Transformasi fasa

Perlakuan panas vs struktur mikro

Austenite

Slow Moderate Rapid

Cooling Cooling Cooling

Perlite Bainite Martensite

Reheat

Tempered
martensite
 Perubahan Fasa

Nucleation
– Bakal inti merupakan tempat kristal tumbuh.
– Pada pembentukan inti, laju penambahan atom ke inti harus
lebih cepat dari laju hilangnya atom dari inti.
– Setelah terjadi pengintian, inti tumbuh sampai kondisi
setimbang tercapai.

Driving force to nucleate increases as we increase T

– supercooling (eutectic, eutectoid)

Small supercooling  slow nucleation rate - few nuclei - large

crystals
Large supercooling  rapid nucleation rate - many nuclei - small
crystals
 Perubahan Fasa
b

T a
a
b

a
T1 a
b
a+b a
T2

A XB t1 t2 t
Paduan

Dari t1 ke t2 :
Transformasi fasa a ke b

Perlu Pasokan b (difusi B dalam a)

 Thermodinamika perubahan fasa
G

G2
a G1
T01
Te
T1
T1 T2 a+b
Ga+b
T2 Ga

A %B T2 T1 Te T01

Paduan

 Transformasi : a  a + b dapat berlangsung.

 Pada :
T = T0 : Fasa yang stabil adalah fasa a
T = Te : Kesetimbangan, a ⇋ a + b, G = 0
T = T1 : Fasa yang stabil a + b, G1
T = T2 : Fasa yang stabil a + b, G2

 Secara termodinamika, transformasi a  a + b lebih mungkin terjadi pada T = T2

karena gaya dorong transformasi lebih besar (G2 > G1)
 Tetapi mobilitas atom pada T2 < T1
 Umumnya dilakukan pada temperatur medium (aging) untuk memunculkan fasa b
 Pengaruh Energi pada Pengintian Homogen
Surface Free Energy – Pen-tak-stabil
proses pengintian (membutuhkan energi
untuk membentuk interface.
GS  4r 2
 = surface tension

GT = Total Free Energy

= GS + GV

Volume (Bulk) Free Energy –

Penstabil pengintian (melepas energi)
4 3
GV  r G
3
volume free energy
G 
unit volume

r* = critical nucleus: for r < r* nuclei shrink; for r >r* nuclei grow (to reduce energy)
 Laju transformasi fasa
Fraction transformed, y

Transformasi selesai
Fixed T
0.5 Laju maksimum – jumlah
unconverted berkurang  laju rendah
Laju bertambah karena luas permukaan
t0.5 meningkat, inti terus tumbuh.

log t

Persamaan Avrami  y = 1- exp (-kt n)

Fraksi Waktu
bertransformasi

k & n : parameter transformasi

 Kinetika rekristalisasi pada Anil

Persamaan laju kinetika rekristalisasi menurut, Johnson – Mehl – Avrami

– Kolmogorof (JMAK) :

Xv = 1 – exp (- B t k)

log[ln( 1/1-Xv )] = k log t + log B

di mana,

Xv = Fraksi volume bertransformasi

t = Waktu transformasi (detik)
B = Konstanta laju
k = Orde Reaksi
 Laju transformasi fasa

135C 119C 113C 102C 88C 43C

1 10 102 104

 Laju transformasi pada pemanasan Cu hasil cold working.

 Laju transformasi meningkat dengan bertambahnya Temperatur
 Laju transformasi fasa

 (0.77%wt C) a (0.022%wt C) + Fe3C (6.7%wt C)

T(ºC) Eutectoid transformasi

1600 terjadi pada pendinginan
d
L dibawah 727 (harus di
1400
“undercooling”)
  +L
1200 1148ºC L+Fe3C

Fe3C (sementit)
(austenite)
1000
 +Fe3C
a Eutectoid:
ferit 800 Equil. Cooling: Ttransf. = 727ºC
727ºC
T a +Fe3C
600
Undercooling: Ttransf. < 727C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe) C, wt%C
 Transformasi Eutectoid

 (0.77%wt C) a (0.022%wt C) + Fe3C (6.7%wt C)

Difusi C
sementit (Fe3C) selama transformasi
Batas butir
a Ferit (a)
Austenit () a a

 a
a 
a Arah 
a tumbuh a
perlit
a
Difusi
Karbon
100 • Laju transformasi
y (% pearlite)

600ºC
(T larger) meningkat dengan
650ºC
50 menurunnya T.
675ºC
(T smaller)
0 [Teutectoid – T ]
(T).
Diagram time-temperature-transformation

