1 Introduction

SHIPS

Ships are still vital to the economy of many countries and they still carry
some 95 per cent of world trade. In 1998 the world's cargo fleet totalled
some 775 million tonnes deadweight and was increasing by 2 per cent a
year (Parker, 1998). The average deadweight was about 17 000. Although
aircraft have displaced the transatlantic liner, ships still carry large num-
bers of people on pleasure cruises and on the multiplicity of ferries in
all areas of the globe. Ships, and other marine structures, are needed to
exploit the riches of the deep.
Although one of the oldest forms of transport, ships, their equipment
and their function, are subject to constant evolution. Changes are driven
by changing patterns of world trade, by social pressures, by techno-
logical improvements in materials, construction techniques and control
systems, and by pressure of economics. As an example, technology now
provides the ability to build much larger, faster, ships and these are
adopted to gain the economic advantages they can confer.
A feature of many new designs is the variation in form of ships
intended for relatively conventional tasks. This is for reasons of efficiency
and has been made possible by the advanced analysis methods available,
which enable unorthodox shapes to be adopted with confidence in their
performance. The naval architect is less tied to following a type ship. In
the same way means of propulsion and steering are tailored to suit the
hull form and conditions of service, and they will be closely integrated
one with the other.

NAVAL A R C H I T E C T U R E AND T H E NAVAL A R C H I T E C T

Before going furthel, and to set the scene for this book, it is necessary
to ask:

• What is naval architecture?

• What is required of a naval architect?
1
2 INTRODUCTION

T h e full answer to e a c h question is c o m p l e x but, in essence, o n e

can say:

• Naval a r c h i t e c t u r e is the science o f m a k i n g a ship 'fit for p u r p o s e ' .

• A naval a r c h i t e c t is an e n g i n e e r c o m p e t e n t in naval architecture.

It r e m a i n s to see what is m e a n t by ' s h i p ' a n d 'fit for p u r p o s e ' .

The ship
This t e r m m u s t be i n t e r p r e t e d b r o a d l y a n d can r e f e r to any s t r u c t u r e
floating in water. It is usually self-propelled but s o m e , for instance,
d u m b barges a n d s o m e o f f s h o r e structures rely o n tugs to m o v e t h e m .
O t h e r s rely o n the wind. Marine structures, such as h a r b o u r installa-
tions, are the p r o v i n c e o f the civil engineer.
T h e p u r p o s e o f a m e r c h a n t ship is to carry goods, p e r h a p s p e o p l e ,
safely across water. T h a t o f a warship is the s u p p o r t o f g o v e r n m e n t pol-
icy in the i n t e r n a t i o n a l field. Let us c o n c e n t r a t e o n the m e r c h a n t ship.
In o r d e r i n g a new vessel the o w n e r will have in m i n d , i n t e r alia:

• a certain cargo;
• a certain v o l u m e o f c a r g o to be carried o n e a c h voyage;
• a r a n g e o f ports f r o m which the ship will o p e r a t e ;
• an average j o u r n e y time.

Each r e q u i r e m e n t Mll have an i m p a c t u p o n the ship design:

• T h e type o f c a r g o m a y be able to be carried in b u l k or m a y r e q u i r e

packaging; it may be h a z a r d o u s or it may require a special o n - b o a r d
environment.
• T h e v o l u m e o f c a r g o will be the m a j o r factor in d e t e r m i n i n g the
size o f the ship. An additional factor m a y be the n e e d to m o v e the
c a r g o in discreet units o f a specified size a n d weight.
• T h e ports, plus any rivers a n d canals to be n e g o t i a t e d , m a y place
restrictions o n the overall d i m e n s i o n s o f the vessel. D e p e n d i n g on
the p o r t facilities the ship may have to p r o v i d e m o r e , or less, c a r g o
h a n d l i n g e q u i p m e n t on b o a r d . T h e ports will also dictate the
o c e a n areas to be traversed a n d h e n c e the sea a n d w e a t h e r condi-
tions likely to be e n c o u n t e r e d .
• Ship schedules will dictate the s p e e d a n d h e n c e the installed
power. T h e y m a y p o i n t to desirable intervals b e t w e e n m a i n t e n -
a n c e periods.
 INTRODUCTION 3

