Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Food extrusion
a b
Judson M. Harper & J. Peter Clark
a
Professor and Department Head, Department of Agricultural and Chemical Engineering,
Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
b
Associate Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute,
Blacksburg, Virginia
To cite this article: Judson M. Harper & J. Peter Clark (1979): Food extrusion, C R C Critical Reviews in Food Science and
Nutrition, 11:2, 155-215
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to
anyone is expressly forbidden.
The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents
will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should
be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims,
proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in
connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
February 1979 155
FOOD EXTRUSION
INTRODUCTION
• Versatility — a wide variety of food can be produced on the same basic extrusion
system.
• High productivity — an extruder has greater production capability than other
cooking/forming systems.
• Low cost — labor and floor space requirements per unit of production are smaller
than for other cooking/forming systems.
• Product shapes — extruders can produce shapes not easily obtained using other
production methods.
• High product quality — the high temperature and short time process minimizes
nutrient degradation while destroying most microorganisms or other pests.
• Production of new foods — extruders can modify vegetable proteins, starches,
and other food materials to produce new food products.
• No effluents — no process effluents or hazardous materials are produced.
These advantages have been incorporated into processes which produce many of our
precooked convenience foods consumed today.
The initial application of extruders to food processing came in the mid-1930s119 when
forming extruders were first used to mix semolina flour and water and to shape a
variety of pasta products. A few years later, the first ready-to-eat (RTE) breakfast
cereal was produced when a precooked, principally oat flour-based dough was shaped
into donut shapes using an extruder and appropriate die. These pellets were subse-
quently puffed in a puffing gun to make the finished product.
156 CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
In the mid-1940s collet extrusion was developed for the production of highly ex-
panded cereal collets or curls which were enrobed with oil and flavor to produce a
variety of snacks. In the early 1950s a number of large extruders were developed and
used to cook and expand mixtures of cereals, legumes, animal byproducts, and fats
into dry pet foods and animal feeds.10
Using modified, improved versions of the extruders used to cook animal foods, or
extruders used for plastics, food researchers have developed a wide variety of products
including: precooked and modified starches, RTE cereals, snack foods, breading sub-
stitutes, soft-moist pet foods, and full-fat soy flour. Proliferation and sophistication
of these basic product lines has continued to this day.
A major new application of cooking extruders came with the discovery by Atkin-
son" that extruders could be used to plasticize soy protein concentrates and isolates
and orient and cross-link their protein molecules to form a textured vegetable protein.
Extrusion texturization of proteinous foods is now a widely practiced technology and
accounts for a significant fraction of fabricated foods.
This review summarizes and codifies the known technical literature which is relevant
to food extrusion. No attempt has been made to incorporate the patent literature into
the review. The patent literature has been summarized for breakfast cereal processes,431
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
prepared snack processes,*4" and textured foods54* and are not referred to further in
this review.
EXTRUDER CLASSIFICATION
Pasta Extruders
The deep-flighted screw, smooth barrel, and low screw speed of the pasta extruder
make it ideal for working the moistened semolina flour and pressing it through a die
with little or no cooking. In the pasta extruder, little input energy is dissipated because
of the low shear rate of the product and the smooth barrel used. In addition, similar
extruders are used in the manufacture of hot dogs, pastry doughs, cookies, and certain
types of candy products."
Applications
Pet Protein
foods, supplements
General Confec- animal Sausage and meat
Types of extruders characteristics Snacks Cereals Pasta tionery feed products analogues
Direct
(positive-displacement)
Hydraulic or Very low shear, X X X
pneumatic ram continuous
Intermeshing Low shear, con- X
twin screw tinuous
Hybrid of direct and
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
indirect
Nonintermeshing High shear, con-
twin screw tinuous
Indirect (viscous-drag)
Roller Low shear, con- X X X
tinuous
Single screw High shear, con- X X X
tinuous
I
t—»
to
AO
-J
158 CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
Collet Extruders
Rapid viscous dissipation of mechanical energy input to the short screw (L/D ~ 3:1)
occurs in the collet extruder because of the high shear in a screw with shallow flights
operating in a grooved barrel to prevent slip at the walls. Collet extruders normally
extrude relatively dry feed materials and heat them rapidly to temperatures exceeding
175°C where the starch is gelatinized and partially dextrinized. When this material
exits the die, the rapid change in pressure and normal forces from the non-Newtonian
dough cause substantial expansion of the product and subsequent loss of moisture to
form a crisp, expanded curl or collet. The most common ingredient extruded is defat-
ted corn grits.
trol the desired processing conditions such as temperature and puffing. Product appli-
cations include pet foods, cereals, and snacks.
High-shear cooking extruders have been classified as HTST (high-temperature/
short-time devices) by Smith.135136 In most applications, feed ingredients are preheated
with steam or hot water and then processed through the high-shear cooking extruder
to further work the product and increase its temperature rapidly. Nearly instantaneous
cooling occurs once the product leaves the die, which, coupled with the short residence
time in the screw, results in the HTST designation.
A thermodynamic classification of single-screw extruders was also developed by
Rossen and MDler,119 which follows:
Autogenous Extruders
The entire heat input to the extruder results from the viscous dissipation of mechan-
ical energy inputs, and little or no heat is added or removed from the barrel. Collet
extruders and some high-shear cooking extruders are examples of autogenous extru-
ders. Since temperatures are controlled by feed composition and screw configuration,
autogenous extruders tend to have less flexibility and are more difficult to control.
Isothermal Extruders
Constant temperatures are maintained throughout the length of the barrel. Forming
extruders typically fall into this category. To maintain isothermal conditions, heat is
normally removed through jackets surrounding the barrel. Since dough conditions re-
main relatively constant in isothermal extruders, they lend themselves to easier descrip-
tion mathematically.
Polytropic Extruders
In reality, all extruders are polytropic, although some nearly operate as autogenous
or isothermal extruders. Cooking extruders which have jacketed barrels where heat is
alternatively added or extracted operate in the polytropic regime.
EXTRUSION EQUIPMENT
BARREL
H
SCREW
—X
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
Figure 1 where the component parts and dimensions are labeled. An extruder consists
of a flighted Archimedean screw which rotates in a tightly fitting barrel. The extruder
differs from a screw conveyor in that the screw normally has much shallower flights
and some mechanism which causes a compression in the food material as it moves
from the feed hopper to be discharged through a die.
When operating properly, the flights of the extruder screw are completely filled with
the food material near the discharge end, while a screw conveyor's flights are only
partially filled. Because the flights of the extruder screw are filled, a significant amount
of viscous dissipation of the mechanical energy used to turn the screw occurs in the
flights with correspondingly high shear rates.
The extrusion screw consists of a central shaft upon which a helical flight is wrapped.
The open area bounded by the flights on the sides, the root of the screw on the bottom,
and the barrel on the top is called the channel. The surface at the top of the flights is
called the land. The diameter of the screw, D, is the inside diameter of the barrel, and
the flight height, H, is the distance from the root of the screw to the barrel. The helix
angle of the screw, 6, is the angle that the helical flight makes with the vertical. Know-
ing 9 and D describes the lead.
TTD tan 6 (1)
The flight clearance is 6, the flight thickness in the axial direction is b, the flight thick-
ness perpendicular to the flight is e, the axial distance between flights is B, and the
distance between flights perpendicular to the flights is W.
Compression in the extruder screw results from several designs shown in Figure 2.
These designs include increasing root diameter, decreasing pitch from the feed to the
discharge ends of the screw, use of a tapered barrel with a constant root diameter or
decreasing screw pitch, and the placement of restrictions in the flights of the screw.
The central part of a foods extruder is the screw. Typical screws can be divided into
three sections, depending upon the function each portion plays in the extrusion pro-
cess. The section of the screw where the feed enters is commonly called the feed section
and normally has deeper flights or flights of greater pitch. These geometrical properties
of the screw allow the feed materials to easily fall into the screw and begin to be
160 CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
X w \
1. INCREASING ROOT DIAMETER
X X \X\}
2. DECREASING PITCH .CONSTANT ROOT
m
DIAMETER
DIAMETER
conveyed along the barrel. Many extrusion problems can be related to the poor entry
of feed into the extruder. The design of the feed hopper in conjunction with the feed
section of the screw must be such that sticky materials with poor flow properties can
be readily accepted and conveyed in much the same manner as a screw conveyor.
Once the feed material enters the screw, it begins to be compacted and worked into
a continuous, plasticized dough-like material. The restricted discharge of the extruder
or internal restrictions or compressions along the screw results in the complete filling
of the screw channel as the food material moves along the screw. The section of the
screw where the feed material is compacted and converted from a flowing granular or
sticky mass to a relatively uniform plasticized dough is called the transition or compres-
sion section.
After the feed material leaves the transition section and before it enters a die, a
metering section of the screw with relatively shallow flights, reduced 9, or increased
restriction or interruption of the channel area is used to thoroughly mix and/or in-
crease the temperature of the extruded material. Screws with relatively long metering
sections tend to produce products with the greatest uniformity and with fewer fluctua-
tions in the extrusion output.
A typical food extruder of the high-shear cooking type is illustrated in Figure 3. The
significant features are described below.
February 1979 161
DRIVE,GEAR FEED
REDUCER 8 HOPPER
COOLING BARREL
THRUST BEARING
WATER STEAM
JACKET JACKET PRESSURE
TRANSDUCER
,^- DISCHARGE
y" THERMOCOUPLE
BREAKER
PLATE
BARREL WITH
HARDENED LINER
SCREW WITH
INCREASING
ROOT DIAMETER
Extrusion Stand
A base is required which adequately supports the drive, bearings, and extrusion bar-
rel/screw assembly. Many times this stand is equipped with special disassembly devices
which allow holding and removal of the heavy extrusion parts and reduce the danger
of dropping and damage. On long extrusion barrels, provision is also made to allow
for expansion of the barrel when heated.
Drive Mechanism
Typically, extruders are driven with an electrical motor operating through some gear
reduction to provide the proper screw speed. Power requirements vary with the extru-
sion operation and range from 0.05 to 0.36 kWh/kg.
Variable speed capability is normally achieved by using SCR-controIIed DC motors,
variable sheave belt drives, and electromagnetic drives. In most of these drives, torque
increases proportionally as speed is reduced, which can lead to damage of the screw
or drive train components when low speeds are used. Torque-limiting devices consist-
ing of slip clutches, shear pins, or hydraulic drives with pressure reliefs are often used
to provide the required safety.
The drive mechanism is attached to the extruder bearing assembly and screw with a
flexible coupling. The flexible coupling allows for any misalignment in shafts and re-
duces vibrations which may be transmitted down the drive shaft of the extruder.
It is quite common for the extrusion screw speed and energy input to the drive to
be measured and monitored during the extrusion process. Energy input is a very sen-
sitive measure of extruder performance and quickly reflects changes occurring in the
extrusion operation.
Thrust Bearing
The extrusion screw is normally supported with a bearing at only the driven end. A
significant rearward thrust must be absorbed in the bearing to compensate for the
force imparted to the extruded food material as it is being moved forward along the
length of the screw. Easy lubrication is essential to assure bearing life, and many times
external cooling with water is required.
Feed Hopper
The feed hopper provides the opening through which feed materials enter the screw.
162 • CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
Many times the hopper is equipped with agitators in the bottom (live bottom) to reduce
bridging of the feed and increase the ease with which it moves into the screw.
To further aid feeding of the screw, the feed hopper is often offset to the side of
the barrel in the direction of screw rotation. Such offsetting or undercutting of the
feed section aids the feed materials entering the screw to be conveyed down the length
of the barrel. Cooling is often applied to the feed hopper and section of the barrel/
screw to aid feeding. A cooling jacket where cold water is circulated proves to be a
satisfactory approach.
Feed materials entering the extruder can take on a variety of forms, from dry free-
flowing grits to wet and sticky dough-like materials. Usually fine flours are more dif-
ficult to feed because of bridging and clumping, while coarse grits tend to move quickly
and easily into the extruder.
Barrel
The barrel of an extruder is often manufactured in sections which are bolted or
clamped together. Because barrel sections are heavy, such construction aids disassem-
bly and allows for replacement of sections without replacing entire barrels. Usually
the inner surface of the barrel is grooved to reduce slippage and increase the pumping
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
Temperature Sensing
Usually the temperature of the product is sensed just behind the die and is often
called the melt temperature, a term from plastics extrusion. Temperatures along the
length of the extruder barrel are also commonly measured. Sometimes temperature
February 1979 163
Cavity
for
Exposing
Thermocouple
Probe
to Dough
Mounting Adaptor
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
Thermocouple
Probe
Teflon
Ring
FIGURE 4. Thermocouple used to sense temperature in a food extruder. (From Thompson, D. R. and
Rosenau, J. R., Data acquisition from an extruder for food research, Trans. ASAE, 20(2), 397, 1977. With
permission.)
sensors are placed just inside the surface of the barrel, while at other times the probes
extend through the surface to contact the product.
Difficulties in accurately sensing the extrudate temperature result since the probes
extend through large masses of metal which have greater influence on the temperature
sensed by the probe than the temperature of the extrudate. Thompson and Rosenau153
have discussed methods to improve the use of thermocouples for sensing temperatures
in food extruders. An example of a thermocouple used in food extruders is shown in
Figure 4.
Pressure Sensing
Pressures are not commonly measured on food extruders, but measurements just
behind the die are useful in determining steady flow conditions and monitoring the
operation of the extruder. Pressure sensors of the force balance and filled Bourdon
tube types are normally used. These have been developed for the plastics extrusion
industry and are screwed into specially designed receptacles machined into the barrel
body. Pressure transducers with the sensing end sealed with a flexible diaphragm are
most satisfactory because food materials cannot work into the sensing mechanism. An
example is shown in Figure 5.
FIXED
EXIT REGULATED
PORT, PRESSURE
VENT
BALANCING SUPPLY AIR
DIAPHRAGM
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
REGULATING
VALVE
ttt
FLEXIBLE
MEASURING
DIAPHRAGM
FIGURE 5. Force balance pressure transducer with a flexible diaphragm.
