BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY

College of Engineering, Architecture&Fine Arts

Gov. Pablo Borbon Campus II, Alangilan, Batangas City, Philippines 4200
www.batstate-u.edu.ph Telefax: (043) 300-4404 locs. 106-118

CHEMICAL AND FOOD ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

ChE 423
Equipment Design

Process Control
(Written Report)

AGUSTIN, Mekeilah Roma

MACALINTAL, Jessica
MALALUAN, Eloisa Jean

ChE-4201

Engr. Rodolfo C. Sotto Jr.

Instructor
 PROCESS CONTROL

Process controls play an important role in how a plant process upset can be
controlled and subsequent emergency actions executed. Without adequate and
reliable process controls, an unexpected process occurrence cannot be monitored,
controlled, and eliminated. Process controls can range from simple manual actions to
computer logic controllers, remote from the required action point, with supplemental
instrumentation feedback systems. These systems should be designed to minimize the
need to activate secondary safety devices. The process principles, margins allowed,
reliability, and the means of process control are mechanisms of inherent safety that will
influence the risk level at a facility.

Benefits of process control

• More throughput from your existing assets.
• Increase automation and reduce human intervention.
• Reduce rework, concessions and scrap.
• Enhance your capability and take on more work.

Feedback Control
In feedback control, after an offset of the controlled variable from apreset value
has been generated, the controller acts to eliminate orreduce the offset. Usually there is
produced an oscillation in the value of the controlled variable whose amplitude, period,
damping and permanent offset depend on the nature of the system and themode of
action of the controller. The usual controllers provide one,two, or three of these modes
of corrective action:
1. Proportional, in which the corrective action is proportional to the error signal.
2. Integral, in which the corrective action at time t is proportional the integral of the error
up to that time.
3. Derivative, in which the corrective action is proportional to the rate at which the error
is being generated.
The relation between the change in output rn - rn, and input e signals accordingly is
represented by

The kinds of controllers suitable for the common variables maybe stated briefly:
Variable Controller

Flow and liquid pressure PI

Liquid level P or PI

Composition P,PI,PID

Gas pressure P

Temperature PID

SYMBOLS
On working flowsheets the detectors, transmitters, and controllersare identified
individually by appropriate letters and serial numbersin circles. Control valves are
identified by the letters CV- followed by a serial number. When the intent is to show only
in general thekind of control system, no special symbol is used for detectors, butsimply
a point of contact of the signal line with the equipment orprocess line. Transmitters are
devices that convert the measuredvariable into air pressure for pneumatic controllers or
unitsappropriate for electrical controllers. Temperature, for instance,may be detected
with thermocouples or electrical resistance orheight of a liquid column or radiant flux,
etc., but the controller can accept only pneumatic or electrical signals depending on its
type.When the nature of the transmitter is clear, it may be representedby an encircled
cross or left out entirely.
CASCADE (RESET) CONTROL
Cascade control is a control algorithm in which the output of one control loop
provides the target for another loop, as shown in the diagram below. The ultimate goal
of the cascaded loops is to control the end process.

INDIVIDUAL PROCESS VARIABLES

The variables that need to be controlled in chemical processing are temperature,
pressure, liquid level, flow rate, flow ratio, composition, and certain physical properties
whose magnitudes may be influenced by some of the other variables, for instance,
viscosity, vapor pressure, refractive index, etc. When the temperature and pressure are
fixed, such properties are measures of composition which may be known exactly upon
calibration.
TEMPERATURE
Temperature is regulated by heat exchange with a heat transfer medium (HTM). The
flow rate of the HTM may be adjusted, or the condensing pressure of steam or other
vapor, or the amount of heat transfer surface exposed to condensing vapor may be
regulated by flooding with condensate, which always has a much lower heat transfer
coefficient than that of condensing vapor.
PRESSURE
Pressure is controlled by regulating the flow of effluent from the vessel. The effluent
may be the process stream itself or a non- condensable gas that is generated by the
system or supplied for blanketing purposes. The system also may be made to float on
the pressure of the blanketing gas supply.

