SMEX1038-COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

UNIT 4 &5
FLOW FIELDS AND TURBULANCE MODELS

Flow Fields
Applied Computational Fluid Dynamics
Important variables
• Pressure and fluid velocities are always calculated in
c Pressure can be used to calculate forces on objects,
e prediction of drag of a car. Fluid velocities can be
viscous show flow structures.
• From the flow field we can derive other variables such
and vortices. Shear stresses may relate to erosion of s
surfaces. Deformation of fluid elements is important in
processes. Vortices describes the rotation of fluid elem
• In turbulent flows, turbulent kinetic energy and
dissipat important for such processes as heat transfer
and mas in boundary layers.
• For non-isothermal flows, the temperature field is impo
may govern evaporation, combustion, and other proce
• In some processes, radiation is important.
Post-processing
• Results are usually reviewed in one of two ways.
Grap alphanumerically.
• Graphically:
– Vector plots.
– Contours.
– Iso-surfaces.
– Flowlines.
– Animation.
• Alphanumerics:
– Integral values.
– Drag, lift, torque calculations.
– Averages, standard deviations.
– Minima, maxima.
– Compare with experimental data.
A flow field example: the football
• Regulation size american football.
• Perfect throw. Ball is thrown from right to left.
• Flow field relative to the ball is from left to right.
• Shown here are filled contours of velocity magnitude.
Football animation
• Time dependent calculation. Images were saved at ev
step.
• Transparency for the football surface was set to 50%
s leather strips are also visible when in the back. This
he showing the motion of the ball.
Football animation
• Velocity vectors.
• Watch the flow separation behind the leather strips.
Vector Plot on Iso-Surface of Constant Grid. Irregu
Vector Plot on Bounded Sample Plane. Slower but Regu
Fluid motion
• In a fluid flow field, each fluid element undergoes
three effects:
– 1. Translation.
– 2. Deformation.
– 3. Rotation.

Translation and deformation

Methods to show translation
• Translation can be shown by
means of:
– Velocity vectors.
– Flowlines:
• Streamlines.
• Pathlines.
• Streaklines.
• Timelines.
• Oilflow lines.
Flow around a cylinder - grid
Flow around a cylinder – grid zoomed i
Flow around a cylinder – velocity vecto
Flow around a cylinder – velocity mag
Flow around a cylinder – pressure field
Pressure
• Pressure can be used to calculate forces (e.g. drag, lif
on objects by integrating the pressure over the
surface object.
• Pressure consists of three components:
– Hydrostatic pressure gh.
– Dynamic pressure v2/2.
– Static pressure ps. This can be further split into an opera
pressure (e.g. atmospheric pressure) and a gauge press
• When static pressure is reported it is usually the gaug
only.
• Total pressure is the static pressure plus the dynamic
Streamlines
• Streamlines are curves that are everywhere tangent
to velocity vector U.
• The animation shows streamlines for a steady state 3-
• For 3-D flow fields, instead of streamlines one usually
streaklines or pathlines, which for steady flow are the
• For 2-D flow fields, a stream function Ψ can be defined
u   ; v  
y x
• In 2-D, lines of constant stream function
are streamlines. Calculating the stream
function and isolines is a more
efficient way to calculate streamlines
than by integrating particle tracks.
Stream function – filled contours
Lines of constant stream function
Pathlines
• A pathline is the trajectory followed by an individual pa
• The pathline depends on the location where the
particl injected in the flow field and, in unsteady flows,
also o when it was injected.
• In unsteady flows pathlines may be difficult to follow a
to create experimentally.
• For a known flowfield, an initial location of the particle
The trajectory can then be calculated by integrating th
equation:

dX(t) U(X,t) with inital condition X(0) X0
dt
Pathlines
• Example: pathlines in a static mixer.
Pathlines around a cylinder
Alternative particle path display
• Animation of flow following spheres.
• Can show motion but path followed may be unclear.
Streaklines
• This is the flowline formed by a series of particles rele
continuously in the flow.
• Experimentally, this can also be done by continuous d
injections.
• In steady flows, streaklines and pathlines coincide.
• In unsteady flows, they may be very different.
The lines fo
the continu
injection of green dye a
streaklines.