Fit for purpose

To be fit for p u r p o s e a ship must cater for the above a n d be able to
o p e r a t e safely a n d reliably. T h e r e are m a n y national and i n t e r n a t i o n a l
rules and regulations to be met. Briefly the ship must:

• Float u p r i g h t with e n o u g h watertight v o l u m e above the waterline

to c o p e with waves a n d accidental flooding.
• Have adequate stability to cope with operational upsetting m o m e n t s
a n d to withstand a specified d e g r e e o f flooding following damage.
It must n o t be so stable that motions b e c o m e unpleasant.
• Be able to maintain the desired speed in the sea conditions it is
likely to meet.
• Be strong e n o u g h to withstand the loads it will experience in service.
• Be capable o f m o v i n g in a c o n t r o l l e d way in response to move-
ments o f c o n t r o l surfaces; to follow a given course or m a n o e u v r e
in c o n f i n e d waters.
• Not r e s p o n d too violently to waves.

T h e ship must d o all this economically, safely, reliably a n d with the

m i n i m u m size o f crew. T h e list o f contents shows that this b o o k deals
with these matters in turn. T h e knowledge gained is b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r
in discussing the design process a n d the different ship types that
e m e r g e f r o m an application o f a c o m m o n set o f principles. T h e design
s h o u l d be flexible because r e q u i r e m e n t s are likely to c h a n g e over the
long life e x p e c t e d o f ships. History shows that the most highly r e g a r d e d
ships have b e e n those able to a d a p t with time.

Variety
Naval a r c h i t e c t u r e is a fascinating a n d d e m a n d i n g discipline. It is fas-
cinating because o f the variety o f floating structures and the m a n y com-
promises necessary to achieve the most effective product. It is d e m a n d i n g
because a ship is a very large capital investment and because o f the n e e d
to p r o t e c t the p e o p l e o n b o a r d and the m a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t .
A visit to a busy p o r t reveals the variety of forms a ship may take. This is
d u e to the d i f f e r e n t d e m a n d s o n t h e m and the conditions u n d e r which
they operate. T h e r e are fishing vessels ranging f r o m the small local b o a t
o p e r a t i n g by day to the o c e a n going ships with facilities to d e e p freeze
their catches. T h e r e are vessels for exploitation o f u n d e r s e a e n e r g y
sources, gas a n d oil, a n d extraction o f minerals. T h e r e are oil tankers,
r a n g i n g f r o m small coastal vessels to giant supertankers. O t h e r h u g e
ships carry bulk cargoes such as grain, coal or iron ore. Ferries carry pas-
sengers between ports which may be only a few kilometres or a h u n d r e d
4 INTRODUCTION

apart. There are tugs for shepherding ships in port or for trans-ocean
towing. Then there are dredgers, lighters and pilot boats without
which a port could not function. In a naval port there will be warships
ranging from huge aircraft carriers through cruisers and destroyers to
frigates, patrol boats, mine countermeasure vessels and submarines.
Increasingly naval architects are involved in the design of small craft
such as yachts and motor cruisers. This reflects partly the much greater
n u m b e r of small craft, mostly for leisure actixities; partly the increased
regulation to which they are subject requiring a professional input and
partly the increasingly advanced methods used in their design and new
materials in their construction. However, in spite of the increasingly
scientific approach the design of small craft still involves a great deal of
'art'. Many of the craft are beautiful with graceful lines and lavishly
appointed interiors. The craftsmanship needed for their construction
is of the highest order.
Over the last half century many naval architects have become involved
in offshore e n g i n e e r i n g - the exploration for, and production of, oil
and gas. Their expertise has been needed for the design of the rigs and
the many supporting vessels, including manned and u n m a n n e d sub-
mersibles which are increasingly used for maintenance. This involve-
merit will continue as the riches of the ocean and ocean bed are
exploited more in the future.
For ships themselves there is considerable variety in hull form. Much of
this book is devoted to single hull, displacement forms which rely upon
displacing water to support their full weight. In some applications, par-
ticularly for fast ferries, multiple hulls are preferred because they provide
large deck areas with good stability without excessive length. Catamarans
have been built in large numbers. The idea is far from new as many soci-
eties have made use of outriggers to provide increased safety. As early
as the 1870s two twin hull ships of 9 0 m length were used on the cross
channel route between Dover and Calais. Although overtaken by other
developments both ships had good reputations for seakeeping. More
recently trimaran and pentamaran designs have been proposed and
the Triton, a trimaran demonstrator, has been very successful on trials.
In planing craft high speeds may be achieved by using dynamic
forces to support part of the weight when under way. Surface effect
ships use air cushions to support the weight of the craft, lifting it clear
of the water. This is particularly useful in na,~igating areas with sand
banks and in providing an amphibious capability. Hydrofoil craft rely
on hydrodynamic forces on submerged foils under the hull to lift the
main part of the craft above the waves. Other craft, particularly on
rivers in Russia, lift is gained bv the so-called wing-in-ground effect
(WIG). There are, of course, many examples of hybrid craft incorp-
orating several of the above features.
 INTRODUCTION 5

