2
K¨vjwiwgU‡ii ZvcaviKZ¡ 42 Jkg-1 n‡j Zi‡ji Av‡cwÿK Zvc  A(T 4  To4 ) ZvcgvÎv, T = 400K
t
wbY©q Ki| [ cvwbi Av‡cwÿK Zvc 4200Jkg-1K-1 ] GLv‡b, ZvcgvÎv, To= 300K
E
K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii ZvcaviKZ¡, m1s1 = 42 JK-1   1 5.7 108 4004 - 3004    5.7×10-8 Wm-2K- 4
cvwbi fi, m2 = 0.3 kg
t wewKwiZ kw³i nvi, E/t = ?
E
cvwbi Avt Zvc, s2 = 4200 Jkg-1K-1 -8
  5.7  10  1.75  10 W 10
cvwbi mgq, t2 = 600 Sec t

K¨jwiwgUvi I cvwbi ZvcgvÎv cv_©K¨ =°C = E
  997.5W (Ans.)
t

5| 0.3m e¨vmv‡a©i GKwU avZe †MvjK 25W ÿgZv wewkó Zvc 9| †Kvb MÖxb nvI‡mi g‡a¨ 3200°C ZvcgvÎvq 8321×10-10 m Zi½
wewKiY K‡i| Gi ZvcgvÎv wbY©q Ki| [×10-8 Wm-2K-4 ] ˆ`‡N©ï m‡eŸv”P cwigvY kw³ weKxY© n‡j fx‡bi aªæeK KZ n‡e?
GLv‡b GLv‡b,
E/t = AT4 m T  b
†¶Îdj, A= 4r2 ZvcgvÎv,T3200ºC
 25 = 1.1304× 5.67×10-8×T4  b  m T
= 4×3.14×0.32m2 =(3200+273)K
25 = 1.1304 m2 =3473K
 T4   b  832110 10  3473
6.409  10 8
wewKwiZ kw³i nvi, Zi½ ˆ`N¨© m8321×10-10 m
4 E/t = 25W b  2.9  10 3 mK (Ans.) fx‡bi aªæeK, b=?
 T  390054058.4
 T  140.53K (Ans.)   5.67×10-8 Wm-2K- 4
ZvcgvÎv T = ?
10| ‡Kvb e¯‘i c„‡ói †ÿÎdj 0.1m2| e¯‘wU‡K 1000K ZvcgvÎvq
6| 2000K ZvcgvÎvi GKwU fv¯î evwZi wdjv‡g›U kw³ wewKiY DËß Ki‡j GwU N›Uvq KZ kw³ wewKiY Ki‡e? (e = 0.7)
Ki‡Q| j¨v‡¤úi c„‡ôi †ÿÎdj 5×10-5m2 Ges Gi Av‡cwÿK Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b
wewKiY ÿgZv 0.85 n‡j wewKwiZ kw³i nvi wbY©q Ki| †¶Îdj, A= 0.1m2
Avgiv Rvwb, E  AeT 4 t
e=0.7
GLv‡b  E  0.1  0.7  5.7  108  10004  3600 ZvcgvÎv, T = 1000K
E
 AeT 4 †¶Îdj, A= 5×10-5m2  E  14364000 J (Ans.)   5.7×10-8 Wm-2K- 4
t ZvcgvÎv, T = 2000K mgq t = 3600 s
E wewKwiZ kw³ E = ?
 5  10  5  0. 85  5. 67  10 8  2000 4   5.67×10-8 Wm-2K- 4
t wewKwiZ kw³i nvi,E/t = ?
E Av‡cw¶K wewKiY 11| `ywU K…ò e¯‘i wbM©Z Zvckw³i AbycvZ 16 t 1| wØZxq e¯‘i
  38.556W (Ans.)
t ¶gZv, e = 0.85 ZvcgvÎv 3000K n‡j cÖ_g e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv KZ?
E1 : E 2  16 : 1 , T2  3000K , T1  ?
7| 5×10-5m2 †ÿÎd‡ji GKwU K…òKvqv 2000 K ZvcgvÎvq
cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û KZUv kw³ wewKiY Ki‡e? E1 AT14
Avgiv Rvwb, E1  AT14 I E 2  AT24  
GLv‡b E 2 AT24
[  5.7×10-8 Wm-2K- 4]
†¶Îdj, A= 5×10-5m2
Avgiv Rvwb, 16 T4
4
ZvcgvÎv, T = 2000K   1 4
E  AT t   5.7×10-8 Wm-2K- 4 1 3000
E  5  10  5  5 .7  10 8 4
 2000  1 mgq t = 1 s 4 4
 2  T 
 E  45.6 J (Ans.) wewKwiZ kw³E = ?    1 
 1   3000 
8| 127°C ZvcgvÎvq GKwU e¯‘ 27°C ZvcgvÎvq GKwU K…ò e¯‘  T1  6000K (Ans.)
Øviv cwi‡ewóZ| e¯‘Ø‡qi gaëZ©x ¯’vb evqy k~b¨| cÖ_g e¯‘wUi cÖwZ
GKK †ÿÎdj †_‡K Zvc wewKi‡Yi nvi wbY©q Ki| [  12| ‡Kvb e¯‘ †_‡K m‡e©v”P wewKi‡bi m‡Ÿ©v”P wewKi‡Yi Zi½ ˆ`N©¨
5.66×10-8 Wm-2K- 4 ] 20×10-6m | e¯‘wUi ZvcgvÎv wbY©q Ki| fx‡bi aªæeK
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b 2.898×10-3mK
†¶Îdj, A= 1 m 2 Avgiv Rvwb,
E GLv‡b
 A(T 4  To4 ) ZvcgvÎv, T = 127ºC mT  b fx‡bi aªæeK,
t =400K
E ZvcgvÎv, To= 27ºC b b=2.898×10-3mK
 15.66108 4004 - 3004   m 
=300K T Zi½ ˆ`N©¨,
t
  5.66×10-8 Wm-2K- 4 b  m = 20×10-6m
E wewKwiZ kw³i nvi, E/t = ? T
  990.5W (Ans.) m ZvcgvÎv T=?
t
2.898 × 10 -3
T
20 × 10 -6
 T  144.9K (Ans.)

 ব঴ভােঃ বিয িান঩ যকান তযর ঩দ঱াথনক ক্রভাগত ঱ীতর কযনত থাকনর যম তা঩ভাত্রায় ঩দাথ঱বট কবঠ্ন অফিায় রূ঩ান্তবযত
঴নত থানক এফিং কবঠ্নীবফন য঱ল না ঴঑য়া ঩ম঱ন্ত ঐ তা঩ভাত্রায যকান ঩বযফত঱ন ঴য় না য঳ই তা঩ভাত্রানক ব঴ভাে ফনর।
 অনকরাব঳ত ঩দানথ঱য বনবদ঱ি যকান গরনাে ফা ব঴ভাে যনই। যমভন- িবফ঱, ভাখন, কাঁি, ব঩ি, যভাভ।
এই ঳কর ঩দাথ঱ জভফায ফা গরফায ঩ূ নফ঱ আঠ্ানরা অফিা ধাযণ কনয।
0
 ঩াবনয ব঴ভাে 0 C। বকন্তু ফায়ু ভুি ঑ বফশুদ্ধ ঩াবননক ঳াফধানতায ঳ানথ ধীনয ধীনয ঱ীতর কযনত থাকনর (-100C) ঩ম঱ন্ত ঩াবন
তযর যথনক মায়।
 দ্রফনণয ব঴ভািংক বফশুদ্ধ দ্রাফনকয ব঴ভািংক অন঩ক্ষা কভ।
 গরনােঃ স্বাবাবফক িান঩ কবঠ্ন ঩দাথ঱ যম তা঩ভাত্রায় গরনত শুরু
কনয তানক গরনািংক ফনর। যমভন- ফযপ।
0 0 0
 কনয়কবট ঩দানথ঱য গরােঃ ঩াযদঃ 39 C, যভাভঃ 52 C – 56 C
গরনানেয উ঩য িান঩য প্রবাফঃ
঩দানথ঱য গরনািংক আয়তন গরনকানর হ্রা঳ ঩ায়, য঳঳ফ ঩দানথ঱য গরনািংক িা঩ প্রনয়াগ কযনর কনভ মায়। যমভনঃ ফযপ, িারাই
যরা঴া, এবিভবন, বফ঳ভাথ।
 যম঳ফ ঩দানথ঱য আয়তন গরননয পনর ফৃ বদ্ধ ঩ায়, উ঴ানদয গরনাে িা঩ প্রনয়ানগ ফৃ বদ্ধ ঩ায়। যমভন- যভাভ, ঩যাযাবপন।
 ফু টনািংকঃ যম বনবদ঱ি তা঩ভাত্রায় যকান তযর ফানষ্প ঩বযণত ঴নত শুরু কনয এফিং উ঴ায ঳ম্পৃ ি ফাষ্প িা঩ ফায়ু ভন্ডনরয িান঩য
঳ভান ঴য় তানক ফু টনািংক ফনর। * ঳াধাযণতঃ িা঩ ফাড়নর ফু টনািংক ফানড় এফিং িা঩ কভনর ফু টনাে কনভ।
 ঳ু প্ততা঩ঃ যম তা঩ ফস্ত্ত্তয তা঩ভাত্রায ঩বযফত঱ন না ঘবটনয় অফিায ঩বযফত঱ন ঘটায় তানক ঳ু প্ত তা঩ ফনর। এনক L িাযা প্রকা঱
কযা ঴য়।  কনমকবট ঩দানথ঱য ঳ু প্ত তা঩ঃ
 বনবদ঱ি গরনািংক থাকা যকরাব঳নত ঩দানথ঱য একবট ধভ঱।

 রত্রধ বফন্দুনত ঩াবন ফযপ ঑ জরীয় ফাষ্প একই তা঩ীয় ঳াভযফিায় থাকনত ঩ানয, 273.16 k যক রত্রধ বফন্দু ফনর।
-2
 ঩াবনয রত্রধ বফন্দুনত িা঩ 4.6 mm (Hg) ফা 610.616 Nm iv) উধক্ষ঱ ঩াতন িা঩ (Sub Imitation Pressure)
তা঩ভাত্রায অন঩ক্ষক।

Mjbv¼ (Melting Point):

‡Kvb KwVb c`v‡_© Zvc cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z _vK‡j cÖgvY Pv‡c †h wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎvq KwVb c`v_©wU Mj‡Z ïiæ K‡i Ges m¤úyY©
Mjb †kl bv nIqv ch©šÍ H ZvcgvÎv w¯’i Zv‡K H KwVb c`v‡_©i Mjbv¼ e‡j|
Mjbv‡¼i Zvrch© (Significance of Melting Point) : ei‡di Mjbv¼ 0ºC ej‡Z GB eywS †h, cÖgvY Pv‡c 0ºC ZvcgvÎvq
eid M‡j cvwb‡Z cwibZ nIqv ïiæ K‡i Ges m¤ú~Y© eid bv Mjv ch©šÍ Gi ZvcgvÎv ev‡o bv|
wngv¼ (Freezing Point) :

cÖgvY Pv‡c †h wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎvq Zij c`v_© Rg‡Z ïiæ K‡i Ges m¤úyY© Zij bv Rgv ch©šÍ H ZvcgvÎv w¯’i Zv‡K cÖgvY
Pv‡c H Zij c`v‡_©i wngv¼ e‡j|
wngv‡¼i Zvrch© (Significance of Freezing Point) : cvwbi wngv¼ 0ºC ej‡Z GB eywS †h, cÖgvY Pv‡c 0ºC ZvcgvÎvq
cvwb R‡g ei‡d cwibZ nIqv ïiæ K‡i Ges m¤ú~Y© cvwb RgvU †e‡au ei‡d cwibZ bv nIqv ch©šÍ Gi ZvcgvÎv K‡g bv|
ùzUbv¼ (Boiling Point) :

Zij c`v‡_© Zvc cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z _vK‡j cÖgvY Pv‡c †h wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎvq Zij c`v_© ev‡®ú cwiYZ n‡Z ïiæ K‡i Ges m¤úyY©
Zij ev‡®ú cwiYZ bv nIqv ch©šÍ H ZvcgvÎv w¯’i Zv‡K cÖgvY Pv‡c H Zij c`v‡_©i ùzUbv¼ e‡j|
ùzbv‡¼i Zvrch© (Significance of Boiling Point) : cvwbi ùzUbv¼ 100ºC ej‡Z GB eywS †h, cÖgvY Pv‡c 100ºC
ZvcgvÎvq cvwb Rjxq ev‡®ú cwibZ nIqv ïiæ K‡i Ges m¤ú~Y© cvwb ch©šÍ ev®úxf~Z bv nIqv ch©šÍ Gi ZvcgvÎv ev‡o bv|
myßZvc ev Av‡cwÿK myßZvc (Latent Heat or Specific Latent Heat ) t

ZvcgvÎvi cwieZ©b bv NwU‡q GKK f‡ii †Kvb e¯‘i GK Ae¯’v †_‡K Ab¨ Ae¯’vq iƒcvšÍwiZ n‡Z †h Zvc MÖnb ev eR©b
K‡i Zv‡K H c`v‡_©i Ae¯’v cwieZ©‡bi myßZvc ev Av‡cwÿK myßZvc e‡j|
m f‡ii †Kvb e¯‘i Ae¯’v cwieZ©‡bi Rb¨ M„nxZ ev ewR©Z Zvc Q n‡j, Gi Dcv`v‡bi Av‡cwÿK myßZvc
Q
l , Gi GKK Jkg-1 | Av‡cwÿK myßZvc PvicÖKv‡ii n‡q _v‡K| h_v t
m
1. Mj‡bi Av‡cwÿK myßZvc (Specific Latent Heat of Fusion):
2. KwVbxfe‡bi Av‡cwÿK myßZvc (Specific Latent Heat of Solidification):
3. ev®úxfe‡bi Av‡cwÿK myßZvc (Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization):
4. Nbxfe‡bi Av‡cwÿK myßZvc (Specific Latent Heat of condensation):
Mj‡bi Av‡cwÿK myßZvc (Specific Latent Heat of Fusion): Mjbv‡¼ ZvcgvÎv w¯’i †i‡L GKK f‡ii †Kvb KwVb
c`v_©‡K KwVb Ae¯’v †_‡K Zij Ae¯’vq iƒcvšÍwiZ Ki‡Z †h Zv‡ci cÖ‡qvRb nq Zv‡K H c`v‡_©i Mj‡bi Av‡cwÿK
myßZvc e‡j| G‡K lf Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| ZvcgvÎvi cwieZ©b bv NwU‡q m f‡ii †Kvb KwVb c`v_©‡K Zi‡j iƒcvšÍwiZ
Q
Ki‡ZQ Zv‡ci cÖ‡qvRb n‡j Mj‡bi Av‡cwÿK myßZvc, l f  n‡e|
m
Mj‡bi Av‡cwÿK myßZv‡ci Zvrch© (Significance of Specific Latent Heat of Fusion): eid Mj‡bi Av‡cwÿK
myßZvc 3,36,000 J kg-1| eid Mj‡bi Av‡cwÿK myßZvc 3,36,000 J kg-1 ej‡Z GB eywS †h, 0ºC ZvcgvÎvi 1kg
eid‡K 0ºC ZvcgvÎvi 1kg cvwb‡Z cwiYZ Ki‡Z 3,36,000 J Zvc cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z nq|

15| Ae¯’vi cwieZ©b (Change Of State) 2

ev®úxfe‡bi Av‡cwÿK myßZvc: ùzUbv‡¼ ZvcgvÎv w¯’i †i‡L GKK f‡ii †Kvb Zij c`v_©‡K Zij Ae¯’v †_‡K evqexq
Ae¯’vq iƒcvšÍwiZ Ki‡Z †h Zv‡ci cÖ‡qvRb nq Zv‡K H c`v‡_©i ev®úxfe‡bi Av‡cwÿK myßZvc e‡j| G‡K lv Øviv cÖKvk
Kiv nq| ZvcgvÎvi cwieZ©b bv NwU‡q m f‡ii †Kvb Zij c`v_©‡K M¨vmxq Ae¯’vq iƒcvšÍwiZ
Q
Ki‡ZQ Zv‡ci cÖ‡qvRb n‡j Mj‡bi Av‡cwÿK myßZvc, lv  n‡e|
m
ev®úxfe‡bi Av‡cwÿK myßZv‡ci Zvrch© (Significance of Specific Latent Heat o vaporization): cvwbi ev®úxfe‡bi
Av‡cwÿK myßZvc 22,68,000 J kg-1| cvwbi ev®úxfe‡bi Av‡cwÿK myßZvc 22,68,000J kg-1 ej‡Z GB eywS †h, 100ºC
ZvcgvÎvi 1kg cvwb‡K 100ºC ZvcgvÎvi 1kg Rjxqev‡®ú cwiYZ Ki‡Z 22,68,000 J Zvc cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z nq|
eid Mj‡bi Av‡cwÿK myßZvc wbY©q (Determination of Specific Latent Heat of Fusion of Ice):
eb©Yv t GKwU ï®‹ I cwi®‹vi K¨vjwiwgUvi †bIqv nq| Gici Gi fi cwigvc Kiv nq| K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii `yB-Z„Zxqvsk
mvgvb¨ Mig cvwb Øviv c~Y© K‡i Avevi fi gvcv nq| GB `yB f‡ii cv_©K¨ ‡_‡K Mig cvwbi fi cvIqv hvq| GKwU my‡e`x
_v‡g©vwgUv‡ii mvnv‡h¨Mig cvwbi ZvcgvÎv wbY©q Kiv nq| Gici K‡qK UzKiv eid‡K cwi®‹vi cvwb w`‡q ay‡q †Pvl KvMR
w`‡q ïwK‡q wb‡q cvwb‡Z ZvovZvwo †Q‡o †`qv nq| Gici bvobx Øviv Av‡¯Í Av‡¯Í bvovb nq| GB Ae¯’vq eid Mj‡Z
_v‡K Ges cvwbi ZvcgvÎv µgk Kg‡Z _v‡K| m¤úyY© eid M‡j hIqvi ci wgkª‡Yi me©wb¤œ ZvcgvÎv my‡e`x _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii
mvnv‡h¨ gvcv nq| Gici cvwbi ZvcgvÎv Kÿ ZvcgvÎvq †cuŠQ‡j cybivq K¨vjwiwgUvi¯’ cvwbmn K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii fi gvcv
nq| Z…Zxq fi †_‡K wØZxq fi we‡qvM K‡i ei‡di fi wbY©q Kiv nq|
wnmve I MYbvt g‡bKwi,
K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii fi = m1 kg
Mig cvwbi fi = m2 kg
ei‡di fi = m kg
K¨vjwiwgUvi I Migcvwbi ZvcgvÎv = ºC
wgkª‡Yi me©wb¤œ ZvcgvÎv =  ºC
K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii Dcv`v‡bi Av‡cwÿK Zvc = S1 Jkg-1K-1
cvwbi Av‡cwÿK Zvc = S2 Jkg-1K-1
eid Mj‡bi Av‡cwÿK myßZvc = lf Jkg-1
GLv‡b K¨vjwiwgUvi I Migcvwb Zvc eR©b K‡i Avi eid Zvc MÖnb K‡i|
K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii ZvcgvÎv ºC †_‡K ºC G †b‡g Avm‡Z ewR©Z Zvc,
H1=m1S1() J
Ges Mig cvwbi ZvcgvÎv ºC †_‡K ºC G †b‡g Avm‡Z ewR©Z Zvc,
H2=m2S2() J
eid KZ…K Zvc MÖnY `yB ch©v‡q m¤úbœ nq| cÖ_gZ, ºC ZvcgvÎvi eid ºC ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwiYZ n‡Z I ºC
ZvcgvÎvi eid Mjv cvwb ºC ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwiYZ n‡Z|
ºC ZvcgvÎvi m kg eid ºC ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwiYZ n‡Z eid KZ…K M„nxZ Zvc,
H3=mlf J
ºC ZvcgvÎvi m kg eid Mjv cvwb ºC ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwiYZ n‡Z eid Mjv cvwb KZ…K M„nxZ Zvc,
H4=mS2() J = mS2 J
Ab¨‡Kvb Dcv‡q Zv‡ci Av`vb cÖ`vb bv n‡j,
‡gvU M„nxZ Zvc= †gvU ewR©Z Zvc
H3 + H4 =H1 + H2
mlf + mS2 m1S1() + m2S2() 
 m(lf + S2)= (m1S1+ m2S2) ()
(m S  m2 S 2 ) (1 -  )  (m S  m2 S 2 ) (1 -  ) 
 (l f  S 2 )  1 1 l f   1 1  S 2  Jkg 1
m  m 


mZK©Zv (Caution) :
1| eid cvwb‡Z †djvi mgq †hb nvZ w`‡q bv aiv nq, Zv bv n‡j nvZ †_‡K Zvc wb‡q wKQy eid M‡j †h‡Z cv‡i|
2| eid Mj‡bi mgq K¨jwiwgUv‡i Rvwj †Ìqv bvobx eënvi Kiv DwPr KviY Gi mvnv‡h¨ eid cvwbi bx‡P ivL‡Z nq|
3| K¨jwiwgUvi‡K AcwievnK c`v_© Øviv †X‡K ivL‡Z n‡e hv‡Z cwienb RwbZ Kvi‡Y †Kvb Zvc ÿq bv nq|
4| K¨vjwiwgUv‡i my‡e`x _v‡g©vwgUvi e¨venvi Ki‡Z n‡e hv‡Z ZvcgvÎvi cwieZ©b mv‡_ mv‡_ aiv c‡o|
cvwbi ev®úxfe‡bii Av‡cwÿK myßZvc wbY©q (Determination of Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization of Water) t
eb©Yv t GKwU eqjvi B -†Z cvwb Mig Kiv nq| eqjv‡ii gyL KK© w`‡q AvUKvb _v‡K Ges euvKv bj A K‡K©i g‡a¨ cÖ‡ek
Kiv‡bv _v‡K| A Gi Aci cÖvšÍ GKwU ev®ú duv‡ì g‡a¨ cÖ‡ek Kiv‡bv _v‡K| ev®ú duv`wU GKwU Kv‡Pi bj we‡kl| Gi
Dc‡i GKwU Ges bx‡P `yBwU wQ`ª Iqvjv KK© jvMvb _v‡K| Dc‡ii
KK© w`‡q A bjwU ev®ú duv‡` cÖ‡ek Kiv‡bv nq| wb‡Pi KK© w`‡q bj C I D
cÖ‡ek Kiv‡bv nq| C bj w`‡q ev®ú duv‡` Rgv nIqv cvwb †ei Kiv nq| D
bjwUi Aci cÖvšÍ K¨vjwiwgUvi K †Z cÖ‡ek Kiv‡bv _v‡K| K¨vjwiwgUvi I
eqjv‡ii gvSLv‡b GKwU c`©v P ¯’vcb Kiv nq †hb K¨vjwiwgUviwU eqjvi
DËß Kivi mgq Zvc MÖnb Ki‡Z bv cv‡i| bvowb S mn K¨jwiwgUvi K
wb‡q Gi fi †ei Kiv nq| Gi `yB-Z„Zxqvsk cvwbc~Y© K‡i Gi fi †bIqv
nq| GB `yB f‡ii cv_©K¨ †_‡K cvwbi fi †ei Kiv nq| GKwU _v‡g©vwgUvi
T Gi mvnv‡h¨ Gi ZvcgvÎv wbY©q Kiv nq| Gi ci ev®ú A b‡ji ga¨w`‡q
ev®ú dv‡` cÖ‡ek K‡i Ges D b‡ji g‡a¨ w`‡q AvMZ ev®ú K¨jwiwgUv‡ii
cvwbi ms¯ú‡k© G‡m Nbxf~Z nq Ges Zvc eR©b K‡i| GB Zvc MÖnY K‡i K¨jwiwgUvi I cvwbi ZvcgvÎv e„w× cvq| Gi
wKQyÿb ci D bj mwi‡q cvwbi m‡eŸ©v”P ZvcgvÎv †`‡L †bqv nq| Gici cvwb mn K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii fi †bIqv nq| Z…Zxq
fi †_‡K wØZxq fi ev` w`‡j Nbxf~Z ev‡®úi fi cvIqv hvq|
wnmve I MYbv : g‡b Kwi,

K¨jwiwgUv‡ii fi = m1 Kg
K¨jwiwgUv‡i iwÿZ cvwbi fi = m2 Kg
Nbxf~Z ev‡®úi fi = m Kg
K¨jwiwgUvi I cvwbi cÖv_wgK ZvcgvÎv = ºC
wgkª‡bi m‡eŸ©v”P ZvcgvÎv = ºC
K¨jwiwgUv‡ii Dcv`v‡bi Av‡cwÿK Zvc = S1 J kg-1K-1
cvwbi Av‡cwÿK Zvc = S2 J kg-1K-1
cvwbi ev®úxfe‡bi Av‡cwÿK myßZvc = lv J kg-1
m f‡ii ev®ú `yB ch©v‡q Zvc eR©b K‡i| cÖ_gZ, 100ºC ZvcgvÎvi ev®ú 100ºC ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwiYZ n‡Z Zvc
eR©b K‡i| wØZxqZ, 100ºC ZvcgvÎvi cvwb ºC ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwiYZ n‡Z Zvc eR©b K‡i|
100ºC ZvcgvÎvi ev®ú 100ºC ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwiYZ n‡Z ewR©Z Zvc,
H1 = mlv J
100ºC ZvcgvÎvi cvwb ºC ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwiYZ n‡Z ewR©Z Zvc,
H2 = mS2( ) J
K¨jwiwgUvi KZ…K M„nxZ Zvc, H3 = m1S1(1) J
cvwb KZ…K M„nxZ Zvc, H4 = m2S2(1) J
Ab¨‡Kvb Dcv‡q Zv‡ci Av`vb cÖ`vb bv n‡j,


M„nxZ Zvc = ewR©Z Zvc
H1+H2=H3+H4
 mlv+ mS2( )= m1S1(1)+ m2S2(1)
 m{lv+ S2( )}= (m1S1+ m2S2)(1)
(m S + m2 S 2 )( - 1 )
 lv + S 2 (100 - θ ) = 1 1
m
(m S + m2 S 2 )(θ - θ1 ) 
 lv =  1 1 - S 2 (100 - θ) Jkg 1
 m 
mZK©Zv (Caution) t
1| ev®ú Lye ax‡i ax‡i ˆZix Ki‡Z n‡e Zv bv n‡j ev®ú duv‡ì AvMg bj w`‡q ev‡®úi mv‡_ wKQy cvwb ev®ú duv‡` cÖ‡ek
Ki‡Z cv‡i |
2| ev®ú duv‡ì AvMvg bjwU‡K fvj fv‡e Zzjv ev Ab¨‡Kvb AcwievnK c`v_© Øviv †X‡K w`‡Z n‡e hv‡Z c‡_ †Kvb ev®ú
Nbxf~Z bv n‡Z cv‡i |
3| K¨jwiwgUvi‡K AcwievnK c`v_© Øviv †X‡K ivL‡Z n‡e hv‡Z cwienb RwbZ Kvi‡Y †Kvb Zvc ÿq bv nq|
4| K¨vjwiwgUv‡i my‡e`x _v‡g©vwgUvi e¨venvi Ki‡Z n‡e hv‡Z ZvcgvÎvi cwieZ©b mv‡_ mv‡_ aiv c‡o|
cvwbi ˆÎawe›`y (Triple tip of Water) t
‡h wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎvq I Pv‡c cvwb KwVb (eid), Zij (cvwb) I evqexq (Rjxhev®ú) GB wZb Ae¯’vq _vK‡Z cv‡i Zv‡K
cvwbi ˆÎawe›`y e‡j| GB we›`y‡Z wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎv 0ºC ev, 273.16K Ges GB we›`y‡Z wbw`©ó Pvc 4.58 mmHg|
msKU ZvcgvÎv (Critical temperature) t
m‡eŸ©v”P ‡h ZvcgvÎvq _vK‡j †Kvb M¨vm‡K ïaygvÎ Pvc cÖ‡qvM K‡i Zi‡j cwiYZ Kiv hvq †mB ZvcgvÎv‡K msKU
ZvcgvÎv e‡j| cvwbi msKU ZvcgvÎv 647K|
`kv (Phase) :
†Kvb wm‡÷‡gi GKwU wbw`©ó Ask, hvi Dcv`vbMZ MVb meÎ Awfbœ Ges †fŠZ wePv‡i Ab¨vb¨ Ask †_‡K c„_K‡hvM¨ A_©vr
†Kvb hvwš¿K cÖwµqvq Ab¨vb¨ Ask n‡Z mn‡R c„_K Kiv hvq, Zv‡K `kv e‡j|
`kv wPÎ (Phase Diagram) t