The trajecto
followed by
particles ar
Pathlines and streaklines - unsteady flo
• The animation shows a simple model of an unsteady flow c
smokestack.
• First, there is no wind and the smoke goes straight up.
• Next there is a strong wind coming from the right.
• The yellow circles show the trajectory of a single particle rel
time 0. The pathline is straight up with a sharp angle to left.
• The grayish smoke shows what happens to a continuous
str goes straight up, but then
the whole, vertical plume
of smoke moves to the left.
• So, although for steady flows.
pathlines and streaklines are the
same, they are not for unsteady
flows.
Timelines
• A timeline is the flow line that arises when we place a
along a curve at some initial time and inquire into the
s this curve at a later time.
• They are sometimes called material lines.
• Like streaklines they involve the simultaneous
position particles but unlike streaklines the particles of
a timelin emanate from a single point, but are initially
distributed curve.
• They are relatively easy to produce experimentally, by
lines of dyes in the flow field at time zero.
• In fluid mixing studies the deformation of material
lines in great detail.
Oilflow lines
• Oilflow lines are pathlines that are constrained to a
sur example would be the lines traced by droplets of
water windshield.
Mixing vessel
Ship hull surface flow visualization

Stern Bow

Experimental oil visualization (Van et al., 1998)

Numerical flow visualization

Deformation - derivatives
• An instantaneous flow field is defined by velocities u(x
v(x,y,z), and w(x,y,z).
• The derivatives are du/dx, du/dy, etc.

 / x u u / x u / y u / z
u   / y v  v / x v / y v / z

w
 / z w / x w / y w / z
• The tensor u is the gradient of the velocity vector.
• Each of the terms by itself is a gradient, e.g. du/dy is t
of the u-velocity component in the y-direction. These
m called shear rates.
Decomposition
• For the analysis of incompressible flows, it is common
decompose the gradient in the velocity vector as follow

U i  S  S ij  1 Ui U j  ij  1 U

ij ij

x
x j 2 x j i 2 x
• Sij is the symmetric rate-of-strain (deformation) tensor.
• Ij is the antisymmetric rate-of-rotation tensor.
• The vorticity and the rate of rotation are related by:
     1    is the alternatin
i ijk jk ij 2 ijk k ijk
Deformation tensor
• The velocity gradients can be used to construct the de
rate tensor S:
1 T 1 ui
S 
2  u
 
( 
u)  S
ij  

2 x j

u 1 u v 1 u w
 
x 2 y
x 2 z x
1 u v v 1 v w
S   
2 y x y 2 z 
y

1 u w 1v w w
 
2
2 z x z y z
• This symmetric tensor is also called the rate of strain t
• Instead of the symbol S, the symbols D and E are som
Deformation illustration
• In an incompressible flow field, a
fluid parcel may become
distorted, but it retains its
original volume.
• The divergence of the velocity
field is zero: div u = 0. This is
the continuity equation.
• De deformation is governed
by the rate of strain tensor.
Strain rate
• The deformation rate tensor appears in the
momentum conservation equations.
• It is common to report the strain rate S(1/s), which is b
the Euclidian norm of the deformation tensor:

S  2Sij Sij

• The strain rate may also be called the shear rate.

• The strain rate may be used for various other calculati
– For non-Newtonian fluids, the viscosity depends on the s
– In emulsions, droplet size may depend on the strain rate
– The strain rate may affect particle formation and agglom
pharmaceutical applications.
Filled contours of strain rate
Filled contours of strain rate – zoomed
Vorticity
• As discussed, the motion of each fluid element can be
as the sum of a translation, rotation, and deformation.
• The animation shows a translation and a rotation.
• Vorticity is a measure of the degree of local rotation in
This is a vector. Unit is 1/s.
• For a 2-D flow this vector is always normal to the flow
• For 2-D flows, vorticity is then usually reported as the

  v  u
x y

• For 2-D flows, a positive vorticity

indicates a counterclockwise rotation
and a negative vorticity a clockwise
rotation.
 Vorticity - 3-D

Three  dimensional velocity vector : u  (u, v, w)

w v u w
Definition of vorticity: ω  u   ,  ,
y z z x

Relationship between vorticity and angular velocit

of a fluid element : ω  u  2 _

Vorticity magnitude is calculated using the norm : (1/ s)  ω 

Filled contours of vorticity
Vortexlines and helicity
• Iso-surfaces of vorticity can be used to show vortices i
field.
• Vortex lines are lines that are everywhere parallel to
th vector.
• Vortex cores are lines that are both streamlines and vo
• The helicity H is the dot product of the vorticity and vel
vectors: H  ω U
• It provides insight into how the vorticity vector and the
vector are aligned. The angle between the vorticity vec
velocity vector (which is 0º or 180º in a vortex core ) is
   cos 1
(H /(| ω || U |)) 
• Algorithms exist that use helicity to automatically find
v cores. In practice this only works on very fine grids
wit converged solutions.
Isosurfaces of vorticity magnitude