Some of the m o r e specialized craft are dealt with in a little m o r e

detail in the chapter on ship types.
Variety is n o t limited to appearance a n d function. Different materials
are used - steel, wood, aluminium, reinforced plastics of various types and
concrete. The propulsion system used to drive the craft through the water
may be the wind but for most large craft is some form of mechanical
propulsion. The driving power may be g e n e r a t e d by diesels, steam or
gas turbine, some form of fuel cell or a combination of these. Power will
be transmitted to the propulsion device through mechanical or hydraulic
gearing or by using electric generators and motors as intermediaries. The
propulsor itself is usually some form of propeller, perhaps ducted, but
may be water or air jet. There will be m a n y other systems on board, such
as means of m a n o e u v r i n g the ship, electric power generation, hydraulic
power for winches a n d other cargo h a n d l i n g systems, a n d so on.
A ship can be a veritable floating township of several thousand people
r e m a i n i n g at sea for several weeks. It needs electrics, air conditioning,
sewage treatment plant, galleys, bakeries, shops, restaurants, cinemas and
other leisure facilities. All these, a n d the general layout must be arranged
so that the ship can carry out its intended tasks efficiendy. The naval archi-
tect has n o t only the problems of the building a n d town designer but a
ship must float, move, be capable of surviving in a very rough environ-
m e n t a n d withstand a reasonable level of accident. It is the naval archi-
tect who 'orchestrates' the design, calling u p o n the expertise of m a n y
o t h e r professions in achieving the best c o m p r o m i s e between many,
often conflicting, requirements. T h e profession of naval architecture is
n o t only engineering, it is an art as well. T h e art is in getting a design
that is aesthetically pleasing a n d able to carry out its function with max-
i m u m effectiveness, efficiency a n d economy. The naval architect's task
is n o t limited to the design of ships but extends into their building a n d
upkeep. These latter aspects are n o t covered in any detail in this book.
Naval architecture is a d e m a n d i n g profession because a ship is a
major capital investment taking m a n y years to create a n d expected to
remain in service for 25 years or more. It is usually part of a larger trans-
port system a n d must be properly integrated with the other elements of
the overall system. A prime example of this is the container ship. Goods
are placed in containers at the factory. These containers are of standard
dimensions and are taken by road, or rail, to a port with specialized hand-
ling e q u i p m e n t where they are loaded on board. At the port of destin-
ation they are off-loaded on to land transport. The use of containers
means that ships n e e d spend far less time in port loading and unloading
a n d the cargoes are m o r e secure. Port fees are r e d u c e d a n d the ship is
used m o r e productively.
Most i m p o r t a n t is the safety of ship, crew and, increasingly nowadays,
the environment. The design must be safe for normal operations and
6 INTRODUCTION