 Transformasi terjadi
dibawah temperatur
eutectoid.
Perubahan struktur mikro selama transformasi
Coarse pearlite

Fine pearlite

 Coarse pearlite: laju difusi C tinggi, relatif jauh ⇒ thick lamellar

 Fine perlite: temperatur rendah: laju difusi C turun ⇒ thin lamellar
 Difusi C di austenit:
Dc = 0.12e-32.000/RT
 Transformasi untuk komposisi non-eutektoid

Contoh C0 = 1.13 wt% C

T(ºC) T(ºC)
900 1600
d
A 1400 L
800

Fe3C (sementit)
A TE (727ºC)  +L
+ 1200  L+Fe3C
700 A C (austenit)
P 1000
A
+ P a  +Fe3C
600
800
727ºC
T a +Fe3C
500 600

0.022
0.76
1 10 102 103 104 400

1.13
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
t (s) (Fe)
C, wt%C

Hypereutectoid composition – proeutectoid cementite

 Diagram TTT baja eutectoid
800
Eutectoid temperature
723
Austenite Coarse
600 Pearlite
Fine

500 Pearlite + Bainite

T →

400 Bainite

300

200
 Ms
Austenite

Mf
100
Bukan Transformasi Martensite
Isotermal
0.1 1 10 102 103 104 105
t (s) →
 Diagram TTT Ni-Cr-Mo low alloy steel

Austenite Pearlite
600

500
T →

400

300 Bainite
Ms
200
Mf
100
Martensite
~1 min
t →
 Diagram Continuous Cooling Transformation
Konversi Eutectoid temperature
diagram 723
transformasi
isothermal ke Austenite
diagram 600
continuous
Pearlite
cooling
transformation 500
Garis asli TTT
T →

400

300
Ms
Kurva Pendinginan200
Laju konstan Mf
100
Martensite T1 T2
0.1 1 10 102 103 104 105
t (s) →
 Diagram CCT

 Isothermal heat treatment tidak

digunakan untuk practical use.
 Sebagian besar proses
perlakuan panas baja
melibatkan continues cooling
spesimen sampai temperatur
kamar.
 TTT diagram (garis terputus)
dimodifikasi untuk membuat
CCT diagram (garis penuh).
 Untuk continuous cooling,
waktu yang dibutuhkan agar
reaksi mulai dan berakhir,
menjadi lebih lambat.
 Kurva bergeser untuk waktu
lebih lama dan temperatur lebih
rendah.
 Diagram CCT

 Kurva moderately rapid dan

slow cooling melintang pada
diagram continuous cooling
transformation untuk paduan
baja eutektoid.
 Transformasi terjadi pada
perpotongan antara diagram
continuous cooling dan garis
pendinginan.

Critical quenching rate:

laju pendinginan minimum
pada proses quenching yang
menghasilkan 100%
martensit.
 Diagram CCT Baja Eutektoid

723

M = Martensite 600

P = Pearlite 500
T →

400

300

200
Coarse P
100
M M +P Fine P

0.1 1 10 102 103 104 105

t (s) →
 Pengaruh Penambahan Unsur
Segregation / phase separation Interstitial
Solid solution
Element Added
Compound (new crystal structure) Substitutional

• + Simplicity of heat treatment and lower cost

•  Low hardenability
Plain Carbon Steel •  Loss of hardness on tempering
•  Low corrosion and oxidation resistance
•  Low strength at high temperatures

• ↑ hardenability
• Provide a fine distribution of alloy carbides during tempering
Alloying elements • ↑ resistance to softening on tempering
• ↑ corrosion and oxidation resistance
• ↑ strength at high temperatures
• Strengthen steels that cannot be quenched
• Make easier to obtain the properties throughout a larger section
• ↑ Elastic limit (no increase in toughness)
• Alter temperature at which the transformation occurs
• Alter solubility of C in a or  Iron
• Alter the rate of various reactions
 Unsur paduan vs Diagram Fe-Fe3C

Unsur Penstabil fasa austenit:

Ni, Mn,Co, C, N, Cu, Zn, Au, Ru, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt

Unsur Penstabil fasa ferit:

Si, Al, Be, P, TI, V, Mo, Cr, B, Ta, Nb, Zr

Unsur perubah titik eutektoid:

• Penstabil  menurunkan TE
• Penstabil a menaikan TE
• Semua unsur paduan menggeser titik eutektoid
ke kandungan karbon yang lebih rendah.