LEVEL OF LIQUID
Level of liquid in a vessel often is maintained by permanent or adjustable built-in weirs
for the effluent, notably on the trays of fractionators, extractors, etc., and in reactors and
drums. Any desired adjustments of weir height, however, can be made only on
shutdown.
FLOW RATE
A rate of flow is commonly measured by differential pressure across an orifice, but
many other devices also are used on occasion. Simultaneous measurements of
temperature and pressure allow the flow measurement to be known in mass units.
Direct mass flow meters also are available. The flow measurement is transmitted to a
controller which then adjusts the opening of a control valve so as to maintain the
desired condition.
FLOW OF SOLIDS
Except for continuous weighing, control of the flow of solids is less precise than that of
fluids. Ordinarily these devices are in effect manually set,but if the solid material is being
fed to a reactor, some property of the mixture could be used for feed back control. For
some applications it is adequate or necessary to feed weighed amounts of solids to a
process on a timed basis.
FLOW RATIO
Flow ratio control is essential in processes such as fuel-air mixing, blending, and reactor
feed systems.
COMPOSITION
The most common detectors of specific substances are gas chromatographs and mass
spectrometers, Devices that are specific for individual substances also are sometimes
available, for example pH, oxygen, and combustion products. Composition controllers
act by adjusting some other condition of the system: for instance, the residence time in
converters by adjusting the flow rate, or the temperature by adjusting the flow of HTM,
or the pressure of gaseous reactants, or the circulation rate of regenerable catalysts,
and so on.

HEAT TRANSFER EQUIPMENT

Four classes of this kind of equipment are considered: heat exchangers without phase
change,steam heaters, condensers, and vaporizers or reboilers.

• Solids feeders with variable speed drives

(a) Rotary vane (star) feeder with variable

speed drive. (b) Horizontal screw feeder. (c)
Belt feeder taking material frlom a bin with an
adjustable underflow weir. (d) Rotary plate
feeder: Rate of discharge is controlled by the
rotation speed, height of the collar, and the
position of the plow. (e) Continuously weighing
feeder with variable
speed belt conveyor.

• Heat exchangers without phase change

PF = process fluid, HTM = heat transfer medium.

(a) Feedback control of PF outlet temperature- flow rate of HTM is adjusted as the PF
outlet temperature is perturbed. The valve may be in either the input or output line.
(b) Feedforward control- IPF outlet setpoint T-2 and perturbations of PF input flow and
temperature are fed to the monitor which adjusts the flow rate of the HTM to maintain
constant PF outlet temperature T2.
(c) Exchanger with bypass of process fluid with a three-way valve- ‘The purpose of TC-2
is to
conserve on that fluid or to limit its temperature.
(d) A two-fluid heat transfer system.- The PF is heated with the HTM which is a closeld
circuit heated by Dowtherm or combustion gases.
(e) Air cooler.- Air flow rate is controllable with adjustable lowers or variable pitch fan or
variable speed motors.

• Steam Heaters
Flow of steam is controlled off the PF outlet temperature, and condensate is
removed with a steam trap or under liquid level control. Temperature control on the
condensate removal has the effect of varying the amount of flooding of the heat transfer
surface and hence the rate of condensation. The steam pressure corresponds quickly to
upsets in steam supply conditions.

• Condensers
Throttling of the flow of the HTM may make it too hot. If the pressure rises, the
condensate flow rate increases and the amount of unflooded surface increases, thereby
increasing the rate of
condensation and lowering the pressure to the correct value. The condenser and drum
become partially flooded with subcooled condensate. When the pressure falls, the vapor
valve opens, and the vapor flows directly to the drum and heats up the liquid there. The
resulting increase in vapor pressure forces some of the liquid back into the condenser
so that the rate of condensation is decreased and the pressure consequently is restored
to the preset value. With sufficient subcooling, a difference of 10-15 ft in levels of drum
and condenser is sufficient for good control by this method.

• Vaporizers
HTM may be liquid or vapor to start. A constant rate of heat input is assured by flow
control of the HTM which may be either liquid or vapor to1 start. For the vaporization of
refrigerant and cooling of process fluid, flow rate of the PF is the primary control. The
flow rate of refrigerant vapor is controlled by the level in the drum to ensure constant
condensation when the incoming PF is in vapor form.