not be unduly vulnerable to mishandling or accident. No ship can be

absolutely safe and a designer must take conscious decisions as to the
level of risk j u d g e d acceptable in the full range of scenarios in which
the ship can expect to find itself. There will always be a possibility that the
conditions catered for will be exceeded. The risk of this and the poten-
tial consequences must be assessed and only accepted if they are j u d g e d
unavoidable or acceptable. Acceptable, that is, by the owner, operator
and the general public and not least by the designer who has ultimate
responsibility. Even where errors on the part of others have caused an
accident the designer should have considered such a possibility and
taken steps to minimize the consequences. For instance, in the event of
collision the ship must have a good chance of sur~4ving or, at least, of
remaining afloat long enough for passengers to be taken off safely.
This brings with it the need for a whole range of life sa~ing equipment.
The heavy loss of life in the sinking of several ferries in the closing years
of the 20th Century show what can happen when things go wrong.
Cargo ships may caixy materials which would damage the environment
if released. The consequences of large oil spillages are reported all too
often. Other chemicals pose even greater threats. In the case of ferries,
the lorries on board may carry dangerous loads. Clearly those who design,
construct and operate ships have a great responsibility to the commu-
nity at large. If they fail to live up to the standards expected of them
they are likely to be called to account. Over the years the safety of life
and cargo has prompted governments to lay down certain conditions
that must be met by ships flying their flag, or using their ports. Because
shipping is world wide there are also international rules to be obeyed.
It will be clear from what has been said above, that naval architects
must work closely with those who build, maintain and operate the ships
they design. This need for teamwork and the need for each player to
understand the others' needs and problems, are the themes of a book
published by The Nautical Institute in 1999.

T H E IMPACT O F C O M P U T E R S

Computers have made a great impact upon the lives of everybody. They
have had considerable impact upon the design, production and oper-
ation of ships. Their impact is felt in a number of ways:

(1) Individual calculations are possible which otherwise could not

be undertaken. For instance, ship motion predictions by theory
and the use of finite element analysis for structural strength.
Design optimization techniques are i]acreasingly being proposed
and developed.
 INTRODUCTION 7

(2) A n u m b e r of programs can be combined to form a computer

aided design system where the output from one program pro-
vides a direct input into others. Revisions of the database as the
design develops can be used to up-date automatically the results
of calculations carried out earlier. Thus changes in scantlings
occasioned by the strength calculations can up-date displace-
m e n t and stability estimates. The end result of the hull fairing
process leads to a tape which can be supplied to the shipbuilder
instead of the lines plan and table of offsets.
(3) More data is immediately available to the designer to assist in
decision-making.
(4) Many more design options can be studied and compared and
these can be at an earlier stage in design and in greater detail.
(5) Simulations can be produced of what the finished ship will look
like, internally as well as externally. These can be used instead of
mock-ups to assist in achieving efficient layouts. The colours
and textures of different materials can be shown. An owner can
effectively be taken for a walk through his ship before it leaves
the drawing board (Thornton, 1992).
(6) In production the computer can help with routine matters like
stock control. It can control cutting and welding machines
ensuring greater accuracy of fit and facilitating more extensive
pre-fabrication and reducing built-in stress levels.
(7) On board it can control machinery and monitor its perform-
ance to give early warning of incipient failure.
(8) It can help the command with decision-making. For instance, it can
advise on loading sequences to eliminate the possibility of over-
loading the structure. It can assist warship captains when under
enemy attack by suggesting the optimum actions to take in defence.
(9) Computer-based simulators can assist in training navigators,
machinery controllers and so on.

It is hoped that these few paragraphs have shown that naval archi-
tecture can be interesting and rewarding. An example of the variety
and interest to be found in the profession can be obtained by reading
the memoirs of an eminent naval architect, Marshall Meek (2003). The
various topics mentioned above are discussed in more detail in later
chapters where the fundamental aspects of the subject are covered.
The references given at the end of the book, arranged by chapter, indi-
cate sources of further reading for following up specific topics. A more
advanced general textbook, for instance by Rawson and Tupper
(2001), can be consulted if desired. This has many more references,
together with worked and set examples, to assist the interested reader.
For comments on sources and references see Appendix A.