(From Harmann, D. V., M. S. thesis, Colorado State University, Fort Col-
lins, Colorado, 1974. With permission.)
die and act as an external restriction in the flow, both to increase back-mixing in the
screw and assure a uniform pressure behind the die.
The Screw
The extrusion screw serves three functions: (1) accepting and conveying the feed, (2)
compressing and working the food material, and (3) uniformly working and mixing
the extrudate. Typically, the screw is divided into three sections: (1) feed section, (2)
transition or compression section, and (3) the metering section. The significant features
of these sections and their role in food extrusion were described earlier.
In relatively long screws, each of the above sections represents approximately one
third of the total screw length. Screws that operate at higher speeds normally have
shallower pitches than do extruders which are primarily forming extruders. Shallow
flights increase shear in the screw, pressure capability, and improve mixing, but reduce
extruder output at a fixed screw speed. Heat-sensitive materials are often damaged in
shallow-flighted screws, which is a restriction in their application. Several parallel
flights can be wound on the screw to improve conveying capability.
The clearance between the screw and the barrel is usually kept small to reduce leak-
February 1979 165
age flow over the lands of the screw. Barrel grooves enhance leakage and back-mixing,
but reduce slip at the walls and increase pumping capability, which usually more than
compensates for the increased leakage. Spiral grooves are used in some designs, which
actually enhance the forward movement of the product.
Wear occurs first on the leading edge of the flight, causing it to become rounded
with a resulting decrease in viscous dissipation of energy and a corresponding reduction
in temperature of the extrudate. To replace metal lost on screws where high shear
occurs, rebuilding through welding techniques is periodically required to return screw
dimensions to their original specifications.
The Die
The extruder is normally equipped with a series of shaped holes where the extrudate
emerges from the extruder. These die holes can take on a number of shapes to form
the food material into rods, spheres, donuts, tubes, strips, etc. Expansion occurs as
the product leaves the die because of the rapid release of pressure from the end of the
extruder to ambient conditions. Flashing of moisture results with the release of the
pressure since the product is often above the normal boiling point of water. The quan-
tity of moisture flashed can be estimated by a heat balance around the discharge of
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
or
M, = ^ ^ ^ ^ - ^ (3)
A
Quality cutting head — Clean cutting at the die surface is necessary to achieve neat,
uniform extruded pieces. Thin knives tend to cut cleaner than thick knives with a
pitched cutting surface. The cutter must be precisely placed relative to the die face and
have a variable speed capability to match the extrusion output.
To assist in the gathering of meaningful data from small research food extruders,
Thompson and Rosenau1" have described the instrumentation of a small laboratory
extruder. Included in the instrumentation package were thermocouples, pressure trans-
ducers, tachometers, and torque measurement. Data on their system were collected
with a data logger and processed directly with a digital computer. Procedures are given
for correcting thermocouple readings to compensate for the barrel being at a temper-
ature different from the actual dough temperature.
Modification of a Brabender® laboratory extruder, including the feed system and
torque and speed measurement, are described by Timbers et al.15* Procedures for ag-
glomerating feed materials are said to improve the feeding capabilities of the small
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
extruder.
1. Flow is laminar.
2. Flow is steady.
3. Flow is fully developed.
4. Barrel is rotating and the screw is stationary.
5. Channel i s ' 'peeled off' the screw and laid flat.
6. Slip does not occur at the walls.
7. Fluid is incompressible.
8. Gravity forces are negligible.
9. Inertial forces are negligible.
Some of these assumptions are suitable for food extrusion, while others should be
questioned. Food doughs are typically higher viscous and the screw turns relatively
slowly, resulting in Reynolds numbers of less than 10~3, which is well within the laminar
region. Flow in food extrusion is desired to be steady, and velocity profiles remain
constant with time and location. If the extrusion model is restricted to the metering
section, fully developed flow occurs.
Keeping the screw stationary and rotating the barrel is much simpler for modeling
purposes because the frame of reference is stationary with respect to the screw. Assum-
ing that the barrel rotates and the screw is stationary is identical to the actual but
reverse situation except for the radial pressure distribution resulting from the centri-
petal forces. The centripetal forces are small because the screw turns slowly.
If the channel of the screw is shallow (H/D is small), it can be unwound from the
screw with relatively little distortion and the resulting section laid flat. When this is
February 1979 167
BARREL
ROOT OF SCREW
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
FIGURE 6. Geometry of the prismatic channel. (From Tadmor, Z. and Klein, I., Engineering Principles
ofPlasticatingExtrusion, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1970. With permission.)
done, the barrel becomes an infinite plate, sliding across the channel at the helix angle
0 (as shown in Figure 6).
Assuming no slip occurs at the walls is a questionable assumption under a number
of food extrusion applications. Grooves in the walls reduce slip but complicate mod-
eling. Incorporating slip into the model is difficult and therefore not included.
Cereal doughs are nearly incompressible as determined by Lancaster*4 and Harmann
and Harper." Gravity forces in the metering section of an extruder are negligible com-
pared to normal operating pressures of 35 at. Inertial forces are small, and are very
small compared to viscous forces.
Most food materials do not exhibit Newtonian behavior, and this restriction causes
a serious limitation to the application of simplified extrusion theory. Food doughs are
pseudoplastic, which will alter velocity profiles within the flights extensively.3* These
effects will be discussed later in the review after the theory for Newtonian fluids is
developed.
The Navier-Stokes equations for incompressible flow apply and serve as the basis
for the analysis of the metering section. For fully developed flow in the z direction
(see Figure 4), partial derivatives with respect to z and time are zero. Because gravity
and inertial forces are neglected, these terms may also be dropped, giving
3P _ (4)*
x: 3x
(5)
and (6)
* Equations 4, 5, and 6 assume Newtonian viscosity, but are useful in developing an idealized case
which can often be applied to non-Newtonian food doughs without extensive error.
168 CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
3v
Ji =o (7)
3x 9y
To determine extrusion output, the flow in the z direction need only be considered
and Equation 6 was solved by Rowell and Finlayson," 0121 using the boundary condi-
tions v,(x,0) = 0, v,(x,H) = V,, v,(0,y) = 0, and v,(w,y) = 0, which indicates no slip
at the channel boundaries. Once v, is found, it can be used to estimate volumetric
extruder output:
ri w
vzdydx (8)
Q = G, N F dt + -J- F pt ( - ^ — 4 (10)
where
G, = - J L DH3 (1 ep
) sin' e (12)
12 JTD sin 6
February 1979 169
BARREL SURFACE
X X X x X X X x X X X X X X X X X X X_ x x X X X X
1.0
0.8-
Lo.6- DRAG PRESSURE
H 0 . 4 - FLOW FLOW
0.2-
SCREW ROOT
-••z
3
COMBINED DRAG AND PRESSURE FLOW
ra="
\.\\XX\\\\\\XX\\\XXXX
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
a=l
OPEN CLOSED
DISCHARGE DISCHARGE
FIGURE 7. Velocity profile in down channel z direction showing the superimposed components of drag
and pressure flow. (From Bernhardt, E. C , Processing of Thermoplastic Materials, Reinhold Publishing,
New York, 1962. With permission.)
1.0
a F p
5 p O R SCREW WITH
NO FLIGHT EDGE EFFECTS
0.8
0.6
(C
0.4
0.2
1 1 1 1
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
H/W
FIGURE 8. The drag flow shape correction factor (Fd) and the pressure flow shape correction factor (F,)
vs. the channel depth-to-width ratio (H/W). (From Squires, P. H., SPEJ., 14 (5), 24, 1958. With permis-
sion.)
170 CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
L/D
FIGURE 9. The pressure flow end effect correction factor (F,.) vs. the extruder length-to-diameter ratio
(L/D) for different helix angles, 0. (From Booy, M. L., Polym. Eng. Sci., 7 (1), 5, 1967. With permission.)
F
dt
F
d F de F dc (13)
rF
pt! = F
r rF
p p (14)
(15)
f = G. (16)
February 1979 171
2.0
\
1.8
\
1.6
1.4 \
Tan0 = /3x.
\
*
- -
1.2 Tan 0 = l / 2 ^ ^ \
'—-»
— ^
- -
— —
1.0
0.8
0.6
k\
Tan 0 = I-^N.
0.4
\\
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
0.2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
FIGURE 10. The drag flow end effect correction factor (F,.) vs. the pressure flow end
effect correction factor (F,.) for different helix angles, 6. (From Booy, M. L., Polym. Eng.
Sci., 7 (17), 5,1967. With permission.)
+ e (18)
W
6L ir D (H - i
(19)
H 3 tan 6
-Hi. (20)
tanJ 6
G =(
' r> s ^r (21)
and i^ = viscosity in flight clearance. It should be noted that f can change signs de-
pending upon whether the pressure drop is either positive or negative down the length
of the extrusion screw.
I.I
1 =====— —
1 -
•c?=5o—-
_J—B 10
1.0
=^: — . —
0.9 o r
^ ,
o0.8
^ ^
40
0.7 \
\ .
0.5
6C
» s
0.5
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
0.4
0.05 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45
H/D
FIGURE 11. The drag flow curvature correction factor (FWc) vs. the channel depth-to-diameter ratio, H /
D, for different helix angles, 0. (From Booy, M. L., SPE Trans., 3 (3), 176,1963. With permission.)
Q = K AP (22)
circle: K = (23)
8L d
wh 3
slit: K (24)
12 L d
"(Ro
annulus: K (25)
12 hA
*d
1+ (—) (26)
LK
and
G N F
, dt
AP (27)
February 1979 173
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
H/D
FIGURE 12. The pressure flow curvature correction factor (F,J vs. the channel depth-to-diameter ratio,
H/D, for different helix angles, 6. (From Booy, M. L., SPE Trans., 3 (3), 176,1963. With permission.)
These equations give the flow rate through and pressure drop across a specific die
when coupled with an extruder operating at steady flow conditions and where the food
material has Newtonian viscosity. Graphically, the Q vs. AP relationships are shown
in Figure 13. The flow characteristics for two screws, one with a deep channel and the
other with a shallow channel, are shown. The output of the deep channel screw at
equal N and D is substantially larger than the output of the shallow channel screw
because the drag flow is proportional to H. The deep channeled screw output is, how-
ever, highly dependent upon the pressure flow such that the output decreases rapidly
as back pressure increases. The shallow channel screw is relatively unaffected by back
pressure and its output is nearly constant with increasing back pressures.
The flow through a large and small die is also plotted in Figure 13 as a function of
AP. Where the die characteristic curve crosses the screw characteristic curve represents
the operating point of the extruder and is described by Equations 26 and 27. Notice
how going from a large to small die may actually result in the shallow-flighted screw
having a greater output than the deep-flighted screw.
— / - D I E CHARACTERISTICS
UJ
SHALLOW/\
Y /SMALL
O CHANNElY
^ ^ - ^ / D I E OPENING
^ T •
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
N ^ < SCREW
CHARACTERISTICS
PRESSURE DIFFERENCE, A P
FIGURE 13. Flow vs. pressure drop for varying screw and die characteristics. (From Bern-
hardt, E. C , Processing of Thermoplastic Materials, Reinhold Publishing, New York, 1962.
With permission.)
In the plastics field, extrusion models have advanced rapidly to where they now
include the effects of solid particles conveying, the transformation of the solid particles
to a plasticized mass characterized as a two-phase flow region, heat transfer from the
barrel jackets and/or screw, internal heat generation from the viscous dissipation of
mechanical energy inputs, and non-Newtonian flow behavior. Fricke et al.48 has re-
viewed these recent developments in extrusion modeling and discussed their implica-
tions to the design of food extruders. The digital computer is capable of solving com-
plex mathematical models and greatly aids in the design of food extruders if the
physical properties and changes which occur within the food system are known and
can be characterized mathematically.82
3.1 Screw
£•3
o Average Moisture
o 11.64 %
• 12.75 %
A 14.56 %
• 12.09 %
o 13.70 %
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
RPM
FIGURE 14. Flow vs. extrusion speed for corn grits extrusion. (From Harmann, D. V. and Harper, J.
M., Trans. ASAE, 16 (6), 1175, 1973. With permission.)
through visual observations. The ratio of the d s calculated for the two screws tested
was nearly equal to the ratio of flows actually measured at a constant N.
A similar study reported by Bruin et al." compared flows of extruded corn grits
through a Bottenfield® extruder with flows predicated by Equation 10. These re-
searchers found that the theory predicted a flow rate higher than actually measured
and that deviations became higher with screws having lower compression ratios. The
same researchers have also experimentally measured flow rates of modified diamylo-
pectin phosphates and defatted soy grits with varying die configurations and found
for these materials that extrusion rate was proportional to N as predicted by theory.
In another study reported by Harmann and Harper," pregelatinized corn flour hy-
drated to 32% moisture was isothermally extruded at 88°C. A Brabender® extruder
was used having a 1.90- and 3.18-cm smooth barrel with a 20:1 L/D ratio with five
screws having varying compression ratios. Knowing the dough viscosity and pressure
profiles, experimental measurements for flow ranged 9 to 13% above predicted flows
for shallow screws. For one deep-flighted screw, theory overpredicted flow by 21%.
Deviations from theory were attributed to the non-Newtonian behavior of the dough.
A series of studies on 14 specifically designed extruder screws with varying flight
depths, pitches, compression ratios, and lengths of the metering section was conducted
by Tsao et al. 1 " The feed material was a high-moisture food with a relatively low
viscosity, which resulted in low pressure drops across the screw. Under these condi-
tions, the drag flow term in Equation 10 was the dominant factor in the flow equation.
Extruder output was found to vary linearly with HN as predicted. Generally, the flow
rate of shallow-flighted screws was underpredicted while the flow for deep-flighted
screws was overpredicted. These deviations were attributed to the non-Newtonian vis-
cosity of the food material altering the velocity profile within the channel. Their data
also showed that Equation 10 underpredicted flow for screws having a shallow pitch.