‡Kvb c`v‡_©i m¤ú„³ ev®úPvc ebvg ZvcgvÎv wb‡q †jLwPÎ A¼b
Ki‡j †h †jLwPÎ cvIqv hvq Zv‡Z `kv wPÎ e‡j|
cvwbi `kv wPÎ (Phase Diagram of water) t
GKwU QK KvM‡R X -A‡ÿ ZvcgvÎv Ges Y-A‡ÿ m¤ú„³ ev®úPvc
¯’vcb K‡i `kvwPÎ A¼b Kiv nj|
‡h ZvcgvÎvq cvwb Ges Rjxq ev®ú mn-Ae¯’v‡b _v‡K, †m
ZvcgvÎv ebvg m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev‡®úi Pvc wb‡q ‡jLwPÎ A¼b Ki‡j
‡h †jLwPÎ cvIqv hvq Zv‡K OP †iLv Øviv m~wPZ Kwi| G †iLvi
bvg ev®ú †iLv| †h ZvcgvÎvq eid Ges Rjxq ev®ú mn-Ae¯’v‡b
_v‡K, †m ZvcgvÎv ebvg m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev‡®úi Pvc wb‡q ‡jLwPÎ
A¼b Ki‡j ‡h †jLwPÎ cvIqv hv‡e, Zv‡K OQ †iLv Øviv m~wPZ
Kwi| G †iLvi bvg †nvi‡d«v÷ †iLv| Avevi †h ZvcgvÎvq eid
Ges Zij cvwb mn-Ae¯’v‡b _v‡K †m ZvcgvÎv ebvg m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev‡®úi Pvc wb‡q ‡jLwPÎ A¼b Ki‡j ‡h †jLwPÎ
cvIqv hv‡e Zv‡K OR †iLv Øviv m~wPZ Kwi| GB †iLvi bvg eid †iLv|


Dc‡iv³ wZbwU †iLv GKwU mvaviY we›`y O- †Z †Q` K‡i‡Q| GB mvaviY we›`y‡K ˆÎa we›`y e‡j| mvaviY fv‡e
ejv hvq †h, †h ZvcgvÎvq †Kvb c`v‡_©i KwVb, Zij Ges ev®ú GKwU wbw`©ó Pv‡c ZvcMZ mnAe¯’v‡b _v‡K Zv‡K D³
c`v‡_©i ˆÎa we›`y e‡j|
msKU ZvcgvÎvt
m‡e©v”P †h ZvcgvÎvq _vK‡j GKwU M¨vm‡K ïaygvÎ Pvc cÖ‡qv‡M Zi‡j cwiYZ Kiv hvq Zv‡K H M¨v‡mi msKU ZvcgvÎv
e‡j|
ev®ú I M¨vm t
ev®út
evqexq Ae¯’vq †Kvb c`v‡_©i ZvcgvÎv hw` msKU ZvcgvÎvi †P‡q Kg nq Z‡e Zv‡K ev®ú e‡j| †hgbt Rjxq ev®ú,
†eªvwgb ev®ú, B_vbj ev®ú BZ¨vw`|
M¨vmt
evqexq Ae¯’vq †Kvb c`v‡_©i ZvcgvÎv hw` msKU ZvcgvÎvi †P‡q ‡ekx nq Z‡e Zv‡K M¨vm e‡j| †hgbt Aw·‡Rb M¨vm,
nvB‡Wªv‡Rb M¨vm BZ¨vw`|
ev®úvqb I ùzUb I G‡ì g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ t
ev®úvqb t †h cÖwµqvq †Kvb wbw`©ó Pv‡c †Kvb Zij c`v_© †h †Kvb ZvcgvÎvq Gi Dcwi gy³ Zj n‡Z ax‡i ax‡i ev‡®ú
cwiYZ nq Zv‡K ev®úvqb e‡j|
ùzUb : †h cÖwµqvq †Kvb wbw`©ó Pv‡c †Kvb Zij c`v_© Gi ùzUzbv‡¼ ZvcgvÎv w¯’i ‡i‡L Zi‡ji mgMÖ Ask n‡Z `ªæZ ev‡®ú
cwiYZ nq Zv‡K ùzUb e‡j|
cv_©K¨
ev®úvqb ùzUb
1| †Kej gvÎ gy³ Zj n‡Z ax‡i ax‡i ev‡®ú cwiYZ nq| 1| Zi‡ji mgMÖ Ask n‡Z `ªæZ ev‡®ú cwiYZ nq|
2| †h †Kvb ZvcgvÎvq N‡U| 2| wbw`©ó Pvc I wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎvq N‡U|
3| ev®ú Pvc, evwn¨K Pv‡ci †P‡q Kg| 3| ev®ú Pvc, evwn¨K Pv‡ci mgvb
4| eyèy` m„wó nq bv| 4| eyèy` m„wó nq|
5| ev®úvq‡bi nvi Zi‡ji gy³ Z‡ji †ÿÎd‡ji Dci 5| ùzU‡bi nvi, Zvc mieiv‡ni nv‡ii Dci wbf©i K‡i|
wbf©i K‡i|
6| ev®úvq‡bi mgq Zi‡ji ZvcgvÎv n«vm cvq| 6| ùzU‡bi mgq Zi‡ji ZvcgvÎv w¯’i _v‡K|

15| Ae¯’vi cwieZ©b (Change Of State)
1| 0°C ZvcgvÎvi 0.02kg eid‡K 100°C ZvcgvÎvi ev‡®ú

cwibZ Ki‡Z KZ Zvc jvM‡e? [eid Mj‡bi myßZvc 3| –5°C ZvcgvÎvi 0.005kg ei‡di mv‡_ 90°C ZvcgvÎvq 0.005
=336000Jkg-1 , cvwbi Av‡cwÿK Zvc =4200Jkg-1K-1 Ges kg cvwb wgkv‡j wgkª‡bi PzovšÍ ZvcgvÎv KZ n‡e? [ei‡di Av‡cwÿK Zvc
ev‡®úi myßZvc = 2260000 Jkg-1] =2.1 × 103Jkg-1K-1 eid Mj‡bi myßZvc =3.36 × 105 Jkg-1 ,
0°C ZvcgvÎvi eid‡K 0°C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwibZ Ki‡Z cvwbi Av‡cwÿK Zvc = 4.2 × 103 Jkg-1K-1 ]
Zvc jv‡M Q1 = fi × Mj‡bi myßZvc g‡b Kwi, wgkª‡bi PyovšÍ ZvcgvÎv n‡e °C
= 0.02×336000 J = 6720 J 
0°C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡K 100°C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwibZ Ki‡Z 5°C ZvcgvÎvi eid‡K 0°C ZvcgvÎvi ei‡d cwibZ Ki‡Z
Zvc jv‡M Q2 = fi × Avt Zvc × ZvcgvÎvi cv_©K¨ Zvc jv‡M Q1 = fi×Avt Zvc×ZvcgvÎvi cv_©K¨
= 0.02 × 4200 × (1000) J = 0.005×2.1×103×{0(5)} J
= 8400 J = 52.5 J
100°C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡K 100°C ZvcgvÎvi ev‡®ú cwibZ Ki‡Z 0°C ZvcgvÎvi eid‡K °C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwibZ Ki‡Z
Zvc jv‡M Q3 = fi × ev®úxfe‡bi myßZvc Zvc jv‡M Q2 = fi × Mj‡bi myßZvc
= 0.02 × 2260000 J = 45200 J = 0.005×3.36 ×105 J = 1680 J
‡gvU cª‡qvRbxq Zvc Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 0°C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡K °C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwibZ Ki‡Z
= (6720+8400+45200) J Zvc jv‡M Q3 = fi×Avt Zvc×ZvcgvÎvi cv_©K¨
= 60320 J (Ans.) = 0.005×4.2×103×(-0) J
= 21 J
2| 263K ZvcgvÎvi 0.02kg eid‡K 373K ZvcgvÎvi ev‡®ú 90°C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡K °C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwibZ Ki‡Z
cwibZ Ki‡Z KZ Zvc jvM‡e? [ei‡di Av‡cwÿK Zvc Zvc eR©b K‡i Q4 = fi×Avt Zvc×ZvcgvÎvi cv_©K¨
=2100Jkg-1K-1 eid Mj‡bi myßZvc = 336000Jkg-1 , cvwbi
= 0.005×4.2×103×(90- J
Av‡cwÿK Zvc =4200Jkg-1K-1 Ges ev®úxfe‡bi Av‡cwÿK
= (1890-21 J
myßZvc = 2260000 Jkg-1] cÖkœg‡Z, Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = Q4
263K = (263273)°C = 10°C  52.5 + 1680 + 211890-21
373K = (373273)°C = °C  2118901680-52.5
10°C ZvcgvÎvi eid‡K 0°C ZvcgvÎvi ei‡d cwibZ Ki‡Z
 42157.5
Zvc jv‡M Q1 = fi × Avt Zvc × ZvcgvÎvi cv_©K¨ 157.5
= 0.02 × 2100 × {0 (10)} J θ  C  3.75C (Ans.)
42
= 420J
0°C ZvcgvÎvi eid‡K 0°C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwibZ Ki‡Z 4| 100°C ZvcgvÎvi 500g Rjxqev®ú Nbxf~Z n‡q 30°C ZvcgvÎvi
Zvc jv‡M Q2 = fi × Mj‡bi myßZvc cvwb‡Z cvwb‡Z cwibZ nIqvi Rb¨ KZ Zvc eR©b Ki‡Z n‡e? [cvwbi
= 0.02×336000 J = 6720 J Av‡cwÿK Zvc = 4200 Jkg-1K-1 ev®úxfe‡bi Av‡cwÿK myßZvc =
0°C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡K 100°C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwibZ Ki‡Z 2.26 ×106 Jkg-1]
Zvc jv‡M Q3 = fi × Avt Zvc × ZvcgvÎvi cv_©K¨ 500g = 0.5Kg
= 0.02×4200×(100  0) J 100°C ZvcgvÎvi Rjxqev®ú‡K 100°C cvwb‡Z cwibZ Ki‡Z
= 8400 J Zvc eR©b K‡i Q1 = fi × ev®úxfe‡bi myßZvc
100°C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡K 100°C ZvcgvÎvi ev‡®ú cwibZ Ki‡Z = 0.5×2.26×106 J = 1130000 J
Zvc jv‡M, Q4 = fi × ev®úxfe‡bi myßZvc 100°C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡K 30°C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwibZ Ki‡Z
= 0.02 × 2260000 J = 45200 J Zvc eR©b K‡i Q2 = fi × Avt Zvc × ZvcgvÎvi cv_©K¨
‡gvU cª‡qvRbxq Zvc, Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4 = 0.5 ×4200×(10030) J
= (420+6720+8400+45200) J = 147000 J
= 60740 J (Ans.) ‡gvU cÖ‡qvRbxq Zvc = (1130000 + 147000) J
= 1277000 J (Ans.)

5| 0°C ZvcgvÎvi 2.1 Kg eid 40°C ZvcgvÎvi 5.9 Kg Zvc jv‡M Q2 = fi × Mj‡bi myßZvc
cvwbi mv‡_ wgwkªZ Kiv nj| wgkª‡bi P~ovšÍ ZvcgvÎv KZ n‡e? = 0.02×3.36×105 J
g‡bKwi wgkª‡bi ZvcgvÎv  = 6720 J
cvwb KZ…K ewR©Z Zvc, eid Mj‡Z cÖ‡qvRbxq Zv‡ci †P‡q Kg nIqvq
mg¯Í eid Mj‡e bv| g‡b Kwi m kg eid Mj‡e|
0°C ZvcgvÎvi eid‡K 0°C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwibZ Ki‡Z cÖkœg‡Z, m×3.36×105 = 6300
Zvc jv‡M Q1 = fi × Mj‡bi myßZvc 6300
= 2.1×336000 J = 705600 J m  kg  0.01875 kg
3.36  105
0°CZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡K °C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwibZ Ki‡Z DËi wgkª‡bi P~ovšÍ ZvcgvÎv n‡e 0 °C Ges 0.01875 kg eid Mj‡e,
Zvc jv‡M Q2 = fi × Avt Zvc × ZvcgvÎvi cv_©K¨ evKx (0.020.01875) kg = 0.00125kg eid
=2.1× 4200 × (0) J (0.03+0.01875)kg=0.04875kg cvwbi Dci fvm‡e|
= 8820 J
40°C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡K °C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwibZ Ki‡Z
Zvc eR©b K‡i Q3 = fi × Avt Zvc × ZvcgvÎvi cv_©K¨ 8| 50°C ZvcgvÎvi 0.03 kg cvwb‡Z -10°C ZvcgvÎvi 0.02kg eid
= 5.9×4200×(40) J =(991200 24780 J wgkvb n‡j wgkª‡bi djvdj wK n‡e? [cvwbi Av: Zv: 4200 Jkg-1K-1
cÖkœg‡Z, M„nxZ Zvc = ewR©Z Zvc Ges eid Mj‡bi myßZvc = 3.36×105 Jkg-1]
Q1 + Q2 = Q3 50 °C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡K 0 °C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwibZ Ki‡Z
705600 + 8820991200 24780 ewR©Z Zvc, Q1 = fi×Avt Zvc×ZvcgvÎvi cv_©K¨
 882024780991200 705600  = 0.03×4200×(50 0) J
 33600285600 = 6300J
285600 -10°C ZvcgvÎvi eid‡K 0°C ZvcgvÎvi ei‡d cwibZ Ki‡Z
   8.5C(Ans) Zvc jv‡M Q2 = fi×Avt Zvc×ZvcgvÎvi cv_©K¨
33600
= 0.02×2100×{0(10)} J
6| mgcwigvb Mig cvwb Ges 0°C ZvcgvÎvi eid GKmv‡_ wgkvb = 420J
nj| m¤úyY© eid M‡j cvwb nIqvi ci wgkª‡bi DòZv 0°C nj| 0°C ZvcgvÎvi eid‡K 0°C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwibZ Ki‡Z
Mig cvwbi DòZv KZ wQj? (eid Mj‡bi Av‡cwÿK myßZvc Zvc jv‡M Q3 = fi × Mj‡bi myßZvc
=3.36×105 Jkg-1Ges cvwbi Av‡cwÿK Zvc = 4.2 × 103 Jkg- = 0.02×3.36×105 J
1 -1
K ) = 6720 J
g‡b Kwi, ei‡di I Mig cvwbi fi wQj = m Kg I cvwb KZ…K ewR©Z Zvc 6300J, eid Mj‡Z cÖ‡qvRbxq Zvc
Mig cvwbi DòZv KZ wQj°C (420+6720) J=7140J Gi †P‡q Kg nIqvq mg¯Í eid Mj‡e bv| g‡b
Kwi m kg eid Mj‡e|
0°C ZvcgvÎvi eid‡K °C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwiYZ Ki‡Z
cÖkœg‡Z, 420 + m×3.36×105 = 6300
Zvc jv‡M Q1 = fi × Mj‡bi myßZvc
= m×3.36 ×105 J = 3.36 ×105 m J 6300 - 420
m  kg  0.0175 kg
°C ZvcgvÎvi Mig cvwb‡K °C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwiYZ Ki‡Z 3.36  10 5
Zvc eR©b K‡i Q2 = fi×Avt Zvc×ZvcgvÎvi cv_©K¨ DËi: wgkª‡bi P~ovšÍ ZvcgvÎv n‡e 0 °C Ges 0.0175 kg eid Mj‡e,
= m ×4.2×103×( 0) J evKx (0.02-0.0175) kg = 0.0025kg eid (0.03+0.0175)kg =
= m ×4.2×103× J 0.0475kg cvwbi Dci fvm‡e|
cÖkœg‡Z, M„nxZ Zvc = ewR©Z Zvc
3.36 ×105 m J= m ×4.2×103× J 9| A_ev, mgvb f‡ii 0°C ZvcgvÎvi eid I dzUšÍ cvwb GK‡Î wgwkÖZ
Kiv nj| G‡Z m¤ú~Y© eid cvwb‡Z cwiYZ nj Ges wgkÖ‡bi ZvcgvÎv
3.36  105
  C 10°C nj| eid Mj‡bi Av‡cwÿK myßZvc wbY©q Ki| [cvwbi Av‡cwÿK
4.2  103 Zvc 4200Jkg-1K-1]
°C (Ans.) g‡b Kwi, eid I cvwbi fi m, I eid Mj‡bi Av‡cwÿK myßZvc=lf
eid KZ…K M„nxZ Zvc= mlf+m×4200(10-0)
7| 50°C ZvcgvÎvi 0.03 kg cvwb‡Z 0°C ZvcgvÎvi 0.02kg
cvwb KZ…K ewR©Z Zvc= m×4200×(100-10)
eid wgkvb n‡j wgkª‡bi djvdj wK n‡e? [cvwbi Av: Zv: 4200
cÖkœg‡Z, mlf+m×4200(10-0) = m×4200×(100-10)
Jkg-1K-1 Ges eid Mj‡bi myßZvc =3.36×105 Jkg-1]
 lf+4200×10 = 4200×90
50 °C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡K 0 °C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwibZ Ki‡Z
 lf= 378000-42000=336000Jkg-1 (Ans.)
ewR©Z Zvc, Q1 = fi×Avt Zvc×ZvcgvÎvi cv_©K¨
= 0.03×4200×(50-0) J
= 6300J
0°C ZvcgvÎvi eid‡K 0°C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwibZ Ki‡Z

cÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqv (Reversible Process):

‡h cÖwµqv wecixZgyLx n‡q cÖZ¨veZ©b K‡i Ges m¤§yLeZ©x I wecixZgyLx cÖwµqvi cÖwZ ¯Í‡i Zvc I Kv‡Ri djvdj mgvb I
wecixZ †mB cÖwµqv‡K cÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqv e‡j| eid Zvc †kvlY K‡i cvwb‡Z cwiYZ nq| Avevi †mB cvwb †_‡K Zvc
mgcwigvb Zvc AcmviY Ki‡j Zv cybivq ei‡d cwiYZ nq| GwU cÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqvi GKwU D`vniY|
AcÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqv (Irreversible Process):

‡h cÖwµqv wecixZgyLx n‡q cÖZ¨veZ©b Ki‡Z cv‡i bv A_©vr m¤§yLeZ©x I wecixZgyLx cÖwZ ¯Í‡i Zvc I Kv‡Ri djvdj mgvb
I wecixZ nq bv †mB cÖwµqv‡K AcÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqv e‡j| `ywU e¯‘i g‡a¨ Nl©‡Yi d‡j †h Zvc m„wó nq Zv GKwU
AcÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqv KviY Nl©‡bi weiæ‡× †h KvR nq ZvB Zv‡c cwiYZ nq Ges H Zvc‡K †Kvbfv‡eB Kv‡R iƒcvšÍwiZ
Kiv hvq bv|
cÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqv I AcÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqvi g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ (Distinction between reversible and irreversible process):
cÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqv AcÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqv
1| ‡h cÖwµqv wecixZgyLx n‡q cÖZ¨veZ©b K‡i Ges 1| ‡h cÖwµqv wecixZgyLx n‡q cÖZ¨veZ©b Ki‡Z cv‡i bv
m¤§yLeZ©x I wecixZgyLx cÖwµqvi cÖwZ ¯Í‡i Zvc I Kv‡Ri A_©vr m¤§yLeZ©x I wecixZgyLx cÖwZ ¯Í‡i Zvc I Kv‡Ri
djvdj mgvb I wecixZ †mB cÖwµqv‡K cÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqv djvdj mgvb I wecixZ nq bv †mB cÖwµqv‡K
e‡j| AcÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqv e‡j|
2| Kvh©wbe©vnK e¯‘ cÖv_wgK Ae¯’vq wd‡i Av‡m| 2| Kvh©wbe©vnK e¯‘ cÖv_wgK Ae¯’vq wd‡i Avm‡Z cv‡i
bv|
3| GwU GKwU axi cÖwµqv| 3| GwU GKwU `ªæZ cÖwµqv|
4| GB cÖwµqvq wm‡÷‡gi ZvcMZxq mvg¨ve¯’v eRvq 4| GB cÖwµqvq wm‡÷‡gi ZvcMZxq mvg¨ve¯’v eRvq
_v‡K| _v‡K& bv |
BwÄb (Engine):
‡h h‡š¿ Zvc kw³ hvwš¿K kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ nq Zv‡K Zvc BwÄb e‡j| BwÄb cÖavYZ `yB cÖKvi h_vt- 1| AšÍ©`nb BwÄb I
2| ewn`©nb BwÄb|
ZvcMwZwe`¨vi wØZxq m~Î (Second Law of Thermodynamics):
K‡b©vi wee„wZ: †Kvb wbw`©ó cwigvb Zvc kw³‡K m¤úyY©iƒ‡c hvwš¿K kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍ‡i mÿg Ggb hš¿ wbg©vb m¤¢e bq|
K¬wmqv‡mi wee„wZ: evB‡ii kw³i mvnvh¨ Qvov †Kvb ¯^qswµq h‡š¿i c‡ÿ wb¤œ DòZvi e¯‘ n‡Z D”PZi DòZvi e¯‘‡Z
Zv‡ci ¯’vbvšÍi m¤¢e bq|
cøv‡¼i wee„wZ: Ggb †Kvb BwÄb ˆZix m¤¢e bq, †hUv †Kvb e¯‘ †_‡K Zvc MÖnY K‡i Aweivgfv‡e Kv‡R cwiYZ Ki‡e A_P
cwi‡e‡ki †Kvb cwieZ©b n‡e bv|
‡Kjwf‡bi wee„wZ: ‡Kvb e¯‘‡K Gi cwicv‡k¦©i kxZjZg Ask n‡Z AwaKZi kxZj K‡i kw³i Aweivg mieivn cvIqv
m¤¢e bq|

16| Zvc MwZwe`¨vi 2q m~Î (Second Law Of Thermodynamics) 2

BwÄ‡bi Zvcxq `ÿZv (Efficiency of a Engine): ‡Kvb Zvc BwÄb Øviv Kv‡R iƒcvšÍwiZ Zvc kw³i cwigvb Ges BwÄb
Øviv †kvwlZ Zvc kw³i AbycvZ‡K BwÄ‡bi Zvcxq `ÿZv e‡j| G‡K  Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| msÁv g‡Z,
BwÄb Øviv iƒcvšÍwiZ Zvc kw³
Zvcxq `ÿZv, 
BwÄb Øviv † kvwlZ Zvc kw³
e¨vL¨v t †Kvb BwÄb hw` T1 ZvcgvÎvq Zvc Drm ‡_‡K Q1 Zvc ‡kvlY K‡i Ges T2 ZvcgvÎvq Q2 Zvc eR©b K‡i, Zvn‡j
BwÄb Øviv Kv‡R iƒcvšÍwiZ Zvc kw³i cwigvb = (Q1-Q2)|
Q1  Q2
  | BwÄ‡bi Zvcxq `ÿZv‡K kZKivq cÖKvk Ki‡j Zvcxq `ÿZvi ivwkgvjv n‡e,
Q1
Q1  Q2 Q Q   Q 
  100 % ev,    1  2   100 %   1  2   100 %
Q1  Q1 Q1   Q1 
 T 
Zvc ZvcgvÎvi mgvbycvwZK, A_©vr, Q1T1 Ges Q2T2 d‡j,   1  2   100 %
 T1 
K‡Y©vi BwÄb (Carnot's Engine): Zvckw³‡K hvwš¿K kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ Kivi Rb¨ mv`x K‡b©v mKj †`vlÎ¤œwU gy³ †h
Av`k© h‡š¿i Kíbv K‡ib Zv‡K K‡b©v BwÄb e‡j|
K‡b©v BwÄb GKwU Av`k© BwÄ‡bi aviYvgvÎ, ev¯Í‡e Gi iƒcvšÍi m¤¢e nqwb| K‡b©v BwÄ‡bi PviwU Ask| Ask PviwU (1)
wmwjÛvi (2) ZvcDrm (3) Zvc MÖvnK (4) Zvc AšÍiK e¯‘ ; wb‡¤œ wPÎmn wewfbœ Ask eY©bv Kiv nj|
wmwjÛvi (Cylinder): GKwU wmwjÛvi C| wmwjÛviwUi †Ìqvj m¤ú~Y© Zvc AšÍiK c`v_© Ges Zj‡`k m¤ú~yY© Zvc cwievnK
c`v_© Øviv ˆZix| Gi wfZ‡i m¤ú~Y© Zvc AšÍiK c`v‡_© ˆZix GKwU wc÷b P Nl©Ynxbfv‡e PjvPj Ki‡Z cv‡i| wmwjÛv‡ii
wfZi Kvh©wbe©vnK e¯‘ wn‡m‡e Av`k© M¨vm †bqv nq|
ZvcDrm: D”P Zvc aviYÿgZv m¤úbœ GKwU DËß e¯‘ hv T1 ZvcgvÎvq Av‡Q Ges Zv‡ci Drm wn‡m‡e KvR K‡i| Gi
ZvcgvÎv me©`v w¯’i _v‡K, Zv‡ci Av`vb cÖ`v‡b ZvcgvÎv KL‡bv cwieZ©b nq bv|
Zvc MÖvnK: D”P Zvc aviYÿgZv m¤úbœ T2 ZvcgvÎvq GKwU kxZj e¯‘ hv Zvc MÖvnK wn‡m‡e KvR K‡i| Gi ZvcgvÎvI
me©`v w¯’i _v‡K, Zv‡ci Av`vb cÖ`v‡b ZvcgvÎv KL‡bv cwieZ©b nq bv|
Zvc AšÍiK e¯‘: m¤ú~Y© Zvc AšÍiK c`v‡_©i ˆZix GKwU Avmb hvi Dci wmwjÛviwU emvb _v‡K|