Unsur pembentuk karbida/nitrida:

• Karbida: Cr, W, Mo, V, TI, Nb, Zr
• Nitrida: Al dan semua unsur pembentuk karbida menbentuk nitrida
Unsur penstabil ferit dan austenit
Pengaruh unsur terhadap reaksi eutektoid
Effect of Alloying Elements on Pearlite Lamellar Spacing
It was noted earlier that the interlamellar spacing, l, varies as:
1  K3  T
l
Plots of 1/l versus temperature are thus linear, with a negative slope as shown by
the dashed line for a plain carbon eutectoid steel.

The addition of 0.4-1.8 wt% Cr

displaces the plot to the right,
ie., to higher TE and upwards
to smaller lamellar spacing.

The addition of 1.08-1.8 %Mn

displaces the plot to the left,
ie., to lower TE and
downwards to larger lamellar
spacing.
Pengaruh unsur paduan terhadap Diagram TTT

Alloy composition : Cr, Ni, V, Mo → increase hardenability

Cr, Mo, W, Ni

temperature

Hardenability of a steel increases

with an addition of alloying time
elements such as Cr, Mo, Ni, W, 
C curve move to the right direction
in the TTT diagram.
Efek karbon pada kekuatan baja
 Interlamellar spacing , S a/Fe3C

Zener dan Hillert:

S : Jarak lamel a/Fe3C

sa/Fe3C : Energy antar muka/unit area a/Fe3C
TE : Temperatur kesetimbangan
∆H : Perubahan entalpi/unit volum antara austenit dan a/Fe3C
∆T : Temperatur pendinginan
 Interlamellar spacing , S a/Fe3C
S
Pengaruh S terhadap kekuatan
S (cm)

1/S (cm-1)
 Bainit
dikontrol oleh difusi
Perlit: a + Fe3C, lamelar
Bainit: a + Fe3C**, plat/jarum
**Pada temperatur rendah, karbida
berbentuk e (struktur hexagonal,
8,4%C)

800 Austenite (stable)

Fe3C T(ºC) A
TE
P
600

a 400 A B

200

10-1 10 103 105

time (s)
 Pembentukan bainit
 T ~ 300-540 oC ⇒ upper bainit, terdiri dari ferit yang dipisahkan
oleh sementit panjang. (Karbida: Fe3C/sementit)
 T ~ 200-300 oC ⇒ lower bainit, terdiri dari ferit yang mengandung
sementit halus. (Karbida: Fe2,2C/ e-carbide, Hagg carbide)
 Di daerah bainit, transformasi di kontrol oleh proses difusi.
Karena proses difusi berjalan lambat pada temperatur rendah,
menghasilkan bainit halus.
Efek T transformasi terhadap sifat mekanik
 Spheroidite

• Fe3C dalam matriks a-ferit

• Dikontrol oleh difusi
• Memanaskan bainit atau perlit dibawah TE pada waktu tahan panjang

a
(Ferit)

Fe3C
(Sementit)

60 m
 Diagram CCT Baja 4340

 Penambahan Cr, Ni,

Mo, Mn, Si and W
dapat mengubah
Critical Cooling Rate
pembentukan
martensit.
 Sifat Mekanik

• Hardness
• Brinell, Rockwell
• Yield Strength
• Tensile Strength
• Ductility
• % Elongation
• Effect of Carbon Content
 Sifat Mekanik: pengaruh Karbon
Pearlit Perlit
ferit (lunak) Sementit
(keras)
C0 < 0.76 wt% C C0 > 0.76 wt% C
Hypoeutectoid Hypereutectoid
Sifat Mekanik
 Problem: Produksi 100% Bainit
Bainit menghasilkan baja yang mempunyai kombinasi yang baik antara
kekerasan, kuat tarik dan ketangguhan. Untuk menghasilkan 100%
bainit, baja eutektoid di-austenisasi pada 750oC, kemudian di-quench
sampai 250oC ditahan selama 15 menit, kemudian didinginkan sampai
temperatur kamar. Beri komentar.
 Solusi

Pada pemanasan 750oC, fasa 100% .