Using the data of Mustakas et al. 110 on the extrusion of full-fat soy flour, Fricke et
4
al. * used the model for the metering section of the extruder, including heating effects
through the jackets of the barrel and viscous dissipation. Their results showed flow
176 CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
was not affected by the pressure rise in the extruder, meaning drag flow dominated.
At low screw speeds, flow was proportional to screw speed as predicted. At higher
screw speeds, a great deal of data scatter occurred and was attributed to surging.
From the above examples, it appears that extrusion theory can be a valuable tool in
predicting food extrusion behavior, but additional work is needed to account for all
extrusion variables. To make such applications practical, a significant quantity of vis-
cosity and physical property data, which is not presently available in the literature,
needs to be obtained that relates the food properties to the chemical nature of the food
components, moisture content, shear rate, and temperature. Once these types of data
are available, developments in the plastics extrusion field can be borrowed to more
adequately model extrusion operations.
1. Measurement of the flow and pressure drop through various dies attached to the
extruder
2. Measurement of the flow and pressure drop through a capillary viscosimeter with
an extruder or hydraulic ram supplying the high-pressure uniform dough material
3. Measurement of the pressure buildup with an extruder at no flow conditions
In the practical case, the last procedure proposed is difficult to apply because of the
difficulties of maintaining constant temperature within the extruder and describing the
flow patterns within the screw channel.
Because of the relative short length of most dies, it is necessary to account for en-
trance and exit effects to accurately use the first method proposed. Rogers'" describes
a procedure where the end effects are corrected to determine an effective shear stress.
The effective shear rate can be obtained using a model developed by Metzner and
Reed." The ratio of effective shear stress to shear rate gives viscosity which can be
expressed as a function of shear rate, temperature, and moisture.
Harper et al.*° proposed a model for cooked cereal dough of the form
1 = 1* (7) n ~ 1 ex
P (K./T + K2M) (28)
TJ='— (30)
7
February 1979 177
where AEr = activation energy for viscous flow process and R = gas constant, which
predicts an exponential dependence on 1/T. Variation in moisture content effects were
incorporated with the empirical logarithmic mixing rule
m
sn T} mix = s x. En Vi (33)
i=l
where x, and r\i are the mole fraction and viscosity of the Ah species in the mixture.
Combining all the above separate effects gives Equation 28 which reduces to the
power law for constant M and T. Similarly, Equation 28 reduces to give the effects of
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
Eyring theory or the mixing law if the appropriate variables are held constant.
Table 2 summarizes the literature data on food materials at extrusion conditions,
applying Equation 28. An examination of n indicates that all of these food doughs are
pseudoplastic. At higher moistures and temperatures, the viscosity is reduced as would
be expected. Typical viscosities of these materials were in the range of 10*N • s/m.2
Table 3 summarizes additional intermediate- to low-moisture food viscosity data
which have been correlated to the power law model (Equation 31) for a constant tem-
perature. Again, all of these data demonstrate strong pseudoplastic behavior. The var-
iability of the reference apparent viscosity, rf, and n clearly shows that the viscosities
are very dependent upon the composition of the food product and the temperature at
which the data were taken.
Remsen and Clark116 have expanded Equation 28 to include a time-dependent reac-
tion kinetics term which can describe chemical or physical alternations of food constit-
uents such as starch gelatinization or protein denaturation, which occur as food prod-
ucts move through an extruder. The proposed kinetic term has the form
r c (34)
Kk exp I k^ exp (A Ek/RT) dt = Kk exp I k^ exp(K 3 /T)dt
•4. -A.
where k^, = apparent kinetic factor at infinite temperature and AE* = activation
energy for cooking reaction. These authors added the kinetic term to previously dis-
cussed shear rate and temperature models to develop an overall model for a cooking
dough.
Velocity Profile
The velocity profile for Newtonian fluids will be examined. Under conditions of
fully developed flow, the partial derivatives with respect to the x direction are zero.
Since dv^/dx is zero, the continuity Equation 7 yields 3 v / 3 y = 0. Since v, = 0 at y
= 0, vr will therefore be zero everywhere and 32v,/2ya is zero. The reduced Navier-
Stokes Equations 4, 5, and 6 are further simplified to
JLL = „ J I ^ L (35)
3x 5y2
178 CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
TABLE 2
Constants for Equation 28 Expressing the Viscosity of Food Materials at Extrusion Conditions
T K,
Dough material (°Q (N-sC/m1) n (°K) Viscosimeter Rel
Cooked cereal dough 67—100 7.85 x 10"1 0.51 2500 -7.9- Capillary 60
80% corn grits tube
20% oat flour
added M = 25—30%
Pregelatinized corn flour 90—150 3.6x10" 0.36 4388 -10* Extrusion die 31
M = 22—35%
Soy grits 35—60 9.92x10"' 0.34 3673 0 Capillary 116
M = 32% tube
TABLE 3
Constants for Power Law Model Expressing the Viscosity of Food Materials at Extrusion Condi-
tions
T 1*
Dough material CO •(N-s"/m2) n Viscosimeter R<
y: -!£- = 0 (36)
3y
3Jv
and z: -LL. = ^ - (37)
3z ay»
Since flow in both the x and z directions contribute to energy input, velocity profiles
for both directions must be found. Integrating Equation 35 with the boundary condi-
tions at y = H, v, = —V, = - n N D sin 0 and at y = 0, v, = 0 gives
vx dy = 0 (39)
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
because of the existence of flights on the screw. Substituting Equation 38 into Equation
39 and integrating gives
3P
= 6 M ^- (40)
3 X Ha
Further substitution of the above into Equation 38 gives the velocity profile in the x
direction
v x = -3!- (2 - Q- ) V x (41)
Similarly, Equation 37 can be solved to determine the velocity profile in the z direc-
tion with the boundary condition at y = H, v, = V, = nND cos 0 and at y = 0, v, =
0 to give
Once the velocity profiles are known, the shear rates can be determined at the barrel
surface by differentiating Equations 41 and 42 to and
4V
—JL (43)
3y y=H
3v.
and z
(44)
3y y = H 3z
Bruin et al." discuss how the velocity profiles for a Newtonian fluid in the extrusion
screw can be used to determine the residence time distribution (RTD). Average resi-
dence time is proportional to N"1. Using a 1.90-cm extruder to extrude corn syrup and
polymerized castor oil, Bigg and Middleman18 confirmed that the theoretical RTD for
Newtonian fluids agreed with the experimental data.
Actual RTDs for single-screw extruders have been determined by Zuflichem et al. 1 "
using a radio tracer technique. The food being extruded was corn grits. These workers
found residence times to be shorter than anticipated at higher screw speeds. With
180 CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
doughs of higher moisture content, the RTD approached that which approximates plug
flow. These anomalies were attributed to differences in temperature and non-Newton-
ian flow effects.
where dE = energy input per differential down channel distance, dEH = viscous energy
dissipation in channel, dE, = energy to raise pressure of fluid, dE t = energy in in-
crease kinetic energy, and dE,, = viscous energy dissipation in flight clearance.
Each term will be examined separately below. Normally, since velocities in an extruder
are low, dE t is assumed negligible.
where the shear stress, T, and velocity have the same direction. Since no flow occurs
in the y direction, the power requirement for this component is zero. Shear stresses
are related to viscosity as follows:
and
(48)
(!) y = «
Knowing the shear rates from Equations 43 and 44 and their relationship to the shear
stresses in Equations 47 and 48, the result can be substituted in Equation 46 and inte-
grated to give
z (49)
dz dz ^ H 2 9z H
= p / rVdx dz (51)
where the shear rate, dv/dy, is approximately V/d and the shear stress is
February 1979 181
r = A«5 - y - (52)
The viscosity in the clearance is \u to denote the fact that it may be significantly differ-
ent from the viscosity in the channel because of temperature or shear effects. Substi-
tuting the value for T into Equation 51 gives
(53)
[/••?*]*
Using V = nDN and integrating gives
Or DN)1 e
dE s = pns dz (54)
o
Equation 54 shows the high significance of the clearance between the screw and the
barrel on power input of cooking extruders.
Adding the various contributions to total power input to the screw gives
Recognizing that
dL = dz sin 6 (56)
and integrating over the entire length of screw, L, gives total power input as
(58)
where the left-hand side of the equation is the power number for mixing in the viscous
flow region. It should be noted that the power number is a constant for a given extru-
der and die design.
182 CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
The calculation of power per unit flow rate or specific power is a common manner
of expressing extrusion power requirements. As viscosity decreases, it would be ex-
pected that the power would decrease in accordance with Equation 57 above.
trusion speed at constant extrusion temperature. The increase in specific power was
attributed to increased starch gelatinization and/or dextrinization, as indicated by in-
creased reducing sugars. A number of specific energy measurements are given for mix-
tures of cereal grains with 0 to 32% whole soy for a simple autogenous extruder at
moistures of 12 to 20% by Harper.57 These data show ranges of 0.08 to 0.16 kWh/
kg, with wheat and sorghum blends showing higher values than corn or rice. Another
interesting observation was that the specific power did not increase with N as antici-
pated. Bruin et al." also found that specific power did not increase with N in the
extrusion of defatted soy flour. Several things may account for these findings, includ-
ing the need for a more accurate understanding of the effects of moisture and shear
rate on viscosity. Rossen and Miller,1" as shown in Table 4, give specific energy figures
from 0.05 to 0.36 kWh/kg with high-shear cooking extruders having substantially
higher values than do low-shear pasta extruders.
Harmann and Harper" calculated the torque requirements for extruding a rehy-
drated pregelatihized corn dough and compared the results with actual measurements.
Their data showed that the torque estimate made with Equation 57 was 17 to 73%
higher than the values actually measured. The inability of the equation to predict the
correct value was attributed to uncertainty in determining the active length of the ex-
truder screw.
Bruin et al.25 showed data on specific power requirements when extruding a modified
diamylopectin phosphate of different moistures, with differing die and screw combi-
nations at a single screw speed. Their data showed reduced specific power with increas-
ing moisture, but then increasing at higher moisture. They attributed these results to
increased gelation of the feed material at higher moisture contents. The same authors
measured specific power associated with the extrusion of defatted soy flour, which
ranged from 0.06 to 0.17 kWh/kg and was relatively constant with N. The anticipated
result would be for the specific power to increase with N" for a pseudoplastic fluid at
constant temperature.
TABLE4
Typical Operating Data for Five Types of Food Extruders (Rossen and Miller)11*
factor. In other words, if a geometrically similar extruder was exactly two times the
size of a laboratory extruder, the theoretical output would be 2 3 or 8 times the smaller
extruder. Power input under these conditions has the cubic increase also (see Equation
57).
Heat transfer normally plays an important part in food extrusion, making the appli-
cation of the cubic scale-up factor impossible. Heat transfer between the food in the
screw channel and barrel j ackets follows
UAAT (59)
where q = rate of heat transfer, u = overall heat transfer coefficient per unit surface
area and temperature difference, A = area for heat transfer = nDL, and AT = tem-
perature difference. The area for heat exchange only increases as the geometric scale-
up factor, m, is squared. In the case where all the heat in the extrudate was the result
of conduction through the walls, it would be appropriate to reduce N by 1/m to keep
the tip speed of the screw constant and the output proportional to m2.
To assure thermal homogeneity within the screw channels, it is often preferable to
achieve the m2 scale-up by increasing H and reducing N by m I/2 . Such an approach
reduces temperature gradients which exist in deep-flighted screws and recognizes the
fact that internally generated heat transfer in the channel resulting from viscous dissi-
pation of mechanical energy will increase as m2.
Scale-up of food extruders is normally done on the basis of m2 to assure maintenance
of the desired product characteristics. As a knowledge of food properties and extrusion
modeling increases, more precise scale-ups can be made based on known operating
conditions of a small laboratory extruder.
One application of HTST extrusion cookers has been the heat-treating of raw soy-
184 CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
beans to denature the naturally occurring lipoxidases and antinutritional factors, ren-
dering the resulting product suitable for feeding to animals or direct use in human
food. Initial studies on extruded full-fat soy (FFS) were conducted by Jimenez et
al.,74-75 who found that extruded FFS produced feeding results equal to defatted soy-
bean meal. This encouraging work led to a collaborative project (Mustakas et al.) 108
sponsored by UNICEF and the Wenger Manufacturing Company. The objectives of
the study were to extrusion-cook whole soybeans to: (1) obtain a soy flour with a high
biological value, (2) suitably inactivate growth inhibitors in soybeans without extensive
denaturation of the protein, (3) produce a bland and stable product, (4) meet accepta-
ble standards of sanitation, and (5) develop an economical process for the production
of FFS flour.
In the commercial-size extrusion process used in the initial work'0610" whole soy-
beans were first cracked, dehulled, preconditioned with a combination of direct and
indirect steam to moistures ranging from 18 to 21%, preheated to temperatures ranging
from 65-104"C, extruded in a Wenger extruder, cooled on a belt cooler, and milled
with a roller mill to —100 mesh. Additional studies in the extrusion cooking of FFS
were performed on a laboratory 3.8-cm plastics extruder.'09110 to better define optimal
extrusion and process conditions. Nielsen112 describes commercial FFS production us-
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
ing cooking extruders. deMuelenaere and Buzzard44 reported experiments with FFS
produced on a Wenger® X-25 extruder and Harper et al.*1 studied the Brady® Crop
Cooker and Insta-Pro® 500 extruder, two simple autogenous extruders developed to
heat-treat whole soybeans for on-farm animal feeding168 for the production of FFS
for developing countries.
An overall summary of the FFS studies and their results are given in Table 5. The
consensus of all these studies is that the extrusion process is an effective means of
treating whole soybeans as a step in the production of FFS flour. A typical proximate
analysis of the extruded FFS is shown in Table 6 and is relatively constant, depending
upon the source of raw soy, and affected little by the specific extrusion process tested.