K‡b©vi Pµ (Carnot's Cycle): †h we‡kl cÖwµqvq KvR Ki‡j GKwU Av`k© Zvc BwÄb Z_v K‡b©v BwÄb Aweivg kw³
mieivn Ki‡Z cv‡i Zv‡K K‡b©v Pµ e‡j| K‡b©v P‡µ cÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqvi gva¨‡g Kvh©wbe©vnK e¯‘ Drm †_‡K Zvc MÖnb K‡i
GKwU wbw`©ó Pvc, AvqZb I ZvcgvÎv n‡Z Avi¤¢ K‡i GKwU m‡gvò cÖmviY I GKwU iæ×Zvcxq cÖmviY Ges GKwU m‡gvò
m‡¼vPb I GKwU iæœ×Zvcxq m‡¼vP‡bi gva¨‡g Zv‡ci wKQy Ask Kv‡R iƒcvšÍi K‡i Ges evKx Ask Zvc MÖvn‡K eR©b K‡i
Avw` Ae¯’vq wd‡i Av‡m| Av`k© M¨vm‡K PviwU ch©v‡qi g‡a¨w`‡q AwZµg Kiv‡bv nq|
cÖ_g ch©vq (First Operation): cÖ_‡g wmwjÛvi C †K Zvc Dr‡mi Dci emv‡bv
nq| Lye Aímg‡qi g‡a¨ wmwjÛv‡i Ave× M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv Dr‡mi ZvcgvÎvi mgvb
nq|aiv hvK, GB Ae¯’vq M¨v‡mi Pvc I AvqZb h_vµ‡g P1I V1 nq hv wb‡`©kK
wP‡Îi A we›`y Øviv wb‡`©k Kiv n‡q‡Q| GLb Av`k© M¨vm‡K m‡gvò cÖwµqvq
cÖmvwiZ n‡Z w`‡j cÖwµqv †k‡l Gi Pvc I AvqZb h_vµ‡g P2I V2 nq hv
wb‡`©kK wP‡Îi B we›`y Øviv wb‡`©k Kiv n‡q‡Q| AB †iLv Øviv M¨v‡mi m‡gvò
cÖmviY †`Lv‡bv n‡q‡Q Ges K…Z KvR, W1=ABGE †ÿ‡Îi †ÿÎd‡ji mgvb|
wØZxq ch©vq (Second Operation): Gevi wmwjÛvi C †K Zvc-AšÍiK Avm‡bi Dci emv‡bv nq Ges Ave× M¨vm‡K
iæ×Zvcxq fv‡e cÖmvwiZ n‡Z †Ìqv nq| cÖwµqv †k‡l M¨v‡mi Pvc I AvqZb h_vµ‡g P3I V3 nq hv wb‡`©kK wP‡Îi C
we›`y Øviv wb‡`©k Kiv n‡q‡Q| iæ× Zvcxq cÖmvi‡Yi d‡j M¨v‡mi ZvcmvÎv n«vm †c‡q Zvc MÖvn‡Ki ZvcgvÎv T2 Gi mgvb
nq| wP‡Î BC †iLv Øviv M¨v‡mi iæ× Zvcxq cÖmviY †`Lv‡bv n‡q‡Q Ges GB cÖmvi‡Y K…Z KvR, W2=BCHG †ÿ‡Îi
†ÿÎd‡ji mgvb|
Z…Zxq ch©vq (Third Operation): Gevi wmwjÛvi C †K ZvcMÖvn‡Ki Dci ewm‡q Avevi M¨v‡mi Pvc e„w× Ki‡j wcób
Øviv M¨v‡mi Dci KvR m¤úvw`Z n‡e| d‡j M¨v‡mi AšÍt¯’ kw³ e„w× cv‡e| wKš‘ Ave× M¨vm e„w× cÖvß AšÍt¯’ kw³
Zvciƒ‡c ZvcMÖvn‡K eR©b K‡i ZvcgvÎv ZvcMÖvn‡Ki mgvb A_©vr T2 eRvq ivL‡e| GB Ae¯’vq Ave× M¨v‡mi Pvc I
AvqZb h_vµ‡g P4 I V4 nq hv wb‡`©kK wP‡Îi D we›`y Øviv wb‡`©k Kiv n‡q‡Q| wP‡Î CD †iLv m‡gvò ms‡KvPb wb‡`©k
K‡i Ges GB m‡¼vP‡bi d‡j K…Z KvR, W3=CDFH †ÿ‡Îi †ÿÎd‡ji mgvb|
PZz_© ch©vq (Fourth Operation): ‡kl ch©v‡q wmwjÛvi C †K cybivq Zvc-AšÍiK Avm‡bi Dci emv‡bv nq Ges
iæ×Zvcxqfv‡e Ave× M¨v‡mi Dci Pvc evov‡bv nq| d‡j Gi AvqZb n«vm cvq| Ave× M¨v‡mi Dci KvR m¤úvw`Z
nIqvq Gi ZvcgvÎv e„w×‡c‡q cybivq Dr‡mi ZvcgvÎv T1 Gi mgvb nq| GB Ae¯’vh M¨v‡mi Pvc I AvqZb cybivq
h_vµ‡g P1 I V1 nq hv wb‡`©kK wP‡Îi A we›`y wb‡`©k K‡i A_©vr Ave× M¨vm Avw` Ae¯’vq wd‡i Av‡m| wP‡Î DA †iLv
Ave× M¨v‡mi iæ× Zvcxq m‡¼vPb †`Lv‡bv n‡q‡Q d‡j K…Z KvR, W4=DAEF †ÿ‡Îi †ÿÎd‡ji mgvb|
GLv‡b W1 I W2 Ave× M¨vm Øviv K…Z KvR e‡j abvZ¥K n‡e Ges W3 I W4 Ave× M¨v‡mi Dci K…Z KvR e‡j FbvZ¥K
n‡e| d‡j Ave× e¯‘ Øviv †gvU K…Z KvR,
W= W1+ W2 - W3 - W4
 W= ABGE + BCHG - CDFH - DAEF
W= ABCD †ÿ‡Îi †ÿÎd‡ji mgvb| myZivs GKwU K‡b©v P‡µ Kvh©wbe©vnK e¯‘ Øviv m¤úvw`Z KvR wb‡`©kK wP‡Î `ywU
m‡gvò †iLv I `ywU iæ×Zvcxq †iLv Øviv Ave× †ÿ‡Îi †ÿÎd‡ji mgvb|
GbUªwc (Entropy): ‡Kvb wm‡÷‡g kw³ _vK‡jB †h Zv‡K cÖ‡qvRbxq Kv‡R jvMv‡bv hv‡e Ggb †Kvb wbðqZv †bB| GUv
wbf©i K‡i wm‡÷‡gi ZvrÿwYK Ae¯’vi Dc‡i| Avgiv Rvwb †Kvb M¨vm‡K iæ×Zvcxq cÖwµqvq m¼zwPZ Ki‡j M¨v‡mi Dci
†h KvR Kiv nq Zvi d‡j M¨v‡mi Aš’t¯’kw³ I ZvcgvÎv †e‡o hvq| Avevi iæ×Zvcxq cÖwµqvq †Kvb M¨vm‡K cÖmvwiZ


n‡Z w`‡j M¨vm‡K wKQy KvR Ki‡Z nq| d‡j M¨v‡mi Aš’t¯’kw³ I ZvcgvÎv K‡g hvq| myZivs †`Lv hvq †h, iæ×Zvcxq
cÖwµqvq M¨v‡mi AšÍt¯’kw³ I ZvcgvÎv Df‡qiB cwieZ©b nq| wKš‘ m‡gvò cÖwµqvq †hgb ZvcgvÎv w¯’i _v‡K iæ×Zvcxq
cÖwµqvq †Zgwb †Kvb GKwU ivwk w¯’i _v‡K| K¬wmqvm GB ivwkwUi bvg †`b GbUªwc| iæ×Zvcxq cÖwµqvq e¯‘i †h Zvcxq
ag© w¯’i _v‡K Zv‡K GbUªwc e‡j| GbUªwc GKwU †fŠZ ivwk, G‡K S Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq|
hw` †Kvb wm‡÷g T ZvcgvÎvq dQ cwigvb Zvc MÖnY ev eR©b Kivi d‡j GbUªwci cwieZ©b ds nq Z‡e
dQ
ds  n‡e|
T
‡Kvb wm‡÷‡gi kw³ iƒcvšÍ‡ii AÿgZv ev Am¤¢ve¨Zv‡K ev iƒcvšÍ‡ii Rb¨ kw³i AcÖvßZv‡K GbUªwc e‡j|
GbUªwci e¨vL¨v nj e¯‘i iæ×Zvcxq cÖwµqvq GbUªwc w¯’i _v‡K:

†Kvb e¯‘i GbUªÖwci cig gvb AvRI Rvbv m¤¢e nqwb| Z‡e †Kvb e¯‘ hw` Zvc MÖnb ev eR©b K‡i, Zvn‡j e¯‘i GbUªwci
cwieZ©b nq| †Kvb wm‡÷‡gi ZvcgvÎv mv‡c‡ÿ M„nxZ ev ewR©Z Zvc cwieZ©‡bi nvi Øviv GbUªwci cwieZ©b cwigvc Kiv
nq|
hw` †Kvb wm‡÷g T ZvcgvÎvq dQ cwigvb Zvc MÖnY ev eR©b Kivi d‡j GbUªwci cwieZ©b ds nq Z‡e
dQ
ds  n‡e|
T
Dc‡iv³ mgxKiY n‡Z †`Lv hvq †h, iæ×Zvcxq cÖwµqvq †h‡nZz Kvh©wbe©vnK e¯‘i mv‡_ evB‡ii Zv‡ci †Kvb Av`vb cÖ`vb
dQ 0
nqbv Kv‡RB, dQ=0 | myZivs iæ×Zvcxq cÖwµqvq GbUªwci cwieZ©b, dS    0 A_©vr iæ×Zvcxq cÖwµqvq
T T
GbUªwci cwieZ©b nq bv A_©vr iæ×Zvcxq cÖwµqvq GbUªwci w¯’i _v‡K| myZivs †Kvb e¯‘i GbUªwc ej‡Z Avgiv Ggb GKUv
‡fŠZ ivwk‡K eywS hv e¯‘i iæ×Zvcxq cÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqvq me©`v w¯’i _v‡K| GbUªwci cwieZ©‡bi GKK JK-1 |
cÖZ¨veZ©x cÖwµqvq GbUªwc w¯’i _v‡K I AcÖZ¨veZ©x cÖwµqvq GbUªwc e„w× cvq t
cÖZ¨veZ©x cÖwµqvq GbUªwc w¯’i _v‡K:

K‡b©vi Pµ GKwU cÖZ¨veZ©x cÖwµqv| G‡Z `ywU m‡gvò †iLv I `ywU iæ×Zvcxq †iLv Øviv m„ó AB I CD `ywU m‡gvò †iLv
Ges BC I DA `ywU iæ× Zvcxq †iLv| ‡h‡nZz iæ×Zvcxq cÖwµqvq GbUªwc w¯’i _v‡K myZivs m‡gvò AB I CD Gi †ÿ‡Î
GbUªwci cwieZ©b NU‡e|
Q1
AB Gi †ÿ‡Î Zvc Q1 I ZvcgvÎv T1 n‡j GbUªwci cwieZ©b, ds1 
T1
Q2
Ges CD Gi †ÿ‡Î Zvc Q2 I ZvcgvÎv T2 n‡j GbUªwci cwieZ©b, ds2  
T2
Q1 Q2
 †gvU GbUªwci cwieZ©b ds  ds1  ds2  
T1 T2
Q1 Q2
wKš‘ cÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqvq K‡b©vP‡µ, 
T1 T2
Q1 Q2
 G‡ÿ‡Î †gvU GbUªwci cwieZ©b, ds  ds1  ds2    0 A_©vr cÖZ¨veZ©x cÖwµqvq GbUªwci cwieZ©b k~b¨|
T1 T2
myZivs cÖZ¨veZ©x cÖwµqvq GbUªwc w¯’i _v‡K|


AcÖZ¨veZ©x cÖwµqvq GbUªwc e„w× cvq:
aiv hvK, `ywU e¯Íy A I B cwicv‡k¦©i cÖfve †_‡K gy³ Ae¯’vq ci¯ú‡ii ms¯ú‡k© Av‡Q| e¯‘Øq Ges G‡ì ms‡hvM¯’j Zvc
mycwievnx| e¯‘Ø‡qi ZvcgvÎv h_vµ‡g T1 I T2 ; T1  T2 ; Zvc DËß e¯‘ †_‡K kxZj e¯‘‡Z mÂvwjZ n‡e| †m Zvc Avi DËß
e¯‘‡Z wd‡i Avm‡e bv| AZGe GwU GKwU AcÖZ¨veZ©x cÖwµqv|
awi, AwZ Aí mg‡q dQ cwigvb Zvc A †_‡K B †Z mÂvwjZ nq| A e¯‘ dQ cwigvb Zvc nvivq, B
dQ dQ
e¯‘ dQ cwigvb Zvc AR©b K‡i| A e¯‘i GbUªwc n«vm  ; B e¯‘i GbUªwc e„w×  ;
T1 T2
dQ dQ
mgMÖ eë¯’vq †gvU GbUªwci cwieZ©b, ds  
T2 T1
G‡ÿ‡Î, †gvU GbUªwci cwieZ©b GKwU abvZ¥K ivwk; KviY, T1  T2 |
AZGe, AcÖZ¨veZ©x cÖwµqvq GbUªwc e„w× cvq| A_ev Ab¨fv‡e ejv hvq,
¯^ZtùzZ© cÖwµqv †mw`‡KB msNwUZ nq †h w`‡K GbUªwc e„w× cvq|

16| ZvcMwZwe`¨vi 2q m~Î (Second Law Of Thermodynamics)
1| GKwU K‡b©v BwÄ‡bi Dr‡mi ZvcgvÎv 400K, GB ZvcgvÎvq

GKwU Drm ‡_‡K GwU 840J Zvc Mªnb K‡i Ges wms‡K 630J Zvc 30000
eR©b K‡i| wms‡Ki ZvcgvÎv I BwÄ‡bi Kg©`ÿZv wbY©q Ki|  T1 
35
Avgiv Rvwb,
 T1  857.14K
Q1  Q 2
  100% GLv‡b,  T1  (857.14 - 273)C  584.14C (Ans.)
Q1
840  630 ZvcgvÎv, T1 = 400K
  100% Zvc, Q1 = 840 J 4| GKwU BwÄb 3400J Zvc MÖnb K‡i I 2400J Zvc eR©b K‡i|
840
210 Zvc, Q2 = 630 J BwÄbwU Øviv m¤úvw`Z Kv‡‡Ri cwigvb I BwÄ‡bi `ÿZv wbY©q Ki|
  100% Kg©`¶Zv,  Avgiv Rvwb,
840
wm‡¼i ZvcgvÎv, T2 = ? W  Q Q GLv‡b,
   25% (Ans) 1 2
Avevi,Avgiv Rvwb, Zvc, Q1 = 3400 J
 W  (3400  2400 ) J Zvc, Q2 = 2400 J
T1  T2  W  1000 J ( Ans .)
  100% KvR, W =?
T1 Q Q
 1 2  100% Kg©`¶Zv, 
400  T2 Q
 25%   100% 1
400 3400  2400
400  T2  100%
 25  3400
4 1000
 100%
 100  400  T2 3400
 T2  400  100   29.41% (Ans)
 T2  300K (Ans.)
5| GKwU BwÄb 25°C Ges 225°C ZvcgvÎvi g‡a¨ Kvh©iZ| BwÄ‡bi
Zvc Drm †_‡K 4200J Zvc MÖnb K‡i| BwÄb Øviv m¤úvw`Z Kv‡Ri
2| GKwU K‡b©v BwÄb 327°C Ges 27°C DòZvi g‡a¨ KvR
cwigvb wbY©q Ki| GLv‡b,
Ki‡Q| Gi Kg© `ÿZv KZ? GLv‡b, Avgiv Rvwb, D”P Zvcvav‡ii ZvcgvÎv,
Avgiv Rvwb, D”P Zvcvav‡ii ZvcgvÎv, Q1 T1 T1 = 225ºC
T1  T2 T1 = 327ºC  = (225+273)K
  100% Q 2 T2
T1 =(327+273)K = 498 K
= 600 K Q1T2 wb¤§ Zvcvav‡ii ZvcgvÎv,
600  300  Q2 
  100% wb¤§ Zvcvav‡ii ZvcgvÎv, T1 T2 = 25ºC
600 T2 = 27ºC = (27+273)K = (25+273)K
   0.5  100% = 300 K 4200  298
 Q2  = 298 K
   50 % (Ans.) Kg©`¶Zv,  498 M„nxZ Zvc, Q1 = 4200J
 Q 2  2513.25J K…Z KvR, W = ?
3| GKwU BwÄ‡bi Kg© `ÿZv 65%| Gi wb¤§ Zvcvav‡ii (MÖvn‡Ki) Avevi,
ZvcgvÎv 27°C | Gi D”P Zvcvav‡ii (Dr‡mi) ZvcgvÎv wbY©q W  Q1  Q 2
Ki|  W  4200  2513.25
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,  W  1686.74 J (Ans.)
T1  T2 wb¤§ Zvcvav‡ii ZvcgvÎv,
65%   100%
T1 T2 = 27ºC 6| GKwU K‡Y©v BwÄb 800K I 400K Zvc gvÎvq †h `ÿZvq KvR K‡i,
65 T1  300 = (27+273)K wVK mg`ÿZvq KvR K‡i T K Ges 900K ZvcgvÎv| ZvcgvÎv T wbY©q
  = 300 K Ki|
100 T1 Kg©`¶Zv,  GLv‡b, 1g †¶‡Î
Avgiv Rvwb,
 100T1  30000  65T1 D”P Zvcvav‡ii D”P Zvcvav‡ii ZvcgvÎv,
T1  T2 T1 = 800K
 100T1  65T1  30000 ZvcgvÎv, T1 = ?   100%
T1 wb¤§ Zvcvav‡ii ZvcgvÎv,
 35T1  30000 800  400 T2 = 400K
  100% Kg©`¶Zv, 
800

16| ZvcMwZwe`¨vi 2q m~Î (Second Law Of Thermodynamics) 2
   0.5  100% T2dQ
dS  
T1 T
   50% T2 msdT
 dS   GLv‡b,
T1 T
Avevi, GLv‡b, 2q †¶‡Î fi, m = 1kg
T2 1  4200  dT
T T wb¤§ Zvcvav‡ii ZvcgvÎv,  dS   ZvcgvÎv, T1 = 0ºC
  4 3 100% T1 T =(273+0)ºK=273ºK
T4 T3 = 900K T2 ZvcgvÎv, T2 = 100ºC
T  900 Kg©`¶Zv,   dS  4200lnT  =(273+100)ºK=373ºK
 50%   100% D”P Zvcvav‡ii ZvcgvÎv, T1
G›Uªwci cwieZ©b dS=?
T T4 = T=?  dS  4200  (ln T2  ln T1 ) 
T  900 
1 2 T
T  dS  4200  ln 2
T1
 2T  1800  T
 T  1800 K ( Ans.) 373
 dS  4200  ln
273
7| 10°C ZvcgvÎvi 5kg cvwb‡K 100°C ZvcgvÎvq DËxY© Ki‡Z  dS  4200  0.312106624
G›Uªwci cwieZ©b wbY©q Ki| GLv‡b,  dS  1310.84JK 1 (Ans.)
Avgiv Rvwb, fi, m = 5kg
T2 dQ ZvcgvÎv,T1 = 10ºC 10| GKwU Kv‡b©v BwÄ‡bi Zvc MÖvn‡Ki ZvcgvÎv 7°C Ges `ÿZv 50%|
dS   =(273+10)K=283K
T1 T BwÄ‡bi `ÿZv 60% Ki‡Z n‡j Zvc Dr‡mi ZvcgvÎv KZ e„w× Ki‡Z
ZvcgvÎv,T2 = 100ºC n‡e?
msdT
T2
 dS   =(273+100KC=373K Avgiv Rvwb,
T1 T G›Uªwci cwieZ©b dS=?
T2 5  4200  dT
T1  T2
 1   100%
 dS   T1
T1 T
T2 T  280 GLv‡b,
 dS  21000lnT  50%  1  100%
T1 MÖvn‡Ki ZvcgvÎv,
T1
T2 = 7ºC
 dS  21000  (ln T2  ln T1 ) 50 T1  280
  = (7+273)K
T 100 T1 = 280 K
 dS  21000  ln 2
T1  100T1  28000  50T1 Kg©`¶Zv, 
 50T1  28000 Dr‡mi ZvcgvÎv, T1 = ?
373
 dS  21000  ln Kg©`¶Zv, 
283 28000
 T1  T1/  T1  ? 
 dS  21000  0.276131522 50
 dS  5798.76 JK 1 (Ans.)  T1  560K
T1/  T2
2   100%
8| 0°C ZvcgvÎvi 3kg eid‡K 0°C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwiYZ T1/
Ki‡Z GbUªwci cwieZ©b KZ n‡e? [eid Mj‡bi Av‡cwÿK myßZvc T /  280
=336000 Jkg-1] 60%  1 /  100%
GLv‡b, T1
dQ
Avgiv Rvwb, dS  ei‡di fi, m = 3kg
T 60 T1/  280
Mj‡bi Av‡cw¶K myßZvc  
mlf lf=336000 Jkg-1| 100 T1/
ev, dS  ZvcgvÎv T= (0+273)K=273 K
T  100T1/  28000  60T1/
GbUªwci cwieZ©b dS=?
ev, dS  3  336000  40T1/  28000
273 28000
 dS  3692.3JK 1 (Ans)  T1/ 
40
9| 0°C ZvcgvÎvi 1kg cvwb‡K 100°C ZvcgvÎvq DËxY© Ki‡Z /
 T1  700K
G›Uªwci cwieZ©b wbY©q Ki|
ZvcgvÎv e„w×
= T1/  T1  (700  560) K  140K ev, 140°C (Ans.)
Avgiv Rvwb,

kã (Sound):
†h evwn¨K KviY Avgv‡ì Kv‡bi kªeb Bw›`ª‡q kÖæwZi Abyf~wZ RvMvq ev RvMv‡Z †Póv K‡i Zv‡K kã e‡j| kã GK cÖKvi
kw³ hv †Kvb K¤úbkxj e¯‘ †_‡K Drcbœ n‡q Ro gva¨‡gi mvnv‡h¨ Avgv‡ì Kv‡b †cŠwQ‡q kÖæwZi Abyf~wZ RvMvq ev
RvMv‡Z †Póv K‡i|
kã ‡hfv‡e Drcbœ nq (Production of Sound):

evZv‡m †Kvb e¯‘i K¤ú‡bi d‡j kã Drcbœ nq| Z‡e hw` GB k‡ãi K¤úv¼ 20Hz †_‡K 20,000Hz ch©šÍ nq Z‡e Avgiv
Drcbœ kã ïb‡Z cvB| Avi hw` Drcbœ 20Hz Gi Kg ev 20,000Hz Gi †ekx nq Z‡e Drcbœ kã Avgiv ïb‡Z cvB bv|
GB Rb¨ 20Hz †_‡K 20,000Hz ch©šÍ K¤úv¼ wewkó kã Zi½‡K AwWI ev kªebxq kã Zi½ e‡j|
kªve¨Zvi mxgv, K¤úv¼ ev wdª‡Kv‡qwÝ, Zi½, Avo Zi½, jw¤^K Zi½, Zi½ ‰`N©¨, Zi½ †eM, we¯Ívi, †`vjb Kvj,`kv, Zi½
†eM, k‡ãi †eM Ges ‡KŠwbK K¤úv¼ Gi msÁv I e¨vL¨v:
kªve¨Zvi mxgv (Limit of Audibility):

‡h kã Avgiv ïb‡Z cvB Zvi K¤úv¼ 20 Hz ‡_‡K 20,000 Hz Gi g‡a¨ nq| G Rb¨ G‡K kªe¨Zvi mxgv e‡j| A_©vr
kªe¨Zvi mxgv nj †h kã Zi‡½i K¤úv¼ 20 Hz ‡_‡K 20,000 Hz Gi g‡a¨|
K¤úv¼ (Frequency):
‡Kvb K¤úgvb e¯‘ cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û hZwU c~b© K¤úb m¤úbœ K‡i Zv‡K Zv‡K H K¤úgvb e¯‘i K¤úv¼ e‡j| G‡K n ev f Øviv
cÖKvk Kiv nq| K¤úv¼ ev wd«‡Kv‡qÝxi GKK Hz ev, cy/s|
Zi½ (Wave):
w¯’wZ¯’vcK gva¨‡gi KYv ¸wji mgwóMZ K¤ú‡bi d‡j m„ó Av‡›`vjb‡K Zi½ e‡j| Zi½ cÖavbZ `yB cÖKvi (1) Avo Zi½
ev AbycÖ¯’ Zi½ (2) jw¤^K Zi½ ev Aby‰`N©¨ Zi½
(1) Avo Zi½ ev AbycÖ¯’ Zi½ (Transverse Wave):

‡h mg¯Í Zi‡½i †ÿ‡Î Ro gva¨‡gi KYv ¸wji K¤ú‡bi w`K Zi½ cÖev‡ni w`‡Ki mv‡_ mg‡KvY ev j¤^ fv‡e nq †mB
mg¯Í Zi½‡K Avo Zi½ ev AYycÖ¯’ Zi½ e‡j| Av‡jvK Zi½ AYycÖ¯’ Zi‡½i D`vniY|
(2) jw¤^K Zi½ ev Aby‰`N©¨ Zi½ (Longitudinal Wave):

‡h mg¯Í Zi‡½i †ÿ‡Î Ro gva¨‡gi KYv ¸wji K¤ú‡bi Avwfgy‡L ev mgvšÍiv‡j Zi½ cÖevwnZ nq †mB mg¯Í Zi½‡K jw¤^K
Zi½ ev Aby‰`N©¨ Zi½ e‡j| kã Zi½ jw¤^K Zi‡½i D`vniY|

17| Zi½ I kã (Waves & Sound) 2
Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ (Wave Length):
K¤úgvb e¯‘i GKwU c~Y© K¤ú‡b m„ó Zi½ †h `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i Zv‡K Zi‡½i Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ e‡j| Zi½
ˆ`N©¨‡K  Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| Zi½ ˆ`‡N©ï GKK wgUvi ev wdU| Zi½ cÖevnKv‡j Zi½w¯’Z GKwU KYvi N wU c~Y©
S
K¤ú‡bi mgq AeKv‡k Zi½ S `~iZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡j λ  n‡e|
N
Zi½ †eM (Wave Velocity):
wbw`©ó w`‡K Zi½ GKK mg‡q †h `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i Zv‡K Zi½ †eM e‡j| G‡K V Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| t mg‡q wbw`©ó
d
w`‡K †Kvb Zi½ d `~iZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡j Zi½ †eM V  n‡e| Gi GKK ms-1|
t
we¯Ívi (Amplitude):
‡Kvb GKwU K¤úgvb KYvi mvg¨ve¯’vb †_‡K †h †Kvb GKw`‡K me©vwaK †h `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i Zv‡K Gi we¯Ívi e‡j|
we¯Ívi‡K a Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| we¯Ívi Gi GKK wgUvi|
‡`jbKvj ev ch©vqKvj (Time Period):

‡Kvb GKwU gva¨‡g GKwU c~Y© Zi½ m„wó Ki‡Z K¤úbiZ Zi½ Dr‡mi †h mgq jv‡M Zv‡K H K¤úgvb e¯‘i †`vjbKvj ev
t
ch©vqKvj e‡j| G‡K T Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| t †m‡K‡Û Zi½ Drm N wU c~b© K¤úb w`‡j †`vjbKvj T  n‡e|
N
`kv (Phase):
Zi‡½i g‡a¨ GKwU KYvi †Kvb gyn‡~ Z©i Ae¯’vb Ges Gi MwZi Ae¯’v I w`K hv Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq Zv‡K `kv e‡j| GRb¨
`kv †Kvb GKwU K¤úgvb e¯‘i Ae¯’v cÖKvk K‡i|
Zi½ gyL (Wave Front):

‡Kvb Zi‡½i Dc‡i Aew¯’Z mg`kv m¤úbœ KYv ¸wj †h Z‡j Ae¯’vb K‡i Zv‡K Zi½gyL e‡j| Avo Zi‡½i †ÿ‡Î Zi½
kx‡l© I Zi½ cv‡` Aew¯’Z mKj KYv mg `kvq _v‡K| A_©vr Zv‡ì `kv GKB|
k‡ãi †eM (Velocity of Sound):

kã GKK mg‡q wbw`©ó w`‡K †h `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i Zv‡K k‡ãi †eM e‡j| G‡K V Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| t mg‡q d `~iZ¡
d
AwZµg Ki‡j †eM V  n‡e| Gi GKK ms-1|
t
‡KŠwbK K¤úv¼ (Angular Frequency):
mg‡qi mv‡_ `kvi cwieZ©‡bi nvi‡K †KŠwbK K¤úv¼ e‡j| GKwU c~b© K¤ú‡b T mg‡q `kvi cwieZ©b myZivs †KŠwbK
2π
K¤úv¼ ω   2πf ‡KŠwbK K¤úv‡¼i GKK rad s-1
T
v = f  m¤úK© wU cÖgvb A_ev, k‡ãi †e‡Mi mv‡_ K¤úv¼ I Zi½ ‰`‡N©ï m¤úK© ¯’vcb (Relation Between v and  ):
Zi½ m„wóKvix †Kvb K¤úbkxj KYvi GKwU c~Y© K¤úb w`‡Z †h mgq jv‡M, †mB mgq‡K ch©vqKvj T e‡j| T mg‡q Zi½
†h `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i Zv‡K Zi½ ˆ`N©¨  e‡j|

T mg‡q Zi½ AwZµg K‡i  `~iZ¡

 GKK mg‡q Zi½ AwZµg K‡i `~iZ¡
T
wKš‘ Zi½ GKK mg‡q †h `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i Zv‡K Zi½ †eM e‡j| Zi½ †eM v n‡j

v 
T
Avevi, K¤úbkxj e¯‘ GKK mg‡q hZ¸‡jv c~Y© K¤úb m¤úbœ K‡i Zv‡K K¤úv¼ e‡j|
ch©vqKvj T n‡j, T ‡m‡K‡Û †`q GKwU †`vjb d‡j 1 †m‡K‡Û †`q 1/T wU †`vjb |
K¤úv¼‡K f Øviv cÖKvk Ki‡j,
1
f
T

myZivs v  A_©vr v = f (cÖgvwYZ)
T
mij †`vjMwZ (Simple Harmonic Motion):