Setelah didinginkan sampai 250oC, fasa austenit
masih terbentuk sampai 100-an dtk, di mana
bainit mulai tumbuh. Setelah 15 menit atau 900
dtk, sebanyak 50% bainit telah terbentuk,
dengan tetap meninggalkan austenit yang tidak
bertransformasi.
Proses pemanasan tidak berhasil menghasilkan
100% bainit. Waktu penahanan minimal 104 dtk,
atau sekitar 3 jam.
 Transformasi fasa - mikrostruktur

Transformasi fasa:
1. Melibatkan proses difusi tanpa ada perubahan
komposisi dan jumlah fasa. (peleburan, pembekuan,
transformasi alotropi, dll)
2. Melibatkan proses difusi disertai perubahan
komposisi dan jumlah fasa (transformasi eutektoid)
3. Tanpa melibatkan proses difusi, menghasilkan fasa
yang metastabil denga cara pergeseran/pergerakan
atom. (transformasi martensitik)
 Transformasi martensitik: Martensit

 Terbentuk: kondisi austenit

didinginkan (quench) cepat
sampai temperatur kamar 800 Austenit (stabil)
(pruduk transformasi tak T(ºC) TE
A
setimbang). P
600
 Tidak melibatkan proses difusi
(tidak ada aktifitas termal) ⇒
athermal transformation. 400 B
A
 Tiap atom bergeser (dalam jarak
sub atomik), untuk merubah 200 M+A
0%
50%
FCC menjadi BCT (BCC dengan M+A 90%
salah satu kisi lebih panjang). M
-1 10 3 5
 Struktur BCT  sedikit bidang 10 10 10
slip  keras, getas t (s)
 Energi bebas vs Komposisi
a,
produk
∆Ga
T1
,
Induk

G Tangen

∆Ga T1>T2
T2

Diffusionless transformation impossible at T1,

Diffusionless transformation possible at T2;

X
“T0” is defined by no difference in free energy between the phases, ∆G=0.
Energi bebas vs Komposisi
T dekat T0

equilibrium diffusionless
  (FCC) Martensit

a ' (BCT)
Quench Posisi yang mungkin
Martensit 0.8 %C 0.8 %C untuk atom karbon

FCC
Austenit

C sepanjang c-axix
menyebabkan kontraksi

FCC
Austenit
Cell
Alternatif

20% kontraksi c-axis

12% ekspansi a-axis Tetragonal Pada Fe Murni setelah
Martensit Martensitic transformation
Austenit ke
Martensite → c=a
4.3 %
pengurangan
volum
 Unit sel BCT

a. The unit cell of BCT martensite is related to the FCC austenite unit cell.
b. As the percentage of carbon increases, more interstitial sites are filled by
the carbon atoms and the tetragonal structure of the martensite becomes
more pronounced.
Unit sel BCT

Parameter kisi martensit (nm):

c = 0,2866 + 0,0166x

a = 0,2866 + 0,0013x

Parameter kisi Austenit (nm):

a = 0,3555 + 0,0044x
 60
Hardness (Rc) →

Hardness of Martensite as a
function of Carbon content
40

20
% Carbon →
0.2 0.4 0.6

Properties of 0.8% C steel

Constituent Hardness (Rc) Tensile strength (MN / m2)
Coarse pearlite 16 710
Fine pearlite 30 990
Bainite 45 1470
Martensite 65 -
Martensite tempered at 250 oC 55 1990
 Tempering

• As-quenched specimen
• Heat below Eutectoid temperature → wait→ slow cooling
• The microstructural changes which take place during
tempering:

a ' (BCT ) a (BCC)

Fe3C
Temper
+
Martensite Ferrite Cementite

• Time temperature cycle chosen to optimize strength and

toughness.
• Tool steel: As quenched (Rc 65) → Tempered (Rc 45-55)
 Martempering dan Austempering
• To avoid residual stresses generated during quenching
• Austenized steel is quenched above Ms for homogenization of
temperature across the sample
• The steel is then quenched and the entire sample transforms
simultaneously
• Tempering follows
MARTEMPERING
Martempering

Austempering
AUSTEMPERING

• To avoid residual stresses generated during quenching

• Austenized steel is quenched above Ms
• Held long enough for transformation to Bainite
Contoh
 Martensit Temper
 Tempered martensite is less brittle than martensite; tempered at 594 °C.
 Tempering reduces internal stresses caused by quenching.
 The small particles are cementite; the matrix is a-ferrite.

4340 steel
Kekerasan vs kadar karbon
Kekerasan vs Waktu temper
Pengaruh temperatur tempering pada sifat mekanis baja 1050
 Austenit sisa

Retained austenite (white) trapped between martensite needles

(black) ( 1000). (From ASM Handbook, Vol. 8, (1973), ASM
International, Materials Park, OH 44073.)
 Diagram TTT baja eutectoid

Temp. martensit start

Temp. martensit finish
 Ms vs %C

 Retained austenite(austenit sisa): banyak terjadi di baja karbon tinggi.