DISTILLATION EQUIPMENT

As a minimum, a distillation assembly consists of a tower, reboiler, condenser,

and overhead accumulator. The bottom of the tower serves as accumulator for the
bottoms product. The assembly must be controlled as a whole. Almost invariably, the
pressure at either the top or bottom is maintained constant; at the top at such a value
that the necessary reflux can be condensed with the available coolant; at the bottom in
order to keep the boiling temperature low
enough to prevent product degradation or low enough for the available HTM, and
definitely well below the critical pressure of the bottom composition.

Crude oil vacuum tower. Pumparound reflux is provided at

three lower positions as well as at the top, with the object of
optimizing the diameter of the tower. Cooling of the side
streams is part of the heat recovery system of the entire
crude oil distillation plant. The cooling water and the steam
for stripping and to the vacuum ejector are on hand control.
• Lower ends of Fractionators
(a) Kettle reboiler- The heat source may be on TC of either of the two locations shown
or on flow control, or on difference of pressure between key locations in the tower.
(b) Thermosiphon reboiler- Compared with the kettle, the heat transfer coefficient is
greater, the shorter residence time may prevent overheating of thermally sensitive
materials, surface fouling will be less, and the smaller holdup of hot liquid is a safety
precaution.
(c) Forced circulation reboiler. High rate of heat transfer and a short residence time
which is desirable with thermally sensitive materials are achieved.
With the control valve in the condensate line, the rate of heat transfer is
controlled by the amount of unflooded heat transfer surface present at any time.
Withdrawal on TC ensures that the product has the correct boiling point and presumably
,the correct composition. The LC on the steam supply ensures that the specified heat
input is being maintained.

Steam flow rate is controlled to ensure specified composition of the PF effluent.

The composition may be measured directly or indirectly by measurement of some
physical property such as vapor pressure.

LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION TOWERS

The internals of extraction towers can be packing, sieve trays, empty with spray
feeds or rotating disks. The same kinds of controls are suitable in all cases, and consist
basically of level and flow
controls.
Mixer-settler assemblies for extraction purposes often are preferable to
differential contact towers in order to obtain very high extraction yields or to handle large
flow rates or when phase separation is slow and much time is needed.

Control modes for the upper sections of fractionators

(a) Pressure control by throttling of the overhead vapor

flow. The drawbacks of this method are the cost of the
large control valve and the fact that the reflux pump
operates with a variable suction head. The flow of HTM
is hand set.

(b) Applicable when the overhead product is taken

off as vapor and only the reflux portion need be
condensed.
Two two-way valves can replace the single three-
way valve. The flow of HTM is hand set.
 (c) Flow rate of the HTM is regulated to keep the
pressure constant. One precaution is to make sure
that the HTM, for example water, does not overheat
and cause scaling.

(d) Pressure control is maintained by throttling

uncondensed vapors. Clearly only systems with
condensables can be handled this way. The flow of the
HTM is manually set.

(e) Bypass of vapor to the drum on PC

The bypassed vapor heats up the liquid there, thereby
causing the pressure to rise. When the bypass is closed,
the pressure falls. Sufficient heat transfer surface is
provided to subcool the condensate.

(f) Vapor bypass between the condenser and the

accumulator, with the condenser near ground level for
the ease of maintenance: When the pressure in the
tower falls, the bypass valve opens, and the subcooled
liquid in the drum heats up and is forced by its vapor
pressure back into the condenser.

(g) Cascade control: The same system as case (a),

but with addition of a TC (or composition controller)
that resets the reflux flow rate.

(h) Reflux rate on a differential temperature

controller. Ensures constant internal reflux rate even
when the performance of the condenser fluctuates.
 (i) Reflux is provided by a separate
partial condenser on TC. It may be mounted on top of
the column as shown or inside the column or installed
with its own accumulator and reflux pump in the usual
way.

Extraction Tower Control

(a) Operation with heavy

solvent, interface in the
upper section, top liquid
level on LC. (b) Same as
part (a) but with overflow
weir for the light phase. (c)
Same as part (a) but with
completcly full tower and
light phase out at the top.
(d) Operation with interface
on ILC in the lower section,
removal of the light phase
from the upper section by
any of the methods of (a),
(b), or (c).