†Kvb wbw`©ó mgq ci ci GKB cÖKvi MwZi cybive„wË NU‡j †mB MwZ‡K mij †`vj MwZ e‡j| hw` †Kvb e¯‘i †`vj MwZ
GKwU c‡_ Ggb fv‡e nq †h, †`vjvqgvb e¯‘wUi Z¡iY Gi MwZc‡_i GKwU wbw`©ó we›`ygywL nq Ges GB Z¡iY we›`ywU †_‡K
†`vjvqgvb e¯‘wUi mi‡bi mgvbycvwZK nq Z‡e H iƒc MwZ‡K mij †`vj MwZ e‡j|
mij †`vjMwZi ‰ewkó¨ mg~n (Characteristics Simple Harmonic Motion):
(1) G MwZ mij îwLK MwZ
(2) G MwZ †`vj MwZ
(3) G MwZ m¤úbœ e¯‘i Z¡iY me©`v mvg¨ve¯’vb †_‡K mi‡Yi mgvbycvwZK
(4) G MwZ ch©vq MwZ
(5) G MwZ m¤úbœ e¯‘i Z¡i‡Yi w`K me©`v mvg¨ve¯’vb †_‡K mi‡Yi wecixZ gywL|
(6) G MwZ m¤úbœ e¯‘i Z¡iY me©`v Gi MwZ c‡_i GKwU wbw`©ó we›`y AwfgywL|
Avo Zi½ I jw¤^K (`xNj) Zi‡½i cv_©K¨ (Distinction between Transverse wave and longitudinal wave) t
µwgK Avo ev AbycÖ¯’ Zi½ jw¤^K ev `xNj Zi½
w¯’wZ ¯’vcK gva¨‡gi KYv¸wji Av‡›`vj‡bi d‡j m„ó w¯’wZ ¯’vcK gva¨‡gi KYv¸wji Av‡›`vj‡bi d‡j m„ó
1 Zi½ hw` KYv¸wji MwZc‡_i mv‡_ mg‡Kv‡Y Zi½ hw` KYv¸wji MwZc‡_i mv‡_ mgvšÍiv‡j cÖevwnZ
cÖevwnZ nq Z‡e H Zi½‡K Avo Zi½ e‡j| nq Z‡e H Zi½‡K jw¤^K Zi½ e‡j|
2 Zi½ cÖev‡ni d‡j gva¨‡g Zi½ P~ov I Zi½ cv` Zi½ cÖev‡ni d‡j gva¨‡g msKzwPZ ¯Íi I cÖmvwiZ ¯Íi
Gi m„w÷ nq| m„wó nq|
3 gva¨‡g Zi½ cÖev‡n m„ó ci ci `ywU Zi½ P~ov ev Zi½ cÖev‡n m„ó GKwU msKzwPZ I GKwU cÖmvwiZ ¯Íi
Zi½ cv` Gi gaëZ©x `~iZ¡‡K Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ e‡j| Gi wgwjZ ˆ`N©¨‡K Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ e‡j|
4 AvK…wZi ag© m¤úbœ gva¨‡g GB Zi‡½i DrcwË nq| AvqZ‡bi w¯’wZ¯’vcK ag© m¤úbœ gva¨‡g GB Zi‡½i
DrcwË nq|
5 gva¨‡g Gi mgeZ©b n‡Z cv‡i| gva¨‡g Gi mgeZ©b nq bv|
Avo Zi‡½i MVb wPÎ wb¤§iƒc jw¤^K Zi‡½i MVb wPÎ wb¤§iƒc
6

w¯’i Zi½ (Stationary wave):
‡Kvb gva¨‡gi GKwU mxwgZ As‡k ci¯úi wecixZ gyLx Zi‡½i we¯Ívi I †`vjbKvj hw` mgvb nq Z‡e G‡ì wgwjZ
wµqvq H As‡k †h b~Zb Zi‡½i DrcwË nq Zv‡K w¯’i Zi½ e‡j|
GKwU Uvbv Zv‡ii †Kv_vI AvNvZ Ki‡j G ai‡bi Zi½ Zvi †e‡q `yB cÖv‡šÍi w`‡K AMÖmi nq Ges `yB cÖvšÍ ‡_‡K
cÖwZdwjZ n‡q wd‡i Av‡m| D³ Zv‡i m„ó Zi½ GKwU w¯’i Zi‡½i
D`vniY|w¯’i Zi‡½i †Kvb †Kvb we›`yi we¯Ívi k~b¨ Ges †Kvb †Kvb
we›`yi we¯Ívi me©vwaK| †h we›`y ¸wji we¯Ívi me©vwaK [A wPwýZ we›`y ¸wj]
Zv‡ì‡K my¯ú›` we›`y Ges †h we›`y¸wji we¯Ívi k~b¨ [N wPwýZ we›`y ¸wj]
Zv‡ì‡K wb¯ú›` we›`y e‡j|
w¯’i Zi‡½i cv_©K¨ ‰ewkó¨t
(K) GB Zi½ gva¨‡gi †Kvb GKwU mxwgZ As‡k Drcbœ nq|
(L) AMÖmi bv n‡q GKB As‡k mxgve× _v‡K|
(M) Zi‡½i wewfbœ we›`y‡Z K¤ú‡bi we¯Ívi mgvb bq|
(N) Zi‡½i my¯ú›` we›`yi we¯Ívi Zi½ m„wóKvix g~j Zi‡½i we¯Ív‡ii wØ¸b-Gi mgvb|
(O) ci ci `ywU jy‡ci miY ci¯úi wecixZ w`‡K nq|
(P) w¯’i we›`y¯’ KYv¸‡jv Qvov mKj KYvi MwZ mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`b MwZ|
Pjgvb ev AMÖMvgx Zi½ (Progressive wave or travelling wave) :
‡Kvb Zi½ hw` we¯Í…Z gva¨‡gi GK ¯Íi n‡Z Ab¨¯Í‡i
µgvMZ mÂvwjZ n‡q m¤§y‡Li w`‡K AMÖmi nq Z‡e †mB
Zi½‡K AMÖMvgx Zi½ e‡j| gy³ evqy‡Z cÖevngvb kã
Zi½ Ges mvaviY cvwbi Zi½ AMÖMvgx jw¤^K Zi‡½i D`vniY|
Pjgvb ev AMÖMvgx Zi‡½i cv_©K¨ ‰ewkó¨t
(K) †Kvb gva¨‡gi GKB cÖKvi K¤ú‡b GB Zi‡½i DrcwË nq|
(L) Gi †eM gva¨‡gi NbZ¡ I w¯’wZ¯’vcKZvi Dci wbf©i K‡i|
(M) gva¨‡gi KYv ¸‡jv K‡Lv‡bv w¯’i _v‡K bv|
(O) Zi½ cÖev‡n gwa¨‡gi wewfbœ As‡ki Pvc I Nb‡Z¡i GKB cÖKvi cwieZ©b N‡U|
(P) Zi½ gy‡Li Awfj¤^ eivei kw³ enb K‡i G Zi½ cÖevwnZ nq|
(Q) gva¨‡gi cÖwZwU KYvi K¤úv¼ I we¯Ívi GKB nq Ges Zviv GKB ai‡bi K¤ú‡b Kw¤úZ nq|
w¯’i I Pjgvb (AMÖMvgx) Zi‡½i cv_©K¨ (Distinction between Stationary and progressive wave :
w¯’i Zi½ Pjgvb (AMÖMvgx) Zi½
1| ‡Kvb gva¨‡gi GKwU mxwgZ As‡k ci¯úi wecixZ 1| Kvb Zi½ hw` we¯Í…Z gva¨‡gi GK ¯Íi n‡Z Ab¨¯Í‡i
gyLx Zi‡½i we¯Ívi I †`vjbKvj hw` mgvb nq Z‡e µgvMZ mÂvwjZ n‡q m¤§y‡Li w`‡K AMÖmi nq Z‡e †mB
G‡ì wgwjZ wµqvq H As‡k †h bZzb Zi‡½i DrcwË Zi½‡K AMÖMvgx Zi½ e‡j|
nq Zv‡K w¯’i Zi½ e‡j|
2| Zi‡½i wb¯ú›` we›`y Qvov Ab¨ we›`yi MwZ mij †`vj 2| Zi½w¯’Z wewfbœ we›`yi MwZ mij †`vj MwZ|
MwZ|
3| Zi‡½i AvKvi GK ¯’v‡b w¯’i _v‡K| 3| Zi‡½i AvKvi GK ¯’v‡b w¯’i _v‡K bv|
4| Zi½ cÖev‡n gva¨‡gi KYv ¸wj cÖ‡Z¨K c~Y© K¤ú‡b 4| Zi½ cÖev‡n gva¨‡gi KYv ¸wj KL‡bv w¯’i Ae¯’v cÖvß nq
`yBevi w¯’i Ae¯’v cÖvß nq| bv|
5| w¯’i Zi‡½i wPÎt 5| Pjgvb Zi‡½i wPÎt

2π
Pjgvb (AMÖMvgx) Zi‡½i mgxKiY cÖwZcv`b Ki ev, y  A sin (vt  x) mgxKiY cÖwZcv`b :
λ
Pjgvb (AMÖMvgx) Zi‡½i mgxKiY (Equation of travelling or progressive wave) :
gva¨‡gi KYv ¸‡jv mij Qw›`Z ¯úw›`Z n‡j Pjgvb Zi‡½i D™¢e nq|
GKwU KYv †_‡K Av‡›`vjb cieZ©x KYv‡Z †cŠQ‡Z wKQy mgq jv‡M|
myZivs Zi‡½i AwfgyL eivei KYv¸wji `kvi cwieZ©b NU‡Z _v‡K|
g‡bKwi, GKwU Pjgvb Zi½ O †_‡K C eivei G¸‡”Q| [cvk©¦ wPÎ]
†h‡nZz gva¨‡gi KYv¸‡jv mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`‡b G¸‡”Q, †m‡nZz O KYvi
MwZ‡K wb‡Pi mgxKiY Øviv cÖKvk Kiv hvq|
y = a sin t
GLv‡b, y = t mg‡q OBC †iLv ev mvg¨ve¯’v †_‡K KYvwUi miY|
a = KYvi we¯Ívi
 = KYvi †KŠwbK K¤úv¼
hw` KYvwUi K¤úv¼ f nq Z‡e f
 y = a sin ft .........................................(1)
Avevi O KYvwU hLb mvg¨ve¯’v AwZµg K‡i ZLb B KYvwUI GKB w`‡K mvg¨ve¯’v AwZµg K‡i| myZivs Giv mg`kv
m¤úbœ| mg`kv m¤úbœ ci¯úi `ywU KYvi gaëZ©x `~iZ¡ n‡”Q Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ | GLv‡b  = OB| GLv‡b O we›`y †_‡K B
we›`y‡Z hvIqvi mgq `kvi cwieZ©b nq | AZGe, O we›`y †_‡K x `~i‡Z¡ P we›`y‡Z hvIqvi mgq `kvi cv_©K¨   2π x
λ
GLb P we›`y‡Z Aew¯’Z KYvi miY y n‡j, y = a sin (t – )
 2π 
 y  a sin  ωt  x  
 λ 
 2π 
 y  a sin  2πft  x  ω  2πf  
 λ 
 2πvt 2π   v
 y  a sin 
 

λ 
x  f   
2
 y  a sin vt  x 

2
Zi½ Wvb w`K †_‡K evg w`‡K †M‡j KYvwUi miY n‡e, y  a sin vt  x 

2π
w¯’i Zi‡½i mgxKiY cÖwZcv`b ev, y  A sin vt mgxKiY cÖwZcv`b :
λ
w¯’i Zi½: ‡Kvb gva¨‡gi GKwU mxwgZ As‡k mgvb we¯Ívi I Zi½ ‰`‡N©ï `ywU
Pjgvb Zi½ GKB gv‡bi †e‡M wecixZ w`K †_‡K AMÖmi n‡q G‡K Ac‡ii Dci
AvcwZZ n‡q †h Zi‡½i D™¢e nq Zv‡K w¯’i Zi½ e‡j|
GKwU Zv‡ii GK cÖvšÍ GKwU `„p Aej¤^‡b †e‡a Ab¨ cÖvšÍ a‡i Dci wb‡P AvovAvwofv‡e †`vjv‡j GKwU Zi½ Zvi
†e‡q AMÖmi n‡e Ges e×cÖv‡šÍ cÖwZdwjZ n‡q wd‡i Avm‡e| GB cÖwZdwjZ Zi½ hLb bZzb Pjgvb Zi‡½i Dci AvcwZZ
n‡e ZLb w¯’i Zi‡½i D™¢e n‡e| GB Zi½ Zvi †e‡q AMÖmi bv n‡q eis Zv‡ii H As‡ki g‡a¨ Drcbœ I wejyß nq|
Zi‡½i D™¢‡ei mgq †`Lv hvq †h, Zv‡ii †Kvb †Kvb RvqMvq, †hgb N1, N2, N3 BZ¨vw` we›`y‡Z †Kvb ¯ú›`b †bB, Avevi
†Kvb †Kvb hvqMvq, †hgb A1, A2, A3 BZ¨vw` ¯ú›`b me mgq me©vwaK| †h mg¯Í we›`y‡Z †Kvb ¯ú›`b †bB Zv‡ì‡K wb¯ú›`
we›`y (Nodes ) e‡j Ges †h mg¯Í we›`y‡Z ¯ú›`b me©vwaK †m mKj we›`y‡K my¯ú›` we›`y (Antinodes ) e‡j|

g‡b Kwi, GKB we¯Ívi a Ges GKB Zi½ ˆ`N©¨  wewkó `ywU Pjgvb Zi½ †eM v wb‡q GKB Aÿ X eivei ci¯úi wecixZ
w`‡K AMÖmi n‡”Q| †h Zi½wU X Aÿ eivei Wvbw`‡K MwZkxj Zvi Rb¨ x we›`y‡Z t mg‡q †Kvb KYvi miY y1 Ges evg
w`‡K MwZkxj Zi‡½i Rb¨ H KYvi miY y2 n‡j Avgiv Rvwb,
2
y1  a sin (vt  x )

2
I y 2  a sin (vt  x ) myZivs KYvwUi jwä miY y n‡e

y = y1 + y2
2 2
 y  a sin ( vt  x )  a sin ( vt  x )
 
 2 2 
 y  a  sin (vt  x )  sin ( vt  x )
   
 2  vt  x  vt  x  2  vt  x  vt  x 
 y  2a  sin   cos  
   2    2 
 2   2 
 y  2a sin  vt  cos x
     
 2  2π
 y  A sin  vt  ... ... ... ... (1) GLv‡b we¯Ívi, A  2a Cos x
   λ
Dc‡iv³ mgxKiYwU w¯’i Zi½ cÖKvk K‡i| wewfbœ we›`y‡Z x Gi gv‡bi Dci wbf©i K‡i we¯Ív‡ii gvb I wewfbœ n‡e|
my¯ú›` we›`y (Anti Node): †h mKj we›`y‡Z jwä we¯Ívi m‡Ÿ©v”P A_©vr A  2a n‡e †mB mKj my¯ú›` we›`y ˆZix n‡e|
2
A_©vr †h mKj we›`y‡Z cos x  1 n‡e †mB mKj we›`y‡Z my¯ú›` we›`y ˆZix n‡e| myZivs †h mKj we›`y‡Z

2x
 0, , 2 ............., n, n‡e| †hLv‡b, (n = 0, 1, 2, 3 . . ....... . . .) |

 2 n
ev, x  0, , , . . .. . . . . . . , †hLv‡b, (n = 0, 1, 2, 3 . .. . .. . .)
2 2 2
2 4 2n
ev, x  0, , , . . .. . . . . . . , †hLv‡b, (n = 0, 1, 2, 3 . .. . .. . .) †mB mKj we›`y‡Z my¯ú›` we›`y ˆZix
4 4 4

n‡e| myZivs w¯’i Zi‡½i †h mKj we›`y Gi ‡Rvo ¸wbZK `~‡i Aew¯’Z †mB mKj we›`y‡Z my¯ú›` we›`y m„wó n‡e|
4
wb¯ú›` we›`y (Node): †h mKj we›`y‡Z jwä we¯Ívi k~Y¨ A_©vr A  0 n‡e †mB mKj we›`y‡Z wb¯ú›` we›`y ˆZix n‡e| A_©vr
2
†h mKj we›`y‡Z cos x  0 n‡e †m mKj we›`y‡Z wb¯ú›` we›`y ˆZix n‡e| myZivs †h mKj we›`y‡Z

2x  3 5 
 , , ............., (2n  1) , n‡e| †hLv‡b, (n = 0, 1, 2, 3 . . . . . . .) |
 2 2 2 2
 3 5 
ev, x  , , . . .. . . . . . . (2n  1) , †hLv‡b, (n = 0, 1, 2, 3 . . . . . . .) †mB mKj we›`y‡Z wb¯ú›` we›`y
4 4 4 4

ˆZix n‡e| myZivs †h mKj we›`y Gi †e‡Rvo ¸wbZK `~‡i Aew¯’Z †mB mKj we›`y‡Z wb¯ú›` we›`y m„wó n‡e|
4

k‡ãi e¨wZPvi (Interference of Sound):
GKB w`‡K Pjgvb mgvb K¤úv¼ I we¯Ívi wewkó `ywU kã Zi‡½i DcwicvZ‡bi d‡j †Kvb ¯’v‡b bxieZv I †Kvb ¯’v‡b
cÖejZ¡i k‡ãi m„wó n‡j H NUbv‡K k‡ãi e¨wZPvi e‡j| e¨wZPvi `yB cÖKvi| (1) MVbg~jK e¨wZPvi I (2) aŸsmvZ¥K
e¨wZPvi
(1) MVbg~jK e¨wZPvi (Constructive Interference): k‡ãi e¨wZPv‡i cÖejZ¡i kã n‡j Zv‡K MVbg~jK e¨wZPvi e‡j|
(2) aŸsmvZ¥K e¨wZPvi (Destructive Interference): k‡ãi e¨wZPv‡i Av‡`Š‡Kvb kã bv n‡j Zv‡K aŸsmvZ¥K
e¨wZPvi e‡j| kã Zi‡½i e¨wZPv‡ii Rb¨ kã kw³i webvk nqbv eis kw³i cybe©›Ub nq|
e¨wZPv‡ii MvwbwZK we‡kølb (Mathematical deduction of Interference):

g‡bKwi GKB we¯Ívi a Ges GKB Zi½ ˆ`N©¨  wewkó `ywU Pjgvb Zi½ GKB †eM v wb‡q Pj‡Z _vK‡j †Kvb GK mgq
Zviv GK we›`y‡Z wgwjZ nq| Zi½ `ywUi Rb¨ H we›`y‡Z Aew¯’Z †Kvb KYvi t mgq c‡i miY h_vµ‡g y1 I y2 n‡j,
2
y1  a sin ( vt  x 1 );

2
y 2  a sin ( vt  x 2 ); GLv‡b, cÖ_g Zi½wU H we›`y‡Z †h‡Z x1 c_ Ges wØZxq Zi½ x2 c_ AwZµg K‡i|

GLb `ywU Zi‡½i DcwicvZ‡bi d‡j G‡ì jwä miY y n‡j,
y = y1 + y2
2 2
ev, y  a sin ( vt  x 1 )  a sin ( vt  x 2 )
 
2 2
ev, y  a sin (vt  x1 )  sin ( vt  x 2 )
   
2  vt  x1  vt  x 2  2  vt  x 1  vt  x 2 
ev, y  2a sin   cos  
  2    2 
 2 x x
ev, y  2a cos x 2  x 1  sin  vt  1 2 
   2 
2  x x  
ev, y  A sin  vt  1 2  GLv‡b, we¯Ívi A  2a cos x 2  x 1 
  2  
Dc‡iv³ mgxKiY †_‡K †`Lv hvq †h, `ywU Zi‡½i DcwicvZ‡bi d‡j GKwU bZzb Zi½ Drcbœ nq hvi we¯Ívi

A  2a cos x 2  x 1  Ges gvb DrmØ‡qi c_ cv_©‡Kï Dci wbf©i K‡i|

MVbg~jK e¨wZPvi (Constructive Interference) : †h mKj we›`y‡Z Zi½ `ywU GKB `kvqA_©vr mg `kvq wgwjZ n‡e, †m
me we›`y‡Z jwä we¯Ívi m‡e©v”P n‡e A_©vr A  2a n‡e| d‡j k‡ãi ZxeªZv m‡e©v”P n‡e ev MVbg~jK e¨wZPvi Drcbœ n‡e|

myZivs †h mKj we›`y‡Z, cos ( x 2  x 1 )  1 n‡e|


ev, (x 2  x 1 )  0, , 2, 3. ... ....... n n‡e [ n = 0, 1, 2.3, ........]

ev, (x 2  x1 )  0, , 2, 3, ... ....... n n‡e [ n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ........]
2 4 6 
 ( x 2  x1 )  0, , , , ... ....... 2n n‡e [ n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ........]
2 2 2 2

A_©vr †h mKj we›`y‡Z Zi½ `ywUi c_ cv_©K¨ Gi †Rvo ¸wbZK n‡e †mB mKj we›`y‡Z MVbg~jK e¨wZPvi Drcbœ n‡e|
2

aŸsmvZ¥K e¨wZPvi (Destructive Interference) : †h mKj we›`y‡Z Zi½ `ywU wecixZ `kvq wgwjZ n‡e, †m me we›`y‡Z
jwä we¯Ívi k~b¨ n‡e A_©vr A  0 n‡e| d‡j k‡ãi ZxeªZv k~b¨ n‡e ev aŸsmvZ¥K e¨wZPvi Drcbœ n‡e|

myZivs †h mKj we›`y‡Z, cos ( x 2  x 1 )  0 n‡e|

  3 5 
ev, ( x 2  x 1 )  , , , . ... .......(2n  1) n‡e [ n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ........]
 2 2 2 2
 3 5 
 ( x 2  x 1 )  , , , ... ....... (2n  1) n‡e [ n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ........]
2 2 2 2

A_©vr †h mKj we›`y‡Z Zi½ `ywUi c_ cv_©K¨ Gi we‡Rvo ¸wbZK n‡e, †mB mKj we›`y‡Z aŸsmvZ¥K e¨wZPvi m„wó n‡e|
2
k‡ãi e¨wZPvi cÖ`k©‡bi cixÿv (Experiment on Interference) :

KzB‡Ki cixÿv Øviv GKwU kã Zi½‡K †Kvb GKwU we›`y ‡_‡K `ywU Lv‡Z cÖevwnZ n‡Z w`‡q Dchy³ `kv cv_©‡K¨ cybivq
Aci GKwU we›`y‡Z AvcwZZ K‡i k‡ãi e¨wZPvi m„wó Kiv nq| [wPÎ wb‡¤§]
GB cixÿvq U AvK…wZi `yB gyL †Lvjv bj ABP I DEF jIqv nq|
ABP b‡ji `yB evû‡Z `ywU cvk¦ bj M I N Av‡Q| DEF b‡ji `yB
evûi g‡a¨ ABP b‡ji evû `ywU cÖ‡ek Kiv‡bv hvq|
cixÿv: GKwU myikjvKv‡K kãvwqZ K‡i M b‡ji gy‡L aiv

nq| G‡Z myi kjvKv †_‡K kã Zi½ AB I DEF cÖevwnZ n‡q N bj
w`‡q †ei n‡q hvevi mgq P we›`y‡Z wgwjZ n‡e| GB `yB c‡_ cÖevngvb Zi‡½i K¤úv¼, we¯Ívi I RvwZ Awfbœ nIqvq Giv
N b‡j GKB †iLvq miY m„wó Ki‡e| GLb DEF bjwU‡K evB‡ii w`‡K †U‡b A_ev wfZ‡ii w`‡K †V‡j ABP I AEP
c‡_i `~i‡Z¡i cv_©K¨ evov‡j ev Kgv‡j N b‡ji gy‡L k‡ãi wZeªZvi wb¤§wjwLZ cwieZ©b jÿ¨ Kiv hvq| (K) hLb ABP I
AEP Gi g‡a¨ c‡_i ˆ`‡N©ï cv_©K¨ Zi½ ˆ`‡N©ï AhyM¥ ¸wbZK n‡e ZLb (AEP~ABP) = /2, 3/2, 5/2 BZ¨vw` n‡e
ZLb ZLb Zi½ `ywU P we›`y‡Z wecixZ `kvq wgwjZ nIqvq N b‡ji gy‡L †Kvb kã †kvbv hv‡ebv| GUvB k‡ãi aŸskKvix
e¨wZPvi| (L) hLb ABP I AEP Gi g‡a¨ c‡_i ˆ`‡N©ï cv_©K¨ k~b¨ ev Zi½ ˆ`‡N©ï hyM¥ ¸wbZK n‡e ZLb
(AEP~ABP) = 0, 2/2, 4/2, BZ¨vw` n‡e ZLb Zi½ `ywU P we›`y‡Z mg`kvq wgwjZ nIqvq N b‡ji gy‡L ‡Rvivj kã
†kvbv hv‡e| GUvB k‡ãi MVb g~jK e¨wZPvi|
†h †h Kvi‡Y kã (Pjgvb) AMÖMvgx jw¤^K Zi½ ev, kã GKwU AMÖMvgx jw¤^K Zi‡½i cÖgvY (Prof of Sound is a Kind of
longitudinal wave):
kã GKwU AMÖMvgx jw¤^K Zi½ Gi ¯^c‡ÿ wb¤§wjwLZ NUbv mg~n cwijwÿZ nq|
(1) Zi½ m„wói Rb¨ e¯‘i K¤úb cÖ‡qvRb kã m„wói Rb¨ I e¯‘i K¤úb cÖ‡qvRb|
(2) Zi½ mÂvj‡bi Rb¨ gva¨g ¯’vbvšÍwiZ nq bv kã mÂvj‡bi Rb¨ I gva¨g ¯’vbvšÍwiZ nq bv|
(3) Zi½ mÂvj‡bi Rb¨ mg‡qi cÖ‡qvRb kã mÂvj‡bi Rb¨ I mg‡qi cÖ‡qvRb|
(4) cÖ‡Z¨K Zi‡½i †ÿ‡Î cÖwZdjb, cÖwZmiY, e¨wZPvi Ges AceZ©b nq| k‡ãi †ÿ‡Î I G me nq|
(5) M¨vwmq gva¨‡g kã Zi½vKv‡i mÂvwjZ nq| Gi mgeZ©b nq bv| mgeZ©b †Kej gvÎ Avo Zi‡½ nq| Dc‡iv³ NUbv
Øviv cÖgvwYZ nq †h, kã GKwU AMÖMvgx jw¤^K Zi½|

17| Zi½ I kã (Waves & Sound)
1| evqy I cvwb‡Z 300 Hz K¤úv‡¼i GKwU kã Zi‡½i Zi½

ˆ`‡N¨©i cv_©K¨ 4.18m| evqy‡Z k‡ãi †eM 350ms-1 n‡j cvwb‡Z 4| GKwU Pjgvb Zi‡½i mgxKiY t
k‡ãi †eM KZ? y = 5 Sin(200t1.57x) ; GLv‡b me KqwU ivwk Gm AvB GK‡K
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b, cÖ`Ë| Zi½wUi we¯Ívi, K¤úv¼, †eM I ch©vq Kvj wbY©q Ki|
 w   a  4.18 K¤úv¼, f = 300Hz y = 5 Sin(200t1.57x) .............(1) cÖ`Ë mgxKiY
v v evqy‡Z k‡ãi 2π
 w  a  4.18 †eM, va = 350 ms-1 y  ASin(2πft  x) .......(2) Av`k© mgxKiY Gi mv‡_
f f λ
cwb‡Z k‡ãi †eM, Vw = ? Zzjbv K‡i cvB,
vw va
  4.18  wa = 4.18 m we¯Ívi, A = 5m
f f 2f = 200  K¤úv¼, f = 200/2 Hz = 100 Hz
v 350 2π 2π 2  3.14
 w  4.18   1.57  λ  
300 300 λ 1.57 1.57
 vw  4.18  1.1666666300  Zi½ ˆ`N©¨, m
1
 v w  1604 ms (Ans.)  Zi½ †eM, V = f100 × 4 m /s = 400 m/s (Ans.)
1 1
ch©vqKvj, T   s  0.01s (Ans)
2| `yÕwU myikjvKvi K¤úv¼ h_vµ‡g 128Hz Ges 384Hz| evqy‡Z f 100
kjvKv `zÕwU n‡Z m„ó Zi½ ˆ`‡N©ï AbycvZ wbY©q Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, 5| evZv‡m `yÕwU myi kjvKvi Øviv m„ó k‡ãi Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ h_vµ‡g 50cm
V = f11= f22 GLv‡b, Ges 70cm cÖ_g myi kjvKvi K¤úvsK 350Hz n‡j wØZxq myi kjvKvi
λ1 f 2 K¤úv¼, f1= 128Hz K¤úv¼ KZ n‡e?
  K¤úv¼, f2 = 384 Hz Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
λ 2 f1
1t2 =? V = f1f22 Zi½ ‰`N©¨, 1= 50cm
λ 384 Zi½ ‰`N©¨, 2 = 70cm
 1   f2 
f1 λ 1
λ 2 128 λ2 K¤úvsK, f1 = 350Hz
 λ1 : λ 2  3 : 1 (Ans.) 350  50 K¤úvsK, f2 = ?
 f2  Hz
70
3| P I Q `yÕwU gva¨‡g k‡ãi †eM h_vµ‡g 300ms-1 Ges  f 2  250 Hz (Ans.)
350ms-1 | gva¨g `ywU‡Z k‡ãi Zi½ ˆ`‡N©ï cv_©K¨ 0.1m n‡j
myi kjvKvi 50 K¤ú‡b kã Q gva¨‡g KZ`yi hv‡e? 6| †Kvb myi kjvKv GKwU gva¨‡g 5cm ˆ`‡N©ï Ges 350ms-1 †e‡Mi
Avgiv Rvwb, Zi½ Dcbœ K‡i| Aci GKwU gva¨‡g Zi½ †eM hw` 332.5ms-1 nq Z‡e
V H gva¨‡g myi kjvKvi 100 K¤ú‡b kã KZ`yi hv‡e|
V = f  f  GLv‡b, Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,

k‡ãi †eM, VP=300ms-1 V1 V2 k‡ãi †eM, V1=350ms-1
VP VQ  f  
f   k‡ãi †eM,VQ=350ms-1 Zi½ ‰`N©¨ 1= 5cm
λP Q λ1 λ 2
Zi½ ‰`N©¨ cv_©K¨, =0.05m
300 350 QPm 350 332.5 k‡ãi †eM, =332.5ms -1
    V 2
λ Q  0.1 λ Q  PQ 0.05 λ2 100 K¤ú‡b AwZµvšÍ `~iZ¡
 350λ Q  35  300λ Q 50Q= ? 332.5  0.05 1002=?
 2  m
 50λ Q  35m (Ans.) 350
332.5  0.05  100
 1002  m
350
100λ 2  4.75 m (Ans.)