Iso-surface of vorticity magnitude colored by velocity magn

Isosurfaces of vorticity magnitude

Iso-surface of vorticity magnitude colored by velocity magn

Comparison between strain and vorticit
• Both strain and vorticity contain velocity gradients.
• The difference between the two will be shown based
o different flow fields:
– A planar shear field: both the strain rate and the vorticity
are non-zero.
– A solid body rotation: the strain rate is 0(!) and the vortic
the rotation speed.
– Shear field and solid body rotation combined.
A planar shear field
Solid body rotation
Shear field and solid body rotation com
Flux reports and surface integrals
n
• Integral value: ∫ dA  ∑i | Ai |
i 1

1 ∫ dA  1 ∑n  | A |
• Area weighted average: i i

A Ai 1

rr n
rr
• Mass flow rate: ∫ (V .n) dA  ∑ i i (Vi .n) Ai
i 1
Quantitative validation - moving locomo
• Turbulent simulation (using RNG and 170,000 tetrahedral
c to predict the near-body pressure field.
Flow over a moving locomotive
• Pressure contours show the disturbance of the passing
train field region.
• The figure on the left shows the pressure field over the loco
• Predictions of pressure coefficient alongside the train
agree well with experimental data.
Quantitative validation - NACA airfoil
• The surrounding fluid exerts pressure forces and
visco on the airfoil:
p<0 w
U U

p>0

• The components of the resultant force acting on the o

immersed in the fluid are the drag force and the lift for
drag force D acts in the direction of the motion of the fl
to the object. The lift force L acts normal to the flow dir

L  CL .A. 1 U D  CD .A. 1 U
2 2
2 2
Lift Drag

• Lift and drag are obtained by integrating the pressure

f viscous forces over the surface of the airfoil.
Quantitative validation - NACA airfoil
• Transonic, compressible flow
over the NACA 0012 airfoil is
modeled using FLUENT.
– Free stream mach number = 0.7.
– 1.49o angle of attack.
• The realizable k- turbulence
model with 2-layer zonal model
for near-wall treatment is used.
• Pressure contours.

Stagnation point
Transonic flow over NACA airfoil
• The pressure coefficient
is calculated as follows:
p  p0
cp  1 v2
2 0
• Here p0 is the far-field pressure
and v0 the free stream velocity.
• Pressure coefficient for upper
(top) and lower airfoil surfaces
shows very good agreement
with data.
• Drag coefficient:
– FLUENT: 0.0084
– Coakley1: 0.0079
1
Thomas J. Coakley, “Nu
simulation of viscous tra
flows”, AIAA-87-0416, 1
Transonic flow over NACA airfoil
• Mach number contours exhibit
transonic flow, with maximum (red)
of 1.08.
• Turbulence kinetic energy
contours show generation
primarily in boundary layer.
• Overall CFD can be very useful in
validating lift and drag for airfoils.
Summary
• CFD simulations result in data that describes a flow fie
• Proper analysis and interpretation of this flow field dat
required in order to be able to solve the original
engine problem.
• The amount of data generated by a CFD simulation ca
enormous. Analysis and interpretation are not trivial ta
time it takes to do this properly is often underestimated
Turbulence models in CFD
INDEX