It is interesting, however, to examine the differences in the studies and compare the
results to obtain a better understanding of the effect of processing conditions on the
final product leading to the eventual specification of an optimal process. The majority
of the reported studies used some sort of preconditioning step to preheat the raw soy-
bean before extrusion. Mustakas et al. 108109 concluded that preconditioning was essen-
tial with temperatures of 100°C+ being required. deMuelenaere and Buzzard44 precon-
ditioned the soybeans in live steam and hot water but did not specify the exact
conditions used. In a more definitive study by Mustakas et al.110 they concluded that
dry heat preconditioning of the dehulled soybeans for 6 to 8 min results in a bean
temperature of 103 to 104°C necessary to deactivate lipoxidase. The work of Harper
et al." used no preconditioning and merely added dehulled soybeans directly to the
extruder. From all the above, no exact conclusion can be drawn about the optimal
preconditioning requirements because higher extrusion temperatures following the pre-
conditioning step can apparently compensate for minimal preconditioning.
Sufficient heat treatment of raw soybeans requires the proper time/temperature/
moisture relationship. Mustakas et al.110 found that the inactivation of the trypsin
inhibitor (TI) in raw soybeans was a function of retention time and moisture. Higher
moisture contents would require lower residence times in the extruder to accomplish
the same trypsin inhibitor deactivation. Their data would also indicate that exit extru-
sion temperatures of 121°C were significantly less effective than 135 to 149°C. Harper
et al." showed that extrusion temperatures of 138°C were required to deactivate 55 to
70% of the TI, with higher temperatures resulting in substantially more deactivation.
deMuelenaere and Buzzard44 clearly point out that the highest temperature only exists
in an extruder for a very short time, which is substantially less than the total residence
time of the food in the extruder. It appears that a thorough understanding of the
TABLE 5
Wenger®, Low temp, 1910 0.021 14.8—18.2 110—117 95.5 0.0—0.3 15.7—17.2 2.24—2.53 Good' 108
equipped 65—100°C 1910 0.023 16.0—17.2 121—124 99.1—97.6 0.05—0.06 17.2—20.8 2.36—2.42 Good'
with low steam
pressure Medium temp,
steam jackets 71—102-C
steam
High temp, 1910 0.025—0.031 15.4—18.2 135—143 95.5
5.5 0.0—0.04 12.3—15.0 2.04—2.46 Good'
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
88—104°C
steam
National 104°C dry heat 41—9.1 0.029—0.126 15.0—30.0 121 0-89 0.05—1.0 12.0—59.0 1.96 Good to 110
Rubber 41-9.1 0.031-0.143 15.0-30.0 135 0—100 0.0—1.2 10.0—67.0 1.82—2.15 poor
Machinery 41—9.1 0.028—0.130 15.0—30.0 149 0—98 0.0—1.2 10.0—53.0 1.98 Good to
3.81-cm poor
diameter Good to
18:1 L/D poor
jacketed
rifled barrel
Wenger® X- Water and live 454—545 0.033 90.6 Good 44
25 steam
Brady® Crop None 288—312 0.064—0.070 8.0 138 48 0.05 9.17 2.1 Good 61
Cooker
Insta-Pro® None 246—251 0.086—0.094 8.0 146 86 0.02 2.15 Good
500
I
186 CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
TABLE6
to high extrusion temperatures and large particles did not have sufficient heat penetra-
tion to assure a thorough heat treatment.
Urease activity was typically very low for all the FFS samples reported in the litera-
ture. Urease activity reduction roughly correlates with TI deactivation,110 but does not
serve as a sufficiently accurate or precise indicator of the heat treatment which the
FFS received.
Specific energy requirements varied among the FFS studies reported. Specific energy
was typically low (<0.03 kWh/kg) for systems that had preconditioning to preheat the
raw soy or heat addition through jackets on the extruder. Autogenous extrusion, where
all the energy comes from the viscous dissipation of mechanical energy inputs, had
much higher specific energies (X).1O kWh/kg), as would be expected.
Nitrogen solubility in the final extruded product saw a considerable variation with
a typical value ranging from 10 to 20%. Higher values resulted when the product had
a very low retention time in the extruder (0.5 min), as shown in the findings of Mus-
takasetal. 110
Other heat-labile factors occurring in the soybean also need consideration in the
extrusion process. The combined literature 441081101 " concluded that extrusion process-
ing resulted in very little destruction of thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and vitamins A
and C. Similarly, they found that very little of the essential amino acid, lysine, was
inactivated. Flavor of the resulting extruded FFS was quite acceptable109 and changed
very little with storage of 12 months. Poorer flavor scores were associated with high
moistures, temperatures, and retention times used in the extrusion process.
Extruded FFS flours have been successfully incorporated into baked bread at levels
varying from 5 to 24% . 21164 As greater quantities of FFS flour were incorporated into
the bread formula, the resulting loaf volume became less and a more creamy colored
crumb and darker crust resulted. The additional 0.5% SSL (sodium stearoyl-2 lacty-
late) improved loaf volume in formulations containing 20% or more FFS flour. FFS
flours with NSI greater than 30 were found to be the most suitable for addition to
bread. Soybeans which had been dehulled prior to extrusion produced a lighter col-
ored, better textured bread and reduced loaf volume less than samples where the hull
was extruded and ground.1'4 Bookwalter et al. 21 concluded that extrusion-processed
FFS was more suitable for bread fortification than dry heat-treated soy.
A relatively large FFS process system capable of producing several tons per hour is
shown in Figure 15. This process shows bean storage, a dehuller, pregrinder, cooking
CLEANING, DEHULLING, GRINDING, AND EXTRUSION COOKING
OF FULL FAT SOYBEANS, OPTIONAL REDUCTION TO A FULL
FAT SOY FLOUR IS SHOWN AT RIGHT
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
CIRCULAR
BIN
^CIRCULAR DISCHARGER
BULK BIN
STORAGE DISCHARGER
OF
SOYBEANS
\
OPTIONAL
AIR
CLASSIFIER
CLEANING, DEHULLING AND GRINDING OF SOYBEANS EXTRUSION COOKING OF GROUND DEHULLED SOYBEANS MILL TO FLOUR
I
i—»
FIGURE 15. Commercial extrusion process to produce full-fat soy flour. (From Smith, O. B., American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, Minn., 1969,140. With
permission.)
188 CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
TABLE7
Operating
Year Capacity, Capital costs,'
reported T/hr Extruder costs.S S/kg Product Ref
extruder, cooler/drier, pin mill, and flour collection equipment (Smith). 135136 Stone149
and Stone et al.150 have shown a similar flow sheet for a low-cost extrusion system for
producing FFS. Grinding of the FFS into a —100 mesh flour is quite difficult because
of the free oil on the surface of the extruded product. This free oil prevents suitable
grinding in hammer mills with air classification and recirculation108 because of the
resulting plugging of screens. The only suitable equipment for grinding found to date
is a high-speed pin mill. Free oil in the product can be minimized by cooling the feed
hopper and section of the extruder and increasing the water addition to the raw soy
(Mustakas).105
The economics of FFS extrusion have been developed for a variety of proposed
systems.*4-107'149'"0-165 These costs are summarized in Table 7. Significant variability is
shown in the cost figures found in the literature. Part of this variability results from
inflation impacting the cost analysis done in more recent years. The figures of Mus-
takas et al.107 only allow for incremental costs of the extrusion, grinding, and process-
ing equipment which would be added to an existing soybean plant. The costs of
Stone149 and Stone et al.150 are for a complete plant using low-cost equipment and
operating in a developing country. Walsten166 presents costs associated with a farm-
operated system where the cooked FFS would go into animal feed. From all of these
cost data, the extrusion processing of whole soy into a FFS flour appears to be an
economically attractive alternative for the production of this high-protein food addi-
tive.
a die at the extruder discharge to form expanded texturized strands of vegetable protein
which take on a meat-like characteristic, upon rehydration.
The ingredients most commonly used in textured vegetable protein are defatted soy
grits or flour, which are substantially less expensive than the soy protein isolates re-
quired in the protein-spinning process which also produces fibers.1"175 Preferably, the
defatted soy flour should be a 50% protein minimum, 30% fiber maximum and less
than 1% fat with a nitrogen solubility index (NSI) of 50 to 70."° NSIs as low as 24 to
30 have also been recommended.1" The NSI of the raw ingredient is a function of the
heat-treating and desolventizing process used in the production of the defatted soybean
meal.44 Higher NSIs mean less heat denaturization has occurred in the process used to
produce the defatted vegetable protein. Both soy grits and flours can be used in the
production of textured vegetable protein if both are properly moistened prior to their
being fed to the extruder, but moistened fine flours tend to be harder to feed and have
a lesser tendency to shear and orient in the extruder. Dilution of the protein feed ma-
terials with cereals or starches lowers the protein concentration in the feed material,
reducing the possibility of forming a continuous protein phase and thereby lessening
texturization.
In the production of textured vegetable protein with soy, the grits or flour are first
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
signed a special screw for textured vegetable protein extrusion which has interrupted
flights, eliminating the need for steam locks or internal restrictions on the screw. The
screw design prevents steaming back along the screw and/or erratic or unsteady-state
operation. The interrupted flights allow vapor which forms near the low-pressure back
edge of the flights to recombine with the extruding material, thus preventing the objec-
tionable steaming back that can often occur in textured vegetable protein production.
The heated, plasticized, reoriented proteinous material produced in the extruder is
forced through a discharge die by the pressure produced in the extruder. Once the
material leaves the die, it expands violently as the result of the release of superheated
steam in the mixture which occurs when the product is exposed to ambient pressure.
Normal stresses at the die also cause some expansion of the product. A cutter is typi-
cally employed at the die to cut the texturized and expanded product into chunks of a
size that are easily handled and suitable for their intended use. The amount of expan-
sion causes marked changes in product densities which range from 0.5 to 1.3 g/cc.
Through the modification of the extruder configuration and components, the die con-
figuration, raw ingredient selection, and processing conditions, it is possible to control
the density of the finished product. During the final cooling and drying of the textur-
ized product the density also increases. Often higher density products are desired for
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
The specifications for textured vegetable protein used in the National School Lunch
Program are given in Table 8. Projections for increased use in these programs have
been made.*8 Other institutional uses of textured vegetable protein as meat extenders
in chili, sloppy joes, ground beef, sausage, fish and crab cakes, poultry products with
comminuted meat, meat analogues of ham, chicken, beef, and in a variety of spreads,
soups, and other convenience items have been described.92-117
ADM PROCESS FLOW CHART - TVP1<SSADM
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
FIGURE 16. Process flow chart for the manufacture of textured vegetable protein. (From Adolphson, L. C. and Horan, F. E., Cereal
Sci. Today, 441,1974. With permission.)
192 CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
TABLE 8
Minimum Maximum
• Nitrogen x 6.25
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
-- ^
FIGURE 17. Electron micrographs of defatted soy grits from different sections of the extruder: (A) feed
section, (B) last turns of extruder screw, and ( Q die. Markers: 1 ym. (From Aguilera, J. M., Kosikowski,
F. V., and Hood, L. F., J. Food Set, 41,1209,1976. With permission.)
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
from the chamber. The high oil content of whole soy prevents the production of the
high shear and temperatures needed for texturization in conventional extruders.
E X T R U S I O N O F CEREAL-BASED BLENDS
PULSE CIRCULAR 2
1. PACKING BINS
BIN
DISCHARGER 2. GRINDING
EQUIPMENT
PRECONDITIONER
EXTRUSION §
COOKER
I
I
DRIER
COOLER
FIGURE 18. Schematic of extrusion processing line used to produce blended foods.
February 1979 195
grits containing 14% moisture, 8.1% protein, 0.4% ash, and 0.5% fat were adjusted
to 10 to 35% moisture and cooked at temperatures ranging from 104 to 218°C, con-
trolled with electrical heating bands on the barrel. The extruder used was a 2.54-cm
diameter 20:1 Killion® K-100 standard plastics extruder. The screws had increasing
root diameter over the last 24.5 cm of length, to give compression ratios of 3:1 to
1.5:1, and in most cases were used without any special exit die.
To evaluate the extruder product, a number of analytical tests were used. The water
absorption index (WAI) is the weight of gel obtained per g of dry product. The water
solubility index (WSI) is the amount of dried solid recovered by evaporating the super-
natant from the WAI test. A consistency test was specified by the American Corn
Milling Federation,20 where a slurry of the flour is made with water and placed in an
open bottom cylinder on a glass plate. The cylinder is removed, and the diameter of
the resulting patty 10 sec later is a measure of the product's consistency; smaller patties
result when a more viscous material is measured. Amylograph tests were also carried
out on —60 mesh samples with a 44-min heating cycle from 29 to 95 °C, a 16-min hold
at 95°C, and 30-min cool down to 50°C. On the amylograph, viscosity is measured in
Brabender® units, higher values meaning higher viscosities.
Anderson et al.7 found that WAI increased progressively with increased barrel tem-
peratures to a maximum at 177°C, then was followed by a decrease. The WAI was
higher for higher moisture extrudates. Amylograph curves for samples extruded at
132°C showed higher cold paste and cooked viscosities with 25% feed moisture than
they did for the 15% feed moisture. Anderson et al.9 felt the low moisture extrusion
resulted in more degradation of starch and provided a material with lower cold paste
viscosity. The additional shear in the barrel and die, resulting when a die was used,
produced products that had a high initial cold paste viscosity and a greater reduced
cooked viscosity. The authors concluded that the cooking extruder provided extensive
processing variability which would result in products having a wide range of character-
istics suitable for both gruels and beverages.
In a separate study, Anderson et al." examined extrusion cooking of sorghum grits.
The results of these studies were similar to the findings for corn grits.7-9-37-38-40-41
Gelatinization is one of the important effects that extrusion has on the starch com-
ponents of food. The conversion of raw starch to a cooked and digestible material by
the application of moisture and heat is called gelatinization. Specifically, water is ab-
sorbed and bound to the starch molecule with a resulting change in the starch granule
196 CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
structure. In the extrusion process, cleavage of the starch molecules can also occur,
which is called dextrinization. Under extrusion conditions which provide high temper-
atures and shear rates, dextrinization is enhanced.