7| †Kvb gva¨‡g 480Hz Ges 320Hz K¤úv‡¼i `yÕwU k‡ãi Zi½ 100  50m (Ans.)
ˆ`‡N©ï cv_©K¨ 2m n‡j gva¨‡g k‡ãi †eM KZ|
Avgiv Rvwb, 10| 320 Hz K¤úv‡¼i myi kjvKv n‡Z cvwb‡Z I evqy‡Z Drcbœ Zi‡½i
GLv‡b,
2  1  2 Zi½ ˆ`‡N¨©i cv_©K¨ 3.9m| evqy‡Z k‡ãi †eM 345ms-1 n‡j cvwb‡Z
K¤úv¼, f1= 480Hz
V V k‡ãi †eM KZ?
  2 K¤úv¼, f2 = 320Hz
f 2 f1 Avgiv Rvwb,
λ  λ  2m GLv‡b,
V V
2 1  w   a  3.9 K¤úv¼, f = 320Hz
   2 k‡ãi †eM, V=?
320 480 v w va evqy‡Z k‡ãi †eM, Va = 345 ms-1
   3. 9

480 V  320 V
 2 f f cwb‡Z k‡ãi †eM, Vw = ?
320  480 vw va wa = 3.9m
160V   3. 9 
 2 f f
320  480
vw 345
 160V  2  320  480   3. 9 
2  320  480 320 320
V  v w  3.9  1.078125320
160
V  1920 ms1 (Ans.)  v w  1593 ms 1 (Ans.)
8| †Kvb myi kjvKvi K¤úv¼ 700Hz, evqyi ZvcgvÎv 30°C n‡j 11| `yÕwU myi kjvKvi K¤úv‡¼i cv_©K¨ 118 Hz| evqy‡Z kjvKv `yÕwU ‡h
100 K¤ú‡b kã KZ`yi hv‡e| 0°C ZvcgvÎvq k‡ãi †eM Zi½ m„wó K‡i, Zv‡ì GKwUi `yÕwU c~Y© Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ AciwUi wZbwU c~Y©
332ms-1 Zi½ ˆ`‡N©ï mgvb| kjvKv Ø‡qi K¤úv¼ wbY©q Ki|
GLv‡b,
v   v 0 (1  ) k‡ãi †eM, vo = 332ms-1 f1  f 2  118Hz  f 2  (f1  118)Hz
 1  ZvcgvÎv,  = 30ºC
 2
v   332 1   30  3 1  2 2  1 
100 = ? 2 3
 273 
Avgiv Rvwb,
 v   332 (1  0.109890109 ) V  f1 1  f 2  2
 v   332 1.10989011 1 f 2 2 f  118
   1
 v   349.76ms 1  2 f1 3 f1
Avevi,  3f1  354  2f1
v   f  f1  354Hz I f 2  (354  118)Hz  236Hz
 349.76  700
349.76 12| GKwU Zv‡ii Dc‡ Drcbœ AbycÖ¯’ Zi‡½i

700  t x 
mgxKiY y  0.5 sin 2   , GLv‡b xGes y †mw›UwgUv‡i
349.76  100  0.5 50 
 100 
700 Ges t †m‡K‡Û cÖKvk Kiv n‡q‡Q| Zi½wUi we¯Ívi, Zi½ ˆ`N©¨, K¤úvsK I
100  49.96m (Ans.) ch©vqKvj wbY©q Ki|
 t x 
9| A gva¨‡g k‡ãi †eM B gva¨‡g k‡ãi †e‡Mi †P‡q 5 ¸Y †ewk| GLv‡b cÖ`Ë mgxKiY: y  0.5 sin 2   
 0.5 50 
B gva¨‡g GKwU k‡ãi Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ 10cm n‡j A gva¨‡g Dr†mi
100 evi K¤ú‡b kã KZ`yi hv‡e?
 2t 2x 
 y  0.5 sin    ‡K
VA VB GLv‡b,  0.5 50 
Avgiv Rvwb, f   2x 
A B awi, k‡ãi †eM, VB=V 
Av`k© mgxKiY, y  a sin  2ft   Gi mv‡_ Zzjbv
 k‡ãi †eM,VA=5V   
V  B Zi½ ‰`N©¨,B=10cm=0.m
 A  A 1
VB 100A= ? K‡i cvB, we¯Ívi a=0.5cm,I f  Hz  2 Hz
5V  0. 1 0. 5
 A  1 1 1 1
V I     50cm T    0.5Sec( Ans.)
 50 f 2
  A  0.5m
 100  100  0.5m

k‡ãi ZxeªZv (Intensity of Sound):

kã mÂvj‡bi c‡_ j¤^fv‡e Aew¯’Z GKK †ÿÎd‡ji ga¨w`‡q cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û cÖevwnZ kã kw³i cwigvb †K k‡ãi ZxeªZv
P
e‡j| A ‡ÿÎd‡j cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û kã kw³i cwigvb P n‡j k‡ãi ZxeªZv I  | Gi GKK Wm-2
A
cÖgvY ZxeªZv (Standard Intensity):
1000 Hz K¤úv¼ wewkó 10 -12 Wm-2 ZxeªZv‡K cÖgvY ZxeªZv e‡j|
ZxeªZv †j‡ej (Intensity Level): †Kvb k‡ãi ZxeªZv I cÖgvY ZxeªZvi Abycv‡Zi jMvwi`g‡K †ej GK‡K H k‡ãi
ZxeªZv †j‡ej e‡j| †Kvb k‡ãi ZxeªZv I Ges cÖgvY ZxeªZv Io n‡j ‡ej GK‡K ZxeªZv †j‡ej n‡e,   log I Bell
I0
ZxeªZv †j‡e‡ji GKK †ej ev †Wwm‡ej|
†ej ev †Wwm‡ej (Bel or Desibel):
†Kvb k‡ãi ZxeªZv I cÖgvY ZxeªZvi Abycv‡Zi jMvwi`g‡K †ej GK‡K H k‡ãi ZxeªZv †j‡ej e‡j| ZxeªZv †j‡e‡ji
GKK †ej ev †Wwm‡ej| cÖgvY ZxeªZv †_‡K 10 ¸b ZxeªZv m¤úbœ †Kvb k‡ãi ZxeªZv †j‡ej †K 1 †ej e‡j| GK †e‡ji
`k fv‡Mi GK fvM‡K GK †Wwm‡ej e‡j| †Kvb k‡ãi ZxeªZv I Ges cÖgvY ZxeªZv Io n‡j †Wwm‡ej GK‡K ZxeªZv †j‡ej
n‡e,   10log I dB
I0
myi (Tone) : ‡Kvb Drm †_‡K wbtm„Z k‡ã hw` GKwU gvÎ K¤úv¼ _v‡K Zvn‡j †mB kã‡K myi (Tone) e‡j| †hgb,
myikjvKv †_‡K wbtm„Z kã, KviY Gi GKwUB K¤úv¼|
¯î (Note) :
‡Kvb Drm †_‡K wbtm„Z k‡ãi g‡a¨ hw` GKvwaK K¤úv¼ _v‡K Zvn‡j †mB kã‡K ¯î (Note) e‡j| A_©vr ¯î n‡”Q
GKvwaK my‡ii mgwó| Avgiv †h Mvb evRbv ïwb Zv ¯î, KviY Zv A‡bK ¸‡jv my‡ii mgwó|
‡gjwW ev ¯îgvayh© (Melody):
hw` K‡qKwU kã G‡Ki ci GK D”PvwiZ n‡q GKwU myihy³ k‡ãi m„wó K‡i Z‡e Zv‡K ‡gjwW ev ¯îgvayh© e‡j|
k‡ãi ¸Y ev RvwZ: (Quality or Timbre of sound):
‡h ‰ewk‡óï Øviv GKB ZxeªZv I ZxÿœZvi `ywU kã‡K ci¯úi †_‡K Avjv`v Kiv hvq Zv‡K k‡ãi ¸Y ev RvwZ e‡j? GK
mv‡_ K‡qKwU ev`¨hš¿ †hgb †envjv, wMUvi, euvwk BZ¨vw` hw` GKB ZxeªZv I ZxÿèZvq evRv‡bv nq Zvn‡jI Avgiv †Kvb&
myiwU †Kvb& h‡š¿i Zv Avgiv mn‡RB eyS‡Z cvwi| k‡ãi ¸Y ev RvwZi Rb¨ GUv n‡q _v‡K|
†gŠwjK myi (Fundamental Tone):
†Kvb ¯^‡ii g‡a¨ we`¨gvb myi ¸‡jvi g‡a¨ hvi K¤úv¼ me‡P‡q Kg Zv‡K g~j myi ev †gŠwjK myi e‡j| †hgb †Kvb AM©vb
†_‡K wbtm„Z wb‡b¥v³ K¤úv¼ ¸‡jv h_vµ‡g 256, 268, 502, 512, 620, 768, 1280 Hz | Gi g‡a¨ 256 Hz g~j myi|
Dcmyi I nvi‡gvwbK (Overtone and Harmonic):

†Kvb ¯^‡ii g‡a¨ we`¨gvb myi ¸‡jvi g‡a¨ hvi K¤úv¼ me‡P‡q Kg Zv‡K g~j myi ev †gŠwjK myi e‡j| Ab¨ mKj myi hvi
K¤úv¼ g~j my‡ii †P‡q †ekx Zv‡ì‡K Dcmyi e‡j| †hgb †Kvb AM©vb †_‡K wbtm„Z wb‡b¥v³ K¤úv¼ ¸‡jv h_vµ‡g 200,
250, 400, 475, 600, 720, 800, 1280 Hz | Gi g‡a¨ 200 Hz g~j myi| 200 Hz K¤úv¼ Qvov Ab¨ mKj K¤úv¼ †hgb
250, 400, 475, 600, 720, 800, 1280 Hz K¤úv¼ Dcmyi| Avevi Dc myi ¸‡jvi K¤úv¼ hw` g~jmy‡ii K¤úv‡¼i mij
¸wbZK nq, Zvn‡j †mB mKj Dcmyi‡K mg‡gj ev nvi‡gvwbK e‡j, †hgb 200 Hz Gi wØ¸b 400 Hz, wZb ¸b 600 Hz,
Pvi ¸b 800 Hz, Kv‡RB 400 Hz, 600 Hz I 800 Hz K¤úv¼ ¸wj nvi‡gvwbK| d‡j mKj nvi‡gvwbK Dcmyi wKš‘ mKj
Dcmyi nvi‡gvwbK bq| Dcmyi hw` g~j my‡ii K¤úv‡¼i wØ¸b nq Z‡e wØZxq nvi‡gvwbK, wZb¸b n‡j Z…Zxq nvi‡gvwbK,
Pvi¸b n‡j PZz_© nvi‡gvwbK BZ¨vw` e‡j| Avevi †Kvb my‡ii K¤úv¼ hw` Ab¨ GKwU my‡ii K¤úv‡¼i wØ¸b nq Zvn‡j
wØZxqwU‡K cÖ_gwUi AóK (Octave) e‡j †hgb, 400 Hz, 200 Hz Gi AóK, 800 Hz, 400 Hz Gi AóK|

18| kã (Sound) 2
myi hy³ I myi ewR©Z kã (Musical Sound and Noise):
‡h mg¯Í kã Avgv‡ì ïb‡Z fvj jv‡M Zv‡ì‡K Avgiv mykªve¨ ev myimg„× kã e‡j| Avevi †h ¸‡jv Avgv‡ì Kv‡Q
weiw³Ki Ae¯’vi m„wó K‡i Zv‡ì‡K Kjie ev myi ewR©Z kã e‡j|
myi weivg (Musical Intervel): `ywU my‡ii K¤úv‡¼i AbycvZ‡K myi weivg e‡j| aiv hvK, A,B,I C wZbwU my‡ii K¤úv¼
f2 f
h_vµ‡g f1,f2I f3 BZ¨vw`| Zv n‡j, BI AGi g‡a¨ myi weivg  CI BGi g‡a¨ myi weivg  3 GB Ae¯’vq C I AGi
f1 f2
f3 f f
g‡a¨ myi weivg n‡e,  3  2 myZivs †`Lv hv‡”Q †h, `ywU k‡ãi myi weivg G‡ì gaëZ©x myi weivg ¸‡jvi ¸b
f1 f 2 f1
d‡ji mgvb|
mgZvb (Harmony): KZ¸‡jv kã hw` GK m‡½ Drcv`b n‡q HK¨Zv‡bi m„wó K‡i, Z‡e Zv‡K mgZvb e‡j|
¯îMÖvg (Musical Scale): ¯îMÖvg ej‡Z Avgiv wbw`©ó K¤úv¼ ev ZxÿèZvi K‡qKwU mvRv‡bv myi‡K eywS| †h †Kvb myi I
Zvi AóK ev wØ¸Y K¤úv¼wewkó my‡ii g‡a¨ K‡qKwU wbw`©ó myi Avgv‡ì Kv‡b mn‡R mvov †`q| GB myi ¸‡jvi g‡a¨
mgmsMwZ eRvq _v‡K e‡j Giv m½xZ ¸Ym¤úbœ nq| Giƒc mgmsMwZc~Y© myimgwó‡K ¯îMÖvg e‡j| ¯îMÖv‡gi me‡P‡q †QvU
K¤úv‡¼i m~Pbv myi‡K †UvwbK ev cÖavb myi e‡j| GB ¯îMÖv‡g AvUwU µgea©gvb K¤úv‡¼i mgmsMwZc~Y© myi _v‡K e‡j G‡K
Wvqv‡UvwbK ¯îMÖvg e‡j| evsjvq ¸‡jv h_vµ‡g mv †i Mv gv cv av wb mv |
exU (Beat):
cÖvq mgvb ZxeªZv Ges K¤úvsK wewkó `yÕwU Drm †_‡K GKB mgq kã Drcbœ Ki‡j Giv ci¯ú‡ii mv‡_ wg‡j GKwU jwä
kã m„wó K‡i| GB jwã k‡ãi ZxeªZv †Kvb g~û‡Z© n«vm cvq Ges †Kvb g~û‡Z© e„w× cvq| k‡ãi ZxeªZvi GB ch©vqµwgK n«vm
e„w×‡K exU ev ¯îK¤ú ev AwaK¤ú e‡j| exU†K N Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| `yÕwU K¤úbkxj e¯‘i K¤úv¼ h_vµ‡g n1 I n2
n‡j Ges n1 > n2 n‡j exU N = n1 - n2 n‡e| Avi hw` n2> n1nq Z‡e exU N = n2 - n1 n‡e| A_©vr exU N = n1 ~ n2|
`yÕwU K¤úbkxj e¯‘i K¤úv‡¼i cv_©K¨B exU|
exU MV‡bi †KŠkj (Formation of Beat):

cÖvq mgvb ZxeªZv I K¤úv¼ wewkó `ywU myikjvKv †bIqv nq| GLb G‡ì‡K ivevi c¨vWØviv AvNvZ Ki‡j kã
[wPÎ bs - 1]
Drcbœ n‡q gva¨‡gi wfZi w`‡q mÂvwjZ n‡Z _vK‡e| Gi d‡j gva¨‡gi †Kvb GK we›`y‡Z Zi½ `ywU †Kvb GK mgq
mg`kvq wgwjZ n‡e [ wPÎ bs - 1]| gva¨‡gi †h we›`y‡Z Zi½ `ywU GKB `kvq wgwjZ nq †mLv‡b Dcwi cvZ‡bi d‡j jwä
Zi‡½i we¯Ívi Zi½ Ø‡qi we¯Ív‡ii †hvM d‡ji mgvb n‡e d‡j k‡ãi cÖvej¨ ‡e‡o hv‡e| wP‡Î Zi½ `ywU‡K miæ †iLv Øviv
I jwä Zi½‡K †gvUv †iLv Øviv †`Lv‡bv n‡q‡Q| †h‡nZz mg‡qi mv‡_ mv‡_ Zi½Øq GwM‡q hvq ZvB cªwZwbqZ Zi½Ø‡qi
`kvi cwieZ©b nq| ZvB hLb wecixZ `kvq wgwjZ n‡e ZLb jwä Zi‡½i we¯Ívi Zi½ Ø‡qi we¯Ív‡ii we‡qvM d‡ji mgvb
n‡e d‡j k‡ãi cÖvej¨ K‡g hv‡e| Gfv‡e jwä Zi‡½i ch©vq µwgK n«vm e„w× N‡U exU Drcbœ nq|

18| kã (Sound) 3
MvwbwZK we‡køl‡bi Øviv exU m„wói e¨L¨v (Mathematical Analysis of Beat):
g‡bKwi mgvb we¯Ívi I K¤úv‡¼i mvgvb¨ cv_©K¨ wewkó `ywU Zi½ GKB w`‡K AMÖmi n‡”Q| t mgq c‡i †Kvb wbw`ó we›`y‡Z
Zi½Ø‡qi miY h_vµ‡g Y1 I Y2 n‡j,
Y1  a sin 2 n1 t
Y2  a sin 2 n 2 t
GLv‡b, a = Zi‡½i we¯Ívi, n1 I n2 n‡jv Zi½ `ywUi K¤úv¼ (n1 > n2)
DcwicvZ‡bi bxwZ Abymv‡i, mgq t †Z jwä miY
Y = Y1+Y2
 Y  a sin 2 n 1 t  a sin 2 n 2 t
 Y  a( sin 2  n 1 t  sin 2  n 2 t)
 n  n2   n  n2 
 Y  2a sin 2 1  t cos 2 1 t
 2   2 
 n  n2 
 Y  A sin 2 1  t ......................(1)
 2 
n1  n 2 
(1) bs mgxKiY mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`b Zi‡½i mgxKiY hvi we¯Ívi A  2a cos 2π t
 2 
 n1  n 2 
GLb jwä we¯Ívi A Gi gvb me©vwaK n‡e A_©vr A=  2a n‡e hLb cos 2π  t  1 n‡e|
 2 
 n  n2 
 2π 1  t  0, π,2π .............mπ BZ¨vw`
 2 
1 2 m
 t  0, , ............. BZ¨vw`
n 1  n 2 n1  n 2 n1  n 2
G mgq kã Zi‡½i we¯Ívi me‡P‡q †ekx n‡e A_©vr  2a n‡e|
n n 
Avevi jwä Zi‡½i we¯Ívi me‡P‡q Kg n‡e A_©vr A= 0 n‡e, hLb cos 2π 1 2  t  0 n‡e|
 2 
 n  n2  π 3π 5π π
2π 1  t  , , ..................(2m  1) ( m = 0,1,2,3 BZ¨vw` )
 2  2 2 2 2
1 3 5
t , , ...... BZ¨vw` |
2(n 1  n 2 ) 2(n 1  n 2 ) 2(n 1  n 2 )
G mgq kã Zi‡½i we¯Ívi me †P‡q Kg n‡e A_©vr k~b¨ n‡e Ges kã Kv‡b †kvbv hv‡e bv|
3 1 1
AZGe cici `ywU wbtkã AeKvk =   †m‡KÛ|
2(n1  n 2 ) 2(n 1  n 2 ) n 1  n 2
1 1
Avevi cici `ywU cÖej k‡ãi AeKvk = 0  †m‡KÛ|
n1  n 2 n1  n 2
1
A_©vr †m‡K‡Û nq 1 wU exU
n1  n 2
1'' '' (n1  n2) wU exU| A_©vr exU msL¨v K¤úv‡¼i cv_©‡Kï mgvb|

18| kã (Sound) 4
exU Mbbv K‡i myikjvKvi ARvbv K¤úv¼ wbb©q (Determination of unknown frequency by counting Beat):
ARvbv K¤úv¼ wbb©‡qi Rb¨ `ywU myikjvKv †bIqv nq| G‡ì K¤úv¼ h_vµ‡g n1 I n2| n2 Rvbv Av‡Q| n1 AvRvbv K¤úv¼
| n1 wbb©q Ki‡Z n‡e|
cixÿv c×wZ (Procedure):

cÖ_‡g myikjvKv `yÕwU‡K GKB mv‡_ AvNvZ K‡i †Uwe‡ji Dci aiv nq| exU ev ¯îK¤ú m„wó n‡j cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û exU Mbbv
Kiv nq|
wnmve I Mbbv (Calculation):

g‡bKwi cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û Drcbœ ex‡Ui msL¨v = N
 Avgiv cvB, N = n1 ~ n2
GLb ARvbv K¤úv¼ n1 Rvbv K¤úv¼ n2 A‡cÿv †QvU ev eo n‡Z cv‡i| myZivs ARvbv K¤úv¼
n1 = n2 ± N
GLb ARvbv K¤úv¼ n1 Gi gvb n 2  N ev n 2  N †KvbwU n‡e Zv wbb©‡qi Rb¨ fvi evov‡bv c×wZ wb‡¤§ ewb©Z nBj|
fvi evwo‡q ev †gvg jvwM‡q: cixÿvaxb myikjvKvi Mv‡q wKQy †gvg jvwM‡q kjvKv `ywU‡K GK‡Î kãvwqZ K‡i cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û
Drcbœ ex‡Ui msL¨v Mbbv Kiv nq| †gvg jvMv‡bvi d‡j myi kjvKvi fvi evo‡e d‡j Gi ¯^vfvweK K¤úv¼ Kg‡e| G‡Z
exU N Gi †P‡q Kg‡ZI cv‡i evo‡ZI cv‡i| GB cixÿvq ex‡Ui msLv N Gi †P‡q evo‡j eyS‡Z n‡e ARvbv K¤úv¼ n1
Av‡MB Kg wQj GLb †gvg jvMv‡bvi d‡j K¤úv¼ AviI K‡g hvIqvq `yB myikjvKvi K¤úv‡¼i cv_©K¨ e„w× cvq| d‡j
n1<n2 , AZGe n1 = n2 N n‡e| Avevi †gvg jvMv‡bvi d‡j ex‡Ui msLv N Gi †P‡q Kg‡j eyS‡Z n‡e ARvbv K¤úv¼ n1
Av‡M †ekx wQj GLb †gvg jvMv‡bvi d‡j K¤úv¼ K‡g hvIqvq `yB myikjvKvi K¤úv‡¼i cv_©K¨ K‡g hvq| d‡j n1>n2
AZGe n1 = n2 N n‡e|
wm×všÍ : AÁvZ K¤úv‡¼i myi kjvKvi Mv‡q fi hy³ Ki‡j hw` ex‡Ui msL¨v e„w× cvq Z‡e ARvbv K¤úv¼ Rvbv K¤úv¼
A‡cÿv Kg n‡e Ges ex‡Ui msL¨v Kg n‡j ARvbv K¤úv¼ Rvbv K¤úv‡¼i †P‡q †ekx n‡e|
evqyi ga¨w`‡q kã mÂvj‡bi †KŠkj (Mechanism for the propagation of sound in air):
GKwU wUDwbs dK© ev myi kjvKv jB| wUDwbs dK© Øviv ivevi c¨v‡W AvNvr Ki‡j Gi evû `yÕwU mvg‡b I wcQ‡b AMÖmi nq|
hLb †Kvb GKwU evû OB (wPÎ bs -1 ) mvg‡bi w`‡K AMÖmi nq A_©vr A Ae¯’vb †_‡K C Ae¯’v‡b hvq ZLb Bnv mvg‡bi
evqy¯Íi¸wj‡K µ‡g µ‡g AvNvZ K‡i| d‡j evqy¯Íi ¸wjI H fv‡e msKzwPZ nq Ges kw³ †kl bv nIqv ch©šÍ GB ms‡KvPb
GK ¯Íi †_‡K Ab¨ ¯Í‡i mÂvwjZ n‡Z _v‡K| ÔKÕ wP‡Î OB evûi mvg‡b KZK¸wj mg`~ieZ©x mgvšÍivj †iLv AsKb K‡i
KZK¸wj GKB ai‡bi evqy¯Íi wb‡`©k Kiv n‡q‡Q| ÔLÕ wP‡Î Nb ‡iLv ¸wj Øviv PQ As‡k kã

18| kã (Sound) 5
cÖev‡n ms‡KvPb N‡U‡Q wb‡`©k Kiv n‡q‡Q| evûwU hLb wcQ‡bi w`‡K AMÖmi nq A_©vr C Ae¯’vb †_‡K A Ae¯’v‡b hvq
ZLb AvNvZ ev av°v AcmvwiZ nq| evqy¯Íi ¸wj w¯’wZ¯’vcKZv a‡g©i Rb¨ c~‡e©i Ae¯’v‡b wd‡i Av‡m| ÔMÕ wP‡Î PQ As‡k
cÖmviY N‡U‡Q †`Lv‡bv n‡q‡Q Ges c~‡e©i PQ As‡ki we¯Z…Z msKzwPZ ¯Íi AMÖmi n‡q QR As‡k wM‡q‡Q †`Lv‡bv n‡q‡Q|
GB ms‡KvPb I cÖmviY evq~i NbZ¡ I w¯’wZ ¯’vcKZvi wbf©i K‡i| wUDwbs d‡K©i Abëvûi †ÿ‡ÎI GKB Ae¯’v N‡U| A_©vr
kã mÂvj‡bi mgq evqy ¯Íi ¸wj GKevi msKywPZ Avi GKevi cÖmvwiZ nq|
AZGe wm×všÍ GB †h, Ò evqy¯Í‡ii ms‡KvPb I cÖmvi‡b kã evqy¯Íi †K Aej¤^b K‡i jw¤^K Zi½vKv‡i AMÖmi nq Ges
†kªvZvi Kv‡b †cŠwQ‡q kÖæwZi Abyf~wZ RvMvq ev RvMv‡Z †Póv K‡i| BnvB evqyi ga¨ w`‡q kã mÂvj‡bi †KŠkj|
T 1 T
UvbvZv‡i Avo K¤ú‡bi †ÿ‡Î, V  ev, f  cÖgvY:
μ 2l μ
T Uv‡b ivLv CC ZviwU‡K ˆ`‡N©ï mv‡_ mg‡Kv‡Y †U‡b †Q‡o w`‡j Zv‡i Avo K¤ú‡bi D™¢e n‡e| d‡j Zv‡ii wePÿZ
As‡ki kxl© AEB GKwU e„ËPv‡ci Ask aviY Ki‡e [wPÎ cv‡k¦©] awi Avo Zi½ evg †_‡K Wv‡b V ‡e‡M cÖevwnZ n‡”Q|
GLb kxl© E Gi wbKU¯’ we›`yi e„ËvKvi MwZi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq †K›`ªgyLx ej A I B we›`yi Uvb T †_‡K cvIqv hvq| A I B
we›`y‡Z cÖhy³ UvbØ‡qi PO eivei wµqvkxj cÖ‡Z¨K Dcvs‡ki gvb TSin | A_©vr PO eivei ‡gvU wµqvkxj ej 2TSin|
PO-Gi j¤^ eivei wµqvkxj T Gi Dcvsk `ywU ci¯úi mgvb I wecixZgyLx nIqvq ci¯úi‡K bvKP K‡i †`‡e| GLb AE
= BE Ges AEB Pv‡ci eµZvi †K›`ª O, OA Ges OB †hvMK‡i A I B we›`y‡Z `ywU ¯úk©K Uvbv nj| ¯úk©KØq‡K wcQ‡b
ewa©Z Kivq Zviv OE-Gi ewa©Zvs‡ki Dci P we›`y‡Z wgwjZ nq|
awi ∠AOE = AEB Pv‡ci ˆ`N©¨ = S, Zv‡ii GKK ˆ`‡N©ï fi =  , AEB Pv‡ci eµZvi e¨vmva© = R myZivs Zv‡ii
Dci m„ó Zi½ MwZi mv‡c‡ÿ Zv‡ii e„ËvKvi MwZi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq †K›`ªgyLx e‡ji gvb n‡e
μSV 2
 2Tsinθ
R
μSV 2
  2Tθ [ θ Lye † QvU ]
R
μSV 2 S2  Pvc AE S 2 
  2T  θ   
R R  e¨vmva ' R R 
T
 V2 
μ
T Mg
V  ................................(1)  ‡ h‡ nZz T  Mg 
μ μ

hLb ZviwU g~j myi Drcbœ K‡i ZLb l  ev,  = 2 l | wKš‘ Avgiv Rvwb V = f V = 2fl
2
bs mgxKi‡Y V Gi gvb ewm‡q cvB,
T
2fl 
μ
1 T
K¤úv¼ f  ... ... ... ... ... ... (3) (cÖgvwYZ|)
2l μ