1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 3

2 GENERAL REMARKS......................................................................................... 3

2.1 Ideal turbulence model................................................................................... 3

2.2 Complexity of the turbulence model.............................................................. 4

2.3 Classification of turbulent models ................................................................. 4

3 REYNOLDS-AVERAGED NAVIER-STOKES MODELS................................. 6

3.1 Reynolds’s decomposition ............................................................................. 6

3.1.1 Equations describing instantaneous fluid motion .................................. 6

3.1.2 Reynolds averaging................................................................................ 7

3.2 The closure problem ...................................................................................... 9

3.2.1 Laminar flow, infinitesimal fluctuations and superposition .................. 9

3.3 Reynolds stress models ................................................................................ 10

4 COMPUTATION OF FLUCTUATING QUANTITIES..................................... 12

4.1 Direct numerical simulation......................................................................... 12

4.2 Large-Eddy simulation................................................................................. 13

5 RANS versus LES................................................................................................ 14

6 CONCLUSION.................................................................................................... 17

7 REFERENCES .................................................................................................... 18

2
1 INTRODUCTION

The abbreviation CFD stands for computational fluid dynamics. It represents a vast
area of numerical analysis in the field of fluid’s flow phenomena. Headway in the
field of CFD simulations is strongly dependent on the development of computer-
related technologies and on the advancement of our understanding and solving
ordinary and partial differential equations (ODE and PDE). However CFD is much
more than “just” computer and numerical science. Since direct numerical solving of
complex flows in real-like conditions requires an overwhelming amount of
computational power success in solving such problems is very much dependent on the
physical models applied. These can only be derived by having a comprehensive
understanding of physical phenomena that are dominant in certain conditions.[1], [8]

Why turbulence?

Whenever turbulence is present in a certain flow it appears to be the dominant over all
other flow phenomena. That is why successful modeling of turbulence greatly
increases the quality of numerical simulations.

All analytical and semi-analytical solutions to simple flow cases were already known
by the end of 1940s. On the other hand there are still many open questions on
modeling turbulence and properties of turbulence it-self. No universal turbulence
model exists yet.

Further more the price tag for our ignorance is immense. That makes the area of CFD
modeling also extremely economically attractive.

2 GENERAL REMARKS

2.1 Ideal turbulence model

Solving CFD problem usually consists of four main components: geometry and grid
generation, setting-up a physical model, solving it and post-processing the computed
data. The way geometry and grid are generated, the set problem is computed and the
way acquired data is presented is very well known. Precise theory is available.
Unfortunately, that is not true for setting-up a physical model for turbulence flows.

3
The problem is that one tries to model very complex phenomena with a model as
simple as possible.

Therefore an ideal model should introduce the minimum amount of complexity into
the modeling equations, while capturing the essence of the relevant physics.

2.2 Complexity of the turbulence model

Complexity of different turbulence models may vary strongly depends on the details
one wants to observe and investigate by carrying out such numerical simulations.
Complexity is due to the nature of Navier-Stokes equation (N-S equation). N-S
equation is inherently nonlinear, time-dependent, three-dimensional PDE.

Turbulence could be thought of as instability of laminar flow that occurs at high

Reynolds numbers ( Re ). Such instabilities origin form interactions between non-
linear inertial terms and viscous terms in N-S equation. These interactions are
rotational, fully time-dependent and fully three-dimensional. Rotational and three-
dimensional interactions are mutually connected via vortex stretching. Vortex
stretching is not possible in two dimensional space. That is also why no satisfactory
two-dimensional approximations for turbulent phenomena are available.

Furthermore turbulence is thought of as random process in time. Therefore no

deterministic approach is possible. Certain properties could be learned about
turbulence using statistical methods. These introduce certain correlation functions
among flow variables. However it is impossible to determine these correlations in
advance.

Another important feature of a turbulent flow is that vortex structures move along the
flow. Their lifetime is usually very long. Hence certain turbulent quantities can not be
specified as local. This simply means that upstream history of the flow is also
important of great importance.

2.3 Classification of turbulent models

Nowadays turbulent flows may be computed using several different approaches.

Either by solving the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations with suitable
models for turbulent quantities or by computing them directly. The main approaches
are summarized below.

4
Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) Models

• Eddy-viscosity models (EVM)

One assumes that the turbulent stress is proportional to the mean rate of
strain. Further more eddy viscosity is derived from turbulent transport
equations (usually k + one other quantity).

• Non-linear eddy-viscosity models (NLEVM)

Turbulent stress is modelled as a non-linear function of mean velocity

gradients. Turbulent scales are determined by solving transport
equations (usually k + one other quantity). Model is set to mimic
response of turbulence to certain important types of strain.

• Differential stress models (DSM)

This category consists of Reynolds-stress transport models (RSTM) or

second-order closure models (SOC). One is required to solve transport
equations for all turbulent stresses.

Computation of fluctuating quantities

• Large-eddy simulation (LES)

One computes time-varying flow, but models sub-grid-scale motions.

• Direct numerical simulation (DNS)

No modelling what so ever is applied. One is required to resolve the

smallest scales of the flow as well.