 Kadar karbon austenit sisa lebih tinggi 30-40% dari paduan ( baja 0.3-
0.4 %C  C di austenit sisa sekitar 1.2-1.4%C)
 Ms dan Mf

Pengaruh C terhadap Ms dan Mf

%C dan Kekerasan

Kenaikan nilai kekerasan

Austenit sisa

Martensit
%C dan Kekerasan

Mengurangi jumlah R.A. :

• Cold treatment (-85oC)

• Cryogenic treatment (-195oC)
• Multiple temper

 Retained austenite(austenit
sisa): banyak terjadi di baja
karbon tinggi.
 Kadar karbon austenit sisa
lebih tinggi 30-40% dari
paduan ( baja 0.3-0.4 %C 
C di austenit sisa sekitar 1.2-
1.4%C)
 Retakan akibat quench

Formation of quench cracks caused by residual stresses produced during

quenching. The figure illustrates the development of stresses as the austenite
transforms to martensite during cooling.
 Shape Memory Alloy
SMA adalah paduan yang memiliki kemampuan untuk ‘menghafal’
atau mempertahankan bentuk mereka sebelumnya karena ada
perbedaan temperatur (ditinjau dari Ms). Contoh: NiTi
Shape Memory Alloy
 Summary of Possible Transformations

Austenite ()

slow moderate rapid

cool cool quench

Pearlite Bainite Martensite

(a + Fe3C layers + a (a + elong. Fe3C particles) (BCT phase
proeutectoid phase) diffusionless
transformation)

Martensite reheat
T Martensite
Strength

Ductility
bainite Tempered
fine pearlite Martensite
coarse pearlite (a + very fine
spheroidite Fe3C particles)

General Trends
66
 Diagram TTT baja eutectoid

 Ms menurun secara signifikan dengan penambahan C.

 C meningkatkan ketahanan geser atom-atom di austenit, sehingga
membutuhkan energi pendorong (pendinginan cepat ) untuk
mengeser atom-atom pada transformasi martensitik.
 Problem

Unusual combinations of properties can be

obtained by producing a steel whose
microstructure contains 50% ferrite and 50%
martensite; the martensite provides strength and
the ferrite provides ductility and toughness.
Design a heat treatment to produce a dual
phase steel in which the composition of the
martensite is 0.60% C.
 Solution
The heat treatment temperature is fixed by the requirement that the
martensite contain 0.60% C. From the solubility line between the 
and the a +  regions, we find that 0.60% C is obtained in austenite
when the temperature is about 750oC. To produce 50% martensite,
we need to select a steel that gives 50% austenite when the steel is
held at 750oC. If the carbon content of the steel is x, then:

%  (x 


0.02) 
 100 50  x  0.31%C
(0.60 0.02



The final design is:

1. Select a hypoeutectoid steel containing 0.31% C.
2. Heat the steel to 750oC and hold (perhaps for 1 h, depending
on the thickness of the part) to produce a structure containing
50% ferrite and 50% austenite, with 0.60% C in the austenite.
3. Quench the steel to room temperature. The austenite
transforms to martensite, also containing 0.60% C.
 Problem
Design a heat treatment to produce the pearlite structure!!
Assume that the pearlite is formed by an isothermal transformation.

10 m
 Data
S
Data
 Solution

Interlamellar spacing of the pearlite:

 The transformation temperature must have been

approximately 680oC. From the TTT diagram, the heat
treatment must have been:

1. Heat the steel to about 750oC and hold—for 1 h—to produce

all austenite. A higher temperature may cause excessive
growth of austenite grains.
2. Quench to 680oC and hold for at least 103 s (the Pf time).
3. Cool to room temperature.
 Problem

Producing 100% Bainit

Excellent combinations of hardness, strength, and
toughness are obtained from bainite. One heat treatment
facility austenitized an eutectoid steel at 750oC, quenched
and held the steel at 250oC for 15 min, and finally permitted
the steel to cool to room temperature. Give your comment?
Diagram TTT baja eutectoid
 Solution

After heating at 750oC, the microstructure is

100% . After quenching to 250oC, unstable
austenite remains for slightly more than 100 s,
when fine bainite begins to grow. After 15 min, or
900 s, about 50% fine bainite has formed and
the remainder of the steel still contains unstable
austenite.
The heat treatment was not successful! The heat
treatment facility should have held the steel at
250oC for at least 104 s, or about 3 h.