18| kã (Sound) 6
UvbvZv‡ii Avo K¤ú‡bi m~Î ¸wj (Laws of transverse vibration of stretched string) eY©bv I e¨vL¨v:
1 T
T Uv‡b Uvbv l ˆ`‡N©ï †Kvb Zv‡i Avo K¤úb m„wó Ki‡j Zv‡ii K¤úv¼, f  hLb m Zv‡ii GKK ˆ`‡N¨©i fi|
2l m
1g m~Ît ˆ`‡N©ï m~Î :

†Kvb K¤úgvb Zv‡ii Uvb (T) Ges cÖwZ GKK ˆ`‡N©ï Zv‡ii fi (m) AcwiewZ©Z _vK‡j, Zv‡ii K¤úv¼ (f) Gi ˆ`N©¨ (l)
1
Gi e¨v¯ÍvbycvwZK n‡e| A_©vr ˆ`N©¨ evo‡j K¤úv¼ Kg‡e Ges ˆ`N©¨ Kg‡j K¤úv¼ evo‡e| A_©vr f hLb T I m
l
aªæe _v‡K|
2q m~Ît Uv‡bi m~Î:

†Kvb K¤úgvb Zv‡ii ‰`N©¨ (l) Ges cÖwZ GKK ˆ`‡N©ï Zv‡ii fi (m) AcwiewZ©Z _vK‡j, Zv‡ii K¤úv¼ (f) Gi Uvb (T)
Gi eM©g~‡ji mgvbycvwZK n‡e| A_©vr Uvb Pvi¸b Ki‡j K¤úv¼ wØ¸b n‡e A_©vr f  T hLb l I m aªæe _v‡K|
3q m~Ît f‡ii m~Î:

†Kvb K¤úgvb Zv‡ii ‰`N©¨ (l) Ges Uvb (T) AcwiewZ©Z _vK‡j, Zv‡ii K¤úv¼ (f) Gi GKK ˆ`‡N©ï Zv‡ii fi (m)Gi
1
eM©g‡~ ji e¨v¯ÍvbycvwZK n‡e| A_©vr GKK ˆ`‡N©ï Zv‡ii fi Pvi¸b Ki‡j K¤úv¼ A‡a©K n‡e A_©vr f hLb l
m
I T aªæe _v‡K|
UvbvZv‡ii Avo K¤ú‡bi K¤úv¼ †h †h wel‡qi Dci wbf©i K‡i :

Uvbv Zv‡ii Avo K¤ú‡bi K¤úv¼ wZbwU wel‡qi Dci wbf©i K‡i h_v: 1| Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ 2| Zv‡ii Uvb I 3| Zv‡ii GKK
‰`‡N©ï fi|
UvbvZv‡ii Avo K¤ú‡bi †h †Kvb `ywU m~Î cÖgv‡Yi c×wZ eY©bv :

m‡bvwgUv‡ii eY©bv (Description of Sonometer) :
1 wgUvi j¤^v GKwU duvcv AvqZKvi Kv‡Vi ev· Øviv m‡bvwgUvi ˆZix| GB ev‡·i Dcwifv‡M GKwU Zvi Uvbvb _v‡K|
Zv‡ii GK cÖvšÍ ev‡·i cÖv‡šÍ AvUKv‡bv KwcK‡ji Dci w`‡q P‡j †M‡Q| Zv‡ii GB cÖv‡šÍ GKwU ûK AvUKv‡bv _v‡K| hvi
d‡j cÖ‡qvRbxq IRb Pvwc‡q ZviwU‡K Uvb Kiv nq| Zv‡ii bx‡P `ywU w¯’i †mZz B I B1 `ywU Pjbkxj †mZz C I C1 | †mZz
`ywU Zv‡ii bxP †N‡l P‡j Ges mvnv‡h¨ K¤úgvb Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ cwieZ©b Kiv hvq|
ev‡·i Dci Avb¨ Avi GKwU Zvi _v‡K, hv cÖ‡qvR‡b Zzjbvi Kv‡R eënvi
Kiv nq|2q Zvi‡K cÖ_g Zv‡ii mgvšÍivj K‡i Uvbvb nq| †mZzi gaëZ©x wPÎt m‡bvwgUvi
`~iZ¡ cwieZ©b K‡i Abybv` m„wó Kiv nq|
1g m~Ît ˆ`‡N©ï m~‡Îi cÖgvY (Varification of 1st law i.e. law of length) :
cÖ_‡g ARvbv K¤úv‡¼i K‡qKwU myi kjvKv jIqv nq| hv‡ì K¤úv¼ h_vµ‡g f1, f2 I f3 BZ¨vw`| Gici m‡bvwgUv‡ii
cixÿvg~jK Zv‡i wKQy IRb Pvcvb nq| Gici GKwU nvjKv KvM‡Ri UzKiv C I C1 †mZzi gv‡S ewm‡q wUDwbs d‡K©
AvNvr K‡i m‡bvwgUv‡ii Dci †P‡c a‡i C I C1 Gi gaëZ©x `~iZ¡ Kg‡ekx K‡i Abybv` m©wó Kiv nq| G mgq KvM‡Ri
UzKiv wQUwK‡q gvwU‡Z c‡o †M‡j Zv‡ii K¤úv¼ wUDwbs d‡K©i K¤úv‡¼i mgvb nq| Gici C I C1 Gi gaëZ©x `~iZ¡
†g‡c †bIqv nq| Abyiƒcfv‡e Ab¨vb¨ myi kjvKvi †ejvq I GKB fv‡e ˆ`N©¨ wbb©q Kiv nq|

18| kã (Sound) 7
wnmve I MYbv (Calculation):

awi f1, f2, I f3 BZ¨vw` K¤úv‡¼i myi kjvKv¸wj h_vµ‡g Zv‡ì l1, l2, I l3, BZ¨vw` ‰`‡N©¨ Abybv` m„wó K‡i| cixÿvq
†`Lv hvq †h, f1 l1 = f2 l2= f3 l3 ...........................= aªyeK|
1 1
ev, f l = aªyeK ev, f  aª yeK  f  G‡Z ˆ`‡N©ï m~Î cÖgvwYZ nq|
l l
2q m~Ît Uv‡bi m~‡Îi cÖgvY (Varification of 2nd law i.e. law of tension):
G cixÿvq cÖ_‡g mvnvh¨Kvix Zv‡ii GK cÖvšÍ Dc‡hvMx Uv‡b †U‡b ivLv nq| c‡i cixÿbxq ZviwUi Szjvb cÖv‡šÍ GKwU
IRb Pvcvb nq| awi, ZLb cixÿbxq Zv‡i Uvb T1| GLb cixÿbxq ZviwU‡K †U‡b †Q‡o w`‡j GwU Kw¤úZ n‡e Ges
mvnvh¨Kvix Zvi‡K e¨va¨K K¤ú‡b Kw¤úZ Ki‡e| GB Ae¯’vq mvnvh¨Kvix Zv‡ii Pjgvb †mZz Gw`K Iw`K mwi‡q Ggb
GK ¯’v‡b Avbv nq †hb Zv‡ii ¯úw›`Z As‡ki K¤úv¼ cixÿbxq Zv‡‡ii K¤úv‡¼i mgvb nq| awi G Ae¯’vq mvnvh¨Kvwi
Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ l1| cybivq cixÿbxq Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ wVK ‡i‡L Gi Uvb cwieZ©b K‡i T2 Kiv nq Ges c~‡e©i b¨vq mvnvh¨ Kvix
Zv‡ii l2 ˆ`‡N©ï mv‡_ mgmy‡i Avbv nq|
wnmve I MYbv (Calculation):

T1 l22
cixÿvq †`Lv hv‡e †h,  ........................(1)
T2 l12
f1 l 2 f 2 l2 l2
wKšÍ K¤úv¼ ˆ`‡N©ï e¨v¯ÍvbycvwZK A_©vr  ev, 12  22 .........................(2) (1) bs mgxKiY †_‡K 22 Gi
f 2 l1 f 2 l1 l1
f 12 T1 f1 T1
gvb (2) bs mgxKi‡Y ewm‡q cvB 2
   Av_©vr K¤úv¼ Uv‡bi eM©g~‡ji mgvbycvwZK (cÖgvwYZ)|
f2 T2 f2 T2
exU I e¨wZPv‡ii g‡a¨ cv_©K¨
exU e¨wZPvi
1| cÖvq mgvb ZxeªZv Ges K¤úvsK wewkó `yÕwU Drm †_‡K 1| GKB w`‡K Pjgvb mgvb K¤úv¼ I we¯Ívi wewkó `ywU kã
GKB mgq kã Drcbœ Ki‡j Giv ci¯ú‡ii mv‡_ wg‡j Zi‡½i DcwicvZ‡bi d‡j ïay c_ cv_©‡Kï Rb¨ †Kvb
GKwU jwä kã m„wó K‡i| GB jwã k‡ãi ZxeªZv †Kvb ¯’v‡b bxieZv I †Kvb ¯’v‡b cÖejZ¡i k‡ãi m„wó n‡j H
g~û‡Z© n«vm cvq Ges †Kvb g~û‡Z© e„w× cvq| k‡ãi ZxeªZvi NUbv‡K k‡ãi e¨wZPvi e‡j|
GB ch©vqµwgK n«vm e„w×‡K exU e‡j|
2| Zi½ `ywUi g‡a¨ `kv cv_©K¨ mg‡qi mv‡_ cwiewZ©Z 2| Zi½ `ywUi g‡a¨ `kv cv_©K¨ mg‡qi mv‡_ AcwiewZ©Z
nq| _v‡K|
3| jwä Zi‡½i K¤úv¼ exU m„wóKvix Zi½Ø‡qi K¤úv‡¼i 3| jwä Zi‡½i K¤úv¼ e¨wZPvi m„wóKvix Zi½Ø‡qi
Mo gv‡bi mgvb| Df‡qiB K¤úv‡¼i mgvb|
4| k‡ãi cÖvej¨ mg‡qi mv‡_ cwiewZ©Z nq| 4| k‡ãi cÖvej¨ mg‡qi mv‡_ cwiewZ©Z nq bv|
gy³ K¤úb: †h †Kvb AvKvi, MVb ev AvK…wZi e¯‘‡K Av‡›`vwjZ Ki‡j Zv GKwU wbR¯^ K¤úv¼ iÿv K‡i ¯úw›`Z nq| GB
¯ú›`b‡K wbe©va ev gy³ K¤úb e‡j|
Av‡ivwcZ ev ciek K¤úb: †Kvb e¯‘i Dci Av‡ivwcZ ch©ve„Ë ¯ú›`‡bi K¤úv¼ e¯‘i ¯^vfvweK K¤ú‡bi K¤úv‡¼i †P‡q
wfbœZi n‡j e¯‘wU cÖ_‡g AwbqwgZfv‡e Kw¤úZ nq c‡i Av‡ivwcZ K¤ú‡bi K¤úv‡¼ Kw¤úZ n‡Z _v‡K| GB ai‡bi
K¤úb‡K Av‡ivwcZ ev ciek K¤úb e‡j|

18| kã (Sound) 8
m‡bvwgUv‡ii mvnv‡h¨ myikjvKvi ARvbv K¤úv¼ wbY©q:
ZË¡ t ‡Kvb myikjvKvi K¤úv¼ hw` GKwU Uvbv Zv‡ii wbR¯^ K¤úv‡¼i mv‡_ wg‡j hvq Zvn‡j Abybv` m„wó nq, d‡j ZviwU
m‡e©v”P we¯Ív‡i Kuvc‡Z _v‡K| GLb Zv‡ii Uvb T, GKK ˆ`‡N©ï Zv‡ii fi  n‡j hw` Zv‡ii l ˆ`‡N¨©i mv‡_ myi kjvKvi
1 T
K¤úv‡¼i Abybv` m„wó nq Zvn‡j Zv‡ii K¤úv¼ Z_v myikjvKvi K¤úv¼, f 
2l 
cixÿv: cÖ_‡g m‡bvwgUv‡ii Zv‡i M fi Szwj‡q Uvb Kiv nq| Gevi GKwU
myikjvKv‡K Kuvwc‡q m‡bvwgUv‡ii ev‡·i Dci aiv nq| GZ K‡i myikjvKvi K¤úb
Zv‡i mÂvwjZ nq Ges Zv‡i Avo K¤ú‡bi m„wó nq| GLb mÂviYkxj †mZzwU‡K mwi‡q Ggb Ae¯’v‡b ivLv nq hv‡Z K‡i
myikjvKv I Zv‡ii K¤ú‡bi g‡a¨ mgmyi m„wó nq A_©vr Abybv` m„wó nq| mgmyi m„wó n‡q‡P wKbv Zv wbY©‡qi Rb¨ †QvU GK
UzKiv KvMR Zv‡ii Dci fvuRK‡i ewm‡q w`‡j hw` myikjvKvi K¤ú‡bi Rb¨ KvM‡Ri UzKiv c‡o hvq Zvn‡j mgmyi m„wó
n‡q‡Q aiv nq| GB AŸ¯’vq Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ †g‡c †bIqv nq| aiv hvK GB ˆ`N©¨ l|
GLb cixÿYxq ZviwU m‡bvwgUvi †_‡K Ly‡j wb‡q wgUvi ‡¯‹‡ji mvnv‡h¨ Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ L Ges wbw³i mvnv‡h¨ fi m
wbY©q Kiv nq|
wnmve I MYbv:
Zv‡ii Uvb, T  mg
m
GKK ˆ`‡N©ï Zv‡ii fi,  
L
1 T 1 MgL
GLb K¤úv¼, f   GB mgxKi‡Y l,M,g,L I m Gi gvb ewm‡q f wbY©q Kiv nq|
2l  2l m
mZK©Zv:
(1) myikjvKv‡K Lye Avj‡Zvfv‡e m‡bvwgUv‡ii ev‡·i Dci aiv nq|
(2) myikjvKv hv‡Z K¤úgvb Zvi‡K ¯úk© bv K‡i ‡m w`‡K jÿ¨ ivLv nq|
(3) myikjvKvi mv‡_ Abybv`x Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ mwVK fv‡e wbY©q Kiv nq|
(4) Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ I fi mwVK fv‡e wbY©q Kiv nq|
(5) Lye †QvU AvKv‡ii KvM‡Ri UyKiv †bIqv nq|

18| kã (Sound)
1| 1m I 1.01m Zi½ ˆ`‡N©i `yÕwU kã Zi½ †Kvb M¨vmxq gva¨‡g

6 †m‡K‡Û 20 wU exU Drcbœ K‡i| D³ M¨vmxq gva¨‡g k‡ãi †eM 3| ‡Kvb †kªYx K‡ÿ k‡ãi ZxeªZv 10-8 Wm-2 n‡j k‡ãi ZxeªZv †j‡ej
wbY©q Ki| †Wwm‡e‡j wbY©q Ki| GLv‡b,
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b, Avgiv Rvwb, cÖgvY ZxeªZv, Io = 10-12Wm-2
V V Zi½ ‰`N©¨, 1m I ‡kªYx K‡¶i ZxeªZv, I=10-8Wm-2
f1   f1  Hz β  10log dB
λ1 1 Zi½ ‰`N©¨, 1.01m Io ZxeªZv †j‡ej, ?
Ges 20 10 10 -8
exU, Ν   β  10log
V V 6 3 10 -12
f2  f2  Hz
λ2 1.01 k‡ãi †eM, V= ?
 β  10 log 10 4
Avevi, N = f1  f2  β  40 dB (Ans.)
10 V V
  
3 1 1.01 4| 20cm `xN© GKwU Zvi †Kvb GKwU myikjvKvi mv‡_ HK¨Zv‡b Av‡Q|
10 1.01V  1V Uvb w`¡¸b Ki‡j HK¨Zv‡b Avb‡Z KZ ˆ`‡N©ï cÖ‡qvRb n‡e?
  Avgiv Rvwb,
3 1  1.01
GLv‡b,
10 0.01 V 1 T1
  f1  Ges Zv‡ii cÖv_wgK ˆ`N©¨, l1=20cm
3 1  1.01 2l1 μ Zv‡ii cÖv_wgK Uvb, T1=T (awi)
10  1.01 1 1 T2 Zv‡ii ‡kl Uvb, T2=2T
V ms f2 
3  0.01 2l μ Zv‡ii ‡kl ˆ`N©¨, l2 = ?
2
 V  336.67ms 1 (Ans.) cÖkœvbymv‡i, f1 = f2
2| 60cm I 60.5cm Zi½ ˆ`‡N©i `yÕwU kã Zi½ †Kvb M¨vmxq 1 T1 1 T2

 
gva¨‡g 4 †m‡K‡Û 19 wU exU Drcbœ K‡i| D³M¨vmxq gva¨‡g k‡ãi 2l1 μ 2l2 μ
†eM wbY©q Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
T 2T
 
V V 20 l2
f1   f1  Hz
λ1 60 1 2
 
Ges 20 l2
V V  l2  20 2  20  1.414
f2  f 2  Hz
λ2 60.5
l 2  28.28 Cm (Ans)
Avevi, N = f1  f2
19 V V 5| 0.5m j¤^v GKwU Zvi‡K 50N ej Øviv Uvbv nj| hw` Zv‡ii fi
  
4 60 60.5 0.005kg nq Z‡e Gi †gŠwjK K¤úv¼ wbY©q Ki|
19 60.5V  60V Avgiv Rvwb,
  GLv‡b,
4 60  60. 5 1 T Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨, l = 0.5m
f  Zv‡ii Uvb, T = 50N
19 0.5 V 2l μ
  GKK ˆ`‡N©ï Zv‡ii fi,
4 60  60. 5 1 50 0.005
19  60  60.5  f  Hz  μ  kg m 1 
V cm s 1 2  0.5 0.01 0.5
4  0.5 1  μ  0.01 kg m 1 
 V  34485 cm s 1 f   5000 Hz K¤úv¼, f =?
2  0.5
 V  344.85m s 1 (Ans.)  f  70.71Hz (Ans.)

6| 25cm ‰`‡N©ï GKwU Zvi 5kg-wt e‡ji Øviv Uvbv nj| ZviwU  f1  96  ( f1  4)  97
†_‡K Drcbœ g~jmy‡ii K¤úv¼ wbY©q Ki| [ZviwUi 1wgUvi ˆ`‡N©ï  96 f1  97 f1  388
fi = 4.9 gm Ges g = 9.8ms-2]
GLv‡b,   f1   388
Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨, l = 25cm
Avgiv Rvwb,  f1  388 Hz
= 0.25m
1 T Zv‡ii Uvb, T = 5 kg wt. Ges f2 =(f1 – 4) Hz = (388 – 4) Hz = 384 Hz (Ans.)
f  = 5×9.8N
2l μ
GKK ˆ`‡N©ï Zv‡ii fi, 9| `yBwU m`„k Zvi HK¨Zv‡b Av‡‡Q| 0.36m ˆ`N©¨ wewkó GKwU Zvi
1 5 9.8  μ  4.9  10
3 1
kg m  100kg IRb Øviv Uvbv †Ìqv Av‡Q| Aci ZviwU 220kg IRb Øviv Uvbv
f  Hz †Ìqv _vK‡j Gi ‰`N©¨ †ei Ki|
2  0.25 4.910-3 K¤úv¼, f =?
Avgiv Rvwb,
1
f  10000Hz f1  f 2
GLv‡b,
2  0.25 1 T1 1 T2
 f  200 Hz (Ans.)   Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨, l1 = 0.36m
2 l1 μ 2l2 μ
Zv‡ii Uvb, T1= 100 kgwt
1 100 1 220 Zv‡ii Uvb, T2= 220 kgwt.
7| `ywU GKB iKg Uvbv Zvi mg K¤úv‡¼i Avo K¤ú‡b Kw¤úZ  
0.36  l2  K¤úv¼, f1 = f2
n‡”Q| GKwU Zv‡ii Uvb 2% e„w× K‡i Kw¤úZ Ki‡j cªwZ †m‡K‡Û 1 1
3 wU exU Drcbœ nq| Zvi `ywUi cÖviw¤¢K K¤úv¼ KZ?   10  14.83 Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨, l2=?
0.36 l2
Avgiv Rvwb, 0.36 14.83
l2  m  0.5339m  0.534m (Ans)
f2 T2 GLv‡b, Zv‡ii Uvb T1=T awi 10

f1 T1 Zv‡ii Uvb, T2  T 
T2
10| `yÕwU myi-kjvKv GK‡Î kãvwqZ Ki‡j Giv cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û 5 wU exU
100 m„wó K‡i| hw` G†ì GKwUi K¤úv¼ 275Hz nq Z‡e AciwUi K¤úv¼
f2 1.02T
  T 51T
f1 T T   1. 02 T KZ?
50 50 Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
f exU N=3 f 2  f1  N
 2  1.02 exU, N = 5
f1 K¤úv¼, f1=? K¤úv¼, f1 =275Hz
 f 2  275  5
f  f 2  280 or 270Hz K¤úv¼, f2 =?
 2  1.009950494
f1
11| `yÕwU myi-kjvKv A I B GK‡Î kãvwqZ nIqvq cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û 5 wU
 f 2  1.009950494f1.......(1)
exU m„wó K‡i| A †Z LvwbKUv †gvg jvwM‡q IRb evov‡j exU msL¨v K‡g
Avevi, f2 – f1 = N
hvq| B Gi K¤úv¼ 256Hz n†j A Gi K¤úv¼ KZ?
 1.009950494f1 – f1 = 3 Avgiv Rvwb,
 0.009950494f1 = 3 fA  fB  N GLv‡b,
3 ‡h‡nZz A †Z †gvg jvwM‡q IRb evov‡j exU, N = 5
 f1   f1  301.49 Hz (Ans.)
0.009950494 exU K‡g| d‡j †gvg jvMv‡bvi c~‡e© A K¤úv¼, fB =256Hz
Avevi, f 2  1.009950494f1 Gi K¤úv¼ †ekx wQj| †gvg jvMv‡bvi K¤úv¼, fA =?
 f 2  1.009950494 l  301.49Hz  304.49Hz (Ans.) Kvi‡Y K¤úv¼ K‡g hvIqvq `yB myi
kjvKvi K¤úv‡¼i cv_©K¨ K‡g e‡j exU
8| `ywU myikjvKv‡K GKB mg‡q kãvwqZ Ki‡j cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û 4 wU K‡g| d‡j fA > fB
exU Drcbœ nq| GKwU wbw`©ó Uvb Kiv Zv‡ii 96cm ˆ`‡N©ï mv‡_ A_©vr fA = fB + N
GKwU myikjvKv Ges 97cm ˆ`‡N©ï mv‡_ Aci myikjvKv  fA = 256 + 5
HK¨ZvwbK nq| myikjvKv `yÕwUi K¤úv¼ wbY©q Ki|  fA = 261 Hz (Ans.)
l1 = 96 cm ˆ`‡N©ï mv‡_ HK¨ZvwbK myikjvKvi K¤úv¼ awi f1

12| ‡Kvb K‡ÿi k‡ãi ZxeªZv 1×10-7 Wm-2| k‡ãi ZxeªZv wØ¸b n‡j
Hz
bZzb ZxeªZv †j‡ej wbY©q Ki|
l2 = 97 cm ˆ`‡N©ï mv‡_ HK¨ZvwbK myikjvKvi K¤úv¼ f2 = GLv‡b,
Avgiv Rvwb,
(f1 – 4) Hz cÖgvY ZxeªZv,
KviY ˆ`N©¨ †ekx n‡j ex‡Ui mgvb K¤úv¼ Kg nq| I
β 2  10log 2 dB Io = 10-12Wm-2
Avgiv Rvwb, Io ‡kªYx K‡¶i ZxeªZv,
f1l1 = f2l2 2  10 -7 I1 = 1×10-7 Wm-2
 f1  96  ( f1  4)  97  β 2  10log wØ¸b ZxeªZv,
10-12
I2 = 2×10-7 Wm-2
bZzb ZxeªZv †j‡ej, ?