Extend of modelling for certain CFD approach is illustrated in the following figure
Figure 2.1. It is clearly seen, that models computing fluctuation quantities resolve
shorter length scales than models solving RANS equations. Hence they have the
ability to provide better results. However they have a demand of much greater
computer power than those models applying RANS methods. [2], [7]

5
 Figure 2.1 Extend of modelling for certain types of turbulent models

3 REYNOLDS-AVERAGED NAVIER-STOKES MODELS

The following chapter deals with the concept of Reynolds’s decomposition or

Reynolds’s averaging. The term Reynolds’s stress is introduced and explained briefly.
Further on methods how to include these ideas into certain numerical models are
presented. [1], [5], [8]

3.1 Reynolds’s decomposition

3.1.1 Equations describing instantaneous fluid motion

For easier understanding of certain mathematical ideas it is convenient to briefly

revise N-S equations describing instantaneous fluid motion at the beginning. All
variables describing instantaneous flow are marked with a tilde. These variables are
fluid’s density ( ρ ), velocity components ( ui ), pressure ( p ) and components of
(v)
viscous stress tensor (Tij ). At this point it is also suitable to point out that these
variables are al time and space dependent.

General N-S equations for both turbulent and non-turbulent flow run:

∂u ∂u i ∂p (v)
ρ i
+u =− +
∂Tij
and (3.1)
∂t j
∂x ∂x ∂x
j i j

6
 ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂u
+ uj +ρ i =0 (3.2)
∂t ∂x ∂x
j i

The firs equation (3.1) is called momentum equation (second Newtonian law for
fluids). The second equation (3.2) is known as continuity equation. At this point I
(v)
would also like to define viscous stress tensor Tij as follows:

(v) 1
T
ij = 2 μ sij − skk δ
ij , (3.3)
3
where sij means:

∂u
s = 1 ∂u + j i (3.4)
ij 2 ∂x ∂x
j i

Should one assume incompressible flow the previous equations simplify immensely.

The continuity equation (3.2) is reduced to ∂ui xi = 0 . Having this result in mind the

momentum equation (3.1) can be rewritten as:

∂u ∂u i 1 ∂p μ ∂2u
i
+ uj =− + (3.5)
ρ ∂x ρ ∂x2
i
∂t ∂x
j i j

The factor μ ρ is often regarded to as kinematic viscosityν . Viscous stress tensor

simplifies as well:

(v ) = 2μ s (3.6)
T
ij ij

3.1.2 Reynolds averaging

The concept of Reynolds averaging was introduced by Reynolds in 1895. One may
consider Reynolds averaging in many different ways. There are three most common
perceptions of this term: time averaging, space averaging or ensemble averaging.

Time averaging is appropriate when considering a stationary turbulence. That is when

the flow does not vary on the average in time. In such cases time average is defined
by:

1 t +T
F ( r )= Tlim→∞ ∫ f ( r , t )dt (3.7)

T t

7
Space average is appropriate for homogenous turbulence. That is a turbulent flow that
on the average does not vary in any direction. Space average is defined by:

1
F ( t )= Vlim→∞ ∫∫∫ f ( r , t )dV (3.8)
V
Ensemble average is the most general aspect of Reynolds average. It should be
understood as an average of N identical experiments. Ensemble average is both time-
and space-dependent. It is defined by:
N

F ( r , t )= lim
1
∑ f n (r ,t ) (3.9)
N →∞
N n=1
The main idea of Reynolds averaging is to decompose the flow to averaged and
fluctuating component:

ui =U i +ui
p=P+p (3.10)
(v)
T = T ( v ) +τ ( v )
ij ij ij

This process is called Reynolds decomposition. The upper case letters represent the
mean values; the lower case letters represent the fluctuating values on the right hand
side in expressions (3.10). By inserting relations (3.10) into N-S equation (3.1) one
obtains the following expression:

∂ ( P + p ) ∂ ( Tij v +τij v )
( ) ( )
∂ U + ui ) ∂ U + ui)
ρ ( i
+ (U j + u j )
( i
=− + (3.11)
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂x
j i j

This equation can now be averaged to yield an equation expressing momentum

conservation for the averaged motion. At this point it is important to stress that the
operations of averaging and differentiation commute. It is also assumed that the
average of fluctuating quantities is zero. Therefore the averaged momentum equation
reduces to:
()
∂U i + U ∂U ∂P ∂Tij v
ρ i
=− + − ρ u j ∂u i (3.12)
∂t j
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
j i j j

In similar manner continuity equation for incompressible flow can be decomposed.