CHEMICAL REACTORS
The progress of a given reaction depends on the temperature, pressure, flow
rates, and residence times. Usually these variables are controlled directly, but since the
major feature of a chemical reaction is composition change, the analysis of composition
and the resetting of the other variables by its means is an often used means of control.
The possible occurrence of multiple steady states and the onset of instabilities also are
factors in deciding on the nature and precision of a control system.
Different Controls on a Continuous Reactors

a) Stirred tanks are used either as batch or

continuous flow reactors. Heat transfer may be
provided with an external heat exchanger, as shown on
this figure, or through internal surface or a jacket.
Alternate modes of control may be used with the
controls shown: (i) When the HTM is on temperature
control, the pump around will be on flow control; (ii)
when the pumparound is on temperature control, the
HTM will be on flow control; (iii) for continuous overflow of product, the control
point for temperature may be on that line or in the vessel; (iv) for batch operation,
the control point for temperature clearly must
be in the vessel.
b) This shows either direct or cascade control of
the temperature of a reactor with internal heat
transfer surface and an internal weir. The
sluggishly responding temperature of the
vessel is used to reset the temperature
 controller of the HTM. For direct control, the TC-2 is omitted and the control point
can be on the HTM outlet or the product line or in the vessel.

c) Flow reactors without mechanical agitation are of many

configurations, tanks or tubes, empty or containing fixed
beds of particles or moving particles. When the thermal
effects of reaction are substantial, multiple small tubes
in parallel are used to provide adequate heat transfer
surface. The sketch shows a single tube provided with a
jacket for heat transfer. Feed to the reactor is on flow
control, the effluent on pressure control, and the flow of
the HTM on temperature control of the effluent with the
possibility of reset by the composition of the effluent.

d) Heat transfer to high

temperature reactions, above
300°C or so, may be
accomplished by direct contact
with combustion gases. The
reaction tubes are in the
combustion zone but safely
away from contact with the flame. The control mode is essentially similar to that
for case (c), except that fuel-air mixture takes the place of the HTM. The supply of
fuel is on either temperature or composition control off the effluent stream, and the
air is maintained in constant ratio with the fuel with the flow ratio controller FRC.

e) Very effective heat transfer is accomplished by mixing

of streams at different temperatures. The cumene
process shown here employs injection of cold reacting
mixture and cold inert propane and water to prevent
temperature escalation; by this scheme, the inlet and
outlet temperature are made essentially the same,
about 500°F. Although not shown here, the main feed
is, as usual for reactors, on FC and the outlet on PC.

LIQUID PUMPS
Process pumps are three types: centrifugal, rotary positive displacement, and
reciprocating. The outputs of all of them are controllable by regulation of the speed
of the driver.
1. Controllability of centrifugal pumps
depends on their pressure flow characteristics.
With the upper curve, two flow rates are possible
above a head of about 65ft so that the flow is not
reliably controllable above this pressure. The pump
with the lower curve is stable at all pressures within
its range.

2. Rotary pumps deliver a nearly constant flow at a given speed, regardless of

the pressure. Bypass control is the usual method, with speed control in larger
sizes.
 3. Reciprocating positive displacement pumps may have adjustment of the
length or frequency of the stroke as another control feature. These may be
solenoid or pneumatic devices that can be operated off a flow controller.

COMPRESSORS
Three main classes of gas compressors are centrifugal and axial, rotary continuous
positive displacement, and reciprocating positive displacement.
1. Throttling of the suction of centrifugal and axial compressors wastes less power
than throttling the discharge. Even less power is wasted by adjustment of built-in
inlet guide vanes with a servomechanism which is a feedback control system in
which the controlled variable is mechanical position.

2. Smaller rotary positive displacement compressors are controlled with external

bypass. Such equipment usually has a built-In relief valve that opens at a
pressure short of damaging the equipment, but the external bypass still is
necessary for smooth control. Large units may be equipped with turbine or gas
engine drives which are speed adjustable.

3. Reciprocating compressors may be controlled in the same way as rotary units.

The normal turndown with gasoline or diesel engines is 50% of maximum in
order that torque remains within acceptable limits. Two other aids are available to
control of reciprocating units.
a) Valve unloading, a process whereby some of the suction valves remain
open during discharge. Solenoid or pneumatic unloaders can be operated
from the output of a control instrument.

b) Clearance unloaders are small pockets into which the gas is forced on the
compression stroke and expands into the cylinder on the return stroke,
thus preventing compression of additional gas.