 β 2  10 log200000
 β 2  53.01 dB (Ans.) 15| GKwU Uvbv Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ cwieZ©b bv K‡i Gi Uvb Pvi¸b Kiv nj|
Zv‡ii K¤úv‡¼i KZ cwieZ©b n‡e?
13| 50cm I 51cm ˆ`‡N©¨ wewkó GKgyL eÜ `ywU b‡j AM©vb b‡j Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û 3 wU exU m„wó K‡i| evqy‡Z k‡ãi †eM wbY©q Ki| Zv‡ii cÖv_wgK Uvb, T1=T (awi)
Avgiv Rvwb, 1 T1
GLv‡b, f1  Zv‡ii ‡kl Uvb, T2=4T
1 gyL eÜ b‡j K¤úv¼ b‡ji ˆ`N©¨, l1 = 0.5m 2l1 μ
Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨, l1= l2 = l (awi)
V V b‡ji ˆ`N©¨, l2 = 0.51m
f1  I f2  1 T T f2=? f1
4 l1 4l2 exU, N =3  f1  
2l μ 2l 
Avevi Avgiv Rvwb, k‡ãi †eM, V=?
f1  f2 = N 1 T2
Avevi, f 2 
V V 2l 2 μ
  3
4l1 4l 2
1 4T 2 T
V V f 2  
  3 2l μ 2l 
4  0.5 4  0.51
V V f1 T 2l  1
  3   
4  0.5 4  0.51 f 2 2l  2 T 2
V  0.51  0.50 
  3  f 2  2f1 A_©vr K¤úv¼ wØ¸b n‡q hv‡e|
4  0.5  0.51 
V  0.01 16| GKwU myi-kjvKv 512Hz K¤úv‡¼i GKwU myi-kjvKvi mv‡_ 4 wU
 3
4  0.5  0.51 exU Ges 514Hz K¤úv‡¼i Aci GKwU myi-kjvKvi mv‡_ 6wU exU Drcbœ
3  4  0.5  0.51 K‡i| myi-kjvKvwUi K¤úv¼ KZ?
V g‡b Kwi myi kjvKvi K¤úv¼ = f|
0.01
 V  306 ms 1 cÖ_g k‡Z©, 512  f  4..........(1)
ØZxq k‡Z©, 514  f  6..........(2)
14| wbw`©ó ˆ`‡N©ï GKwU m‡bvwgUv‡ii Zvi wbw`©ó ej Øviv Uvbv ‡hvM K‡i, 1026 – 2f = 10
Av‡Q| hw` Uvbv ej Pvi¸b Ges GKB mv‡_ Zv‡ii ‰`N©¨ w`¡¸b Kiv 1026  10 1016
nq Z‡e K¤úv‡¼i wKiƒc cwieZ©b n‡e|  f  f   508Hz (Ans.)
2 2
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLv‡b,
1 T1 Zv‡ii cÖv_wgK Uvb, T1=T (awi) 17| `yÕwU myi-kjvKv A I B GK‡Î kãvwqZ nIqvq cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û 5 wU
f1  exU m„wó K‡i| A -Gi evû‡Z GKLÛ Zvi Rov‡j Avevi Zviv 5 wU exU
2l1 μ Zv‡ii ‡kl Uvb, T2=4T
Zv‡ii cÖv_wgK ˆ`N©¨, l1=l (awi) m„wó K‡i| B Gi K¤úv¼ 320Hz n†j A Gi K¤úv¼ KZ?
1 T T Zv‡ii ‡kl ˆ`N©¨, l2 = 2l Avgiv Rvwb,
 f1  
2l μ 2l  f1t f2=? fA  fB  N
1 T2 ‡h‡nZz A †Z Zvi Rwo‡q IRb GLv‡b,
Avevi, f 2  evov‡j exU c~‡e©i mgvb nq| d‡j Zvi Rov‡bvi
exU, N = 5
2l 2 μ c~‡e© A Gi K¤úv¼ †ekx wQj| K¤úv¼, fB =320Hz
1 4T 2 T d‡j fA > fB K¤úv¼, fA =?
 f2   A_©vr fA = fB + N
2  2l μ 4l 
 fA = 320 + 5
f1 T 4l   fA = 325 Hz (Ans.)
   f1 : f 2  1 : 1 A_©vr K¤úv‡¼i †Kvb
f 2 2l  2 T
cwieZ©b n‡e bv|

k‡ãi `ªæwZ m¤úwK©Z wbDU‡bi m~Î (Newton's Formula for Speed of Sound):
m~Ît †Kvb gva¨‡g k‡ãi `ªæwZ gva¨‡gi w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸bv‡¼i eM©g~‡ji mgvbycvwZK Ges gva¨‡gi Nb‡Z¡i eM©g~‡ji
e¨¯ÍvbycvwZK| wbDUb MvwYwZK fv‡e GB m~Î‡K wb‡b¥v³ mgxKi‡Yi mvnv‡h¨ cÖKvk K‡ib t
E
v ... ... ... ... (1) GLv‡b, E = gva¨‡gi w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼,  = gva¨‡gi NbZ¡, v = k‡ãi †eM

M¨vmxq ev evqy gva¨‡g m~‡Îi iƒct M¨vmxq c`v‡_©i †ÿ‡Î w¯’wZ ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼ E, AvqZ‡bi w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼ B wb‡`©k K‡i|
B
myZivs M¨vmxq gva¨‡g k‡ãi `ªæwZ m¤úwK©Z wbDU‡bi m~‡Îi iƒc n‡e, v  GLv‡b, B = gva¨‡gi AvqZ‡bi w¯’wZ¯’vcK

¸Yv¼,  = M¨v‡mi NbZ¡, v = k‡ãi †eM
B = p cÖwZcv`b t awi, †Kvb wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi Pvc p Ges AvqZb V | Zi½ wµqvq GB Pvc I AvqZ‡bi cwieZ©b
N‡U| wbDU‡bi avibv wQj GB Pvc I AvqZ‡bi cwieZ©b m‡gvò cÖwµqv| myZivs e‡q‡ji m~Îvbyhvqx,
pV =aªæeK
GB mgxKiY‡K V Gi mv‡c‡ÿ eëKjb Ki‡j, A_©vr
d
(pV)  0
dV
dV dp
p V 0
dV dV
dp
pV 0
dV
dp AvqZb cxob AvqZ‡bi w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼ = B
p  
dV AvqZb weK … wZ
V
p = B
GLv‡b FbvZ¥K wPý Pvc e„w×‡c‡j AvqZb n«vm ev Pvc n«vm †c‡j AvqZb e„w× †evSvq| m~Î g‡Z evqy‡Z k‡ãi †eM
B p
v 
 
p 1.013  105
v   280 ms1 GLv‡b, p = evqyi Pvc=1.013×105 Nm-2,  = evqyi NbZ¡ =1.293 kgm-3 wKš‘
 1.293
cÖgvY ZvcgvÎv I Pv‡c evqy‡Z k‡ãi †eM 332ms-1| GLvb †_‡K avibv Kiv nq †h, wbDU‡bi m~‡Îi †Kv_vI fyj Av‡Q|
j¨vcjvm KZ…K wbDU‡bi m~‡Îi ms‡kvabx (Correction of Newton's law by Laplace):
wbDU‡bi m~Î g‡Z evqy‡Z k‡ãi `ªæwZ 280 ms-1| GB gvb cixÿv jä gv‡bi †P‡q A‡bK Kg nIqvq ¯úó eySv hvq †h,
Zvi m~Î cÖ‡qv‡Mi mgq wbDUb †h avibv K‡i wQ‡jb Zv‡Z wKQy fyj wQj| 1817 mv‡j weÁvbx j¨vcjvm wbDU‡bi Abygv‡bi
fyj †ei Ki‡Z mg_© nb Ges M¨vmxq gva¨‡g k‡ãi `ªæwZ m¤úwK©Z m~‡Îi ms‡kvab K‡ib| j¨vcjv‡mi g‡Z M¨vmxq gva¨‡g
kã mÂvj‡bi mgq wbDUb gva¨‡gi ZvcgvÎvi †Kvb ZvcgvÎvi †Kvb cwieZ©b nqbv e‡j †h Abygvb K‡i wQ‡jb Zv wVK
wQjbv| Avi ZvB M¨v‡mi †h AvqZb ¸Yv¼ B, Pvc p-Gi mgvb †ei K‡i wQ‡jb Zv wVK nqwb| j¨vcjvm e‡jb Pvc e„w×i
d‡j evqy¯Í‡ii m‡¼vPb nIqvi d‡j †h Zv‡ci D™¢e nq, †mB Zvc wewKwiZ nIqvi Av‡MB cieZ©x cÖmviY ïiæ nq| d‡j
ZvcgvÎv †Kvb g‡ZB w¯’i _vK‡Z cv‡i bv| myZivs GB cwieZ©b m‡gvò cwieZ©b bq e‡j GLv‡b e‡q‡ji m~Î pV = aªæeK
cÖ‡hvR¨ n‡Z cv‡i bv| GB cwieZ©b iæ× Zvcxq cixeZ©b | GB cÖwµqvq Pvc I AvqZ‡bi m¤úK© pV=aªæeK| GLv‡b 
= w¯’i Pv‡c I w¯’i AvqZ‡b M¨v‡mi Av‡cwÿK Zv‡ci AbycvZ| wØ cigvbyK M¨v‡mi Rb¨ Gi gvb 1.41|
pV=aªæeK, GB mgxKiY‡K V Gi mv‡c‡ÿ eëKjb K‡i cvB,

k‡ãi `ªæwZ (Speed Of Sound) 2

d
(pV  )  0
dV
dV dp
 pV  1 V  0
dV dV
dp
 pV  1  V 
dV

V dp
 p    1
V dV
dp
 p   V   1
dV
dp dp AvqZb cxob
 p   V  p    = AvqZ‡bi w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼=B GLv‡b FbvZ¥K wPý Pvc
dV dV AvqZb weK … wZ
V
B p
e„w×‡c‡j AvqZb n«vm ev Pvc n«vm †c‡j AvqZb e„w× †evSvq| m~Î g‡Z evqy‡Z k‡ãi †eM v  
 
p 1.41  1.013  10 5
v   332.4 ms 1 GLv‡b, p = evqyi Pvc=1.013×105 Nm-2,  = evqyi NbZ¡ =1.293
 1.293
kgm | myZivs j¨vcjv‡mi ms‡kva‡bi d‡j m~‡Îi mvnv‡h¨ ZvwZ¡K fv‡e k‡ãi `ªæwZi †h gvb cvIqv hvq Zv cixÿv jä
-3
gv‡bi mv‡_ wg‡j hvq| GB fv‡e j¨vcjvm wbDU‡bi m~‡Îi ms‡kvab K‡ib|
k‡ãi `ªæwZi Dci Pv‡ci cÖfve (Effect of Pressure on speed of Sound):
m f‡ii †Kvb M¨v‡mi Dci Pvc hw` p1 †_‡K p2 †Z AvqZb h_vµ‡g V1 †_‡K V2 -‡Z cwiewZ©Z nq| GB cwieZ©‡bi
mgq hw` ZvcgvÎv w¯’i _v‡K, Zvn‡j e‡q‡ji m~Îvbyhvqx,
p1V1= p2V2
m m  m m 
 p1  p2  V1  I V2  
1 2  1 2 
p p
 1  2  aªæeK
1  2
1.41p p
GLb k‡ãi `ªæwZ, v  m~‡Î †h‡nZz AbycvZwU me©`v w¯’i _v‡K, myZivs w¯’i ZvcgvÎvq †Kvb M¨v‡mi Pvc
 
cwiewZ©Z n‡j Zv‡Z k‡ãi `ªæwZi †Kvb cwieZ©b nq bv| A_©vr w¯’i ZvcgvÎvq k‡ãi `ªæwZi Dci Pv‡ci Kvb cÖfve †bB|
k‡ãi `ªæwZi Dci ZvcgvÎvi cÖfve (Effect of Temperature on speed of Sound):
M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎvi cwieZ©b n‡j Gi Nb‡Z¡i I cwieZ©b nq| myZivs k‡ãi `ªæwZi I cwieZ©b nq| awi, p1 Pv‡c, T1
†Kjwfb ZvcgvÎvq †Kvb M¨v‡mi NbZ¡  Ges D³ M¨v‡m k‡ãi `ªywZ v1| GLb p2 Pv‡c, T2 †Kjwfb ZvcgvÎvq hw` H
M¨v‡mi NbZ¡  nq Ges ZLb M¨v‡m k‡ãi `ªywZ v2 n‡j,
p1 Ges v  p 2
v1  2
1 2
v1 p1  2 p1  2
     ... ... ... (1)
v2 1 p 2 p2 1
GLb M¨v‡mi cÖmviY †_‡K Avgiv Rvwb,
p1 p
 2
1T1  2T2


 pT
 2  2 1
1 p1T2
GB gvb (1) bs mgxKi‡Y ewm‡q cvB,
v1 p pT
 1 2 1
v2 p 2 p1T2
v1 T1  v T A_©vr M¨v‡m k‡ãi `ªæwZ †Kjwfb ZvcgvÎvi ev cig ZvcgvÎvi eM©g~‡ji mgvbycvwZK|
 
v2 T2
Avevi, 0ºC ZvcgvÎvq ev, ToK ZvcgvÎvq evZv‡m k‡ãi `ªæwZ v0 Ges ºC ev, TK ZvcgvÎvq evZv‡m k‡ãi `ªæwZ v n‡j
v T
 wKš‘ T=(Ges T0=
v0 T0
1
v   273   2
    1   wØc`x Dccv‡`ï mvnv‡h¨ we¯Ívi K‡i Ges D”PZi NvZ wewkó c` mg~n D‡cÿv K‡i cvB,
v0 273  273 
 1  
v   v 0 1  .  ...............
 2 273 
  
 v   v 0 1  
 546 
 v   v 0 1  0.00183  
 v   332ms 1 1  0.00183  ( 0 ºC ZvcgvÎvq evZv‡m k‡ãi `ªæwZ 332ms-1|
 v   332ms 1  (0.61 ms 1 )  myZivs †`Lv hv‡”Q †h, evqy‡Z cÖwZ wWwMÖ †mjwmqvm ZvcgvÎv e„w×i Rb¨ k‡ãi `ªæwZ
0.61ms-1 ev 61 cm s-1 e„w× cvq|
k‡ãi `ªæwZi Dci Av`ªZvi cÖfve (Effect of Humidity on speed of Sound):
Av`ª evqy A_©vr evqy‡Z Rjxqev®ú _vK‡j Gi Nb‡Z¡iI cwieZ©b nq; myZivs k‡ãi `ªwZiI cwieZ©b nq| Av`ª evqy ev Rjxq
ev®úc~Y© evqyi NbZ¡ ï®‹ evqyi Nb‡Z¡i Zzjbvq Kg A_©vr evqy‡Z Rjxq ev®ú hZ †e‡o hvq Gi NbZ¡ ZZ K‡g hvq| Avevi
k‡ãi `ªæwZ Nb‡Z¡i eM©g~‡ji e¨¯ÍvbycvwZK| myZivs evqy‡Z Rjxq ev®ú †ewk _vK‡j k‡ãi `ªæwZ †e‡o hvq|
g‡bKwi, wbw`©ó Pvc p I ZvcgvÎv -‡Z ï®‹ I Av`ª evhyi NbZ¡ h_vµ‡g d I m Ges ï®‹ I Av`ª evqy‡Z k‡ãi
p p
`ªæwZ h_vµ‡g vd I vm| myZivs v d  Ges v m 
d m
vm p  d d
   
vd  m p m
d
ev, v m  v d
m
d , m Gi †P‡q eo nIqvq vm , vd Gi †P‡q eo|
myZivs Av`ª evqy‡Z k‡ãi `ªæwZ ï®‹ evqy‡Z k‡ãi `ªæwZi †P‡q †ekx|
GK gyL eÜ b‡ji †Lvjv gy‡L Av‡jvob m„wó Ki‡j Gi ga¨¯’ evqy¯Í‡¤¢i K¤ú‡bi cÖK„wZ (Vibration of Air Column in a
Closed Pipe):
GK gyL eÜ b‡ji †Lvjv gy‡L duz w`‡j ev Av‡jvob m„wó Ki‡j b‡ji wfZ‡ii evqy¯Í‡¤¢i ga¨w`‡q kã jw¤^K Zi½vKv‡i eÜ
gy‡Li w`‡K mÂvwjZ n‡e Ges eÜ gyL †_‡K cÖwZdwjZ n‡q †Lvjv gy‡Li w`‡K AMÖmi n‡e| dzu Gi g~j ¯ú›`b I evqy¯Í‡¤¢i
K¤ú‡bi g‡a¨ Abybv` n‡j evqy¯Í¤¢ AwaK we¯Ív‡i Kuvc‡Z _v‡K Ges myi †Rviv‡jv n‡e| GB Ae¯’vq b‡ji †Lvjv gy‡L me©`v
GKwU my¯ú›` we›`y (A) Ges eÜ gy‡L GKwU wb¯ú›` we›`y (N) wPÎvbyhvqx m„wó n‡e| evqy¯Í‡¤¢i K¤úb Abymv‡i b‡ji wfZi
GKvwaK my¯ú›` I wb¯ú›` we›`yi m„wó n‡Z cv‡i| evqy¯Í‡¤¢i mnRZ¡i K¤ú‡b [wPÎ bs-(K)] ïaygvÎ eÜ gy‡L GKwU wb¯ú›`


we›`yI †Lvjv gy‡L GKwU my¯ú›` we›`y MwVZ n‡e| wKš‘ ci¯úi msjMœ
GKwU wb¯ú›` we›`y I GKwU my¯ú›` we›`yi gaëZ©x `~iZ¡ Zi½
‰`‡N©ï ¼ As‡ki mgvb| myZivs b‡ji ˆ`N©¨ l Ges K¤ú‡b m„ó

k‡ãi Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ IK¤úv¼ n‡j l  0
l ......(1)
4
V V
Ges N 0   ...........(2) [∵ V = f]
 0 4l
GLv‡b V k‡ãi †eM | b‡ji GB myiB g~j myi ev cÖ_g nvi‡gvwbK| GB b‡j AviI †Rv‡i dzu w`‡j b‡ji evqy¯Í‡¤¢ m„ó
jw¤^K Zi‡½i ˆ`N©¨ n«vm cv‡e Ges evqy¯Í‡¤¢i K¤úb e„w× cv‡e| evqy¯Í‡¤¢i 2q m¤¢ve¨ K¤ú‡b [wPÎ bs-(L)] †Lvjv gy‡Li
my¯ú›` we›`y Ges eÜ gy‡Li wb¯ú›` we›`yi g‡a¨ GKwU my¯ú›` we›`y I GKwU wb¯ú›` we›`y MwVZ n‡e| awi evqy ¯Í‡¤¢i GB
V V 3V
K¤ú‡b m„ó my‡ii Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ 1 Ges K¤úv¼ N1, Zvn‡j l  31  1  4l   0 Ges N1 
1



0
 3N 0 GB
4 3 3 0
3
myi‡K cÖ_g Dcmyi ev Z„Zxq nvi‡gvwbK e‡j|
b‡ji m¤¢ve¨ K¤ú‡b [wPÎ bs-(M)] †Lvjv gy‡Li my¯ú›` we›`y Ges eÜ gy‡Li wb¯ú›` we›`yi g‡a¨ `ywU my¯ú›` we›`y I `ywU
5 2 4l 
wb¯ú›` we›`y MwVZ n‡e| Kv‡RB GB K¤ú‡b m„ó my‡ii Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ 2 Ges K¤úv¼ N2, n‡j l   2   0
4 5 5
Ges V V 5V GB myi‡K wØZxq Dcmyi ev cÂg nvi‡gvwbK e‡j|
N2     5N 0
2  0 0
5
4l
Dc‡iv³ mgxKib †_‡K †`Lv hvq †h, GKgyL eÜ b‡j †h mg¯Í myi m„wó nq Zv‡ì Zi½ ˆ`N©¨  0  Ges K¤úv¼
(2n  1)
V V (2n  1)
Nn    (2n  1) N 0 GLv‡b n = 0, 1, 3, ........BZ¨vw` †h ‡Kvb c~b© msL¨v| GK gyL eÜ b‡j ïaygvÎ
0 4l
‡e‡Rvo nvi‡gvwbK ¸wj Drcbœ n‡Z cv‡i A_©vr 2q, 4_©, 6ô BZ¨vw` nvi‡gvwbK ¸wj Abycw¯’Z _v‡K|
`yB gyL †Lvjv b‡ji GKwU †Lvjv gy‡L Av‡jvob m„wó Ki‡j Gi ga¨¯’ evqy¯Í‡¤¢i K¤ú‡bi cÖK„wZ (Vibration of Air
Column in a Open Pipe):
Dfq gyL ‡Lvjv b‡ji GK cÖv‡šÍ duz w`‡j ev Av‡jvob m„wó Ki‡j b‡ji wfZ‡ii evqy¯Í‡¤¢i ga¨w`‡q kã jw¤^K Zi½vKv‡i
Ab¨ cÖv‡šÍ mÂvwjZ nq| Ab¨ cÖv‡šÍ Dcw¯’Z n‡j GB Zi½ nVvr cÖmvwiZ nIqvi my‡hvM cvq| GB Kvi‡Y b‡ji †Lvjv gy‡L
me©`v my¯ú›` we›`y (A) Ges K¤úb †f‡` b‡ji gvSLv‡b GK ev GKvwaK wb¯ú›` we›`y (N) wPÎvbyhvqx m„wó n‡e|
evqy¯Í‡¤¢i mnRZ¡i K¤ú‡b [wPÎ bs-(K)] `yB gy³ cÖv‡šÍ my¯ú›` we›`y Ges `yB
my¯ú›` we›`yi gv‡S GKwU wb¯ú›` we›`y _vK‡e| G‡ÿ‡Î Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ o Ges

b‡ji ˆ`N©¨ l I n‡j K¤úv¼ n‡j l  0
l ......(1)
2
V V
Ges N 0   ...........(2) [ V  f]
 0 2l
GLv‡b V k‡ãi †eM | b‡ji GB myiB g~j myi ev cÖ_g nvi‡gvwbK|
GB b‡j AviI †Rv‡i dzu w`‡j b‡ji evqy¯Í‡¤¢ m„ó jw¤^K Zi‡½i Zi½ˆ`N©¨
n«vm cv‡e Ges evqy¯Í‡¤¢i K¤úb e„w× cv‡e| evqy¯Í‡¤¢i 2q m¤¢ve¨ K¤ú‡b
[wPÎ bs-(L)] ‡gvU wZbwU my¯ú›` we›`y Ges gvS Lv‡b `ywU wb¯ú›` we›`y MwVZ n‡e| awi evqy ¯Í‡¤¢i GB K¤ú‡b m„ó my‡ii
V V 2V
Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ 1 Ges K¤úv¼ N1, Zvn‡j l  1  1  2l   0 Ges N1 
1



0
 2N 0 GB myi‡K cÖ_g Dcmyi
2 2 0
2
ev wØZxq nvi‡gvwbK e‡j|


Z…Zxq m¤¢ve¨ K¤ú‡b [wPÎ bs-(M)] †‡gvU PviwU my¯ú›` we›`y Ges gvS Lv‡b wZbwU wb¯ú›` we›`y MwVZ n‡e| Kv‡RB GB
3 2 2l  V V 3V
K¤ú‡b m„ó my‡ii Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ 2 Ges K¤úv¼ N2, n‡j l    2   0 Ges N 2     3 N 0 GB
2 3 3 2 0 0
3
myi‡K wØZxq Dcmyi ev Z…Zxq nvi‡gvwbK e‡j|
2l 
Dc‡iv³ mgxKib †_‡K †`Lv hvq †h, `yB gyL †Lvjv b‡j †h mg¯Í myi m„wó nq Zv‡ì Zi½ ˆ`N©¨  n   o Ges
n 1 n 1
V V(n  1)
K¤úv¼ N n    (n  1) N 0 n‡e| GLv‡b n = 0, 1, 3, ........BZ¨vw` †h ‡Kvb c~b© msL¨v| `yB gyL †Lvjv b‡j
n 2l
‡e‡Rvo I ‡Rvo mKj cÖKvi nvi‡gvwbK Drcbœ n‡Z cv‡i|
Abybv`x evqy¯Í¤¢ wK? Abybv` evqy¯Í¤¢ c×wZ‡Z k‡ãi †eM wbY©q Ki:
Abybv` evqy¯Í¤¢ (Resonance Air Column): †Kvb GKwU GKgyL †Lvjv b‡ji g‡a¨ Ave× evqy¯Í‡¤¢i GKwU ¯^fvweK K¤úv¼
_v‡K| GB K¤úv¼ evqy¯Í‡¤¢i ˆ`‡N©ï Dci wbf©i K‡i| Giƒc GKwU †Lvjv b‡ji gy‡L GKwU K¤úgvb wUDwbs dK© ai‡j
d‡K©i K¤úb evqy¯Í‡¤¢ ciek K¤úb m„wó K‡i| d‡K©i K¤úv¼ hw` evqy¯Í‡¤¢i K¤úv‡¼i mgvb nq Z‡e evqy¯Í¤¢ cÖejfv‡e
Kuvc‡Z _v‡K| G‡K Abybv`x evqy¯Í¤¢ e‡j|
Abybv` evqy¯Í¤¢ c×wZ‡Z k‡ãi †eM wbY©q (Determination of Speed of Sound by Resonance Air Column
Method):
h‡š¿i eY©bvt Abybv` evqy¯Í¤¢ c×wZ‡Z AvMv‡Mvov mgvb cÖ¯’‡”Q‡ì GKwU KvPbj _v‡K| GB bjwU‡K GKwU cvwbi cv‡Î Wywe‡q
`yBZ…Zxqvsk cvwb‡Z fwZ© Kiv nq|
Kvh©c×wZ (Procedure): wbw`©ó K¤úv‡¼i GKwU myikjvKv F †bIqv nq| G‡K ivevi
c¨v‡W AvNvZ K‡i Abybv`x b‡ji Db¥y³ cÖv‡šÍ aiv nq| G‡Z b‡ji ga¨¯’ evqy‡Z ciek
K¤ú‡bi m„wó nq| G K¤úb wb‡Pi w`‡K mÂvwjZ nq Ges cvwbi DcwiZj n‡Z cyYivq
cÖwZdwjZ n‡q wd‡i Av‡m| bjwU‡K DVvbvgv K‡i b‡ji evqy¯Í‡¤¢i ˆ`N©¨‡K Ggb fv‡e
Dc‡hvRb Kiv nq hv‡Z evqy¯Í‡¤¢i me‡P‡q Kg ˆ`‡N©¨ Abybv` m„wó nq| GB Ae¯’vq cvwbi
Dcwi Zj n‡Z b‡ji Db¥y³ cÖvšÍ ch©šÍ Abybv`x ˆ`N©¨ wbY©q Kiv nq|
wnmve I MYbv (Calculation): evqy¯Í‡¤¢i GB Abybv` b‡ji †Lvjv gy‡L GKwU my¯ú›`
we›`y I cvwbi Dcwi Z‡j GKwU wb®ú›` we›`yi DrcwË n‡e| GB Ae¯’vq evqy¯Í‡¤¢i
K¤úv¼ myikjvKvi K¤úv‡¼i mgvb n‡e| g‡bKwi, Abybv`x evqy¯Í‡¤¢i ˆ`N©¨ l1| hw`

evqy‡Z k‡ãi †eM v Ges evqy¯Í‡¤¢i K¤úv¼ n nq Z‡e, l1     4l1 KviY
4
b‡ji eÜ gy‡L wb¯ú›` we›`y Ges †Lvjv gy‡L my¯ú›` we›`y Drcbœ& nq Ges G‡ì

gaëZ©x `~iZ¡ l1  | v =n mgxKiY n‡Z cvB, v =n4l1 A_©vr v =4nl1 cixÿb
4
n‡Z n I l Gi gvb †R‡b v †ei Kiv nq|
cÖvšÍ ms‡kvab K‡i k‡ãi †eM wbY©q (Determination of Sound of Velocity with end Correction):
Abybv` c×wZ‡Z evZv‡m k‡ãi †eM wbY©‡qi mgq a‡i †bIqv nq †h, my¯ú›` we›`y b‡ji Db¥y³ cÖv‡šÍ m„wó nq| wKš‘ weÁvbx
i¨v‡j cÖgvb K‡ib †h, my¯ú›` we›`y b‡ji †Lvjv gy‡L bv n‡q wKQyUv Dc‡i nq| ZvB Gi R‡b¨ GKwU ms‡kvab cÖ‡qvRb|
Gi bvg cÖvšÍ ms‡kvab| Kv‡RB GKwU Abybv`x evqy ¯Í‡¤¢i evB‡ii gy³ cÖvšÍ n‡Z by¨bZg †h `~i‡Z¡ my¯ú›` we›`y Ae¯’vb K‡i
Zv‡K cÖvšÍ ms‡kvab e‡j|
awi cÖvšÍ ms‡kvab = x
Abybv`x evqy¯Í‡¤¢i ˆ`N©¨ = (l1+x)
b‡ji AšÍt e¨vm d n‡j x=0.3d Ges b‡ji AšÍt e¨vmva© r n‡j x=0.6r| Kv‡RB k‡ãi †eM v=nn‡Z cvB,


v = 4n(l1+x)
ev, v = 4n(l1+0.6r) ev, v = 4n(l1+0.3d) BnvB cÖvšÍ ms‡kva‡bi ci k‡ãi †eM|
cÖvšÍ ms‡kvab cwinvi K‡i k‡ãi †eM wbY©q:

cÖvšÍ ms‡kvab cwinvi K‡iI k‡ãi †eM wbY©q Kiv hvq| cÖ_g Abybv` m„wó Kivi ci Abybv`x b‡j evqy¯Í‡¤¢i ˆ`N©¨ hw` µ‡g
AviI e„w× Ki‡Z _vwK Zvn‡j cÖ_g Abybv‡ì cÖvq wZb ¸b ˆ`‡N¨© wØZxq Abybv` m„wó n‡e| aiv hvK, wØZxq Abybv‡ì mgq
evqy¯Í‡¤¢i ˆ`N©¨ = l2
 3
Zvn‡j, l1  x  ... ... (1) Ges l 2  x  ... ... (2) (2) †_‡K (1) we‡qvM K‡i cvB,
4 4

l2  l1     2(l2  l1 ) GLb, v  n
2
 v  n  2(l2  l1 ) A_©vr  v  2n(l2  l1 ) GLb l1, l2 Ges n Gi gvb ewm‡q k‡ãi †eM wbY©q Kiv hvq|
Wcjvi cÖfve (Doppler Effect):
‡kªvZv I Dr‡mi Av‡cwÿK MwZi d‡j kÖæZ k‡ãi K¤úv‡¼i Z_v ZxÿèZvi AvcvZ cwieZ©b‡K Wcjvi cÖfve e‡j| GKwU
A¨v¤^y‡jÝ hLb mvB‡ib evwR‡q Avm‡Z _v‡K ZLb mvB‡i‡bi ZxÿèZv e„w× †c‡Z _v‡K Avevi hLb †mwU P‡j †h‡Z _v‡K
ZLb ZxÿèZv µgkt Kg‡Z _v‡K| hw` †kªvZv I Drm ci¯ú‡ii w`‡K AMÖmvi nq ZLb kÖæZ k‡ãi K¤úv‡¼i AvcvZ e„w×
nq Ges †kªvZv I Drm ci¯úi †_‡K `y‡i m‡i †M‡j kÖæZ k‡ãi K¤úv‡¼i AvcvZ n«vm cvq|
w¯’i †kªvZvi w`‡K MwZkxj Drm (Source Moving Towards Stationary Observer):
g‡bKwi, GKRb †kªvZv O Ae¯’v‡b w¯’i Av‡Q Ges S kã Dr‡mi Avw` Ae¯’vb| DrmwU f K¤úv‡¼i kã Drcbœ Ki‡Z
Ki‡Z us †e‡M w¯’i †kªvZv O Gi w`‡K G¸‡”Q Ges v kã Zi‡½i †eM| GLb Dr‡mi K¤úv¼ f e‡j cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û f msL¨K
Zi½ wbM©Z nq Ges Zi½ †eM v e‡j cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û Zi½ v `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i| myZivs
GB f msL¨K Zi½ vˆ`‡N©ï g‡a¨ Ae¯’vb K‡i| (wPÎ cv‡k¦©) Kv‡RB Drm hLb w¯’i
v
_v‡K ZLb k‡ãi g~j Zi½ ˆ`N©¨   | wKš‘ DrmwU hw` †m‡K‡Û f msL¨K Zi½
f
wbM©Z Ki‡Z Ki‡Z us †e‡M w¯’i †kªvZv O Gi w`‡K AMÖmi n‡q GK †m‡K‡Û S 
Ae¯’v‡b Av‡m Zvn‡j †mB msL¨K Zi½ GLb (v  us)) ˆ`‡N©ï g‡a¨ Vvmv Vvwm
K‡i Ae¯’vb Ki‡e| d‡j Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ n«vm cv‡e| GLb Gi Zi½ ‰`N¨© n‡e
v  us v v  us
  | w¯’i †kªvZvi Kv‡Q k‡ãi Zi½ ˆ`N©¨   K‡g  
f f f
gv‡bi e‡j g‡b n‡e| myZivs †kªvZvi w`‡K Dr‡mi MwZkxjZvi Rb¨ w¯’i †kªvZvi Kv‡Q kÖæZ k‡ãi AvcvZ K¤úv¼ f  n‡j|
kã Zi‡½i † eM v
AvcvZ K¤úv¼ f   
 Zi½ ˆ`N ¨
cwiew ZZ 
v
 f 
(v  u s ) / f
v
f   f GB mgxKiY †_‡K †`Lv hvq †h, †h‡nZz ( v  u s )  v  f   f
(v  u s )
myZivs Drm hLb †Kvb w¯’i †kªvZvi w`‡K MwZkxj _v‡K ZLb †kªvZvi Kv‡Q kã Zi‡½i K¤úv¼ e„w× †c‡q‡Q e‡j g‡b
n‡e| Ges kÖæZ k‡ãi ZxÿèZviI AvcvZ e„w× n‡e|
DrmwU hw` w¯’i †kªvZv n‡Z `~‡i m‡i hvq Zvn‡j us-†K FbvZ¥K ai‡Z nq| A_©vr †m‡ÿ‡Î,
v v
f  f f   f G‡ÿ‡Î f   f myZivs Drm †kªvZv †_‡K `~‡i m‡i †M‡j kÖæZ
v  (u s ) v  us
k‡ãi K¤úv¼ Z_v ZxÿèZv AvcvZ n«vm cv‡e|