Such a continuity equation is linear therefore the original form for the instantaneous
motion is preserved:

8
 ∂Ui = 0
∂x
i
(3.13)
∂ui = 0
∂x
i

Using the second relation in equation (3.13) one can rework the last term on the right
hand side of the equation(3.12). The result runs:
()
∂U i + U ∂U ∂P ∂Tij v ∂ uu
ρ
∂t j
∂x
i
=−
∂x
+
∂x
−
∂x ( ρ
i j ) (3.14)

j i j j

(
Term ρ ui u j ) has the same structure and dimension as the viscous stress tensor.
However this term is not a stress at all. It is just a re-worked contribution of the
fluctuating velocities to the change of the averaged ones. On the other hand as far as
the motion of the fluid is concerned it acts as a stress. Hence its name, Reynolds
stress.

3.2 The closure problem

The problem with the above concept of Reynolds decomposition and averaging is that

it introduces additional variables ( ui2=1,2,3 , u1u2 , u1u2 , u 2 u3 ), for which there are

no available relations. Not in a general sense at least. [1], [8]

One could pretend that Reynolds stress is indeed a stress and try to write constitutive
relations similar to those for viscous stress. However there is an important difference
among these two stresses. Viscous stress is a property of a fluid. That is why separate
experiments can be carried out in order to determine corresponding constitutive
relations. These relations are valid then whenever a flow in that particular fluid is
observed. On the other hand Reynolds stress is a property of the flow. Hence it is
dependent on the flow variables them-selves. That is the reason why it changes from
flow to flow and no general constitutive relations are available.

3.2.1 Laminar flow, infinitesimal fluctuations and superposition

One solution to the closure problem is to treat the flow as a laminar flow with
fluctuations superimposed. One subtracts the averaged momentum equation from
equation describing instantaneous motion. The result for fluctuating motion reads:

9
 ( )
∂u ∂u i ∂p ∂τij v ∂U ∂u ∂u
ρ
∂x j = − ∂x + ∂x j −
i u
−ρuj i− ρuj
∂t
+Uj
i
∂x j
i
∂x j
j
∂x ij (3.15)

The equation (3.15) has a similar structure than the averaged N-S equation(3.14). The
only difference is the last to terms on the right hand side. The first of them represents
the production term. It describes the way fluctuating motion extracts momentum from
the averaged motion. The second one is similar to Reynolds stress term in equation
(3.14) except that its mean is zero. Should equation(3.15) be averaged its average is
zero.

This approach requires fluctuations to be small. In the limit of infinitesimal

fluctuations Reynolds stress terms are negligible. Therefore averaged N-S equation
(3.14) yields a laminar flow. Furthermore the equation (3.15) reduces to linear PDE.
As a result of this process one obtains a well-defined – closed, set of equations
describing the observed flow.

3.3 Reynolds stress models

There were many different concepts and attempts to solve the turbulence closure
problem in a general form in the past. Nowadays there are two concepts that underlie
most of the Reynolds stress models.

One and the most obvious attempt was to describe Reynolds stress in a similar way
viscous stress is described: the fluid is simply prescribed another property – turbulent
viscosity. This model had been introduced by Boussinesq back in 1877 even earlier then
Reynolds proposed his decomposition and averaging approach in 1895. There are many
difficulties regarding this model. Probably the major problem is how to obtain this
property without carrying out an actual experiment involving that particular flow.

Major breakthrough was done by Prandtl in 1925. He introduced the mixing length
concept analogous to mean free path of the molecules in gas. He also prescribed an
algebraic expression relating turbulent viscosity to the mixing length. That is why
Prandtl is known as the founder of so called algebraic or zero-equation models. Zero-
equation refers to the fact, that no additional transport equations besides to energy,
mass and momentum equations are needed.

10
Another important breakthrough was done by Prandtl in 1945, by introducing a
concept of turbulent viscosity as a function of turbulent kinetic energy. Major
advantage of this concept over the previous one is that it already takes into account
flows history. Hence it is a physically more realistic model. Prandtl used one
additional transport equation to model turbulent kinetic energy. Models based on this
concept are usually called one-equation models.

Still there is a need to specify a turbulence length scale, which is also a flow
dependent property. Hence one still needs to have certain knowledge about the
studied flow in advance. Therefore such models are called incomplete. Both zero- and
one-equation models are incomplete.

On the other hand complete model would be characterized by the fact that no
knowledge of the flow except the initial and boundary conditions is needed in
advance.