Several sets of designed experiments were performed by Lawton et al." to determine
the effect of extruder variables on the gelatinization of corn starch. These workers
used a Brabender® laboratory extruder having a 1.90-cm barrel diameter with L/D
ratios of 10:1 and 20:1, using screws having 1:1, 1:3, and 1:5 compression ratios. An
amylograph was used to measure starch gelatinization before and after extrusion, and
a statistical model was developed.
The two variables which exerted the greatest effect on gelatinization were the barrel
temperatures (90 to 150°C) and moisture (27 to 39%). The model was of such a form
that the maximum gelatinization occurred at high-moisture and low-barrel tempera-
tures or vice versa. Lawton et al.*6 attributed these results to the availability of water
in the extruded materials, with excess water acting as a lubricant. It should also be
observed that at high moisture and barrel temperature, the viscosity of the starch ma-
terial would be low, allowing for extensive internal mixing and uniform heating, which
would also enhance gelatinization. Higher screw speed reduced gelatinization and was
felt to be related to lower residence times. Although the statistical model fitted the
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
experimental data well, it does not appear to give a clear understanding of the mecha-
nism of starch gelatinization in the extrusion process. One fruitful avenue of research
would be to understand the starch gelatinization process and viscosity changes of cer-
eals as a function of time, temperature, shear rate, and shear energy dissipation. Once
these relationships were known mathematically, the modeling of extrusion processes
and effect of the process on product characteristics would be greatly enhanced.
To understand the physiochemical changes of carbohydrate components in cereal
products by extrusion cooking, Mercier and Feillet'7 performed extrusion studies on a
variety of cereal starches, including corn with various amylose contents, wheat, rice,
and corn semolina. For their studies, they used a laboratory twin-screw extruder, which
has a positive displacement, allowing them to handle a wide variety of feed materials
without the inherent difficulties associated with using a single screw extruder, which
can handle only a limited range of feed materials and conditions. Extrusion tempera-
tures studied ranged from 70 to 250°C and moisture ranged from 10.5 to 28.5%.
An example of Mercier and Feillet's" findings are shown in Figure 19 for corn grits
at 18.2% moisture. As extrusion temperature increased, WSI increased, and WAI and
expansion achieved a maximum value at extrusion temperatures of 180 to 200° C. For
the corn grits extruded, maximum expansion was achieved between 170 to 200°C.
Seiler133 examined corn grits from a variety of sources and compared their suitability
for the production of expanded corn snacks.
Mercier and Feillet97 also found that soluble starch increased with increasing extru-
sion temperature and decreasing feed product moisture. Higher amylose contents of
the initial starch reduced the quantity of soluble starch formed as measured by WSI.
Charbonniere et al.33 extruded a variety of starches with differing amylose contents,
moistures ranging from 20 to 22%, and extrusion temperatures of 65 to 227°C. Their
data showed a new structure of the starch at extrusion temperatures above 70° C, oc-
curring in starches with higher amylose content.
From all the studies on the effect of extrusion on varying starch varieties, it is clear
that different starches behave differently in the extruder. The ultimate aim of addi-
tional research will be to better understand how the configuration of the extruder, its
operation, and the composition of the ingredients interrelate so that predictive models
can be used to develop and optimize extruded products.
30i- t
1
x/
/
_ /
_ /
* A /
\
1 INDEX
x
200 5000 /
£20 •• 1
X
\ 1
t-
o \\\ / z
o
o z - /
CD o Ul
c •
t
w 3000 6(0
> CD
° 10 t 100 o / >' 10 2
to
:AKII
COS
K
UJ 4ui ~
<o
>
UJ
CD
X^
«—9—
"
< elUl
• 1000 - y 2 i -
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
••
1 • -2
1 til
65 90 129 170 202 225 250
EXTRUSION TEMPERATURE (°C)
FIGURE 19. Effects of extrusion temperature on expansion, breaking strength, viscosity at 50°C, WAI,
and WSI on extruder products. Initial moisture content before extrusion was 18.2'7o. (From Mercier, C.
and Feillet, P., Cereal Chem., 52 (3), 283,1975. With permission.)
can be used to extrude cereal/oil seed combinations. The low-cost extrusion cooker
(LEC) approach has been described by Tribelhorn et al., 15 ' Bressani,24 Molina et
al.,100-101 and anonymous.11-12 The unique feature of these LEC systems is that ingre-
dients are extruded at moderate to low moistures (10 to 18%), and with the resulting
moisture loss (4 to 8%) as the product cools from approximately 171 to 65°C, low
moistures result to give a stable product without further redrying. Such processes have
advantages in lower capital cost requirements as well as less energy consumption in
the processing of products, since no preconditioning of ingredients or product dryers
are required.
The properties of ingredients extruded on LEC systems vary significantly with extru-
sion conditions. Lorenz89 reported that a blend of corn/soy (70:30 w/w) extruded at
lower extrusion temperatures had higher uncooked product viscosities. The term "un-
cooked" in this context means that the cooked extruded product was not reheated
again during the preparation of a gruel; cooked means the extruded product was heated
during gruel preparation. He postulated that higher extrusion temperatures may cause
breakdown of the starch and result in a higher viscosity. Sahagun122 showed that au-
togenous extruders operating at low moistures caused more dextrinization of starchy
ingredients with higher energy inputs which at the same time normally caused higher
extrusion temperatures.
The trends of the findings of Lorenz87 paralleled closely those of Conway," Lawton
et al., 86 and Mercier and Feillet,'7 which showed that higher extrusion temperatures,
increased mixing, and back pressure resulted in products which had high uncooked
viscosities and low cooked viscosities.
When corn and soy were extruded separately in an LEC system and combined to
make a blended food, Lorenz89 found that the resulting product had lower cooked
viscosities. Maga91 reported how WAI and NSI were affected by extrusion conditions
198 CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
when corn/soy (70:30) blends were extruded together in LECs. Lower extrusion tem-
peratures increased the WAI. If ingredients were extruded separately before blending,
the WAI increased substantially over the samples where the ingredients were extruded
together. The data on NSI paralleled closely that given for WAI. Density of the final
product was decreased with increasing extrusion temperatures, which caused greater
degree of product expansion.
Tribelhorn et al.I5S give data on the extrusion characteristics of two low-cost auto-
genous extruders, the Insta-Pro® 500 and Brady® Crop Cooker, in cooking blends
of sorghum/soy and wheat/soy in addition to corn/soy. Data on throughput, energy
requirements, viscosity, density, and urease activity are given.
2.0 192.0004 Wenger® 23-kg bag 4.80 0.74 1.72 0.50 0.78 4.80 13.34 135
0.5 104,000- Wenger® 23-kgbag 7.55 0.75 3.86 2.00 1.34 10.40 25.90 135
2.0 211.000' Wenger® 23-kg bag 4.80 1.74 1.72 0.50 0.82 5.28 14.86 136
0.5 114,400* Wenger® 23-kgbag 7.55 1.75 3.86 2.00 1.44 11.44 28.04 136
4.0 337,400 Anderson- — 0.63 0.53 3.75 1.86 —* 0.03 1.35 8.15' 68
Ibec
0.5 Sprout, 11.82 44
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
Waldron
0.5 43,000 Brady® 0.5-kgbag 7.60 7.00 0.50 — 1.60 3.30 4.40 24.40 149
206
0.4 467,000 Wenger® Returnable 13.18 —• 23.85 —' — 6.42 23.85 63.30 99
X-25 bulk
container
"Tl
a
200 CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
viscous product which also had higher amylograph viscosities during the heating and
cooling cycle. When cooked, extruded rice was compared to cooked conventional or
parboiled rice; the resulting cooled product viscosity was lower for extruded products.
The lower extruded cooked product viscosities were attributed to partial dextrinization
of the rice at high extrusion temperatures. However, initial viscosities of hydrated ex-
truded rice samples were higher than the raw or parboiled samples.
In a separate study,145 rice was extruded with cottonseed and peanut flours. Both
brown rice and rice grits were mixed with 10 and 20% of glandless cottonseed flour
and defatted peanut flour. Extrusion was carried out with the NRM extruder described
above at temperatures of 135 to 166°C. Expansion of the products decreased with
increasing oil content of the blend and the peanut flavor was volatile enough to be
lost after extrusion.
Tsao et al. 1 " describes the extrusion of commercial rice meal moistened to 25%,
fortified with thiamin and riboflavin, and colored with yellow No. 5. The product was
extruded in a Brabender® laboratory extruder at temperatures of 74 to 113°C using
screws having compression ratios of 1:1 to 5:1. The resulting rice spaghetti compared
very favorably with conventional spaghetti, with the rice spaghetti cooking more rap-
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
Extrusion of Cottonseed
Cottonseed is another oil seed produced in substantial quantity which could serve
as an important protein source as a full-fat flour or as a textured vegetable protein
when the defatted meal is extruded.
The investigation of the extruder-cooker for the production of a human food from
glanded cottonseed kernels and partially defatted cottonseed meal was made by
Clark.35 A Wenger® X-25 extruder was used and live steam was injected into the
ingredients before extrusion, raising their temperature to 102 to 107°C. Final temper-
atures in the extruder were 118°C. Under these conditions, it was found that the pre-
conditioner was most effective in binding free gossypol. Since the chemical reaction
of gossypol with lysine is increased by temperature and time, the effectiveness of the
preconditioner reported in binding gossypol should be expected because of their long
residence times. Free gossypol was reduced by the process to a greater extent in par-
tially defatted meal.
Clark31 also found that free oil in the extruder was a problem, causing foaming and
a sloppy discharge. Cottonseed contains approximately 35% oil, which is undoubtedly
the cause. The same, problem occurs to a lesser extent with soybeans,108 which have a
much lower oil content.
Taranto et al." 2 studied the texturization of defatted glandless cottonseed meal using
a Wenger® X-9 extruder having a 15:1 L/D ratio. The cottonseed flour was 59%
protein, having a NSI of 21%. A set of designed experiments were run, with screw
speed, feed rate, and barrel temperature being the variables. Water-holding capacity
of the product was greatest when product density decreased and occurred at the highest
extrusion temperature. Higher screw speeds produced stronger fibers. Significant ex-
perimental variability occurred in the samples making it difficult to draw definitive
conclusions. Variability in extrusion processing tends to be inherent with small-diam-
eter extruders because of feeding difficulties.
Blended foods consisting of 70:30 cereal/full-fat cottonseed flour were produced on
the Brady® extruder." Both glanded and glandless cottonseed flour were used with
corn and sorghum. Extrusion temperatures were varied between 149 to 169°C, with
the higher extrusion temperatures resulting in higher water absorption and cooked
gruel viscosities made from the precooked extruded flour. Over 90% of the free gos-
sypol was bound in the glanded cottonseed flour at extrusion temperatures exceeding
160°C.
February 1979 201
Extrusion of Triticale
The basic characteristics of extruded triticale, a hybrid cereal from wheat and rye,
are reported by Lorenz et al.90 Whole grain triticale was extruded using a 1.90-cm
Brabender® laboratory extruder having a 20:1 L/D ratio. A set of designed experi-
ments was run where moisture was varied between 15 to 25%, barrel temperature be-
tween 177 to 232°C, and die diameter between 1.6 to 3.2 mm. The most acceptable
breakfast cereal-type products were made with a feed moisture of 20%, extruded at
177°C, with a 1.6-mm diameter die. Extrusion temperature could be increased to
204°C when the larger die was used.
to form the square french fry shape. Jadhav et al.70 studied the physiochemical prop-
erties of dehydrated granules in comparison to their suitability for reconstituted french
fries. Freeze-thaw granules had higher water-binding capacity, lower bulk density, and
larger particle sizes than granules produced by the add-back process; additionally, they
rehydrated more quickly and thoroughly. The quality of the reconstituted extruded
french fry increased when binders such as guar gum, stabilized high-amylose corn
starch, cross-linked pregelatinized corn starch, and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose
were added to the 1:2.6 (w/w) ratio of granules and water.
Mercier" has studied the effect of temperature and moisture variations on the extru-
sion of potato starch in a twin-screw extruder. As temperature and moisture increased,
water soluble starch increased. Aqueous ethanol soluble carbohydrate increased with
extrusion temperature, but decreased with moisture such that the maximum soluble
carbohydrate occurred at 190°C and 23% moisture. Soluble carbohydrate was a mix-
ture of linear oligosaccharides, suggesting preferential breakdown of amylose during
extrusion.
Extrusion of Wheat
Wheat flour requires a high temperature and high moisture to achieve a significant
expansion during cooking extrusion. The gluten in wheat usually results in a hard or
flinty product. Seib and Stearns132 found the maximum expansion of wheat starch at
170°C.
Chaing and Johnson32 extruded wheat flour with varying moistures, extrusion tem-
peratures, screw speeds, and die diameters. High temperatures increased starch gelatin-
ization. Moisture did not affect gelatinization at low extrusion temperatures. Increas-
ing shear rate and die sizes reduced the amount of starch gelatinization which occurred.
During the extrusion process, the 1,2 glycosidic bonds of sucrose and raffinose and
the 1,4 glycosidic bonds of malto-oligosaccharides and starches were broken.
1. Breakfast cereals
• Expanded and shaped cereals
• Fortified expanded and shaped cereals
• Precooked instant hot cereals
• Infant food
• Protein enriched cereals
2. Snacks
• Shaped
• Shaped and flavored
• Filled
• Preshaped snack pieces for frying or baking (semiproducts)
3. Instant beverage
• Diet formulas — protein enriched
4. Instant soup and gravy bases
5. Modified starches
6. Breadings, stuffing, and croutons
7. Pasta products
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
A number of the above products can be extrusion processed to precook, shape, and
texturize. These extruded products can be dried or frozen and become a form of instant
food which can be prepared by hydration, heating, frying, boiling, etc.
In the development of new and novel extruded food products, it is essential to un-
derstand the characteristics of food ingredients and additives and their contribution
to the final product characteristics.