Drm w¯’i wKš‘ †kªvZv Dr‡mi w`‡K MwZkxj ( Source Stationary But Observer Moving Towards It ):
aiv hvK, kã Drm s Ae¯’v‡b w¯’i Av‡Q Ges †kªvZv O
Ae¯’vb n‡Z Dr‡mi w`‡K uo `ªæwZ‡Z AMÖmi n‡”Q| Drm KZ…K wbm„Z
k‡ãi K¤úv¼ f, Zi½ ‰`N©¨  Ges `ªæwZ v| GK †m‡K‡Û f msL¨K
Zi½ Drcbœ Ki‡Q †kªvZv w¯’i _vK‡j cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û Zvi Kv‡b f
msL¨K Zi½B †cŠQvZ| A_©vr 1 †m‡K‡Û f Zi½ v `~iZ¡ Ry‡o _vKZ| myZivs †kªvZv O Gi Kv‡Q †h Zi½gvjv †cŠQv‡e
v
Zvi ˆ`N© AcwiewZ©Z _vK‡e Ges Zv n‡e   | GLb †h‡nZz †kªvZv Dr‡mi w`‡K uo `ªæwZ‡Z MwZkxj Kv‡RB †kªvZvi
f
† kª vZvi mv‡ c‡ ¶ k‡ ãi `ª æwZ v  uo
mv‡c‡ÿ k‡ãi `ªæwZ (v+uo) n‡e| myZivs AvcvZ K¤úv¼, f   
O we›`y‡ Z † cuŠQvb Zi‡½i Zi½ ˆ`N ¨ v f
v  uo
 f  f ... ... ... ... (1)
v
Dc‡iv³ mgxKiY †_‡K †`Lv hvq †h †h‡nZz (v+uo) >v  f   f
myZivs AvcvZ K¤úv¼ cÖK…Z K¤úv‡¼i †P‡q †ekx n‡e| A_©vr hLb †Kvb †kªvZv w¯’i Dr‡mi w`‡K MwZkxj _v‡K
ZLb kÖæZ k‡ãi K¤úv¼ Z_v ZxÿèZvi AvcvZ e„w× nq|
hw` †kªvZv w¯’i Drm †_‡K `~‡i m‡i hvq Zvn‡j uo †K FbvZ¥K ai‡Z n‡e| A_©vr †m‡ÿ‡Î
 v  uo 
f     f ... ... ... ... (2)
 v  u s 
G †ÿ‡Î †h‡nZz f   f myZivs †kªvZv w¯’i Drm †_‡K `~‡i m‡i †M‡j kÖæZ k‡ãi K¤úv‡¼i Z_v ZxÿèZvi AvcvZ n«vm
n‡e|

19| k‡ãi `ªæwZ (Speed of Sound)
1| 261Hz K¤úvs‡Ki GKwU myikjv‡K AvNvZ K‡i Abybv`x b‡ji 4| GKwU †Uªb euvwk evRv‡Z evRv‡Z GKwU cøvUd‡g©i w`‡K 90kmh-1
Db¥y³ cÖv‡šÍi wbKU ai‡j evZv‡mi 0.30m Ges 0.94m ˆ`‡N©¨ `ªæwZ‡Z AMÖmi n‡”Q| euvwki K¤úbv¼ 600Hz Ges k‡ãi `ªæwZ 325ms-1
Abybv` cvIqv †Mj| k‡ãi `ªæwZ I cÖvšÍ ms‡kvab wbY©q Ki| n‡j cøvUd‡g© `Ûvqgvb †Kvb †kªvZvi Kv‡b H k‡ãi AvcvZ K¤úv¼ KZ
Avgiv Rvwb, g‡b n‡e?
V=2 f (l2 - l1) GLv‡b, Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
ev, V=2 ×261(0.94-0.30) K¤úv¼, f = 261 Hz †Uª‡bi `ªæwZ
v  uo
ev, V=334.08ms m/s(Ans.) cÖ_g Abybv`x ˆ`N©¨, l1 = 0.30 m
-1 f  f u s  90km/h
v  us
Avevi, 2q Abybv`x ˆ`N©¨, l2 = 0.94 m 
90  1000 1
ms  25ms 1
ev, V= 4 f(l1 + x) k‡ãi †eM, V= ? 325  0 3600
 f   600 †Uª‡bi euvwki K¤úv¼
ev, 334.08=4×261×(0.3+ x) cÖvšÍ ms‡kvab, x = ? 325  25
f = 600 Hz
334 . 08 325 k‡ãi `ªæwZ v = 325ms-1
ev, 0.3  x   f   600
4  261 300 ‡mªvZvi `ªæwZ, uo = 0
 x = 0.32-0.30 =0.02 m (Ans.)  f   650Hz (Ans.) AvcvZ K¤úv¼ f' =?
f
2| 512Hz K¤úv‡¼i GKwU myi myikjvKv‡K AvNvZ K‡i GKwU
Abybv`x b‡ji Db¥y³ cÖv‡šÍ aivq evZv‡mi 0.15m ˆ`‡N©¨ cÖ_g 5| †`LvI †h, Drm hw` w¯’i †kªvZv †_‡K k‡ãi `ªæwZ‡Z m‡i hvq, Z‡e
Abybv` cvIqv †Mj| evZv‡m k‡ãi `ªæwZ 350ms-1 n‡j b‡ji e¨vm kÖæZ k‡ãi AvcvZ K¤úvsK A‡a©K n‡e|
KZ? Avgiv Rvwb,
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b, v  uo
V = 4f(l1+0.3d) f  f awi,
K¤úv¼, f = 512 Hz v  us
V k‡ãi `ªæwZ v = v1
cÖ_g Abybv`x ˆ`N©¨,
 l1  0.3d  v1  0 Dr‡mi `ªæwZ us = v1
4f l1 = 0.15 m  f  f
v1  ( v1 ) ‡mªvZvi `ªæwZ, uo = 0
V k‡ãi `ªæwZ, V=350ms-1
 0.3d   l1 v 0 K¤úv¼ f n‡j,
4f b‡ji e¨vm, d = ?
 f  1 f cÖgvY Ki‡Z n‡e †h,
350 2v1
 0.3d   0.15 AvcvZ K¤úv¼, f   f
4  512 f 2
f   (cÖgvwYZ|)
 0.3d  0.170898437  0.15 2
 0.3d  0.020898437
0.020898437 6| GKwU BwÄb Pj‡Z Pj‡Z 300 Hz K¤úv‡¼i eskxaŸwb Kij wKš‘
d m GKRb ch©‡eÿ‡Ki wbKU H k‡ãi K¤úv¼ 305Hz g‡b nj| †Kvb w`‡K
0.3
Ges KZ `ªæwZ‡Z BwÄbwU MwZkxj wQj| [k‡ãi `ªæwZ 332 ms-1]
 d  0.069 m (Ans.) GLv‡b,
Avgiv Rvwb,
†Uª‡bi euvwki K¤úv¼,
3| KZ ZvcgvÎvq evqy‡Z k‡ãi †eM 0°C (cÖgvY) ZvcgvÎvi ‡e‡Mi
v  uo
f  f f = 300 Hz
wØ¸b n‡e? GLv‡b, v  us k‡ãi `ªæwZ, v = 332ms-1
k‡ãi †eM, V1= V 332  0 ‡mªvZvi `ªæwZ, uo = 0
V1 T1  305   300
 k‡ãi †eM, V2= 2V AvcvZ K¤úv¼, f' = 305 Hz
V2 T2 ZvcgvÎv, T1 =0ºC = 273K 332  u s †Uª‡bi `ªæwZ, us=?
ZvcgvÎv, T2 =? 332
V 273  332  u s   300  326.55
  305
2V T2
 u s  326.55  332  5.45  us= 5.45ms-1
1 273 DËit 5.45ms-1 †e‡M ‡kªvZvi w`‡K AMÖmi n‡e|
 
4 T2
 T2 = 4×273 K = 1092K= (1092-273) °C
= 819°C (Ans.)

19| k‡ãi `ªæwZ (Speed of Sound) 2
7| GKwU BwÄb w¯’i `k©K AwZµg Kv‡j Gi AvcvZ cÖwZqgvb 165 T
K¤úv¼ 6:5 Abycv‡Z cwieZ©b nq| hw` evZv‡m k‡ãi †eM  
352ms-1 nq, Z‡e BwÄbwUi †eM wbYq Ki| 332 273
2
Avgiv Rvwb,  165  T
V  uo
   
f  f  332  273
GLv‡b,
V  us 165  165  273
‡kªvZvi †eM, uo= 0  T  K
V0 k‡ãi †eM, V =352ms-1 332  332
 f  f
V  us awi, cÖK…Z K¤úv¼ = f  T  67.43K  (67.43  273)C
Vf K¤úv‡¼i AbycvZ,  T  205.56 C (Ans.)
f   ... ... ... (1) f ©: f © ©= 6:5
V  us
BwÄbwUi †eM, us= 0 9| cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û 200 P‡µi Wcjvi cwieZ©b Drcbœ Ki‡Z n‡j
Avevi,
V  uo 1050Hz K¤úvsKwewkó kã Drm‡K †Kvb w¯’i `k©‡Ki w`‡K †h †e‡M
f   f AvMgb Ki‡Z n‡e Zvi wnmve `vI| [evZv‡m k‡ãi †eM=330ms-1]
V  (u s ) Avgiv Rvwb,
V0 V  uo
 f   f f  f GLv‡b,
V  us V  us k‡ãi †eM, V =330ms-1
Vf 330  0 cÖK…Z K¤úv¼, f =1050 Hz
 f   ... ... ... (2)  1250   1050 Drm `k©‡Ki w`‡K AvMgb
V  us 330  u s Ki‡j K¤úv¼ †ekx n‡e, d‡j
cÖkœg‡Z, 330 AvcvZ K¤úvs&K,
f ©: f © ©= 6 : 5  330  u s   1050 f © =(1050+200) Hz
1250
f 6 = 1250Hz
   u s  330  277.2 BwÄbwUi †eM, us =?
f  5
 u s  52.8 ms 1 (Ans.) ‡kªvZvi †eM, uo= 0
Vf V  us 6
  
V  us Vf 5
10| GKwU myi kjvKv †h mg‡q 200 evi K¤úb †`q †mB mg‡q GwU Øviv
V  us 6 m„ó Zi½ evZv‡m 140 m `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i| myi kjvKvi K¤úv¼
 
V  us 5 500Hz n‡j evqy‡Z k‡ãi †eM KZ?
GLv‡b,
352  u s 6 Avgiv Rvwb,
  200=140m
V=f
352  u s 5 140
 V  500  0.7 ms 1   m  0. 7 m
 5  352  5u s  6  352  6u s 200
 V  350 ms 1 ( Ans.) K¤úv¼ f=500Hz
 5u s  6u s  6  352  5  352 V=?
 11 u s  352
352 11| N.T.P. ‡Z k‡ãi †eM 332ms-1 n‡j 50°C ZvcgvÎvq I 70 cm
 us  cvi` Pv‡c k‡ãi †eM wbY©q Ki|
11 k‡ãi †e‡Mi Dci Pv‡ci †Kvb cÖfve †bB,
 u s  32ms 1 (Ans.) Avgiv Rvwb,
v   v 0 (1  ) GLv‡b,
8| Av‡jv †`Lvi 10 sec c‡i eRª wb‡N©v‡li kã †kvbv †Mj| †g‡Ni k‡ãi †eM, vo = 332ms-1
`~iZ¡ hw` 1650m Ges 0°†m. ZvcgvÎvq k‡ãi `ªæwZ 332ms-1  1  ZvcgvÎv,  = 50ºC
nq, Z‡e H mgqKvi ZvcgvÎv wbY©q Ki|
v   332 1   50 
 273  v =?
S= V t  v   332 (1  0.183150183)
mgq, t = 10s.
 1650= V ×10 `~iZ¡, S = 1650 m  v   332 1.183150183
 V =165ms -1 k‡ãi †eM, V =?  v   361.12 ms -1 (Ans.)
V T k‡ãi †eM, V0 = 332 ms -1
Avevi,  
V0 T0 ZvcgvÎv, TºC=273K
ZvcgvÎv, T

19| k‡ãi `ªæwZ (Speed of Sound) 3
12| `yÕwU nb© enb K‡i GKwU †gvUi Mvox 36kmh-1 †e‡M `Ûvqgvb 13| GKwU K¤úgvb my‡ijx KuvUv cÖ_‡g GKgyL eÜ Kuv‡Pi b‡j 33cm.
GKRb ch©‡eÿ‡Ki w`‡K avweZ n‡”Q| nb© `yÕwUi k‡ãi K¤úv‡¼i `xN© evqy¯‡Í ¤¢i mv‡_ Abybv` m„wó K‡i; H GKB b‡j evqy¯‡Í ¤¢i ˆ`N©¨
cv_©K¨ 320Hz n‡j, ch©‡eÿK KZ…K kÖæZ k‡ãi K¤úv‡¼i cv_©K¨ 100.5cm. n‡j my‡ijx KuvUvwU cybivq Abybv` m„wó K‡i| hw` evqy‡Z
KZ n‡e? evZv‡m k‡ãi †eM 350ms-1| k‡ãi †eM 350ms-1 nq, Z‡e cÖvšÍ ms‡kvab KZ?
1g n‡b©i †ÿ‡Î, GLv‡b, V=2 f (l2 - l1) = 4f(l1+x) GLv‡b,
v  u0 k‡ãi †eM, v = 350ms-1 2f(l
 l1 ) cÖ_g Abybv`x ˆ`N©¨, l1 = 0.33 cm
f1/  f1 ‡kªvZvi †eM, u0=0 ev, l1  x  2
v  us 4f 2q Abybv`x ˆ`N©¨, l2 = 100.5 cm

‡kªvZvi †eM, us=36 kms-1 k‡ãi †eM, V= 350ms-1
v 36000 -1 (l  l 1 )
f1 /  f1...............(1)  ms  10ms -1 ev, x  2 - l1 cÖvšÍ ms‡kvab, x = ?
v  us 3600 2
2q n‡b©i †ÿ‡Î, nb©`yÕwUi K¤úv‡¼i cv_©K¨, (100.5  3 3 )
ev, x  - 33
v  u0 f1f2 =320Hz 2
f 2/  f2 kÖæZk‡ãi K¤úv‡¼i cv_©K¨, 67 . 5
v  us x  - 3 3  0 .75cm (Ans.)
f1/ - f 2/  ? 2
v
f 2/  f 2 ...............(2)
v  us
vf1 vf 2
 f1/  f 2/  
v  us v  us
v
 f1/  f 2/  ( f1  f 2 )
v  us
350
 f1/  f 2/   320
350  10
 f1/  f 2/  329.41Hz ( Ans.)

Want more Updates  http://facebook.com/tanbir.ebooks
ইন্টাররনি হরে িংগ্রহীে
 http://techtunes.com.bd/tuner/tanbir_cox
 http://tunerpage.com/archives/author/tanbir_cox
 http://somewhereinblog.net/tanbircox
 http://pchelplinebd.com/archives/author/tanbir_cox
 http://prothom-aloblog.com/blog/tanbir_cox
http://facebook.com/tanbir.cox
http://facebook.com/tanbir.ebooks
http://tanbircox.blogspot.com
facebook /gmail/skype: - http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

Want more Updates  http://facebook.com/tanbir.ebooks
আপনি যযহ঵তু এই য঱খা পড়হেি , তাই আনম ধহর নিনি যয আপনি কনিউটার ও ইন্টারহিট বযব঵াহর অনভজ্ঞ ,কাহেই কনিউটাহরর প্রহয়ােিীয়
নব঳য় গুহ঱া ঴িহকে ভাহ঱া খারাপ নবহবচিা করারা ক্ষমতা অবশ্যই আহে …
তাই আপিাহের কাহে একান্ত অনুহরাধ “ আপিারা ঴ামান্য একটু ঴ময় বযয় কহর ,শুধু এক বার নিহচর ন঱িংহক নিক কহর এই DVD গুহ঱ার মহধয
অবনিত বই ও ঴ফটওয়যার এর িাম ঴মূহ঵র উপর যচাখ বুন঱হয় নিি।”তা঵হ঱ই বুহে যহবি যকি এই DVD গুহ঱া আপিার কাহ঱কলহি রাখা
েরকার!আপিার আেহকর এই বযয়কৃত ঴ামান্য ঴ময় ভনবষ্যহত আপিার অহিক কষ্ট ঱াঘব করহব ও আপিার অহিহক ঴ময় বাাঁনচহয় নেহব। নবশ্বা঴
করুি আর িাই করুিঃ- “নবনভন্ন কযাটাগনরর এই DVD গুহ঱ার মহধয যেওয়া বািং঱া ও ইিংন঱ল বই , ঴ফটওয়যার ও নটউহটানরয়া঱ এর কাহ঱কলি
যেহখ আপনি ঵তবাক ঵হয় যাহবি !”
আপনি যনে বতেমাহি কনিউটার বযব঵ার কহরি ও ভনবষ্যহতও কনিউটার ঴াহে যুক্ত োকহবি তা঵হ঱ এই নিনভনি গুহ঱া আপিার অবশ্যই আপিার
কাহ঱কলহি রাখা েরকার........ কারিঃ
 এই নিনভনি গুহ঱া যকাি যোকাহি পাহবি িা আর ইন্টারহিহটও এহতা ইিরটযান্ট কাহ঱কলি এক঴াহে পাহবি বহ঱ মহি ঵য় িা।তাোড়া এত বড়
঴াইহের ফাই঱ যিট যেহক িামাহিা খুবই কষ্ট঴াধয ও ঴ময়঴াহপক্ষ বযাপার।এোড়া আপনি যযই ফাই঱টা িামাহবি তা ফু঱ ভা঴েি িাও ঵হত পাহর ..
 এই নিনভনি গুহ঱া আপিার কাহ঱কলহি োকহ঱ আপিাহক আর যকাি কনিউটার নবহল঳জ্ঞহের কাহে নগহয় টাকার নবনিমহয় বা বন্ধুহের খানতহর
“ভাই একটু য঵ল্প করুি” বহ঱ অন্যহক নবরক্ত করা ঱াগহব িা ... ও নিহেহকও ঵য়রানি ঵হত ঵হব িা ।
 এই নিনভনি গুহ঱ার মহধয অবনিত আমার করা ৩০০ টা বািং঱া ই-বুক (pdf ) ও যোট ঴াইহের প্রহয়ােিীয় ঴ফটওয়যার আপিাহের েন্য
নবিামূহ঱য আমার ঴াইহট যলয়ার কহর নেহয়নে । নকন্তু প্রহয়ােিীয় বড় ঴াইহের বই, নটহটানরয়া঱ ও ফু঱ ভা঴েি ঴ফটওয়যার গুহ঱া যলয়ার ঴াইট
গুহ঱ার ঴ীমাবদ্ধতা ও ইন্টারহিহটর যলা আপহ঱াি গনতর েন্য যলয়ার করহত পার঱াম িা । তাোড়া এই বড় ফাই঱ গুহ঱া িাউিহ঱াি করহত যগহ঱
আপিার ইন্টারহিট পযাহকহের ক নেনব খরচ করহত ঵হব ... যযখাহি ১ নেনব পযাহকে েন্য ঴বেনিম্ন ৩৫০ টাকা যতা খরচ ঵হব , এর ঴াহে
঴ময় ও ইন্টারহিট গনতরও একটা বযাপার আহে। এই ঴ব নব঳য় নচন্তা কহর আপিাহের েন্য এই নিনভনি পযাহকে চা঱ু কহরনে ...
যমাট কো আপিাহের কনিউটাহরর নবনভন্ন ঴মস্যার নচরিায়ী ঴মাধাি ও কনিউটাহরর েন্য প্রহয়ােিীয় ঴ব বই, ঴ফটওয়যার ও নটউহটানরয়া঱ এর
঴ানবেক ঴াহপাটে নেহত আমার খুব কাযেকর একটা উহেযাগ ঵হি এই নিনভনি পযাহকে গুহ঱া ...
এই ক ক ... শুধু একবার যচাখ বু঱াি

 http://tanbircox.blogspot.com/2013/07/My-DVD-Collection-4-U.html
[যমাট দুইটা নিনভনি , ঴াইে ৯ নেনব] আপিার নলক্ষােীবহির েন্য প্রহয়ােিীয় ঴ব বািং঱া বই ও ঴ফটওয়যার
 http://tanbircox.blogspot.com/2013/04/Complete-Solution-of-your-Education.html
[যমাট নতিটা নিনভনি, ঴াইে ১৩.৫ নেনব]Genuine Windows XP Service Pack 3 ,

Windows 7 -64 & 32 bit & Driver Pack Solution 13 এর ঴াহে রহয়হে উইহন্িাহের েন্য প্রহয়ােিীয় বািং঱া বই ও ঴ফটওয়যার
 http://tanbircox.blogspot.com/2013/07/All-Genuine-Windows-Collection.html
All MS Office, documents ,pdf reader & Pdf edit Software এবং প্রহয়ােিীয় ঴ব বািং঱া বই।
যয যকাি ধরহির িকুহমন্ট এনিট , কিভাটে ও নিোইি করার েন্য এই নিনভনি নট যহেষ্ট , এই নিনভনি যপহ঱ অনফ঴ ও িকুহমন্ট ঴িনকেত যয
যকাি কাহে অ঴াধয বহ঱ নকেু োকহব িা... আপিার অনফন঴য়া঱ কাহের েন্য প্রহয়ােিীয় ঴ফটওয়যাহরর ঴িূর্ে ও নচরিায়ী ঴মাধাি...
 http://tanbircox.blogspot.com/2013/07/office-documents-soft-dvd.html
: [ ঵হয় যাি য঴রা নিোইিার ] নিোইি ,গ্রানফক্স ও েনব এনিট ঴িনকেত প্রহয়ােিীয় ঴ব
বািং঱া ও ইিংন঱ল ই-বুক ,নটউহটানরয়া঱ ও ফু঱ ভা঴েি ঴ফটওয়যার। ওএ ই ও এ ই আ ক ই
http://tanbircox.blogspot.com/2013/07/All-Design-and-Graphics-Software.html
প্রহয়ােিীয় ঴ব বািং঱া ও ইিংন঱ল ই-বুক ,নটউহটানরয়া঱ ও ফু঱ ভা঴েি ঴ফটওয়যার।

 http://tanbircox.blogspot.com/2013/07/All-Internet-And-Web-programming-Software.html
A2Z Audio & Video player , Edito & converter . CD, DVD edit
ও উইহন্িাে যক সুন্দর যেখাহিার েন্য প্রহয়ােিীয় ঴ব ফু঱ ভা঴েি ঴ফটওয়যার।
 http://tanbircox.blogspot.com/2013/07/All-Multimedia-And-Windows-Style-Software.html
 http://tanbircox.blogspot.com/2013/07/mobile-software-hardware-dvd-5000.html
 http://tanbircox.blogspot.com/2013/07/A2Z-Bangla-ebooks-Collection.html
facebook :: - http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

HSC-Intermediate Physics 1st Paper by Tanbircox PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

HSC-Intermediate Physics 1st Paper by Tanbircox PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Want more Updates: https://www.facebook.com/tanbir.

facebook /gmail/skype: -tanbir.cox Web: http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

facebook /gmail/skype: -tanbir.cox Web: http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

‡f±i ivwk (Vector Quantities):

‡¯‹jvi ivwk (Scalar Quantities):

GKK †f±i (Unit Vector):

mgvb †f±i (Equal Vector):

k~b¨ ev bvj †f±i (Zero or Null Vector):

facebook /gmail/skype: -tanbir.cox Web: http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

01| ‡f±i (Vector) 2

wem`„k †f±i (Unlike Vector):

mg‡iL †f±i (Co-linear Vector):

Ae¯’vb †f±i (Position Vector):

AvqZGKK †f±i (Rectangular Unit Vector):

‡f±i ivwki mvgvšÍÍwiK m~Î (Law of Parallelogram) eY©bv I e¨vL¨v :

facebook /gmail/skype: -tanbir.cox Web: http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

01| ‡f±i (Vector) 3

facebook /gmail/skype: -tanbir.cox Web: http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

01| ‡f±i (Vector) 4

facebook /gmail/skype: -tanbir.cox Web: http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

01| ‡f±i (Vector) 5

‡f±i †hv‡Mi wÎfyR m~Î (Triangle Law) t

facebook /gmail/skype: -tanbir.cox Web: http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

01| ‡f±i (Vector) 6

facebook /gmail/skype: -tanbir.cox Web: http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

01| ‡f±i (Vector) 7

wÎgvwÎK ¯’vbv¼ e¨e¯’vq ci¯úi wZbwU †iLv OX, OY I OZ h_vµ‡g X, Y I

facebook /gmail/skype: -tanbir.cox Web: http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

01| ‡f±i (Vector) 8

‡f±i wefvRb ev †f±i we‡køølb (Resolution Of Vectors) t

facebook /gmail/skype: -tanbir.cox Web: http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

facebook /gmail/skype: -tanbir.cox Web: http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

facebook /gmail/skype: -tanbir.cox Web: http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

facebook /gmail/skype: -tanbir.cox Web: http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

facebook /gmail/skype: -tanbir.cox Web: http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

 ফাস্তফ যক্ষনত্র ঩যভবিবত ঑ ঩যভগবত অ঳ম্ভফ।

facebook /gmail/skype: -tanbir.cox Web: http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

Mo‡eM (Average Velocity) :

mg‡eM ev mylg †eM (Uniform Velocity) :

Amg‡eM (Variable Velocity) t

ZvrÿwbK †eM (Instantaneus Velocity) :

mgZ¡iY ev mylg Z¡iY (Uniform Acceleration) :

facebook /gmail/skype: -tanbir.cox Web: http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

02| ‰iwLK MwZ (Linear Motion) 2

`ªwZ I †e‡Mi cv_©K¨ (Distinction between Speed and Velocity) :

†eM I Z¡i‡Yi cv_©K¨ (Distinction between Velocity and Acceleration) :

(K) vx  vxo  ax t cÖwZcv`b|

facebook /gmail/skype: -tanbir.cox Web: http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

02| ‰iwLK MwZ (Linear Motion) 3

facebook /gmail/skype: -tanbir.cox Web: http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

02| ‰iwLK MwZ (Linear Motion) 4

(N) v 2x  v 2xo  2ax ( x  x o ) cÖwZcv`b :

facebook /gmail/skype: -tanbir.cox Web: http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

02| ‰iwLK MwZ (Linear Motion) 5

Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K wbwÿß e¯‘i †ÿ‡Î me©vwaK D”PZv wbY©q :

facebook /gmail/skype: -tanbir.cox Web: http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

02| ‰iwLK MwZ (Linear Motion) 6

facebook /gmail/skype: -tanbir.cox Web: http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

02| ‰iwLK MwZ (Linear Motion) 7

cošÍ e¯‘i m~Î eY©bv (Laws of falling bodies) :

¯^b©gy`ªv I cvjK cixÿv:

facebook /gmail/skype: -tanbir.cox Web: http://tanbircox.blogspot.com

02| ‰iwLK MwZ (Linear Motion) 8