First complete model was introduced by Kolmogorov in 1942. The basic idea of his
model was to model turbulent kinetic energy ( k ) and the rate of energy dissipation
(ω ) and then relate the missing information of length and time scales to these
quantities. Since two additional equations are used to model k and ω these kind of
models are called two-equation models. They are also referred to as k −ω models.
Variations of this concept are so called k −ε models ( ε = k nωm ). Instead of ω ε is
modelled.

Another conceptually different attempt was to model Reynolds stress tensor directly.
At first one tried to derive actual Reynolds stress equations. The idea was to re-work
fluctuating momentum equation (3.15) in such a manner that it would describe
Reynolds stress. Major problem with this attempt is that it introduces even more new
unknown variables for which no constitutive relations are known

In 1951 Rotta managed to successfully model Reynolds stress tensor by using PDE.
This model is concept is more realistic than the Boussinesq’s turbulent viscosity
model. However it introduces six additional equations describing Reynolds stress and
one additional equation describing turbulence length scale.

In the field of RANS models no major conceptual break through was done ever since.
There were many improvements mainly in a sense of adjusting certain models to
particular flow cases.

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4 COMPUTATION OF FLUCTUATING QUANTITIES

In the following section basic properties regarding direct numerical simulation (DNS)
and large-eddy simulation (LES) are briefly summarized. [1]

4.1 Direct numerical simulation

DNS simply means numerical solving of N-S and continuity equation. When dealing
with turbulent flow one tries to resolve all turbulent phenomena at all length and time
scales simply by numerical solving of N-S and continuity equation. For a successful
simulation one typically needs to know what the smallest length, time and velocity
scales are. This information is crucial in order to set space grid and time steps of
adequate scales. This data can easily be acquired by applying Kolmogorov turbulence
theory in advance. What ones want to extract form these data typically is the number
of grid point and time steps necessary.

Number of uniformly distributed grid points reads:

94 uT L
Nuni ≈ (110 ReT ) , ReT = ν (4.1)

ReT represents turbulent Reynolds number, uT represents frictional velocity, L is

typical length scale, ε = μ ρ is kinematic viscosity of the fluid. All quantities are
defined at the integral turbulence scale. All can be derived solely by applying
Kolmogorov turbulence theory.

Number of time steps is defined by:

N = ttotal 0.003 L
time , t≈ (4.2)
t ReT uT

The following table 4.1 lists numerical parameters for a certain flow. Figures handed
under Ntime represents the number of time steps required in order to reach statistically
steady flow. The figure handed under CPU is the amount of time (in hours) required
to obtain the solution using a standard Intel Core 2 Duo E6700 (12.53 gigaflops).
Time step required to finish one time step is approximately 3.2s. [10][11]

12
As one can see the biggest problem regarding DNS is their overwhelming
requirement for computer power in a sense of both processor’s speed and a size of the
memory for storing intermediate results.
Table 4.1: Numerical requirements solving turbulent flow characterized by ReL and ReT

Re L Re T N DNS N time CPU [h]

12300 360 6.7*106 32000 28
7
30800 800 4.0*10 47000 42
61600 1450 1.5*108 63000 56
9
230000 4650 2.1*10 114000 101

DNS is of great importance. As computers develop one gains the capability to

simulate flows at ever higher and higher Reynolds number. Nowadays results
acquired by DNS are so good that one may consider them equivalent to data gained
experimentally.

4.2 Large-Eddy simulation

LES is a computation where large vortexes (eddies) are computed directly, while
small scale eddies are modeled. That is why space grid and time steps may be much
longer than in DNS. Hence LES is much more economical in term of computational
power required than DNS:

N ≈ ¨0.4 N
LES 14 DNS (4.3)
ReT
The following table 4.2 list numerical parameters regarding LES for the same flow
that is discussed in paragraph 4.1. It seems that LES takes roughly 10% of the DNS
CPU time to compute the solution. [10], [11]
Table 4.2: Numerical requirements solving turbulent flow characterized by ReL and ReT

Re L Re T N DNS N LES N time CPU [h]

12300 360 6.7*106 6.1*105 2913 2.5
7 6
30800 800 4.0*10 3.0*10 3525 3.15
8 7
61600 1450 1.5*10 1.0*10 4200 3.73
9 8
230000 4650 2.1*10 1.0*10 54285 4.87

13
The idea underlying LES is so called convergent evolution. Behavior of the large-
scale eddies depends strongly on the forces acting on the flow and on initial and
boundary conditions. They are flow-dependent On the other hand small-scale eddies
are generally independent from what is happening on the larger scales. They are flow-
independent. Hence large eddies are directly resolved while small eddies are modeled.
One tries to find a universal model for small eddies.