• Rice flour — white cereal which expands well. Bland taste in extruded product
lends itself to easy coloring and flavoring.
• Corn meal — most common ingredient for snacks which expands very well. Corn
flavor predominates in extruded product.
• Oat flour — high fat content requires high moisture and temperature for expan-
sion.
• Wheat flour — gluten in flour requires high moisture and temperature for expan-
sion. Soft spring wheat, with lower gluten level, will provide a more tender ex-
panded product than will semolina or hard winter wheat.
• Potato flour — high temperatures and moistures required to expand properly.
• Cassava flour — moderate moisture and high temperatures produce a bland ex-
panded product.
Control of extrusion conditions and the addition of pH modifiers allows the extrusion
process to accurately and specifically control the nature of the extruded finished prod-
uct.
Two types of starches are normally used in extrusion applications — unmodified
starches and acid or enzyme-modified starches. Unmodified starch tends to expand
easily and give the resulting extruded product structure and texture. Modified starches
expand less because of the shortened length of their starch molecules. Smaller finished-
product cell structure and control of hydration and oil retention can be accomplished
by using modified starches.
Starches play many roles in the extrusion of specialized and engineered food prod-
ucts." 4
• Moisture uptake — waxy starches reduce the rate of moisture uptake in extruded
products, keeping cereals and pet foods from becoming soggy in the bowl.
• Flavor — starches can give a highly expanded product with a very bland flavor
suitable for flavoring with delicate flavors while not masking them.
• Water-holding capacity — highly modified starches and dextrins can be used suc-
cessfully to reduce the water activity of semimoist foods.
• Fat binding — modified starches trap or bind fat into extruded meat products,
reducing shrinkage.
Starch-based formulations with additional gums and flavors have been used in filling
machines to produce a variety of formulated products. Sander and ZiembaIM have
described the use of a filler to make patties, balls, and rings which can be breaded and
deep-fat fried.
Protein Materials
A number of different protein materials are used in the cooking extruder to produce
varying product characteristics. Many of the protein materials are in cereals, such as
gluten in wheat or oil seeds.
Smith 139 " 1 describes the role of gluten in the extrusion of wheat-based convenience
food. During extrusion, the gluten is hydrated and mixed, becoming an elastic and
stretchable material which expands readily to form many thin-walled cells. The gelatin-
ized starch embedded in the extruded matrix quickly solidifies after passing through
the extrusion die, to retain the open-cell structure of the final product.
Soy proteins have found more extensive use in extrusion than other legumes or oil
seed proteins because of their low cost, accessibility, and widely varying functional
properties. Soy protein can be texturized to form textured vegetable protein and has
been discussed extensively in a previous section. Soy protein is often used to increase
the protein content of extruded cereal mixtures as well as improve the protein quality
of the blend. Soy protein has excess lysine, the essential amino acid deficient in cereals,
while cereals have excess methionine, the essential amino acid limiting in soy protein,
so the blend offsets the deficiencies in each when taken separately.
Other proteins commonly added to extruded products include milk solids, whey pro-
teins, sodium caseinate, gelatins, and egg albumin. These materials add flavor com-
ponents, bind water, improve product structure, and increase the air incorporation in
finished products.
204 CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
Other Ingredients
A number of other ingredients are commonly added in the feed materials of extru-
ders to produce specific product characteristics. These are normally added in smaller
quantities than the major component ingredients described above, but nonetheless play
an important role in the extrusion process. The role of these other ingredients has been
described by Sanderude,1" Sanderude and Ziemba,129 and Smith. 139141 " 2
• Fat — fats and oils added to extruded products tend to weaken the resulting dough
and reduce the product's strength and increase plasticity as it leaves the extruder.
The melting point of the fat used can affect textural properties of extruded prod-
uct.
• Emulsifiers — the common emulsifiers added to extrusion doughs are a large va-
riety of monoglycerides, diglycerides, and sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate. Emulsifiers
are normally added at very low levels (<0.5%) and can affect a product's crumb
characteristics, cell size and density, and act as a lubricant in the dough. The role
of the emulsifier is not clearly understood but serves to alter the interfacial action
between water, fat, starch, and protein.
• pH modifiers — the addition of acid or basic salts to proteinacious feed materials
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
EXTRUSION EFFECTS
Extruders extensively affect the food products, components, and additives they pro-
cess. Specifically, they reduce the vitamin content, antinutritional factors such as tryp-
sin inhibitors and gossypol present in many raw ingredients, amino acid availability,
and bacterial counts in foods. Extruders also alter the nature of many food constitu-
ents such as starches and proteins which changes their physical, chemical, and nutri-
February 1979 205
tional properties. Lastly, extruders change the flavor, color components, and additives
in foods. Some of these extrusion effects have been reviewed and discussed under the
specific sections on the extrusion of soybeans, cottonseed, and soy protein for the
production of textured vegetable protein, and these specifics will not be repeated in
the following sections. A number of references on other extrusion effects have been
published and are reviewed below.
Vitamins
Many vitamins are heat labile and are therefore denatured during the thermal pro-
cessing received by food products during extrusion. High temperatures increase the
rate of vitamin loss. Even though food products are often heated to temperatures in
excess of 177°C, the retention time at these elevated temperatures is very short and
normally much less than 10 sec.*4 The relationship between temperature and time in
the extruder has given rise to the use of the term high-temperature/short-time (HTST)
processing to characterize the action of the extruder. Chemical reaction kinetics show
that even very heat-labile products can be subjected to high temperatures if the time
of exposure is very short and the resulting chemical change is small. Such is the case
for the denaturation reactions for vitamins, making vitamin losses in the extrusion
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
sure in the extruder) reduced thiamin retention, while increased extrusion temperature
had an apparent protective effect on riboflavin. Increased temperatures will reduce
dough viscosity and thereby reduce shear energy inputs and extrusion back pressure.
To better separate shear effects from hydrostatic pressure effects, which is impossi-
ble in the two previous studies performed in the extruder, Beetner14 examined hydro-
static pressure, temperature, and time and found that hydrostatic pressure had very
little effect on B vitamin retention. These three studiesM*I6together would strongly im-
plicate shear rate and/or shear energy as being important factors in B vitamin reten-
tion. Kauffman and Hatch" found that bacterial cell viability was dependent on the
power/unit mass in the high-shear zone near the extruder die. Another B vitamin,
niacin, has been shown to be very stable through extrusion processing.44108
The retention of vitamins A and C have been reported by deMuelenaere and Buz-
zard44 and Harper et al." Their combined data would indicate that approximately 70%
of the vitamin C is retained. Vitamin A retention varied from 50% to 140%. This
latter anomalous result was attributed to extrusion increasing the extractability of the
vitamin A or forming a substance giving a color equivalent to vitamin A in the analyt-
ical procedure. Lee et al.87 presents data which indicate that when /J-carotene, a provi-
tamin A source, was added before extrusion, only about 25% was retained after extru-
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
sion. When the vitamin A source was changed to vitamin A alcohol (retinol), vitamin
A acetate, or vitamin A palmitate, stability in the extrusion cooking process was in-
creased markedly over the carotenoids and was approximately 90% for retinol and
vitamin A acetate. Vitamin A palmitate had retentions ranging from 50 to 90%. Higher
screw speeds increased vitamin A retention, indicating longer extrusion residence
times, not shear effects, were destructive to vitamin A at the cooking extruder temper-
ature of 130°C.
Antinutritional Factors
The beneficial action and the specific effects of extrusion processing conditions on
the destruction of naturally occurring growth factors in a variety of raw ingredients
has been extensively published in the extrusion literature. The destruction of the trypsin
inhibitor in soybeans has been covered in the literature on the extrusion of whole raw
soybeans for the production of FFS44 •«1108It0and is reviewed in detail in the FFS section
of this review. Deactivation of lipoxidase is covered in the same section. The trypsin
inhibitor is also effectively deactivated in the extrusion processing "of blended
foods."-72The inactivation of peroxidases in extrusion processes were examined by
Gardner et al.49
Free gossypol in pigmented cottonseed can be effectively deactivated using heat in
an extrusion process. The inactivation occurs in a reaction between gossypol and lys-
ine, and the resulting protein quality is reduced.35<sl"Specific details on the deactiva-
tion of gossypol is given under the section on cottonseed products.
Amino Acids
Extruders have been used to process cereal-based products which are often limited
in the essential amino acid lysine. It is well known that lysine can become unavailable
during processing and storage through the nonenzymatic browning or Maillard reac-
tion which occurs between reducing sugars in foods and the e-amino group in lysine.
The loss of available lysine in extrusion or extrusion-like systems has been studied
by Thompson et al.," 5 Thompson and Wolf,154 Jokinen et al,7* and Wolf et al.173 Data
indicate that the initial loss of available lysine occurs according to zero or first-order
February 1979 207
reaction kinetics,1" but further studies1" indicate that lysine inactivation is a first-
order reaction where
- i l = - kC (60)
dt
k r exp (61)
R
sugar) concentration, water activity; and pH. The kinetic model for the initial available
lysine loss developed from isothermal nonstirred process data has been adapted to
stirred sytems and found to apply well.154 This indicates that the nonstirred kinetic
study results can be used to model losses of lysine in an extruder, provided good tem-
perature-time data are available on the food product as it passes through the extruder.
After the initial loss of available lysine, which follows a first-order kinetic rate, the
loss decreases substantially to where little additional loss occurs after long holding
times. Because of the short-residence times at elevated temperatures in an extruder,
the application of the first-order kinetics appears sufficient to adequately model extru-
sion processes.
Tsao et al. U2 investigated available lysine losses in heated fortified rice meal. Lysine
losses followed a first-order reaction, with moisture content and lysine fortification
level having little effect on the reaction rate constant or activation energy.
To date, no studies have been published coupling the operation of an extruder with
loss of amino acids. Ideally, the resident time-temperature history of each food particle
would be estimated from the flow and energy equations governing the extrusion oper-
ation. These time-temperature data could then be coupled with kinetic data for critical
component inactivation, such as the lysine models described above, to predict retention
of these components or, more importantly, lead to the optimization of the extrusion
processing system. A minimal amount of lysine availability data exist for extruded
products. deMuelenaere and Buzzard44 show very little lysine destruction in the com-
mercial extrusion systems they studied.
Bacteria
HTST processing systems have been effective in destroying microorganisms and an-
tinutritional factors, while minimizing their detrimental effect on valuable nutritional
food constituents such as vitamins, essential amino acids, and other food components.
The extrusion processing system has been effective in destroying those organisms
commonly used as indicators of food contamination or which are associated with food
poisoning. deMuelenaere and Buzzard44 report that extrusion processing was com-
pletely effective in destroying Escherichia coli and greatly reducing total aerobic plate
count to levels less than lOVg and in most cases less than 10Vg. In a qualitative study,
these authors found coliforms, Staphylococcus, and Salmonella were also destroyed
by the extrusion process. Mustakas et al.108 concluded that the overall bacteriological
quality of FFS-extmded products was excellent, and that the extrusion process lends
208 CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
Protein Quality
The extruder has been used to precook a variety of cereal and oil seed ingredients
to increase their ease of preparation, denature antinutritional factors, and improve
digestibility. Mixing of blends of cereals, which are normally limiting in lysine, with
an oil seed such as soy, which is limiting in sulfur amino acids, can produce a blend
which has very high protein quality. Smith13S141has summarized protein efficiency ra-
tios (PERs) on a number of blended food products made from a wide variety of ingre-
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
dients. In most cases, the PERs were greater than 2.2 when corrected to casein at 2.S.
Jansen71 and Jansen et al.72 have summarized the nutritional evaluation of a variety
of blended foods produced by low-cost autogenous extruders under conditions with
little added moisture. The PERs of corn/soy or sorghum/soy blends (70:30) extruded
at 171 °C were comparable to casein. Extrusion of the cereal and soy together, or ex-
truding each separately and blending after extrusion, did not alter the PER of the
resulting mixture. The destruction of lysine in cereal/soy blends extruded together was
not significantly greater than the case of extruding the ingredients sepatately, and the
PER was not changed by the alternate processing procedure.71 Bressani24 reported sim-
ilar results for corn/soy blends produced on a Brady® extruder. Smaller particle sizes
of feed ingredients improved PERs. deMuelenaere and Buzzard44 had postulated ear-
lier that cooking would be improved with smaller feed particles because the residence
time in the extruder was so short.
Jansen et al.72 and Bressani24 also reported that extruded cereal/glanded cottonseed
blends (70:30) gave a PER of 1.3 to 1.9, but that the free gossypol was reduced to
acceptable levels at the expense of available lysine. Lysine additions to these blends
increased the PERs to 2.5.
The PER of extruded FFS has been measured in several studies.* 1 - 71 - 72108110 ^ whole
soy is heated to 137°C in the extrusion process, more than 50% of the trypsin inhibitor
is destroyed, and PERs from 1.8 to 2.0 should be anticipated, indicating the product
is very suitable as a protein supplement in cereal or baked products. Higher PERs are
not achieved for FFS because soy protein is limiting in the essential amino acid methi-
onine.
In a study where delactosed whey was used to supplement corn meal with soy and
soy isolate, Aguilera and Kosikowski3 found that extrusion reduced the quantity of
essential amino acids. The PERs of all extruded mixes were not significantly different
from casein.
In summary, it is clear that extrusion processing can be an effective tool in improving
protein quality of cereal/oil seed blends used to produce nutritious food products.
Colors
Color can add significant eye appeal and acceptability to extruded products ranging
from cereals and snacks to simulated meat products. Kinnison" and Kinnison and
Chapman80 have given a comprehensive look at the effect of extrusion in food colors.
In food extrusion, it is essential that the colors added are approved and on the GRAS
February 1979 209
list of food ingredients. Maximum concentrations of the coloring agent cannot be ex-
ceeded.
Three types of coloring agents are used in extruded foods: (1) water soluble, (2)
insoluble lakes, and (3) oil soluble. All must be adequately dispersed in the food ingre-
dients prior to extrusion. Normally, dispersion can best be accomplished in the granu-
lar ingredients to assure uniformity. Water or oil soluble colors are usually added first
to a water or oil stream, which is then blended with the dry ingredients.