Another important concept regarding LES is filtering. One applies filtering functions
in order to remove sub-grid fluctuations from resolving. Sub-grid fluctuations are
modeled. This is achieved by averaging. One of the simplest filtering functions is
central-difference approximation it-self:

u ( x + h )− u (x −h) d 1 x +h
= ∫ u ( ξ )d ξ (4.4)
2h
2h dx x −h

Length scales of order h are still resolved, while length scales smaller than h are

modeled. They are called sub-grid scales (SGS).

5 RANS versus LES

Turbulent flow may be composed of many different features. Therefore it is very

important for a CFD model to be able to predict as many of them as possible.
Turbulent models are usually tested by simulating a flow past a bluff-body. In
particular example flow past a square block is analyzed. [9]

An example of such a flow is shown in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1: Flow past a square block in 2D

14
Streamlines predicted LES, EASM (a sophisticated RANS model) and RANS are
shown in Figure 5.2. One can clearly see a strong influence of the model used in the
RANS calculation. The EASM reveals the similar topological features as the LES, but
differs in the extent of the recirculation zones. RANS predicts considerably larger
recirculation zone and the wake region is much more stretched.

Figure 5.2: Streamlines predicted by LES, EASM and RANS

More quantitative difference among observed models is observed when comparing

predicted information to experimental data. The comparison is shown in the following
set of pictures shown in Figure 5.3 and Figure 5.4. One clearly sees that the simple
RANS model of Wilcox fails terribly at predicting turbulent kinetic energy in the
wake region. However more sophisticated RANS model of EASM is much more
successful. Its results are of comparable quality to the results of LES model.

15
 Figure 5.3: Turbulent kinetic energy in the wake region

Figure 5.4: velocity in the wake region

There are certain examples when even simple RANS models outperform the
sophisticated LES model. One example is shown in Figure 5.5, where flow past an
airfoil (NACA 4412, alpha = 12°, Re = 1.6*106) is observed.

Figure 5.5: Pressure distribution

16
6 CONCLUSION

In the last decade CFD has become a major tool in engineering. Due to the progress in
computer technology CFD seems now able to deal with industrial applications at
moderate costs and turnaround times. The future relevance of CFD will therefore
depend on how accurate complex flows can be calculated. Since many flows of
engineering interest are turbulent, the appropriate treatment of turbulence will be
crucial to the success of CFD.

The flow field of a Newtonian fluid is fully described by the Navier-Stokes equation.
However, turbulent flows contain small fluctuations. The resolution of such small
motions requires fine grids and time steps, such that a direct simulation becomes
unfeasible for high Reynolds numbers.

Using RANS, the computational costs can be reduced by solving the statistically
averaged equation system, which requires closure assumptions for the higher
moments.

LES aims to reduce the dependence on the turbulence model. Hence the major portion
of the flow is simulated without any models, and must be resolved by the grid. Only
scales smaller than the resolution of the grid need a model. Consequently LES
approach is computationally more demanding than RANS. RANS models have a
computing time of only about 5% of the LES.

Sophisticated RANS models like EASM are able to capture important flow features
correctly. At low computational costs that makes them already a useful tool in
industrial design.

17
7 REFERENCES

[1] WILCOX, D.C.. Turbulence Modelling for CFD, DCW Industries, California,
USA, 1994

[2] APSLEY, D., CFD, Turbulence modelling in CFD, 2004

[3] MENTER F. R. Two-equation eddy-viscosity turbulence models for

engineering applications, 1994

[4] DAVIDSON L. An introduction to turbulence models, Chalmers university of

technology, Getebörg, Sweden, 2003

[5] CELIĆ, A. Performance of Modern Eddy-Viscosity Turbulence Models,

Institut für Aerodynamik un Gasdynamik, Germany, 2004

[6] RAMŠAK M Večobmočna metoda robnih elementov za dvoenačbne

turbulentne modele, Fakulteta za strojništvo, Univerza v Mariboru, Maribor,
SLO, 2004

[7] BELL, B. Turbulent flow cases, Fluent Inc. 2003

[8] http://www.cfd-online.com/Wiki/Turbulence_modeling, March 2007

[9] http://www.cfd.tu-berlin.de, March 2007

[10] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flops, March 2007

[11] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cray, March 2007

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