Fading of food colors can be a major problem in extrusion. Fading results from:
(1) excessive heat, (2) reactions with proteins, (3) reactions with reducing ions such as
iron or aluminum, (4) reaction with reducing sugars, and (5) product expansion. Com-
binations of colors and/or processing conditions can usually be found which will pro-
duce a satisfactorily colored product.
Flavor
The flavoring of extruded products tends to be much more of an art than a science.
A wide variety of flavoring materials are available and can be successfully applied to
extruded products to provide taste appeal and/or simulate a wide variety of natural
products. Krukar," Nadison,111 and Perry114 describe the history and availability of
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
CONCLUSIONS
components such as starch and protein change their physical character through gelatin-
ization or denaturization. Such complexity has made it difficult to quantitatively de-
scribe the changes in the extruder in a manner which can be coupled with flow and
energy inputs to the extruder.
The literature summarized in this review represent initial attempts to describe and
explain the complex food extrusion process. Future efforts to define the food systems
and their changes and reactions in the high-temperature, high-shear environment of
the extruder should lead to major developments in the design and application of food
extruders in the future.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of Ms. Phylis Sitzman, who typed
and proofread the manuscript and carefully prepared the bibliography. Also, the as-
sistance of Mr. Jaime Sahagun, Ms. Nancy Cervone, and Mr. Hamis Lukoo in per-
forming the literature search is acknowledged.
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
REFERENCES
1. Adolphson, L. C. and Horan, F. E., Textured vegetable protein products as meat extenders, Cereal
2. Aguilera, J. M. and Kosikowski, F. V., Soybean extruded product: a response surface analysis, J.
Food Sci., 41, 647, 1976.
3. Aguilera, J. M. and Kosikowski, F. V., Extrusion and roll-cooking of corn-soy-whey mixtures, J.
Food Sci., 43, 225, 1978.
4. Aguilera, J. M., Kosikowski, F. V., and Hood, L. F., Ultrastrucrural changes occurring during ther-
moplastic extrusion of soybean grits, J. Food Sci., 41, 1209, 1976.
5. Altschul, A. M., Food: proteins for humans, Chem. Eng. News, 47(49), 68, 1969.
6. Anderson, R. A., Conway, H. F., and Peplinski, A. J., Gelatinization of corn grits by roll cooking,
extrusion cooking and steaming, Staerke, 22(4), 130, 1970.
7. Anderson, R. A., Conway, H. F., Pfeifer, V. F., and Griffin, E. L., Gelatinization of corn grits by
roll-and extrusion-cooking, Cereal Sci. Today, 14(1), 4, 1969a.
8. Anderson, R. A., Conway, H. F., Pfeifer, V. F., and Griffin, E. L., Roll- and extrusion-cooking of
grain sorghum grits. CerealSci.Today, 14(11), 372, 1969b.
9. Anderson, R. A., Pfeifer, V. F., Bookwalter, G. N., and Griffin, E. L., Instant C.S.M. food blends
for worldwide feeding, CerealSci.Today, 16(1), 5, 1971.
10. Anon. Grain expansion data presented, Feedstuffs, 38(10), 76, 1966.
11. Anon. Low-cost extrusion cooking — I, Food Eng. Int., 2(8), 42, 1977.
12. Anon. Low-cost extrusion cooking — II, Food Eng. Int., 2(9), 42, 1977.
13. Atkinson, W. T., Meat-like protein food product, U.S. Patent 3, 488, 770, 1970.
14. Beetner, G., Processing Effects on Vitamin Retention, Ph.D. thesis, Colorado State University, Ft.
Collins, 1978.
15. Beetner, G., Tsao, T., Frey, A., and Harper, J., Degradation of thiamine and riboflavin during
extrusion processing, J. Food Sci., 39, 207, 1974.
16. Beetner, G., Tsao, T., Frey, A., and Lorenz, K., Stability of thiamine and riboflavin during extrusion
processing of triticale, J. Milk Food Technol., 39(4), 244, 1976.
17. Bernhardt, E. C., Processing of Thermoplastic Materials, Reinhold Publishing, New York, 1962.
18. Bigg, D. and Middleman, S., Mixing in a screw extruder. A model for residence time distribution
and strain, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fundam., 13(1), 66, 1974.
19. Blanchfield, J. R. and Ovenden, C., Problems of flavoring extruded snack foods, Food Manuf.,
49(1), 27, 1974.
20. Bookwalter, G. N., Peplinski, A. J., and Pfeifer, V. F., Using a Bostwick consistometer to measure
consistencies of processed corn meals and their CSM blends, Cereal Sci. Today, 13(11), 407, 1968.
February 1979 211
21. Bookwalter, G. N., Mustakas, G. C . Kwolek, W. F., McGhee, J. E., and Albrecht, W. J., Full-fat
soy flour extrusion cooked: properties and food uses, J. Food Sci., 36, 5, 1971.
22. Booy, M. L., Influence of channel curvature on flow, pressure distribution and power requirements
of screw pumps and melt extruders, SPE Trans., 3(3), 176, 1963.
23. Booy, M. L., Influence of oblique channel ends on screw-pump performance, Polym. Eng. Sci., 7(1).
5, 1967.
24. Bressani, R., Exploration of the potential for low-cost extrusion cookers in Latin America, in Low-
cost Extrusion Cookers, LEC-1, Harper, J. M. and Jansen, G. R., Eds., Colorado State University,
Fort Collins, 1976, 35.
25. Bruin, S., Zuilichem, D. J. van, and Stolp, W., Fundamental and engineering aspects of extrusion
of biopolymers in a single-screw extruder, J. Food Process Eng., submitted for publication.
26. Burgess, L. D. and Stanley, D. W., A possible mechanism for thermal texturization of soybean
protein, Can. Inst. Food Sci. Technol. J., 9(4), 231, 1976.
27. Carley, J. F., Single-screw pumps for polymer melts, Chem. Eng. Prog., 58(1), 53, 1962.
28. Carley, J. F., Problems of flow in extrusion dies, SPE J., 19, 977, 1963.
29. Carley, J. F. and Strub, R. A. Basic concepts of extrusion, Ind. Eng. Chem., 45, 970, 1953.
30. Carley, J. F., Mallouk, R. S., and McKelvey, J. M., Simplified flow theory for screw extruders, Ind.
Eng. Chem., 45, 974, 1953.
31. Cervone, N. W. and Harper, J. M., Viscosity of an intermediate moisture dough, J. Food Process
Eng., submitted.
32. Chaing, B. Y. and Johnson, J. A., Gelatinization of starch in extruded products, Cereal Chem.,
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
54a. Gutcho, M., Prepared Snack Foods, Noyes Data Corp., Park Ridge, N. J., 1973.
54b. Gutcho, M., Textured Foods and Allied Products, Noyes Data Corp., Park Ridge, N. J., 1973.
55. Harmann, D. V. and Harper, J. M., Effect of extruder geometry on torque and flow, Trans. ASAE,
16(6), 1175, 1973.
56. Harmann, D. V. and Harper, J. M., Modeling a forming foods extruder, J. Food Sci., 39, 1099,
1974.
57. Harper, J. M., Goals and activities of the Colorado State University LEC program, in Low-cost
Extrusion Cookers, LEC-1, Harper, J. M. and Jansen, G. R., Eds., Colorado State University, Fort
Collins, 1976, 19.
58. Harper, J. M. and Harmann, D. V., Research needs in extrusion cooking and forming, Trans. ASAE,
16(5), 941, 1973.
59. Harper, J. M. and Jansen, G. R., Low-cost extruders for supplemental foods, L.I.F.E. Newsletter,
1977, 1.
60. Harper, J. M., Rhodes, T. P., and Wanninger, L. A., Jr., Viscosity model for cooked cereal doughs,
Chem. Eng. Prog. Symp. Ser., 67(108), 40, 1971.
61. Harper, J. M., Stone, M. L., Tribelhorn, R. E., Jansen, G. R., Lorenz, K. J., and Maga, J. A.,
Evaluation of Low-cost Extrusion Cookers for Use in LDC's, Annual Report, LEC-2, Colorado
State University, Fort Collins, 1977.
62. Hennessey, G. R., Stansbury, M. F., and Persell, R. M., USDA creates nutritive functional products,
Food Eng., 43(4), 71, 1971.
63. Hess, J., Puffed — the magic snack, Snack Food, 62(4), 35, 1973.
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
64. Horan, F. E., Defatted and full-fat soy flours by conventional processes, Pioc. Int. Conf. Soybean
Protein Foods, ARS-71(35), Peoria, Ill., 1966, 129.
65. Horan, F . E . , Soy protein products and their production, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc, 51, 67a, 1974.
66. Horan, F. E., Meat analogs, in New Protein Foods, Vol. 1A, Altschul, A. M., Ed., Academic Press,
New York, 1974, 336.
67. Horan, F. E. and Wolff, H., Meat analogs — a supplement, in New Protein Foods, Vol. 2B, Al-
tschul, A. M., Ed., Academic Press, New York, 1976, 260.
68. Horn, R. E., Extrusion Cooking Systems, Paper No. 77-3522, American Society of Agricultural
Engineers, St. Joseph, Mich., 1977.
69. Hoslrins, C. M., Sanitary extruder is wet-cleanable, FoodEng., 44(11), 82,1972.
70. Jadhav, S. J., Berry, L. M., and Clegg, L. F. L., Extruded french fries from dehydrated potato
' granules processed by a freeze-thaw technique, J. Food Sci., 41,852,1976.
71. Jansen, G. R., Nutritional evaluation of extruded products, in Low-cost Extrusion Cookers, LEC-1,
Harper, J. M. and Jansen, G. R., Eds., Colorado State University, Fort Collins, 1976, 35.
72. Jansen, G. R., Harper, J. M., and O'Deen, L., Nutritional evaluation of blended foods made with
a low-cost extruder cooker, J. Food Sci., 43,912,1978.
73. Jao, Y. C , Chen, A. H., Lewandowski, D . , and Irwin, W. E., Engineering analysis of soy dough
rheology in extrusion, / . Food Process Eng., submitted.
74. Jimenez, A. A., Perry, T. W., Pickert, R. A., and Beason, W. M., Effect of feeding raw or heated
ground soybeans on gains, feed efficiency and carcass quality of swine, Feedstuffs, 33(44), 42, 1961.
75. Jimenez, A. A., Perry, T. W., Pickett, R. A., and Beeson, W. M., Raw and heat-treated soybeans
for growing-finishing swine, and their effect on fat firmness, J. Anim. Sci., 22,471,1963.
76. Jokinen, J. E., Reineccius, G. A., and Thompson, D. R., Losses in available lysine during thermal
processing of soy protein model systems, / . Food Sci., 41, 816,1976.
77. Kauffman, K. B. and Hatch, R. T., Shear effects on cell viability during extrusion of semi-moist
foods, J. Food Sci., 42(4), 906, 1977.
78. Kelley, J. J. and Pressey, R., Studies with soybean protein and fiber formation, Cereal Chem., 43,
195, 1966.
79. Kinnison, J., Effect of extrusion on food colors, in Symposium on Extrusion: Process and Product
Development, American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, Minn., 1971.
80. Kinnison, J. and Chapman, R., Extrusion effects on colors and flavors, Snack Food, 61(10). 40,
1972.
81. Kissinger, F., Makes bread crumbs continuously, Food Eng., 41(6). 76, 1969.
82. Klein, I. and Tadmor, Z., Computer design of plasticating extruder screws. Mod. Plast., 46(9), 166.
1969.
83. Krukar, R., Flavor stability in extruded snack foods, in Symposium on Extrusion: Process and Prod-
uct Development, Central States Section, American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, Minn.,
1971.
84. Lancaster, E. B., Specific volume and flow of corn grits under pressure, Chem. Eng. Prog. Symp.
Ser., 67(108), 30, 1971.
85. Launoy, B. and Bure, J., Application of a viscometric method to the study of wheat flour doughs,
J. Texture Stud., 4, 82, 1973.
February 1979 213
86. Lawton, B. T., Henderson, G. A., and Derlatka, E. J., The effects of extruder variables on the
gelatinization of corn starch, Can. J. Chem. Eng., 50(4), 168, 1972.
87. Lee, T. C., Chen, T., Alid, G., and Chichester, C. O., Stability of vitamin and provitamin A (caro-
tenoids) in extrusion cooking processing, AIChE Symp. Ser., 74(172), 192,1978.
88. Lockmiller, N. R., What are textured protein products, Food Technol. (Chicago), 26(5), 56,1972.
89. Lorenz, K. J., Physical and chemical evaluation of extruded products, in Low-cost Extrusion Cook-
ers, LEC-1, Harper, J. M. and Jansen, G. R., Eds., Colorado State University, Fort Collins, 1976,
49.
90. Lorenz, K., Welsh, J., Normann, R., Beetner, G., and Frey, A., Extrusion processing of triticale, J.
Food Sci., 39, 572, 1974.
91. Maga, J. A., Physical, chemical and sensory evaluation of extruded products, in Low-cost Extrusion •
Cookers, LEC-1, Harper, J. M. and Jansen, G. R., Eds., Colorado State University, Fort Collins,
1976, 53.
92. Martin, R. E. and Leclair, D. V., For creating products . . . textured proteins. Food Eng., 39(4), 66,
1967.
93. Matz, S. A.,Snack Food Technology, AVI Publishing, Westport, Conn., 1976.
94. Maurice, T. J., Burgess, L. D., and Stanley, D. W., Texture-structure relationships in texturized soy
protein. III. Textural evaluation of extruded products, Can. Inst. Food Sci. Technol. J., 9(4), 173,
1976.
95. Maxwell, D. L., Machine-made sev: effects of a technology-intensive food process in a developing
economy, AIChE Symp. Ser., 74(172), 189, 1978.
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
96. Mercier, C., Effect of extrusion-cooking on potato starch using a twin screw French extruder,
Staerke, 29(2), 48, 1977.
97. Mercier, C. and Feillet, P., Modification of carbohydrate components by extrusion-cooking of cereal
products, Cereal Chem., 52(3), 283, 1975.
98. Metzner, A. B. and Reed, J. C , Flow of non-Newtonian fluids — Correlation of the laminar, tran-
sition, and turbulent-flow regions, AIChE J., 1(4), 434,1955.
99. Mitra, R., Extruder-based foods: a financial profile, Anand Workshop: Extruder-Based Foods in
India, Achaya, K. T. and Mitra, R., Eds., Protein Foods and Nutrition Development Associaton of
India, Bombay, 1976, 13.
100. Molina, M. R., Bressani, R., and Elias, L. G., Nonconventional legume grains as protein sources,
Food Technol. (Chicago), 35(5), 188, 1977.
101. Molina, M. R., Bressani, R., Cuevas, R., Gudiel, H., and Chauvin, V., Effects of processing varia-
bles on some physico-chemical characteristics and nutritive quality of high protein foods, AIChE
Symp. Ser., 4(172), 153, 1978.
102. Morgan, R. G., Suter, D. A. and Sweat, V. E., Design and modeling of a capillary plant-protein
food extruder, J. Food Process Eng., submitted.
103. Mottern, H. H., Spadaro, J. J., and Gallo, A. S., Cooking-extrusion-expansion of rice, Food Tech-
nol. (Chicago), 23, 567, 1969.
104. Mukerjee, S., Experience and possibilities of using a Brady Crop Cooker for manufacture of textured
foods in India, Anand Workshop: Extruder-Based Foods in India, Achaya, K. T. and Mitra, R.,
Eds., Protein Foods and Nutrition Development Association of India, Bombay, 1976, 18.
105. Mustakas, G. C., Extrusion cooking, a new development for soy protein foods, Symposium on Ex-
trusion: Process and Product Development, American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul,
Minn., 1971.
106. Mustakas, G. C. and Mayberry, D. H., Simplified full-fat soy flour processes, Food Eng., 36(10),
52,1964.
107. Mustakas, G. C , Griffin, E. L., and Sohns, V. E., Full-fat soybean flours by continuous extrusion
cooking, in World Protein Resources, Gould, R. F., Ed., American Chemical Society, Washington,
D.C., 1966, 101.
108. Mustakas, G. C , Griffin, E. L.t Allen, L. E., and Smith, O. B., Production and nutritional evalua-
tion of extrusion-cooked full-fat soybean flour, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc, 41,607,1964.
109. Mustakas, G. C , Albrecht, W. J., Bookwalter, G. N., Sohns, V. E., and Griffin, E. L., New process
for low-cost, high protein beverage base. Food Technol. (Chicago), 25, 534,1971.
110. Mustakas, G. C , Albrecht, W. J., Bookwalter, G. N., McGhee, J. E., Kwolek, W. F., and Griffin,
E. L., Extruder-processing to improve nutritional quality, flavor and keeping quality of full-fat soy
flour. Food Technol. (Chicago), 24, 1290, 1970.
111. Nadison, G., Seasoning blends for expanded snack products, Cereal Sci. Today, 14,215, 1969.
112. Nielsen, E., Whole seed processing by extrusion cooking, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 53(6), 305,1976.
113. Pearson, J. R. A., Paper Working Party on Non-Newtonian Fluid Processing, World Congress
Chemical Engineering, Amsterdam, 1976.
114. Perry, P., The success of flavoring in extruded products is up to you. Symposium on Extrusion:
Process and Product Development, American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, Minn., 1971.
214 CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
115. Rakosky, J., Jr., Soy products for the meat industry, J. Agric. Food Chem., 18(6). 1005, 1970.
116. Remsen, C. H. and Clark, J. P., A viscosity model for a cooking dough, J. Food Process Eng.,
1978, submitted.
117. Robinson, R. F., What is the future of textured protein products?, Food Technol. (Chicago), 26(5),
59, 1972.
118. Rogers, M. G., Rheological interpretation of Brabender plasticorder (extruder head) data, Ind. Eng.
Chem. Process Des. Dev., 9(1), 49, 1970.
119. Rossen, J. L. and Miller, R. C., Food extrusion, Food Technol. (Chicago), 27(8), 46, 1973.
120. Rowell, H. S. and Finlayson, D., Screw viscosity pumps, Engineer, 114, 606, 1922.
121. Rowell, H. S. and Finlayson, D., Screw viscosity pumps, Engineer, 216, 249, 1928.
122. Sahagun, J., Parameters Affecting the Performance of a Low-cost Extrusion Cooker, M. S. thesis,
Department of Agricultural and Chemical Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins,
1977.
123. Sander, E. H. and Ziemba, J. V., Fillers become processors, Food Eng., 45(11), 109,1973.
124. Sanderude, K. G., Continuous Cooking, Extrusion and Expansion of Cereal Grains in the Food and
Feed Industries, Paper No. 67-323, American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, Mich.,
1967.
125. Sanderude, K. G., Continuous cooking extrusion: benefits to the snack food industry, Cereal Sci.
Today, 14(6). 209, 1969.
126. Sanderude, K. G., Continuous cooking of cereal grains and wheat flours by short time, high temper-
ature extrusion. Northwest. Miller, 276(6), 21, 1969.
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
127. Sanderude, K. G., Needs, Uses and Basic Procedures for Continuous Cooking Extrusion in the Food
Industry, 55th Annual Meeting, American Association of Cereal Chemists, 1970.
128. Sanderude, K. C., Should you be using E.S.P.?, Snack Food, 62(4), 44, 1973.
129. Sanderude, K. G. and Ziemba, J. V., New products come easy with extrusion cooking, Food Eng.,
40(8), 84, 1968.
130. Sarup, G., Possibilities in India of food based on extruders and cooker-extruders, Anand Workshop:
Extruder-Based Foods in India, Achaya, K. T. and Mitra, R., Eds., Protein Foods and Nutrition
Development Association of India, Bombay, 1976, 32.
131. Schenkel, G., Plastics Extrusion Technology and Theory, American Elsevier, New York, 1966.
132. Seib, P. A. and Stearns, M., Extrusion processing of wheat starch Cereal Sci. Today, 17(102)(Abstr.),
9, 1972.
133. Seller, K., Different results obtained on extrusion of different maize varieties grown in the Federal
Republic of Germany, Getreide Mehl Brot, 29(7), 193, 1975.
134. Shah, V. H., The scope of extruded foods in India, Anand Workshop: Extruder-Based Foods in
India, Achaya, K. T. and Mitra, R., Eds., Protein Foods and Nutrition Development Association of
India, Bombay, 1976, 29.
135. Smith, O. B., Pre-cooking of cereal and protein blends, International Symposium on Oilseed Proteins
and Concentrates, CFTRI, Mysore, India, 1967.
136. Smith, O. B., History and status of specific protein-rich foods. Extrusion-processed cereal foods, in
Protein-enriched Cereal Foods for World Needs, Milner, M., Ed., American Association of Cereal
Chemists, St. Paul, Minn., 1969, 140.
137. Smith, O. B., Why use extrusion?, Symposium on Extrusion: Process and Product Development,
American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, Minn., 1971.
138. Smith, O. B., Versatility of Texturizing by Extrusion Cooking, 67th Annu. Meet., American Institute
of Chemical Engineers, Washington, D.C., 1974.
139. Smith, O. B., Extrusion and forming: creating new foods, Food Eng., 47(7), 48,1975.
140. Smith, O. B., Textures by extrusion processing, in Fabricated Foods, Inglett, G. E., Ed., AVI Pub-
lishing, Westport, Conn., 1975, 89.
141. Smith, O. B., Extrusion cooking, in New Protein Foods, Vol. 2B, Altschul, A. M., Ed., Academic
Press, New York, 1976, 86.
142. Smith, O. B., Why extrusion cooking?, Cereal Foods World, 21(1), 4, 1976.
143. Smith, O. B. and Crocco, S. C., Engineering "meat," Food Eng., 47(10). EF22. 1975.
144. Smith, P., The functions and utilization of starch in extruded foods, Symposium on Extrusion: Pro-
cess and Product Development, American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, Minn., 1971.
145. Spadaro, J. J., Mottern, H. H., and Gallo, A. S., Extrusion of rice with cottonseed and peanut
flours, Cereal Sci. Today, 16(8), 238, 1971.
146. Squires, P. H., Screw extruder pumping efficiency, SPEJ., 14(5), 24, 1958.
147. Sterner, M. M. and Sterner, M. H., Two techniques cut costs of vegetable protein. Food Eng., 48(3),
77, 1976.
148. Sterner, M. M., Sterner, M. H., and Zeidler, G., Non-extrusion texturizing of soy meal, PAG Bull.,
6(2), 33,1976.
149. Stone, M. L., LEC systems and costs, in Low-cost Extrusion Cookers, LEC-1, Harper, J. M. and
Jansen, G. R., Eds., Colorado State University, Fort Collins, 1976, 43.
February 1979 215
150. Stone, M. L., Harper, J. M., and Tribelhorn, R. E., Costs associated with simple extrusion systems,
in 1st International Congress on Engineering and Food, American Society of Agricultural Engineers,
Boston, 1976, 117.
151. Tadmor, Z. and Klein, I., Engineering Principles of Plasticating Extrusion, Von Nostrand Reinhold,
New York, 1970.
152. Taranto, M. V., Meinke, W. W., Cater, C. M., and Mattil, K. F., Parameters affecting production
and character of extrusion texturized defatted glandiess cottonseed meal, J. Food Sci., 40, 1264,
1975.
153. Thompson, D. R. and Rosenau, J. R., Data acquisition from an extruder for food research, Trans.
ASAE, 20(2). 397, 1977.
154. Thompson, D. R. and Wolf, J. C., Available Lysine Losses in a Stirred Model Food System, Paper
No. 76-6505, Annual Meeting, American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 1976.
155. Thompson, D. R., Wolf, J. C , and Reineccius, O. A., Lysine retention in food during extrusion-
like processes, Trans. ASAE, 19(5), 989, 1976.
156. Timbers, O. E., Paton, D . , and Voisey, P. W., Modifications to improve the operational efficiency,
process control and versatility of a Brabender laboratory extruder, Can. Inst. Food Sci. Technol. J.,
9(4), 232, 1976.
157. Toledo, R., Cabot, J., and Brown, D . , Relation between composition, stability, and rheological
properties of raw comminuted meat batters, J. Food Sci., 42, 725, 1977.
158. Tribelhorn, R. E., Harper, J. M., and Stone, M. L., Evaluation of Simple Cooker Extruders for
Use in LDC's, Paper No. 75-6522, Annual Meeting American Society of Agricultural Engineers,
Downloaded by [Cornell University] at 11:00 20 July 2012
1975.
159. Tribelhorn, R. E., Harper, J. M., and Stone, M. L., Use of simple cooker extruders to produce low-
cost food in less developed countries, in First International Congress on Engineering and Food, Am.
Soc. Agric. Eng., Boston, 1976,118.
160. Tribelhorn, R. E., Harper, J. M., Stone, M. L., Jansen, O. R., Maga, J. A., and Lorenz, K. J.,
Development of a Low-Cost CSB-Like Product Using LEC's and Whole Grains for LDC's, Paper
No. 76-6501, Annual Meeting of American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 1976.
161. Tsao, T. F., Harper, J. M., and Repholz, K. M., The effects of screw geometry on extruder opera-
tional characteristics, AIChE Symp. Ser., 74(172), 142, 1978.
162. Tsao, T. F., Frey, A. L., and Harper, J. M., Available lysine retention in fortified rice meal, J.
Food Sci., submitted.
163. Tsao, T., Beetner, G., Lorenz, K., and Frey, A., Extrusion processing of instant rice spaghetti,
Lebensm. Wiss. Technol., 9, 96 1976.
164. Tsen, C. C., Farrell, E. P., Hoover, W. J., and Crowley, P. R., Extruded soy products from whole
and dehulled soybeans cooked at various temperatures for bread and cookie fortifications. Cereal
Foods World, 20(9), 413, 1975.
165. Waldroup, P., Full-fat soybeans — a potential livestock feed, Soybean Dig., 36(13), 12, 1976.
166. Walsten, M., Economics may favor cooking soybeans for hogs, Soybean Dig., 36(13), 9, 1976.
167. Weaver, M. L., Nonaka, M., and Sayre, R. N., Surface-texturizing process yields crisp, extruded
french fries, Food Prod. Dev., 9(1), 50, 1975.
168. Wilding, M. D., Textured and shaped oilseed protein food products, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 48,
489, 1971.
169. Willard, M., Fabricated potato snacks, Snack Food, 62(4), 52, 1973.
170. Williams, M. A., Direct extrusion of convenience foods, Cereal Foods World, 22(4), 152, 1977.
171. Williams, M. A., Horn, R. E., and Rugala, R. P., Extrusion — an in-depth look at a versatile
process. I, Food Eng., 49(10), 99, 1977.
172. Williams, M. A., Horn, R. E., and Rugala, R. P., Extrusion — an in-depth look at a versatile
process. II, Food Eng., 49(11). 87, 1977.
173. Wolf, J. C., Thompson, D. R., and Reineccius, G. A., Initial Losses of Available Lysine in Model
Systems, Report of the Minnesota Agricultural Experimental Station, St. Paul, 1976.
174. Ziemba, J. V., Extrusion challenges you, Food Eng., 36(8), 57, 1964.
175. Ziemba, J. V., Stimulated m e a t s . . . how they're made, Food Eng., 41(11), 72, 1969.
176. Zuilichem, D . J. van. Swart, J. G., and Buisman, G., Residence time-distributions in an extruder,
Lebensm. Wiss. Technol., 6(5), 184, 1973.
177. Zuilichem, D . J. van, Lamers, G., and Stolp, W., Influence of process variables on quality of ex-
truded mais-grits, Proc. 6th Eur. Symp. Eng. and Food Qual., Cambridge, 1975.